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[Click here to log in or create an account.](https://www.vacle.org/my-account/) [](https://www.vacle.org/discounts/) [](https://www.vacle.org/product/online-publications-library-with-links-to-primary-law/) Information Table of Contents Authors Information Content Highlights: - Title VII and Reconstruction Era Statutes - Equal Pay Acts—Federal and State - The Age Discrimination in Employment Act - State and Federal Disabilities Acts - Federal Discrimination Claims, Virginia Human Rights Act, and Local Deferral Agencies - Qui Tam Whistleblower Litigation - Government Contractors—Equal Opportunity and Affirmative Action - Wrongful Discharge - Employment Agreements - Unfair Competition - Tort Actions - Wage and Hour Law - Privacy, Testing, Investigations, and Searches - Employment of Foreign Nationals - FMLA - Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act of 1994 - OSHA - COBRA - ERISA Litigation - The National Labor Relations Act - Public Sector Issues - Unemployment Compensation Virtually every action or event in the workplace is touched by state or federal employment law, or both. The field has expanded from the simple concepts of *respondeat superior* and earlier master-servant law to include the complex and sometimes conflicting standards found in modern statutes such as the Family and Medical Leave Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act. *Employment Law in Virginia*‘s two volumes provide a comprehensive overview of the myriad statutory, regulatory, and common law issues that may emerge from any event in the employment relationship. The book covers the complete employment relationship from job recruitment and selection to termination and retirement. This edition is current through the 2020 session of the General Assembly, which saw many changes in this area, as well as recent federal statutes and regulations and state and federal court decisions. Among the developments covered in this edition: - The DOL announced a final rule in 2020 interpreting the joint employer status, preventing employers from evading liability under the FLSA - U.S. Supreme Court has held that, although Title VII’s charge filing requirement is mandatory, it is not jurisdictional - Protection against sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination were added in 2020 by the Virginia Human Rights Act along with a private cause of action - Virginia has passed new minimum wage legislation that will take effect in 2021 and also requires that employers provide a detailed paystub to each employee every pay period - Coverage of the Families First Coronavirus Response Act and the CARES Act are included - The VHRA now includes protection for veterans and for employees with traits that are “historically associated with race, including hair texture, hair type, and protective hairstyles” - Effective in 2020, retaliation against employees who, in good faith, report a violation of federal or state law to the appropriate administrative body is prohibited - Virginia has passed 2020 legislation that bars employers from requiring non-compete covenants for low-wage employees - Beginning in 2020, individuals who were improperly classified as independent contractors can bring civil actions for damages that include wages, salary, benefits, or other compensations Table of Contents **CHAPTER LIST** 1. [Title VII and the Reconstruction Era Statutes](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch1) 2. [Equal Pay Acts—Federal and State](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch2) 3. [The Age Discrimination in Employment Act](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch3) 4. [State and Federal Disabilities Acts](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch4) 5. [Federal Discrimination Claims, The Virginia Human Rights Act, and Local Deferral Agencies](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch5) 6. [Qui Tam Whistleblower Litigation](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch6) 7. [Government Contractors—Equal Opportunity and Affirmative Action](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch7) 8. [Wrongful Discharge](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch8) 9. [Employment Agreements](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch9) 10. [Unfair Competition](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch10) 11. [Tort Actions](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch11) 12. [Wage and Hour Law](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch12) 