🕷️ Crawler Inspector

URL Lookup

Direct Parameter Lookup

Raw Queries and Responses

1. Shard Calculation

Query:

Response:

Calculated Shard: 84 (from laksa095)

2. Crawled Status Check

Query:

curl -X POST \
  'http://laksa084.int.ahrefs:8124/' \
  -H 'Content-Type: text/plain' \
  -H 'X-ClickHouse-Database: crawler3' \
  -H 'Authorization: Basic YXBpOg==' \
  -d 'SELECT getAhrefsURLFromUnparsed(src_unparsed) AS found_url, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(download_stamp), 0) AS crawl_time, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(props_url_first_seen), 0) AS first_indexed_time, download_http_code AS http_code, src_unparsed AS src_unparsed, src_root_hash AS src_root_hash, history_drop_reason AS history_drop_reason, meta_title AS meta_title, meta_descriptions AS meta_descriptions, attrs_boilerpipe_text AS attrs_boilerpipe_text, attrs_markdown AS attrs_markdown, attrs_readable_markdown AS attrs_readable_markdown, meta_canonical AS meta_canonical FROM crawler3.page_info_local FINAL PREWHERE (src_root_hash, src_unparsed) IN ((getAhrefsRootHashFromUnparsed(getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html\')), getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html\'))) FORMAT JSONEachRow'

Response:

{"found_url":"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html","crawl_time":1772546168,"first_indexed_time":1609830786,"http_code":200,"src_unparsed":"com,nytimes!www,\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html s443","src_root_hash":"4566504020376537684","history_drop_reason":null,"meta_title":"What Is Brexit? Updates on Britain's Split From E.U. - The New York Times","meta_descriptions":["Almost a year after it took full effect, the consequences of Britain’s split from the European Union are still unfolding. Here is a guide to what it means, how it came about and what the future may hold."],"attrs_boilerpipe_text":"Advertisement\nSKIP ADVERTISEMENT\nAlmost a year after it took full effect, the consequences of Britain’s split from the European Union are still unfolding. Here is a guide to what it means, how it came about and what the future may hold.\nCelebrating in London in January 2020 as Britain officially left the European Union. A transition period ran until the end of 2020.\nCredit...\nAndrew Testa for The New York Times\nNov. 8, 2021\nBritain broke from the European Union’s regulatory orbit on Jan. 1, casting off nearly a half-century inside the bloc and embarking on what analysts described as the biggest overnight change in modern commercial relations between countries.\nFar from closing the book on Britain’s tumultuous relationship with the rest of Europe, the split, known as\nBrexit\n, has opened a new chapter — one that could reshape not only the country’s economy, foreign policy and politics, but even its borders.\nPrime Minister Boris Johnson speaks of creating a more agile “Global Britain,” with stronger ties to the United States and other democracies, like Australia, India and South Korea.\nBut\nwhile that plan has hit setbacks\n, risks from the new dispensation have quickly become evident, including on empty supermarket shelves as the country struggles with a shortage of truck drivers.\nAnd arrangements for the sensitive territory of Northern Ireland have fueled rioting and diplomatic tensions.\nLet’s start with the basics.\nWhy “Brexit”?\nA portmanteau of the words Britain and exit, Brexit caught on as shorthand for the proposal that Britain leave the European Union and change its relationship with the bloc on trade, security and migration.\nBritain has debated the pros and cons of a club of European nations almost since the idea was broached, after World War II. It joined in 1973 — and held a referendum on whether to leave less than three years later. Then, 67 percent of voters supported staying.\nBut that was hardly the end of the argument.\nIn 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron\npromised a new national referendum\n. The options were “remain” or “leave,” and Mr. Cameron was convinced that “remain” would win easily.\nImage\nTrucks waiting to enter the Port of Dover in England in December 2020. Increased border controls raised concerns about long backups.\nCredit...\nAndrew Testa for The New York Times\nLeaving is a big deal economically.\nEurope has been Britain’s most important export market and its biggest source of foreign investment, and E.U. membership helped London cement its position as a global financial center.\nFor decades, British companies could move goods to and from the European Union without taxes or tariffs. People could move freely, too.\nBut as 2021 began, business changed for many — including British\nautomakers\n, who rely on suppliers across Europe, and\ntouring musicians\n, who suddenly faced a thicket of visa rules.\nThe agreement that London and Brussels reached late in 2020 avoided tariffs or quotas on goods. But traders still confronted new paperwork and unpredictable delays, sometimes resulting in\nrotting cargoes\n.\nAnd the services sector — about\n80 percent\nor more of British economic activity, comprising not only the financial industry, but also lawyers, architects, consultants and others — was left dependent on patchwork decisions by European regulators.