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Meta TitleJust Locker Room Talk? Explicit Sexism and the Impact of the Access Hollywood Tape on Electoral Support for Donald Trump in 2016: Political Communication: Vol 37 , No 6 - Get Access
Meta DescriptionOn October 7, 2016 – just 1 month before the U.S. presidential election – The Washington Post published an audio tape recorded in 2005 of then reality TV star, Donald J. Trump, and Access Hollywood...
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1.  Throughout, we follow recent scholarship by Bittner and Goodyear-Grant ( Citation 2017 ) and carefully use the term “sex” to refer to our binary, gendered measure of male/female voters. 2.  By naming this “implicitly sexist,” we mean to argue that Trump’s myriad statements about particular women (including Rosie O’Donnell, Megyn Kelly, Carly Fiorina, Elizabeth Warren, and Hillary Clinton) were specifically pointed at individuals, rather than assessing or maligning all women as a group . For much of the primary election campaign, Trump directed his ire at specific women who challenged his authority and refused to flatter him (Manne, Citation 2016 ), thus enabling him to distance himself from claims that such statements revealed his general sexist bias. While such statements surely impacted many women in the general electorate, the nature of his pre-AHT sexist appeals did not overtly articulate his orientation toward all women. Similarly, by naming this an “appeal,” we mean to argue that the AHT is a message that communicates a set of beliefs held by Trump (which may be embraced by some members of the electorate, see also Cassese & Holman, Citation 2019 ). However, we are not asserting that this was a calculated or strategic appeal on the part of the Trump campaign. 3.  In recent years, however, this framework has been challenged (Huber & Lapinski, Citation 2006 , Citation 2008 ; but see Mendelberg, Citation 2008 for a rejoinder). Additionally, recent studies indicate that, at least in some contexts and with some groups, explicit appeals can be effective (Huber & Lapinski, Citation 2008 ; Hutchings & Jardina, Citation 2009 ; Schaffner, 2018). In the most sweeping study of this type, Valentino et al. ( Citation 2017 ) offer evidence that white audiences are equally receptive to explicit racial appeals as they are to implicit racial appeals, at least in some policy areas. 4.  Our approach differs from that of Cassese and Holman ( Citation 2019 ), who note that the 2016 campaign contained “overt sexist appeals” (p. 55), but focus on the impact of “attacks” to a candidate’s gender on vote choice, mediated by sexist attitudes (e.g., Trump’s claims that Clinton played the “woman card”) in their analyses. 5.  See also the extensive scholarship on how sexism and racism are co-constituted political phenomena (e.g., Collins, Citation 2000 ; Strolovitch, Citation 2007 ). 6.  As scholars in the tradition of Glick and Fiske ( Citation 1996 , Citation 2001 ) have fully elaborated, sexist attitudes are comprised of multiple, coexisting dimensions which may be either (or simultaneously) “hostile” or “benevolent.” They note that sexism can express either antipathy toward women (i.e., hostile sexism) or patriarchal assumptions about the need for women’s protection and adherence to traditional roles (i.e., benevolent sexism). This scholarship usefully illustrates the nuance in how sexism functions in society, and therefore in the form that sexist campaign messages may take. 7. This understanding of sexism engages the long history of feminist theory and activism around the goal of ending the oppression of women (Echols, Citation 1989 ; Evans, Citation 1979 ; Hawkesworth, Citation 2006 ). 8.  Mendelberg ( Citation 2001 ) argues that political actors have limited incentive to appeal to voters’ sexist predispositions because both parties seek support from women and that neither party aims to target women with “implicit campaign messages that portray them as less able or deserving” (p. 244). 9.  See also social psychology literature on “overt,” “covert,” and “subtle” sexism (e.g., Swim & Cohen, Citation 1997 ; Swim et al., Citation 2004 ). 10.  Importantly, we do not argue that sexist attitudes have been eradicated from the electorate, nor that gender egalitarian transformations are yet complete in American society (see England, Citation 2010 ). Indeed, much scholarship on the 2016 electoral environment suggests that voters remain dispersed along the spectrum of both hostile and benevolent sexist attitudinal measures (Bracic et al., Citation 2019 ; Cassese & Holman, Citation 2019 ; Glick, Citation 2019 ; Schaffner et al., Citation 2018 ). However, scholars note that multidimensional gender egalitarian attitudes have, on balance, been on the rise in the U.S. (Scarborough et al., Citation 2019 ), particularly with regard to gendered roles in the public sphere. These shifts illustrate that gender equality norms are ascendant even at the same time as sexist attitudes both endure and partially function to legitimize the persistence of elements of gender inequality (Glick & Raberg, Citation 2017 ). 11.  In 2016, implicitly sexist appeals were common in the campaign environment in which gender was fully salient, given Clinton’s nomination as the first major party female candidate for president. For example, Trump denigrated Clinton’s focus on gendered issues in campaign messaging, stating “the only card she has is the women’s card” (Rappeport, Citation 2016 ) – a statement which Cassese and Holman ( Citation 2019 ) classify as a “gender-based campaign attack” (56). During his speeches on the campaign trail, Trump frequently referred to Clinton a “liar” who, Trump asserted, should be “jailed” for her activities while serving as Secretary of State (Roberts et al., Citation 2016 ). Such statements are akin to what Swim and Cohen ( Citation 1997 ) refer to as “subtle sexism” which “is characterized by openly unequal and harmful treatment of women that goes unnoticed because it is perceived to be customary or normal behavior” (p. 104) in campaigns defined by political attacks (Lau & Rovner, Citation 2009 ). 13.  See Appendix B for full question wordings. 14.  We define “definite voters” as all individuals who indicate that they “definitely” planned to vote in the 2016 elections (or indicated they had already done so). 15.  We used all exact matches, rather than one-to-one exact matching, because this more lenient procedure further reduces variance without any increase in bias (Ho et al., Citation 2007 , p. 217).