13. [Privacy, Testing, Investigations, and Searches](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch13) 14. [Employment of Foreign Nationals](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch14) 15. [Family and Medical Leave Act](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch15) 16. [Uniformed Services Employment snd Reemployment Rights Act of 1994](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch16) 17. [Occupational Safety snd Health Law](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch17) 18. [COBRA — Continuation Coverage Requirements of Employee Health Care Plans](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch18) 19. [ERISA Litigation](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch19) 20. [The National Labor Relations Act](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch20) 21. [Public Sector Issues](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch21) 22. [Unemployment Compensation](https://www.vacle.org/product/employment-law-in-virginia/#ch22) **Volume I** **CHAPTER 1: TITLE VII AND THE RECONSTRUCTION ERA STATUTES** 1\.1 OVERVIEW 1\.101 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 1\.102 The Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and 1870 1\.103 The Civil Rights Act of 1871 1\.104 The Civil Rights Act of 1871—The Ku Klux Klan Act 1\.105 The Civil Rights Act of 1991 1\.106 The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act 1\.2 EXHAUSTION OF ADMINISTRATIVE REMEDIES 1\.201 In General 1\.202 When Filing Period Begins 1\.203 Filing with Deferral Agency 1\.204 Filing with the EEOC 1\.205 “Right-to-Sue” Letter 1\.3 THEORIES OF DISCRIMINATION AND PROOF 1\.301 Disparate Treatment Theory 1\.302 Disparate Treatment Class Actions 1\.303 Mixed Motive Cases 1\.304 Disparate Impact Theory 1\.305 Defenses 1\.306 Remedies 1\.4 SEXUAL HARASSMENT 1\.401 Statutory Prohibition 1\.402 Administrative Guidelines 1\.403 Judicial Rulings 1\.404 Types of Harassment 1\.405 Standards of Proof 1\.406 Employer Liability 1\.407 Supervisor Liability 1\.408 Procedure 1\.409 Remedies **CHAPTER 2: EQUAL PAY ACTS—FEDERAL AND STATE** 2\.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE FEDERAL EQUAL PAY ACT 2\.101 Overview 2\.102 Employers and Employees Covered 2\.2 RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND PRINCIPAL DEFENSES UNDER THE FEDERAL EQUAL PAY ACT 2\.201 Wage Disparities Based on Sex 2\.202 Purpose 2\.203 Equal Work 2\.204 Components of Equal Work 2\.205 Retaliation 2\.206 Principal Defenses 2\.3 PROCEDURAL ISSUES OF THE FEDERAL EQUAL PAY ACT 2\.301 Statute of Limitations 2\.302 No Administrative Prerequisites to Suit 2\.303 Venue 2\.304 Legal and Equitable Relief; Jury Trials 2\.305 Burden of Proof 2\.306 Discriminatory Intent Need Not Be Proved 2\.307 Agency Enforcement Authority 2\.308 Class Actions 2\.4 REMEDIES AND DAMAGES UNDER THE FEDERAL EQUAL PAY ACT 2\.401 Back Pay 2\.402 Liquidated Damages 2\.403 Costs and Attorney Fees 2\.404 Front Pay 2\.405 Prejudgment Interest 2\.406 Equitable Relief 2\.407 No Punitive or Compensatory Damages for Pain and Suffering 2\.408 Criminal Penalties 2\.5 THE VIRGINIA EQUAL PAY ACT 2\.501 Introduction 2\.502 Rights, Responsibilities, and Principal Defenses 2\.503 Procedural Issues 2\.504 Remedies and Damages **CHAPTER 3: THE AGE DISCRIMINATION IN EMPLOYMENT ACT** 3\.1 INTRODUCTION 3\.2 COVERAGE AND BASIC ELEMENTS 3\.201 Coverage 3\.202 Basic Elements of Age Discrimination Cases 3\.3 PLAINTIFF’S BURDEN OF PROOF 3\.301 In General 3\.302 Inferring Discrimination from Pretextual Explanation 3\.303 Hostile Work Environment 3\.304 Disparate Impact Theory 3\.4 EMPLOYER’S DEFENSES AND JUSTIFICATIONS 3\.401 Introduction 3\.402 Statutory Defenses 3\.403 Refuting Employee’s Prima Facie Case 3\.404 After-Acquired Evidence 3\.405 Employee’s Showing That the Offered Justification Was Pretextual 3\.5 PROCEDURAL ISSUES 3\.501 Filing the Claim 3\.502 Accrual 3\.503 Tolling the Statute of Limitations 3\.504 Class Actions 3\.505 Mandatory Arbitration 3\.506 Surviving Summary Judgment 3\.6 REMEDIES AND DAMAGES 3\.601 Introduction 3\.602 Back Pay 3\.603 Hiring or Promotion Orders 3\.604 Front Pay 3\.605 Liquidated Damages 3\.606 Costs and Attorney Fees 3\.607 Interest 3\.608 Punitive and Compensatory Damages 3\.609 Retaliation 3\.610 Criminal Penalties 3\.611 Supervisors Not Personally Liable 3\.7 VIRGINIA STATE LAW CAUSE OF ACTION FOR AGE DISCRIMINATION 3\.8 RELEASES OF CLAIMS AND SEVERANCE OPTIONS 3\.801 Release of Claims 3\.802 Varied Options for Lay-Off Packages Permissible **CHAPTER 4: STATE AND FEDERAL