\nBritain’s\nOffice for Budget Responsibility\n, an independent official body, says trade with the European Union took a sharp hit in January and remained 15 percent down in August, even as business with other countries began to recover from pandemic effects. It estimates that\nBritain’s economy will be 4 percent less productive\nthan it would have been inside the bloc.\nBrexit’s supporters say their aim is a ‘Global Britain.’\nOpponents of Brexit describe it as an attempt to reclaim an imagined Britain of the past, one with\nfewer European migrants\nand\nmore patriotic singing\n. But Mr. Johnson, like many prominent proponents, often presents it as\na way of embracing change\n.\nImage\nParliament in London. Euroskeptic lawmakers in Britain pushed for the country to leave the bloc’s single market and customs union.\nCredit...\nAndrew Testa for The New York Times\nScotland could make its own split.\nAlong with Northern Ireland, Scotland rejected Brexit in the 2016 referendum, with a vote of more than 60 percent to remain in the European Union. That stark divergence of opinion has\nshaken the far older union between England and Scotland\n.\nScots voted against independence from Britain in a 2014 referendum\n, but the pro-independence Scottish National Party, or S.N.P., has dominated the Scottish Parliament for more than a decade. It has promised to legislate for a rerun, with Brexit as its justification. A reversal would cost Britain 8 percent of its population, a third of its landmass and significant international prestige.\nFor a new referendum to be legal, however, it would almost certainly need the agreement of London, and Mr. Johnson has repeatedly said no. Scottish elections in May left the S.N.P.\none seat short of a majority\n, but it has support from smaller pro-independence parties. If neither side backs down, the result could be\na court battle, or even a constitutional crisis\n.\nImage\nFishing rights were among the most stubborn sticking points in the negotiations for Britain’s leaving the bloc’s single market and customs union.\nCredit...\nAndrew Testa for The New York Times\nFishing remains a sore point.\nBritain’s fishing fleet is a small fraction of the size it reached in the middle of the last century — a decline for which Brexit proponents have long blamed E.U. rules on sharing access to fisheries.\nThe British government cast its split from the European Union as a chance to revive an industry that was also\na storied way of life\n.\nIn the trade deal negotiations, both sides had to compromise: E.U. boats kept more rights in British waters than Britain had demanded, but over a shorter period than Brussels had called for. Tensions are still high: France\ndetained a British trawler\nin October, citing a dispute over licenses for dozens of French vessels. And in May, Britain\nsent Royal Navy ships\nin response to a protest blockade by French fishing boats off the semiautonomous island of Jersey.\nThat may not help British fishing companies, which long sold much of their catch in Europe. Some seafood exporters say delays from new checks could\ndrive them out of business\n.\nWhat’s next?\nFor bankers, traders, truckers, architects and millions of migrants, the Dec. 24 trade agreement was only the beginning of a high-stakes and unpredictable experiment.\nBritain has been short of customs agents to deal with the tens of millions of declarations now needed, industry experts said. It has repeatedly\ndelayed some of its own new border checks\n, with several deadlines\npushed to July 2022\n.\nIn the four years after Britain’s referendum, the number of Europeans migrating to the country for work plunged, and British companies sent employees to Paris, Dublin or Frankfurt. The number of jobs that will be relocated, or created in different places, is still becoming clear.\nBut already, many British businesses say they are\nstruggling to fill positions\nthat might once have been taken by E.U. workers, presenting a risk to Britain’s pandemic recovery.\nA lack of truck drivers\n, echoed in other countries but exacerbated by Brexit, has caused passing shortages of a bewildering range of items including\nNando’s chicken\nand Haribo sweets.\nAnd the future of some E.U. citizens in Britain remains uncertain. More than two million have been granted “settled status,” the right to stay indefinitely. But applications closed at the end of June, and the process has made few provisions for those unable to complete it online, much less for those who don’t realize they need permission to stay somewhere they have lived for decades.\nImage\nThe City of London, Britain’s financial hub. E.U. membership helped the capital cement its position as a global banking center.\nCredit...\nAndrew Testa for The New York Times\nStephen Castle and Mark Landler contributed reporting.\nBenjamin Mueller\nis a health and science reporter. Previously, he covered the coronavirus pandemic as a correspondent in London and the police in New York.\nA version of this article appears in print on\nMay 10, 2021\n, Section A, Page 8 of the New York edition with the headline: With Brexit Done, Europe Begins a New Era of Trade\n.