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Explicit Sexism a ....](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867) ## Your download is now in progress and you may close this window Did you know that with a free Taylor & Francis Online account you can gain access to the following benefits? - Choose new content alerts to be informed about new research of interest to you - Easy remote access to your institution's subscriptions on any device, from any location - Save your searches and schedule alerts to send you new results - Export your search results into a .csv file to support your research Have an account? [Login now](https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showLogin?uri=) Don't have an account? [Register for free](https://www.tandfonline.com/action/registration?redirectUri=) ## Login or register to access this feature Have an account? [Login now](https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showLogin?uri=) Don't have an account? [Register for free](https://www.tandfonline.com/action/registration?redirectUri=) Register a free Taylor & Francis Online account today to boost your research and gain these benefits: - Choose new content alerts to be informed about new research of interest to you - Easy remote access to your institution's subscriptions on any device, from any location - Save your searches and schedule alerts to send you new results - Export your search results into a .csv file to support your research [Register](https://www.tandfonline.com/action/registration?redirectUri=) now or [learn more](https://help.tandfonline.com/s/article/benefits-of-registering) [Advanced search](https://www.tandfonline.com/search/advanced) ![Publication Cover](https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCoverImage?doi=10.1080/upcp20.v037.i06) [Political Communication](https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/upcp20) Volume 37, 2020 - [Issue 6](https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/upcp20/37/6) [Submit an article](https://rp.tandfonline.com/submission/create?journalCode=UPCP) [Journal homepage](https://www.tandfonline.com/upcp20) 2,017 Views 15 CrossRef citations to date 0 Altmetric Research Article # Just Locker Room Talk? Explicit Sexism and the Impact of the Access Hollywood Tape on Electoral Support for Donald Trump in 2016 [Jesse H. Rhodes](https://www.tandfonline.com/author/Rhodes%2C+Jesse+H)a Department of Political Science & Department of History, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USACorrespondence[jrhodes@polsci.umass.edu](mailto:jrhodes@polsci.umass.edu) , [Elizabeth A. Sharrow](https://www.tandfonline.com/author/Sharrow%2C+Elizabeth+A)a Department of Political Science & Department of History, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA[![ORCID Icon](https://www.tandfonline.com/templates/jsp/_style2/_tandf/images/orcid.svg)https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5880-7905](https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5880-7905) [![ORCID Icon](https://www.tandfonline.com/templates/jsp/_style2/_tandf/images/orcid.svg)](https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5880-7905), [Jill S. Greenlee](https://www.tandfonline.com/author/Greenlee%2C+Jill+S)b Department of Political Science, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA & [Tatishe M. Nteta](https://www.tandfonline.com/author/Nteta%2C+Tatishe+M)a Department of Political Science & Department of History, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA Pages 741-767 \| Published online: 23 May 2020 - [Cite this article](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867 "Cite this article") - <https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867> - [![CrossMark Logo](https://www.tandfonline.com/templates/jsp/images/CROSSMARK_Color_horizontal.svg) CrossMark](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867) [![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days](https://www.tandfonline.com/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg)](https://www.tandfonline.com/action/clickThrough?id=5947&url=%2Fr%2Fsubjectsample-politics&loc=%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F10584609.2020.1753867&pubId=54622818&placeholderId=1074&productId=1600) - [Full Article](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867?scroll=top&needAccess=true) - [Figures & data](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/figure/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867?scroll=top&needAccess=true) - [References](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ref/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867?scroll=top) - [Supplemental](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/suppl/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867?scroll=top) - [Citations](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867?scroll=top&needAccess=true) - [Metrics](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/metrics/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867?scroll=top) - [Reprints & Permissions](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/permissions/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867?scroll=top) - [Read this article /doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867?needAccess=true](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867) [Share](https://www.addtoany.com/share#url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F10584609.2020.1753867&title=Just%20Locker%20Room%20Talk%3F%20Explicit%20Sexism%20and%20the%20Impact%20of%20the%20Access%20Hollywood%20Tape%20on%20Electoral%20Support%20for%20Donald%20Trump%20in%202016%3A%20Political%20Communication%3A%20Vol%2037%20%2C%20No%206%20-%20Get%20Access) - - [Back to