DISABILITIES ACTS** 4\.1 INTRODUCTION 4\.2 APPLICABILITY 4\.3 “QUALIFIED INDIVIDUAL” 4\.301 “Qualified Individual” Defined 4\.302 Record of Disability, or Perception as Having Disability 4\.4 CONDUCT PROHIBITED 4\.401 Conduct Related to Terms, Conditions, and Privileges of Employment 4\.402 Classes of Conduct Prohibited 4\.403 Reasonable Accommodation 4\.404 Retaliation 4\.5 LITIGATION ISSUES 4\.501 Standard for Determining Whether an Employer Discriminated on the Basis of a Disability 4\.502 Procedural Prerequisites to Filing an ADA Lawsuit 4\.503 Bankrupt Plaintiffs 4\.504 Pleading 4\.505 Effect of Application for Social Security Benefits 4\.506 Admissibility of Receipt of Workers’ Compensation Benefits 4\.507 Grievance Files and the Virginia Department of Employee Dispute Resolution (EDR) 4\.6 MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS, INQUIRIES, AND DISCLOSURE OF MEDICAL INFORMATION 4\.601 Medical Examinations Generally 4\.602 Impermissible Inquiries 4\.603 Examinations and Inquiries After Offer of Employment 4\.604 Permissible Inquiries 4\.605 Employee Medical Examinations 4\.606 Voluntary Medical Examinations 4\.607 Duty of Confidentiality 4\.7 DEFENSES 4\.701 Neutral Qualification Standards 4\.702 Risk to Health or Safety of Others 4\.703 Undue Hardship 4\.704 Conflicting Federal Laws 4\.705 Transitory and Minor Impairment Is a Defense to a Claim of “Regarded as” Having an Impairment 4\.706 Religion 4\.707 Food Handlers 4\.708 Uncorrected Vision 4\.709 Waiver of Liability 4\.8 ENFORCEMENT AND REMEDIES 4\.9 THE VIRGINIANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT 4\.901 Overview 4\.902 Employers Covered 4\.10 EMPLOYEE RIGHTS AND EMPLOYER RESPONSIBILITIES UNDER THE VDA 4\.1001 Conduct Prohibited 4\.1002 Definitions 4\.1003 Reasonable Accommodation 4\.1004 Retaliation 4\.11 PROCEDURE UNDER THE VDA 4\.1101 The Virginia Office for Protection and Advocacy and the DisAbility Law Center of Virginia 4\.1102 Private Cause of Action 4\.1103 Statute of Limitations 4\.12 REMEDIES ALLOWED BY THE VDA 4\.1201 Damages 4\.1202 Nonmonetary Relief 4\.1203 Attorney Fees 4\.1204 Exclusive Remedies 4\.1205 The VDA and the 1995 Amendments to the VHRA APPENDIX 4-1: WHAT EMPLOYERS SHOULD DO TO PREVENT CHARGES OF A VIOLATION OF THE ADA **CHAPTER 5: FEDERAL DISCRIMINATION CLAIMS, THE VIRGINIA HUMAN RIGHTS ACT, AND LOCAL AGENCIES** 5\.1 INTRODUCTION 5\.2 RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF LOCAL HUMAN RIGHTS AGENCIES 5\.201 Delegation to Local Agencies 5\.202 Virginia’s Local Deferral Agencies 5\.203 Interplay Between the EEOC and Local Deferral Agencies 5\.204 Local Agencies Not Designated by the EEOC 5\.3 LIFE CYCLE OF COMPLAINT FILED WITH LOCAL AGENCY 5\.301 Filing 5\.302 Investigation 5\.303 Subpoenas 5\.304 Fact-Finding Conference 5\.305 Conciliation Agreement 5\.306 Public Hearing 5\.307 Finding of “Cause” or “No Cause” 5\.4 CONSEQUENCES OF LOCAL AGENCY’S FINDING OF LIABILITY 5\.401 “Right-to-Sue” Letter 5\.402 No Preclusive Effect to Deferral Agency Findings 5\.403 Admissibility of Deferral Agency’s Findings 5\.404 Limited Private Right of Action 5\.5 THE VIRGINIA HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 5\.501 Overview 5\.502 Employers Covered 5\.6 EMPLOYEE RIGHTS AND EMPLOYER RESPONSIBILITIES UNDER THE VHRA 5\.601 Conduct Prohibited 5\.602 Retaliation 5\.7 PROCEDURE UNDER THE VHRA 5\.701 The Division of Human Rights(DHR) 5\.702 The Complaint 5\.703 The DHR’s Investigative Tools 5\.704 Results of the Investigation 5\.705 Confidentiality 5\.706 Private Cause of Action 5\.707 Decisions Under the VHRA 5\.8 REMEDIES UNDER THE VHRA 5\.801 Administrative Action 5\.802 Court Action 5\.9 CONCLUSION **CHAPTER 6: QUI TAM WHISTLEBLOWER LITIGATION** 6\.1 INTRODUCTION 6\.101 What Is a “Qui Tam” Action? 6\.102 The Virginia Fraud Against Taxpayers Act (VFATA) and the Federal False Claims Act (FCA) 6\.103 History and Development of the VFATA 6\.104 Federal Incentives for States to Pass False Claims Legislation 6\.2 DEFINITIONS UNDER THE VFATA AND FCA 6\.201 Any “Person” 6\.202 “Claim” 6\.203 “Knowing” and “Knowingly” 6\.204 “Obligation” 6\.3 PROHIBITED CONDUCT UNDER THE VFATA 6\.301 Types of Prohibited Conduct Generally 6\.302 Knowingly Presenting False or Fraudulent Claim 6\.303 Knowingly Making or Using False Record or Statement Material to a False or Fraudulent Claim 6\.304 Conspiring to Commit Violation of the VFATA 6\.305 Violations Involving Government Property 6\.306 “Reverse False Claims” 6\.307 “False Certification” Cases 6\.4 CIVIL PENALTIES 6\.5 TREBLE DAMAGES 6\.501 Rationale 