\nOrder Reprints\n|\nToday’s Paper\n|\nSubscribe\nRelated Content\nBrexit\nNews and opinion about Britain’s exit from the European Union.\nAndrew Testa for The New York Times\nPhoto Illustration by Daniel Stier for The New York Times\nMark Power\/Magnum Photos\nMore in Europe\nNanna Heitmann for The New York Times\nEmily Elconin for The New York Times\nBettmann, via Getty Images\nAngelos Tzortzinis for The New York Times\nEditors’ Picks\nAlexandre Juillet\/Chamonix-Mont Blanc\nBlaine Davis\nTrending in The Times\nHaiyun Jiang\/The NYT; Aaron Schwartz\/Getty; Kenny Holston\/The NYT; Pool photo by Bob Daemmrich; Julio Cortez\/AP\nJanet Mac\nBrill\/ullstein bild, via Getty Images\nPhoto Illustration by Tam Stockton for The New York Times\nChristopher Testani for The New York Times. Food Stylist: Simon Andrews.\nClaudia Greco\/Reuters\nKaoly Gutierrez for The New York Times\nPhoto Illustration by Mel Haasch; Grace Cary\/Getty Images\nTova Katzman for The New York Times\nJiji Press\/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images\nAdvertisement\nSKIP ADVERTISEMENT","attrs_markdown":"[Skip to content](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#site-content)[Skip to site index](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#site-index)\n\nSearch & Section Navigation\n\nSection Navigation\n\nSearch\n\n[Europe](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/world\/europe)\n\n[Log in](https:\/\/myaccount.nytimes.com\/auth\/login?response_type=cookie&client_id=vi&redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fsubscription%2Fonboarding-offer%3FcampaignId%3D7JFJX%26EXIT_URI%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.nytimes.com%252Farticle%252Fbrexit-uk-eu-explained.html&asset=masthead)\n\nTuesday, March 3, 2026\n\n[Today’s Paper](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/todayspaper)\n\nGlobal Economy\n\n- [Natural Gas Prices Surge](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/business\/natural-gas-prices-qatar-europe-asia.html)\n- [Stocks Fall](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/01\/business\/stock-market-iran-war-fallout.html)\n- [Oil Prices Jump](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/01\/business\/energy-environment\/iran-war-oil-prices.html)\n- [Airline Stocks Tumble](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/business\/airline-stocks-iran-attacks.html)\n- [Asia’s New Energy Threat](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/business\/us-iran-china-japan-energy.html)\n- [India’s Growth](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/02\/27\/business\/india-economy-gdp.html)\n- [Unreliable Indicators](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/02\/03\/business\/economy\/global-economy-forecasts.html)\n\nAdvertisement\n\n[SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-top)\n\nSupported by\n\n[SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-sponsor)\n# What Is Brexit? And How Is It Going?\nAlmost a year after it took full effect, the consequences of Britain’s split from the European Union are still unfolding. Here is a guide to what it means, how it came about and what the future may hold.\n\n- Share full article\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/24\/world\/24what-is-brexit-explainer1\/merlin_168182259_bc34af0e-bb4d-4fda-818b-1e9b11af5a43-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nCelebrating in London in January 2020 as Britain officially left the European Union. A transition period ran until the end of 2020.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\nBy [Benjamin Mueller](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/by\/benjamin-mueller) and Peter Robins\n\nNov. 8, 2021\n\n[Leer en español](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/es\/2020\/12\/24\/espanol\/brexit-union-europea.html \"Read in Spanish\")\n\nBritain broke from the European Union’s regulatory orbit on Jan. 1, casting off nearly a half-century inside the bloc and embarking on what analysts described as the biggest overnight change in modern commercial relations between countries.\n\nFar from closing the book on Britain’s tumultuous relationship with the rest of Europe, the split, known as [Brexit](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/11\/08\/world\/europe\/uk-brexit-estonia-business.html), has opened a new chapter — one that could reshape not only the country’s economy, foreign policy and politics, but even its borders.\n\nPrime Minister Boris Johnson speaks of creating a more agile “Global Britain,” with stronger ties to the United States and other democracies, like Australia, India and South Korea.\n\nBut [while that plan has hit setbacks](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/09\/15\/world\/europe\/boris-johnson-cabinet-reshuffle.html), risks from the new dispensation have quickly become evident, including on empty supermarket shelves as the country struggles with a shortage of truck drivers.\n\nAnd arrangements for the sensitive territory of Northern Ireland have fueled rioting and diplomatic tensions.