Top](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867#top) ## ABSTRACT Scholars have long debated whether and to what extent citizens punish political candidates for explicitly racist rhetoric. However, few studies explore whether a similar dynamic occurs when explicitly sexist messages are conveyed on the campaign trail. Do citizens recoil when exposed to explicitly sexist messages? To investigate this question, we exploit the unique opportunity afforded by the release of the “Access Hollywood” tape during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. Using data provided by the 2016 Cooperative Congressional Election Study and employing a variety of analytic approaches, we find consistent evidence that the release of the tape modestly, though significantly, reduced support for Donald Trump during the 2016 campaign. Surprisingly, these effects were similar among men and women, but they were noticeably larger among Republicans compared to Democrats. KEYWORDS: - [Donald Trump](https://www.tandfonline.com/keyword/Donald+Trump) - [sexism](https://www.tandfonline.com/keyword/sexism) - [voting](https://www.tandfonline.com/keyword/voting) - [2016 election](https://www.tandfonline.com/keyword/2016+election) - [Access Hollywood Tape](https://www.tandfonline.com/keyword/Access+Hollywood+Tape) ### Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Laura A. van Assendelft, Nichole Bauer, Jennifer Lucas, Brian Schaffner, and the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions at various stages of this paper. This work was funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant \#1559125 \[to Stephen Ansolabehere\]. ## Disclosure Statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. ## Supplementary Material Supplemental data for this article can be accessed at <https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867>. ## Notes 1\. Throughout, we follow recent scholarship by Bittner and Goodyear-Grant ([Citation2017](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)) and carefully use the term “sex” to refer to our binary, gendered measure of male/female voters. 2\. By naming this “implicitly sexist,” we mean to argue that Trump’s myriad statements about particular women (including Rosie O’Donnell, Megyn Kelly, Carly Fiorina, Elizabeth Warren, and Hillary Clinton) were specifically pointed at individuals, rather than assessing or maligning all women *as a group*. For much of the primary election campaign, Trump directed his ire at specific women who challenged his authority and refused to flatter him (Manne, [Citation2016](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)), thus enabling him to distance himself from claims that such statements revealed his general sexist bias. While such statements surely impacted many women in the general electorate, the nature of his pre-AHT sexist appeals did not overtly articulate his orientation toward *all* women. Similarly, by naming this an “appeal,” we mean to argue that the AHT is a message that communicates a set of beliefs held by Trump (which may be embraced by some members of the electorate, see also Cassese & Holman, [Citation2019](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). However, we are not asserting that this was a calculated or strategic appeal on the part of the Trump campaign. 3\. In recent years, however, this framework has been challenged (Huber & Lapinski, [Citation2006](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867), [Citation2008](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); but see Mendelberg, [Citation2008](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867) for a rejoinder). Additionally, recent studies indicate that, at least in some contexts and with some groups, explicit appeals can be effective (Huber & Lapinski, [Citation2008](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Hutchings & Jardina, [Citation2009](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Schaffner, 2018). In the most sweeping study of this type, Valentino et al. ([Citation2017](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)) offer evidence that white audiences are equally receptive to explicit racial appeals as they are to implicit racial appeals, at least in some policy areas. 4\. Our approach differs from that of Cassese and Holman ([Citation2019](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)), who note that the 2016 campaign contained “overt sexist appeals” (p. 55), but focus on the impact of “attacks” to a candidate’s gender on vote choice, mediated by sexist attitudes (e.g., Trump’s claims that Clinton played the “woman card”) in their analyses. 5\. See also the extensive scholarship on how sexism and racism are co-constituted political phenomena (e.g., Collins, [Citation2000](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Strolovitch, [Citation2007](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). 6\. As scholars in the tradition of Glick and Fiske ([Citation1996](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867), [Citation2001](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)) have fully elaborated, sexist attitudes are comprised of multiple, coexisting dimensions which may be either (or simultaneously) “hostile” or “benevolent.” They note that sexism can express either antipathy toward women (i.e., hostile sexism) or patriarchal assumptions about the need for women’s protection and adherence to traditional roles (i.e., benevolent sexism). This scholarship usefully illustrates the nuance in how sexism functions in society, and therefore in the form that sexist campaign messages may take. 7\. This understanding of sexism engages the long history of feminist theory and activism around the goal of ending the oppression of women (Echols, [Citation1989](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Evans, [Citation1979](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Hawkesworth, [Citation2006](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). 