6\.502 Limitations on Damages 6\.6 LIMITATIONS ON FCA AND VFATA ACTIONS 6\.601 Limitations of Section 8.01-216.8 6\.602 Nonapplicability to Taxes 6\.603 Statutes of Limitations 6\.7 PRACTICE MATTERS PRECEDING SERVICE OF THE COMPLAINT 6\.701 The Disclosure Statement 6\.702 The “Original Source” Exception to the Public Disclosure Bar 6\.703 Documentation for the Relator’s Claim 6\.704 Filing Under Seal 6\.705 Working With the Government During the Seal Period 6\.706 Partial Unsealing of the Complaint 6\.707 Intervention or Non-Intervention 6\.708 Service on Defendants 6\.709 Alternative Remedies Under Section 8.01-216.6(H) 6\.8 PRACTICE MATTERS FOLLOWING SERVICE OF THE COMPLAINT 6\.801 Government as Party in Interest 6\.802 Motion to Dismiss 6\.9 ANTI-RETALIATION PROVISIONS FOR WHISTLEBLOWERS 6\.901 Sections 8.01-216.8 of the VFATA and 31 U.S.C. § 3730(h) of the FCA 6\.902 Damages Available Under the VFATA and the FCA 6\.903 Anti-Retaliation Protections for State and Local Employees **CHAPTER 7: GOVERNMENT CONTRACTORS—EQUAL OPPORTUNITY AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION** 7\.1 INTRODUCTION 7\.2 APPLICABILITY OF LAWS AND REGULATIONS 7\.3 EQUAL OPPORTUNITY AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION GENERALLY 7\.301 Applicability 7\.302 General Requirements 7\.303 Affirmative Action Programs 7\.304 Other Requirements 7\.305 Enforcement 7\.4 AGE DISCRIMINATION 7\.5 VETERANS 7\.501 In General 7\.502 Prohibitions 7\.503 Affirmative Action Plan 7\.504 Other Requirements 7\.505 Enforcement 7\.6 DISABLED INDIVIDUALS GENERALLY 7\.601 In General 7\.602 Prohibitions 7\.603 Invitation for Applicant to Claim Benefit of Section 503 7\.604 Medical Examinations and Information 7\.605 Affirmative Action Plan 7\.606 Enforcement 7\.7 DISABLED INDIVIDUALS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 7\.701 In General 7\.702 The Standards 7\.703 Exceptions to the Standards **CHAPTER 8: WRONGFUL DISCHARGE** 8\.1 WRONGFUL DISCHARGE IN VIOLATION OF PUBLIC POLICY 8\.101 Overview 8\.102 Elements of a Bowman Claim 8\.2 CASE LAW DEVELOPMENT 8\.201 Discharge of Employee in the Exercise of a Statutory Right 8\.202 Standing Requirements for Bringing a Claim 8\.203 Discharge of an Employee for Refusing to Commit a Criminal Act 8\.3 DETERMINING THE EXISTENCE OF A PUBLIC POLICY 8\.301 In General 8\.302 Lawrence Chrysler Plymouth Corp. v. Brooks 8\.303 City of Virginia Beach v. Harris 8\.304 Rowan v. Tractor Supply Co 8\.305 Wrongful Discharge Based on the Virginia Wage Payment Act 8\.4 STATUTORY PREEMPTION OF WRONGFUL DISCHARGE CLAIMS 8\.401 In General 8\.402 Mannell v. American Tobacco Co 8\.403 Cauthorne v. King 8\.404 Pruitt v. Johnston Memorial Hospital, Inc 8\.405 Porter v. Elk Remodeling, Inc 8\.5 INDIVIDUAL LIABILITY FOR BOWMAN CLAIMS 8\.6 STANDARD OF PROOF AND DAMAGES 8\.7 CONSTRUCTIVE DISCHARGE IN VIRGINIA 8\.701 In General 8\.702 Dowdy v. Bower 8\.703 Molina v. Summer Consultants, Inc 8\.704 Padilla v. Silver Diner 8\.705 Gochenour v. Beasley 8\.706 Barron v. NetVersant-Northern Virginia, Inc 8\.707 Lundy v. Cole Vision Corp 8\.708 Magallon v. Wireless Unlimited, Inc 8\.709 Fereol de Gastyne v. Entrust, Inc 8\.710 Case Evaluation 8\.8 CONCLUSION **CHAPTER 9: EMPLOYMENT AGREEMENTS** 9\.1 INTRODUCTION 9\.2 RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND PRINCIPAL DEFENSES 9\.201 Essential Elements of Employment Contracts 9\.202 Certainty 9\.203 At-Will Employment 9\.204 Noncompete Clauses 9\.205 Oral Contracts 9\.206 Employee Manuals 9\.207 Implied Contracts 9\.208 Intentional Interference with Contractual Relations 9\.3 STATUTE OF FRAUDS 9\.301 In General 9\.302 Performance Versus Termination 9\.303 Memorandum 9\.304 Equitable Estoppel 9\.4 STATUTE OF LIMITATIONS 9\.5 IMPOSSIBILITY 9\.6 REMEDIES AND DAMAGES **CHAPTER 10: UNFAIR COMPETITION** 10\.1 INTRODUCTION 10\.2 COVENANTS NOT TO COMPETE 10\.201 In General 10\.202 Factors Determining Enforceability 10\.203 Protection of Employer’s Interests 10\.204 Impact on Employee 10\.205 Impact on Public 10\.206 Rules of Construction 10\.207 Burden of Proof 10\.208 Breach by Employer Releases Covenant 10\.209 Consideration 10\.210 Assignment 10\.211 Relationships Other Than Employer-Employee 10\.3 REMEDIES 10\.301 Injunctive Relief: State Court 10\.302 Injunctive Relief: Federal Court 10\.303 Damages 10\.304 Declaratory Judgment 10\.4 CHOICE OF LAW 10\.5 RESTRAINTS IMPOSED BY LAW 10\.501 In General 10\.502 Solicitation of Former Employer’s Customers 10\.503 Misuse of Confidential Information 10\.504 Statutory Conspiracy to Injure Business 10\.505 Common