\n\n### Here’s what you need to know:\n- [Let’s start with the basics.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-5577c4ce)\n- [Leaving is a big deal economically.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-5ad10db6)\n- [Brexit’s supporters say their aim is a ‘Global Britain.’](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-3c762cd)\n- [In Northern Ireland, Brexit is waking old demons.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-623c8787)\n- [Scotland could make its own split.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-12f00660)\n- [Fishing remains a sore point.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-51403d3d)\n- [What’s next?](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-b30f02b)\n\n## Let’s start with the basics.\nWhy “Brexit”?\n\nA portmanteau of the words Britain and exit, Brexit caught on as shorthand for the proposal that Britain leave the European Union and change its relationship with the bloc on trade, security and migration.\n\nBritain has debated the pros and cons of a club of European nations almost since the idea was broached, after World War II. It joined in 1973 — and held a referendum on whether to leave less than three years later. Then, 67 percent of voters supported staying.\n\nBut that was hardly the end of the argument.\n\nIn 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron [promised a new national referendum](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2013\/01\/24\/world\/europe\/cameron-britain-referendum-european-union.html?module=inline). The options were “remain” or “leave,” and Mr. Cameron was convinced that “remain” would win easily.\n\n## Editors’ Picks\n[![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/01\/nyregion\/01diary-illos-1\/01diary-illos-1-thumbLarge.jpg)‘He Opened the Safe and Took Out All the Cash That Was There’](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/01\/nyregion\/metropolitan-diary.html)\n\n[![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/27\/multimedia\/27FD-KOMOLAFE-Cameroon-Eru-promo-phlt\/27FD-KOMOLAFE-Cameroon-Eru-promo-phlt-thumbLarge.jpg)A Lesson in Transforming the Bitter Into the Sweet](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/02\/27\/dining\/cameroon-eru-soup-stew-recipe.html)\n\n[![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/27\/multimedia\/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt\/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt-thumbLarge.jpg)For Actually Good Chicken Breast, Try One of Our Top-Rated Recipes](https:\/\/cooking.nytimes.com\/article\/reader-favorite-boneless-chicken-breast-recipes)\n\nAdvertisement\n\n[SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-pp_edpick)\n\nBut by the time of the vote on June 23, 2016, a refugee crisis had made migration a subject of political rage across Europe.\n\nAfter an acrimonious campaign, in which the “leave” side was criticized as [pushing misleading and contradictory messages](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/06\/27\/world\/europe\/having-won-some-brexit-campaigners-begin-backpedaling.html) and later [accused of breaking election rules](https:\/\/www.electoralcommission.org.uk\/media-centre\/vote-leave-fined-and-referred-police-breaking-electoral-law), withdrawal from the European Union emerged with the support of 52 percent of voters.\n\nImage\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/24\/world\/24what-is-brexit-explainer2\/merlin_181442682_5c0494fb-f838-4893-b7f2-008014811726-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nTrucks waiting to enter the Port of Dover in England in December 2020. Increased border controls raised concerns about long backups.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\n## Leaving is a big deal economically.\nEurope has been Britain’s most important export market and its biggest source of foreign investment, and E.U. membership helped London cement its position as a global financial center.\n\nFor decades, British companies could move goods to and from the European Union without taxes or tariffs. People could move freely, too.\n\nBut as 2021 began, business changed for many — including British [automakers](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/01\/26\/business\/british-auto-industry-brexit.html), who rely on suppliers across Europe, and [touring musicians](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/04\/20\/arts\/music\/peter-grimes-teatro-real-brexit.html), who suddenly faced a thicket of visa rules.\n\nThe agreement that London and Brussels reached late in 2020 avoided tariffs or quotas on goods. But traders still confronted new paperwork and unpredictable delays, sometimes resulting in [rotting cargoes](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/02\/12\/world\/europe\/brexit-britain-trade.html).\n\nAnd the services sector — about [80 percent](https:\/\/commonslibrary.parliament.uk\/research-briefings\/sn02786\/) or more of British economic activity, comprising not only the financial industry, but also lawyers, architects, consultants and others — was left dependent on patchwork decisions by European regulators.