8\. Mendelberg ([Citation2001](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)) argues that political actors have limited incentive to appeal to voters’ sexist predispositions because both parties seek support from women and that neither party aims to target women with “implicit campaign messages that portray them as less able or deserving” (p. 244). 9\. See also social psychology literature on “overt,” “covert,” and “subtle” sexism (e.g., Swim & Cohen, [Citation1997](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Swim et al., [Citation2004](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). 10\. Importantly, we do *not* argue that sexist attitudes have been eradicated from the electorate, nor that gender egalitarian transformations are yet complete in American society (see England, [Citation2010](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). Indeed, much scholarship on the 2016 electoral environment suggests that voters remain dispersed along the spectrum of both hostile and benevolent sexist attitudinal measures (Bracic et al., [Citation2019](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Cassese & Holman, [Citation2019](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Glick, [Citation2019](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867); Schaffner et al., [Citation2018](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). However, scholars note that multidimensional gender egalitarian attitudes have, on balance, been on the rise in the U.S. (Scarborough et al., [Citation2019](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)), particularly with regard to gendered roles in the public sphere. These shifts illustrate that gender equality norms are ascendant even at the same time as sexist attitudes both endure and partially function to legitimize the persistence of elements of gender inequality (Glick & Raberg, [Citation2017](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). 11\. In 2016, implicitly sexist appeals were common in the campaign environment in which gender was fully salient, given Clinton’s nomination as the first major party female candidate for president. For example, Trump denigrated Clinton’s focus on gendered issues in campaign messaging, stating “the only card she has is the women’s card” (Rappeport, [Citation2016](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)) – a statement which Cassese and Holman ([Citation2019](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)) classify as a “gender-based campaign attack” (56). During his speeches on the campaign trail, Trump frequently referred to Clinton a “liar” who, Trump asserted, should be “jailed” for her activities while serving as Secretary of State (Roberts et al., [Citation2016](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). Such statements are akin to what Swim and Cohen ([Citation1997](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)) refer to as “subtle sexism” which “is characterized by openly unequal and harmful treatment of women that goes unnoticed because it is perceived to be customary or normal behavior” (p. 104) in campaigns defined by political attacks (Lau & Rovner, [Citation2009](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867)). 12\. Videos for CBS Evening News and NBC Nightly News for October 8th and 9th were accessed via the online archives of CBS News (<https://archive.org/details/TVPROGRAM-CBS_Evening_News?&sort=-publicdate&page=2>) and NBC News (<https://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news-netcast/video/nightly-news-full-broadcast-october-8th-782059075769?v=railb>). Information concerning the ABC World News Tonight was garnered from a search of the transcripts of the Vanderbilt Television News Archive (<https://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/search>). 13\. See [Appendix B](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1753867#app0002) for full question wordings. 14\. We define “definite voters” as all individuals who indicate that they “definitely” planned to vote in the 2016 elections (or indicated they had already done so). 15\. 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[https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpl013(open in a new window)](https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpl013) [(Open in a new window)Web of Science ®](https://www.tandfonline.com/servlet/linkout?suffix=e_1_3_5_49_1&dbid=128&doi=10.1080%2F10584609.2020.1753867&key=WOS%3A000248544000002&getFTLinkType=true&doiForPubOfPage=10.1080%2F10584609.2020.1753867&refDoi=10.1093%2Fpan%2Fmpl013&linkType=ISI&linkSource=FULL_TEXT&linkLocation=Reference)[(Open in a new window)Google Scholar](https://www.tandfonline.com/action/getFTRLinkout?url=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar_lookup%3Fhl%3Den%26volume%3D15%26publication_year%3D2007%26pages%3D199-236%26journal%3DPolitical%2BAnalysis%26issue%3D3%26author%3DD.%2BE.%2BHo%26author%3DK.%2BImai%26author%3DG.%2BKing%26author%3DE.%2BA.%2BStuart%26title%3DMatching%2Bas%2Bnonparametric%2Bpreprocessing%2Bfor%2Breducing%2Bmodel%2Bdependence%2Bin%2Bparametric%2Bcausal%2Binference&doi=10.1080%2F10584609.2020.1753867&doiOfLink=10.1093%2Fpan%2Fmpl013&linkType=gs&linkLocation=Reference&linkSource=FULL_TEXT) ## Additional information ### Funding The 2016 Cooperative Congressional Election Study was supported by the National Science Foundation \[grant \#1559125 to Stephen Ansolabehere\], and the authors thank the co-PIs, Stephen Ansolabehere, Brian Schaffner, and Samantha Luks, for their support of this research. 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