Law Conspiracy 10\.506 Tortious Interference with Contracts 10\.6 THE VIRGINIA UNIFORM TRADE SECRETS ACT 10\.601 In General 10\.602 Customer Lists 10\.603 Novel Combination of Old Information 10\.604 Independent Discovery 10\.605 Readily Ascertainable Information 10\.606 Access to Other Information 10\.607 Maintaining Secrecy 10\.608 Misappropriation by Improper Means 10\.609 Noncompetitive Use 10\.610 Employer Liability 10\.611 Remedies 10\.612 Statute of Limitations 10\.7 THE DEFEND TRADE SECRETS ACT 10\.701 Purpose and Operation of the Act 10\.702 Remedies **CHAPTER 11: TORT ACTIONS** 11\.1 INTRODUCTION 11\.2 CONSPIRACY 11\.201 Common Law Conspiracy 11\.202 Statutory Conspiracy 11\.3 FRAUD 11\.301 In General 11\.302 Actual Fraud 11\.303 Standard of Proof and Pleading Requirements 11\.304 Statute of Limitations 11\.305 Sea-Land Service, Inc. v. O’Neal 11\.306 Economic Loss Doctrine 11\.307 Source of Duty Rule 11\.308 Fraud Cannot Be Based on Contract 11\.4 DEFAMATION 11\.401 Introduction 11\.402 General Principles 11\.403 Defamation Per Se 11\.404 Privilege 11\.405 Damages 11\.406 Procedural Issues 11\.5 INFLICTION OF EMOTIONAL DISTRESS 11\.501 In General 11\.502 Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress 11\.503 Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress 11\.504 Statute of Limitations 11\.505 Workers’ Compensation Act as Bar 11\.6 EMPLOYER LIABILITY FOR EMPLOYEES’ ACTIONS 11\.601 Overview 11\.602 Respondeat Superior 11\.603 Negligent Hiring or Retention 11\.604 No Claim for Negligent Supervision 11\.605 Basis of Liability 11\.606 Nature of the Plaintiff’s Injury 11\.607 Potential Claims of Immunity 11\.7 ASSAULT AND BATTERY 11\.701 In General 11\.702 Elements of Claim 11\.703 Sexual Assault 11\.704 Workers’ Compensation Act as Bar 11\.705 Respondeat Superior 11\.706 Common Carriers 11\.707 Statute of Limitations 11\.708 Damages 11\.8 TORTIOUS INTERFERENCE 11\.801 Interference with Contract Rights 11\.802 Interference with At-Will Relationships 11\.803 Interference with Contract Expectancy 11\.804 Interference with Prospective Business or Economic Advantage 11\.805 Privilege Issues 11\.806 Interference by Co-Employees 11\.807 Statute of Limitations 11\.9 OPPRESSION OF MINORITY SHAREHOLDERS 11\.901 In General 11\.902 Elements 11\.903 Burden of Proof 11\.904 Parties 11\.905 Damages **INDEX** Volume II **CHAPTER 12: WAGE AND HOUR LAW** 12\.1 INTRODUCTION 12\.101 Scope of Chapter 12\.102 Federal Wage and Hour Law 12\.103 State Wage and Hour Laws 12\.104 State Wage Payment Laws 12\.105 Local “Living Wage” Laws 12\.2 THE FAIR LABOR STANDARDS ACT—RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND PRINCIPAL DEFENSES 12\.201 Scope of Coverage 12\.202 Exceptions to Coverage 12\.203 Minimum Wage 12\.204 Overtime Compensation 12\.205 Equal Pay Act 12\.206 Child Labor 12\.207 Retaliation 12\.208 Time Worked 12\.209 Workweek 12\.210 Recordkeeping and Posting 12\.211 Exemptions from Minimum Wage and Overtime 12\.212 Examples of Common Problems for Employers 12\.3 WAGE AND HOUR INVESTIGATIONS AND ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURES 12\.301 The Enforcement Agency 12\.302 The Audit 12\.303 Request for DOL Opinion 12\.304 Civil Litigation 12\.305 Practical Litigation Considerations 12\.4 REMEDIES 12\.401 Employee Claims 12\.402 Civil Monetary Penalties 12\.403 Injunctive Relief 12\.404 Criminal Penalties APPENDIX 12-1: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR POTENTIAL PLAINTIFF IN FAIR LABOR STANDARDS ACT CASE **CHAPTER 13: PRIVACY, TESTING, INVESTIGATIONS, AND SEARCHES** 13\.1 INTRODUCTION 13\.2 INVESTIGATIONS IN THE HIRING PROCESS 13\.201 Obtaining Information from Applicants and Former Employers 13\.202 Background Investigations by Outside Firms 13\.203 Arrest and Conviction Records 13\.204 Applicants with Prior Military Service 13\.205 The Interview 13\.3 TESTING APPLICANTS AND EMPLOYEES 13\.301 Medical Examinations and Inquiries 13\.302 Drug Tests 13\.303 Polygraph Tests 13\.304 Paper and Pencil Honesty Tests 13\.4 EMPLOYEE SURVEILLANCE AND SEARCHES 13\.401 Surveillance 13\.402 Searches 13\.5 MONITORING EMPLOYEE COMMUNICATIONS 13\.501 In General 13\.502 The Federal Wiretap Statute 13\.503 State Laws 13\.504 Surreptitious Audiotaping or Videotaping of Conversations 13\.505 Rules Prohibiting Workplace Recordings 13\.506 Computer Monitoring 13\.507 Accessing Computer Files 13\.508 Voice Mail 13\.509 Unsolicited Email 13\.510 Opening Mail 13\.511 Employer-Issued Electronic Devices 13\.512 Social Media 13\.513 Practical Guidelines for Employers 13\.6 CLAIMS ARISING FROM FAILURE TO INVESTIGATE 13\.601 Negligent Hiring 13\.602 Negligent Retention 13\.603 Negligent Supervision 13\.7 CLAIMS ARISING FROM EMPLOYER INVESTIGATIONS 13\.701 Implications of Negligent Investigation 13\.702 Breach of Contract 13\.703 Disparate Treatment 13\.704 Defamation Claims Against Employer 13\.705 Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress 13\.706 Procedure 13\.707 Damages and Remedies 13\.8 PRIVACY OF PLANS PROVIDING HEALTH-RELATED BENEFITS 13\.801 What Is HIPAA? 