\n\nBritain’s [Office for Budget Responsibility](https:\/\/obr.uk\/efo\/economic-and-fiscal-outlook-october-2021\/), an independent official body, says trade with the European Union took a sharp hit in January and remained 15 percent down in August, even as business with other countries began to recover from pandemic effects. It estimates that [Britain’s economy will be 4 percent less productive](https:\/\/obr.uk\/forecasts-in-depth\/the-economy-forecast\/brexit-analysis\/#assumptions) than it would have been inside the bloc.\n\n## Brexit’s supporters say their aim is a ‘Global Britain.’\nOpponents of Brexit describe it as an attempt to reclaim an imagined Britain of the past, one with [fewer European migrants](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/06\/17\/world\/europe\/pandemic-brexit-uk.html) and [more patriotic singing](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/09\/02\/world\/europe\/bbc-proms-johnson.html). But Mr. Johnson, like many prominent proponents, often presents it as [a way of embracing change](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/02\/01\/world\/europe\/brexit-britain.html).\n\nOutside the E.U. single market, with its shared regulations, Britain can set rules to encourage innovation, although the deal permits either side to seek redress for regulatory changes that might create an unfair advantage.\n\nOutside the bloc’s customs union, with its common tariffs, Britain can seek trade deals with countries such as India and the United States. It signed [a major trade deal with Australia](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/06\/15\/business\/britain-australia-trade-deal.html) in June.\n\nSome Brexit supporters also argue that ending free migration for European Union citizens will allow more flexibility for others — a case that [resonated in British Asian communities](https:\/\/ukandeu.ac.uk\/inside-the-british-asian-brexit-vote-and-why-it-contains-a-few-surprises\/) during the referendum campaign. When China imposed a security law last year on Hong Kong, Mr. Johnson [offered British residency rights](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/06\/03\/world\/europe\/boris-johnson-uk-hong-kong-china.html) to three million people in the city, though [without helping them leave](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/07\/03\/world\/europe\/johnson-brexit-hong-kong.html).\n\n[A British agreement alongside the United States](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/09\/15\/us\/politics\/biden-australia-britain-china.html) in September to help Australia deploy nuclear submarines was hailed by Brexit supporters as a success for the new approach. It also [upset an Australian defense deal with France](https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/world\/us-move-dislodge-france-australia-submarine-deal-is-incoherent-french-ministers-2021-09-15\/), striking a blow in [a rivalry that Brexit has sharpened](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/11\/04\/world\/europe\/brexit-britain-france-johnson-macron.html).\n\nBut most benefits of a Global Britain so far remain theoretical. The Office for Budget Responsibility has said it expects barely any effect from new trade deals.\n\n## In Northern Ireland, Brexit is waking old demons.\nNorthern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom, has the country’s only land border with the European Union — [the politically delicate 310-mile frontier with the Republic of Ireland](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/12\/26\/business\/ireland-border-brexit.html).\n\n[Thousands died in decades of sectarian strife](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/04\/world\/europe\/northern-ireland-troubles.html) there before a peace process in the 1990s, and both sides in the Brexit talks made it a priority to avoid reimposing border checks. They [struck a deal](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/10\/24\/world\/europe\/northern-ireland-brexit.html) that the region would keep following many European rules, so trucks could cross the Irish border freely, with [new paperwork](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/01\/27\/world\/europe\/truckers-uk-ports-brexit.html) for goods moving between Northern Ireland and the rest of the United Kingdom.\n\nThe changes have prompted British companies to limit distribution there. Britain has indefinitely delayed some checks, as part of a back-and-forth that led Brussels to [begin](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/03\/15\/world\/europe\/northern-island-great-britain.html) and then later [suspend](https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/commission\/presscorner\/detail\/en\/STATEMENT_21_4586) legal action.\n\nThe situation has contributed to a rise in sectarian tension, with [outbreaks of rioting](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/04\/12\/world\/europe\/Northern-Ireland-Brexit-Covid-Troubles.html) in the spring.\n\nMr. Johnson had [tense exchanges on the subject with President Emmanuel Macron of France](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/live\/2021\/06\/13\/world\/g7-summit#northern-ireland-uk-eu) at the Group of 7 summit in June, where President Biden is also said to have raised it privately.