13\.802 To Whom Does HIPAA Apply? 13\.803 Implementing HIPAA’s Privacy Rules **CHAPTER 14: EMPLOYMENT OF FOREIGN NATIONALS** 14\.1 INTRODUCTION 14\.2 DEFINITIONS 14\.201 Immigrant 14\.202 Nonimmigrant 14\.203 Immigration Status 14\.204 Visa 14\.205 Passport 14\.206 Form I-94 14\.207 Change of Status 14\.208 Adjustment of Status 14\.209 Employment Authorization Document 14\.210 Form I-9 .211 E-Verify 14\.3 GOVERNMENTAL ENTITIES INVOLVED IN THE IMMIGRATION PROCESS 14\.301 In General 14\.302 Department of Homeland Security 14\.303 Department of State 14\.304 Department of Labor 14\.4 NONIMMIGRANT VISAS 14\.401 In General 14\.402 Visitors for Business or Pleasure—The B Visa 14\.403 Visa Waiver Program/ESTA 14\.404 Intracompany Transfers—The L Visa 14\.405 Specialty Occupations—The H-1B Visa 14\.406 The TN Visa 14\.407 Extraordinary Ability Visas—The O-1 Visa 14\.408 E-1 Treaty Trader and E-2 Treaty Investor Visas 14\.409 Certain Specialty-Occupation Professionals from Australia: The E-3 Visa 14\.410 Trainees—The H-3 Visa 14\.411 Exchange Visitor Program—The J Visa 14\.412 Students—The F Visa 14\.5 IMMIGRANT VISAS 14\.501 In General 14\.502 Employment-Based Immigration Categories 14\.503 Three-Step Permanent Residence Process **CHAPTER 15: FAMILY AND MEDICAL LEAVE ACT** 15\.1 INTRODUCTION 15\.2 COVERAGE 15\.201 In General 15\.202 Employers 15\.3 EMPLOYEES ELIGIBLE FOR LEAVE 15\.301 In General 15\.302 “Employed by the Employer for at Least 12 Months” 15\.303 Hours of Service 15\.304 “50 Employees . . . Within 75 Miles” 15\.4 EMPLOYEES’ RIGHTS 15\.401 Events That Trigger Entitlement to FMLA Leave 15\.402 Definitions 15\.403 Length and Timing of FMLA Leave 15\.404 When Paid Leave May Be Substituted for FMLA Leave 15\.405 Employee’s Right to Return to Work After FMLA Leave 15\.406 Employee’s Rights upon Return to Work 15\.5 NOTICES 15\.501 Employer’s Required Notices 15\.502 Employee’s Notice of Need for FMLA Leave 15\.6 REQUIREMENTS FOR HEALTH BENEFIT CONTINUATION 15\.601 Employer Must Maintain Coverage 15\.602 When FMLA Leave Is Over 15\.603 Recovering Employee’s Portion of Health Premiums After Leave 15\.604 Recovering Employer’s Portion of Health Premiums After Leave 15\.605 Definition of “Returned to Work” 15\.7 OTHER BENEFITS THAT MUST BE CONTINUED 15\.8 MEDICAL CERTIFICATIONS 15\.801 Employer’s Right to Require Medical Certification 15\.802 Employer’s Right to Require Certification of Fitness 15\.9 EMPLOYER RECORDKEEPING 15\.901 In General 15\.902 Required Records 15\.903 When Records Are Not Required 15\.10 PROVISIONS RELATING TO AIRLINE FLIGHT CREW EMPLOYEES 15\.1001 In General 15\.1002 Hours of Service Eligibility Requirement 15\.1003 Method of Calculation of Leave 15\.1004 Recordkeeping Requirements 15\.1005 Flight Crew Employees and USERRA 15\.11 RELEASE OF CLAIMS 15\.12 FILING A COMPLAINT OR SUIT 15\.13 REMEDIES AND DAMAGES **CHAPTER 16: UNIFORMED SERVICES EMPLOYMENT AND REEMPLOYMENT RIGHTS ACT OF 1994** 16\.1 INTRODUCTION 16\.101 Background 16\.102 Purpose 16\.103 Covered Services 16\.104 Covered Employers 16\.105 Covered Employees 16\.2 RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES 16\.201 In General 16\.202 Discrimination 16\.203 Retaliation 16\.204 Accommodation 16\.205 Burden of Proof 16\.206 Notice to Employees 16\.3 NOTICE TO EMPLOYER 16\.4 BENEFITS DURING LEAVE 16\.401 In General 16\.402 Interaction of USERRA with the Family and Medical Leave Act 16\.403 Health Benefits 16\.404 Accumulated Paid Leave 16\.5 REEMPLOYMENT 16\.501 In General 16\.502 Unreasonableness or Impossibility 16\.503 Undue Hardship 16\.504 Brief, Nonrecurrent Period of Employment 16\.505 Five-Year Limit 16\.506 Dishonorable Discharge 16\.507 Documentation 16\.6 TIME FOR REPORTING TO OR APPLYING FOR WORK 16\.601 In General 16\.602 Military Service Less Than 31 Days 16\.603 Military Service More Than 30 Days but Less Than 181 Days 16\.604 Military Service More Than 180 Days 16\.605 Extension of Time for Convalescence 16\.606 Effect of Untimely Reporting or Application 16\.7 POSITION UPON REEMPLOYMENT 16\.701 In General 16\.702 Military Service Less Than 91 Days 16\.703 Military Service More Than 90 Days 16\.704 Two or More Persons Entitled to Reemployment in Same Position 16\.705 Disabled Persons 16\.706 Unqualified Persons 16\.8 BENEFITS ON REEMPLOYMENT 16\.801 Prior Law 16\.802 Seniority and Related Benefits 16\.803 Pension and Retirement Benefits 16\.804 Health Benefits 16\.805 Retention Rights 16\.9 SEVERANCE AGREEMENTS 16\.10 ENFORCEMENT AND PENALTIES 16\.11 VETERANS’ BENEFITS IMPROVEMENT ACT OF 2008 16\.12 VETERANS’ BENEFITS ACT OF 2010 16\.13 VOW TO HIRE HEROES ACT OF 2011 **CHAPTER 17: OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH LAW** 17\.1 INTRODUCTION 17\.101 Federal Regulatory Framework 17\.102 State Enforcement 17\.2 EMPLOYERS’ RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES 17\.201 Employers’ Primary Obligations 17\.202 Employers’ Other Duties 17\.3 EMPLOYEES’ RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES 17\.301 Compliance with Regulations 17\.302 Nondiscrimination Rules 17\.303 Work Refusals 17\.4 INSPECTION PRIORITIES AND PROCEDURES 17\.401 Authority to Conduct Inspections and Prioritization 17\.402 Procedures During Inspection 17\.403 Warrants 17\.5 CITATION PROCEDURES AND DEFENSES 17\.501 Elements of an OSHA Violation 17\.502 Characterization of the Violation 17\.503 Penalties 17\.504 Defenses 17\.6 CONTESTING AND LITIGATING CITATIONS 17\.601 Contesting 17\.602 Time Limits 17\.603 Notice of Contest; Petition to Modify Abatement Period 17\.604 Litigation 17\.605 Discrimination Cases **CHAPTER 18: COBRA—CONTINUATION COVERAGE REQUIREMENTS OF EMPLOYEE HEALTH CARE PLANS** 18\.1 INTRODUCTION 18\.101 Purpose 18\.102 Availability and Premiums 18\.103 Other Federal Health Care Legislation and Rules 18\.2 SCOPE OF COVERAGE 18\.201 Health Care Continuation Coverage 18\.202 Qualifying Events 18\.203 Qualified Beneficiaries 18\.204 Final Treasury Regulations 18\.205 COBRA Premium and the 2009 COBRA Subsidy 18\.3 RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND PRINCIPAL DEFENSES 18\.301 Notice to New Employees 18\.302 Election Rights 18\.303 Employer’s Duty to Notify Administrator 18\.304 Beneficiary’s Duty to Notify Administrator 18\.305 Notice of Right of Election 18\.306 Mailing COBRA Notices and Election Forms 18\.307 Incapacitated Former Employees 18\.308 Length of Continuation Coverage 18\.309 Mergers and Acquisitions 18\.310 “Other Coverage” Rule 18\.311 Equitable Estoppel 18\.312 Fraudulent Claims 18\.313 Preemption of State Laws 18\.314 COBRA and the Family and Medical Leave Act 18\.315 Notice if COBRA Coverage Is Unavailable 18\.316 Notice if COBRA Coverage Is Terminated 18\.317 Trade Adjustment Assistance Benefits 18\.4 PROCEDURAL ISSUES 18\.401 In General 18\.402 Evidence 18\.403 Exhaustion of Administrative Remedies 18\.404 Sovereign Immunity 18\.405 Preemption 18\.406 Statute of Limitations 18\.5 REMEDIES AND DAMAGES 18\.501 Excise Tax 18\.502 Participant Enforcement Suits 18\.503 Penalties for Notice Violations 18\.504 Damages 18\.505 Attorney Fees 18\.506 Other Penalties 18\.507 State and Local Government Plans APPENDIX 18-1: MODEL COBRA CONTINUATION COVERAGE GENERAL NOTICE APPENDIX 18-2: MODEL COBRA CONTINUATION COVERAGE ELECTION NOTICE **CHAPTER 19: ERISA LITIGATION** 19\.1 INTRODUCTION 19\.101 Overview 19\.102 Administrative Agencies 19\.103 Coverage 19\.104 Types of Plans 19\.105 Fiduciaries 19\.106 Employees 19\.107 Plans 19\.108 Plan Sponsors 19\.109 Plan Administrators 19\.110 Participants 19\.111 Beneficiaries 19\.112 Multiemployer Plans 19\.113 Affordable Care Act 19\.114 Same Sex Marriage and Employee Benefits 19\.2 RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND PRINCIPAL DEFENSES 19\.201 Overview 19\.202 Right to the Plan Documents 19\.203 Summary Plan Description 19\.204 Civil Enforcement Provisions 19\.205 Preemption 19\.206 Benefit Claims 19\.207 Fiduciary Breach Claims 19\.208 Equitable Relief Claims 19\.209 Procedural Claims 19\.210 Federal Common Law Claims 19\.211 Retaliation Claims 19\.212 Severance Claims 19\.213 Estoppel Claims 19\.214 Subrogation Claims 19\.215 Arbitration 19\.216 Claims for Retiree Medical Benefits 19\.217 Standard of Judicial Review 19\.218 Cash Balance Plans 19\.219 Blackout Periods 19\.220 Fiduciary Duties Where Employer Stock Is a Retirement Plan Investment Option 19\.221 Anti-Cutback Rule 19\.222 Fiduciary Exception to the Attorney-Client Privilege 19\.3 PROCEDURAL ISSUES 19\.301 Exclusivity of Remedy 19\.302 Standing 19\.303 Jurisdiction 19\.304 Venue 19\.305 Service of Process 19\.306 Removal 19\.307 Exhaustion of Administrative