\n\nThe prime minister has said that this part of the Brexit agreement, [known as the Northern Ireland protocol](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/07\/21\/world\/europe\/northern-ireland-protocol-uk.html), might have to be abandoned if it cannot be rewritten. European officials said they [would seek creative solutions but would not renegotiate](https:\/\/twitter.com\/MarosSefcovic\/status\/1417897904975585282).\n\nImage\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/24\/world\/24what-is-brexit-explainer4\/merlin_171379200_08565b53-0a35-45af-a570-591f1a1a9c55-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nParliament in London. Euroskeptic lawmakers in Britain pushed for the country to leave the bloc’s single market and customs union.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\n## Scotland could make its own split.\nAlong with Northern Ireland, Scotland rejected Brexit in the 2016 referendum, with a vote of more than 60 percent to remain in the European Union. That stark divergence of opinion has [shaken the far older union between England and Scotland](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/05\/06\/world\/scotland-election-brexit-independence.html).\n\n[Scots voted against independence from Britain in a 2014 referendum](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2014\/09\/19\/world\/europe\/scotland-independence-vote.html), but the pro-independence Scottish National Party, or S.N.P., has dominated the Scottish Parliament for more than a decade. It has promised to legislate for a rerun, with Brexit as its justification. A reversal would cost Britain 8 percent of its population, a third of its landmass and significant international prestige.\n\nFor a new referendum to be legal, however, it would almost certainly need the agreement of London, and Mr. Johnson has repeatedly said no. Scottish elections in May left the S.N.P. [one seat short of a majority](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/05\/08\/world\/europe\/scotland-election-independence-sturgeon.html), but it has support from smaller pro-independence parties. If neither side backs down, the result could be [a court battle, or even a constitutional crisis](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/05\/08\/world\/europe\/brexit-scotland-independence.html).\n\nImage\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/24\/world\/24what-is-brexit-explainer3\/merlin_170437887_1845666d-63f6-4599-a5eb-b504aa1175df-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nFishing rights were among the most stubborn sticking points in the negotiations for Britain’s leaving the bloc’s single market and customs union.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\n## Fishing remains a sore point.\nBritain’s fishing fleet is a small fraction of the size it reached in the middle of the last century — a decline for which Brexit proponents have long blamed E.U. rules on sharing access to fisheries.\n\nThe British government cast its split from the European Union as a chance to revive an industry that was also [a storied way of life](https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/radio2\/radioballads\/original\/singingthefishing.shtml).\n\nIn the trade deal negotiations, both sides had to compromise: E.U. boats kept more rights in British waters than Britain had demanded, but over a shorter period than Brussels had called for. Tensions are still high: France [detained a British trawler](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/10\/28\/world\/europe\/france-detains-british-boat.html) in October, citing a dispute over licenses for dozens of French vessels. And in May, Britain [sent Royal Navy ships](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/05\/06\/world\/europe\/ships-france-uk-fishing.html) in response to a protest blockade by French fishing boats off the semiautonomous island of Jersey.\n\nThat may not help British fishing companies, which long sold much of their catch in Europe. Some seafood exporters say delays from new checks could [drive them out of business](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/01\/13\/world\/europe\/scotland-seafood-brexit-.html).\n\n## What’s next?\nFor bankers, traders, truckers, architects and millions of migrants, the Dec. 24 trade agreement was only the beginning of a high-stakes and unpredictable experiment.\n\nBritain has been short of customs agents to deal with the tens of millions of declarations now needed, industry experts said. It has repeatedly [delayed some of its own new border checks](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/03\/11\/world\/europe\/britain-brexit-border-checks.html), with several deadlines [pushed to July 2022](https:\/\/questions-statements.parliament.uk\/written-statements\/detail\/2021-09-14\/hcws285).\n\nIn the four years after Britain’s referendum, the number of Europeans migrating to the country for work plunged, and British companies sent employees to Paris, Dublin or Frankfurt. The number of jobs that will be relocated, or created in different places, is still becoming clear.