Remedies 19\.308 Statute of Limitations 19\.309 Right to Jury Trial 19\.310 Judicial Review 19\.311 Multiemployer Plan Contributions and Withdrawal Liability 19\.4 REMEDIES AND DAMAGES 19\.401 In General 19\.402 Plan Administrator’s Failure to Provide Information: Section 502(c)(1) 19\.403 Enforcing Terms of Plan: Section 502(a)(1)(B) 19\.404 Breach of Fiduciary Duty: Section 502(a)(2) 19\.405 Enforcing ERISA Provisions: Section 502(a)(3) 19\.406 Interference with Protected Rights: Section 510 19\.407 Attorney Fees 19\.408 Injunctive Relief **CHAPTER 20: THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS ACT** 20\.1 INTRODUCTION 20\.101 In General 20\.102 History 20\.103 Scope of the NLRA 20\.104 Jurisdictional Requirements 20\.105 Preemption 20\.2 RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYEES, EMPLOYERS, AND UNIONS 20\.201 Protected Activities 20\.202 Union Organizing 20\.203 Determining the Bargaining Unit 20\.204 The Election Campaign 20\.205 Access to Employer’s Property 20\.206 Duty to Bargain in Good Faith 20\.207 Purchases, Acquisitions, and the Obligation to Recognize the Union 20\.208 Unfair Labor Practice Charges 20\.209 Decertification 20\.210 Polling 20\.3 PROCEDURE 20\.301 The National Labor Relations Board 20\.302 General Counsel 20\.303 Investigation and Hearing 20\.304 Arbitration 20\.4 REMEDIES 20\.401 Enforcement 20\.402 Bargaining Orders 20\.5 CONCLUSION **CHAPTER 21: PUBLIC SECTOR ISSUES** 21\.1 EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION GENERALLY 21\.101 Introduction 21\.102 First Amendment Free Speech Protection 21\.2 CIVIL RIGHTS STATUTES 21\.201 42 U.S.C. § 1981 21\.202 42 U.S.C. § 1983 21\.203 Eleventh Amendment Immunity 21\.3 OTHER FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS 21\.301 Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 21\.302 Age Discrimination in Employment Act 21\.303 Americans with Disabilities Act 21\.304 Equal Pay Act 21\.305 Virginia Fraud Against Taxpayers Act 21\.4 STATE-MANDATED GRIEVANCE PROCEDURE 21\.401 Introduction 21\.402 Procedural Requirements 21\.403 Law Enforcement Exception 21\.404 Employees of Department of Corrections and Department of Juvenile Justice 21\.405 Employees of Local Constitutional Officers 21\.5 LABOR RELATIONS AND CONCERTED ACTIVITY 21\.501 Collective Bargaining 21\.502 Union Membership 21\.503 Labor Disputes and Strikes 21\.6 PRIVACY CONSIDERATIONS 21\.601 Search of Persons and Property 21\.602 Polygraph Testing 21\.603 Controlled Substance and Alcohol Testing 21\.7 “BAN THE BOX” HIRING POLICY **CHAPTER 22: UNEMPLOYMENT COMPENSATION** 22\.1 INTRODUCTION 22\.2 RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND PRINCIPAL DEFENSES 22\.201 Initial Application for Benefits 22\.202 Initial Determination 22\.203 Disqualification from Receiving Benefits 22\.204 Discharge Due to Misconduct in Connection with Work 22\.205 Refusing Suitable Work 22\.206 False Statements 22\.207 Claimant in Prison 22\.208 Severance Pay 22\.209 Overpayment of Benefits 22\.210 Defenses for Employers 22\.3 PROCEDURES FOR ADJUDICATING CLAIMS 22\.301 Deputy Level 22\.302 Appeals Examiner Level 22\.303 Commission Level 22\.304 Judicial Review of VEC Determinations 22\.305 Other Procedural Matters 22\.306 Timeliness of VEC Appeal 22\.307 Postponement of Appeal Hearings 22\.308 Continuances 22\.309 Withdrawal of Appeal 22\.310 Attorney Fees 22\.4 REMEDIES AND DAMAGES 22\.401 Benefits Available to Claimants 22\.402 Benefit Charges 22\.403 Computation of Employer Tax Rate 22\.404 VEC Publications **TABLE OF AUTHORITIES** INDEX Authors **EDITORS:** - R. Mark Dare - Thomas M. Winn, III **AUTHORS:** - Luke J. Archer - Igor M. Babichenko - Ian P. Band - Elaine Charlson Bredehoft - Victor O. Cardwell - Bernard J. DiMuro - Joon Hwang - Edward Lee Isler - Zachary A. Kitts - Elizabeth A. Lalik - Gary S. Marshall - Timothy M. McConville - Kameron V. Melton - Thomas P. Murphy - Kathleen Z. Quill - Merrell B. Renaud - Dana L. Rust - Micah B. Schwartz - Daniel C. Summerlin, III - King F. Tower - Lori H. Turner - Robert B. Wynne - R. Mark Dare - Thomas M. Winn, III - AUTHORS: - Luke J. Archer - Igor M. Babichenko - Ian P. Band - Elaine Charlson Bredehoft - Victor O. Cardwell - Bernard J. DiMuro - Joon Hwang - Edward Lee Isler - Zachary A. Kitts - Elizabeth A. Lalik - Gary S. Marshall - Timothy M. McConville - Kameron V. Melton - Thomas P. Murphy - Kathleen Z. Quill - Merrell B. Renaud - Dana L. Rust - Micah B. Schwartz - Daniel C. Summerlin, III - King F. Tower - Lori H. Turner - Robert B. 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