\n\nBut already, many British businesses say they are [struggling to fill positions](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/09\/13\/business\/britain-unfilled-jobs-crisis.html) that might once have been taken by E.U. workers, presenting a risk to Britain’s pandemic recovery. [A lack of truck drivers](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/08\/26\/business\/britain-truck-driver-shortage.html), echoed in other countries but exacerbated by Brexit, has caused passing shortages of a bewildering range of items including [Nando’s chicken](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/08\/20\/world\/europe\/nandos-chicken-shortage-closures-britain.html) and Haribo sweets.\n\nAnd the future of some E.U. citizens in Britain remains uncertain. More than two million have been granted “settled status,” the right to stay indefinitely. But applications closed at the end of June, and the process has made few provisions for those unable to complete it online, much less for those who don’t realize they need permission to stay somewhere they have lived for decades.\n\nImage\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/11\/25\/business\/24what-is-brexit-explainer6\/merlin_179614221_28af5b7c-be57-488d-b30e-15d3315b1901-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nThe City of London, Britain’s financial hub. E.U. membership helped the capital cement its position as a global banking center.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\nStephen Castle and Mark Landler contributed reporting.\n\n[Benjamin Mueller](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/by\/benjamin-mueller) is a health and science reporter. Previously, he covered the coronavirus pandemic as a correspondent in London and the police in New York.\n\nA version of this article appears in print on May 10, 2021, Section A, Page 8 of the New York edition with the headline: With Brexit Done, Europe Begins a New Era of Trade. [Order Reprints](https:\/\/nytimes.wrightsmedia.com\/) \\| [Today’s Paper](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/todayspaper) \\| [Subscribe](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/subscriptions\/Multiproduct\/lp8HYKU.html?campaignId=48JQY)\n\nSee more on: [European Union](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/topic\/organization\/european-union)\n\n- Share full article\n\n## Related Content\n### [Brexit](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/news-event\/britain-brexit-european-union)\nNews and opinion about Britain’s exit from the European Union.\n\n- [Britain Rejoins E.U. Student Exchange Program That It Left After Brexit](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/12\/17\/world\/europe\/uk-eu-erasmus-scheme-students-brexit.html)\n  \n  ![Students taking part in the Erasmus exchange program arriving in Gdansk, Poland, in May 2019.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2025\/12\/17\/multimedia\/17int-uk-eu-students-013-bhqg\/17int-uk-eu-students-013-bhqg-thumbLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n- [Why the ‘Affordability Hoax’ Is a Trap for Trump](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/12\/09\/opinion\/trump-affordability-crisis-hoax.html)\n  \n  ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2025\/12\/09\/multimedia\/09edsall-bktc\/09edsall-bktc-thumbLarge-v2.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Photo Illustration by Daniel Stier for The New York Times\n- [Britain’s Struggles Are America’s Future](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/12\/08\/opinion\/brexit-tariffs-trump-uncertainty.html)\n  \n  Mark Power\/Magnum Photos\n\n### [More in Europe](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/world\/europe)\n- [Russians Shiver as War Worsens Underfunding of Heat and Power Systems](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/02\/27\/world\/europe\/russia-blackouts-heating-breakdowns.html)\n  \n  ![Murmansk, Russia, in 2023. The city has been plagued by power and heating outages this winter. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/27\/multimedia\/27int-russia-utility-breakdowns-01-wckh\/27int-russia-utility-breakdowns-01-wckh-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Nanna Heitmann for The New York Times\n- [Automakers’ Dilemma: Invest in New Tech or Stick to Gas Cars?](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/03\/business\/ford-gm-ev-self-driving-cars-china.html)\n  \n  ![A Ford Motor factory in Wayne, Mich. U.S. automakers are facing difficult choices.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/26\/multimedia\/00biz-auto-retrench-01-khvm\/00biz-auto-retrench-01-khvm-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Emily Elconin for The New York Times\n- [45 Years After Botched Coup, Spain Declassifies Files About Why It Failed](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/02\/25\/world\/europe\/spain-coup-1981-files-revealed.html)\n  \n  ![Lt. Col. Antonio Tejero Molina, with a pistol in his hand, attempting a coup at the Spanish Parliament on Feb. 23, 1981. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/25\/multimedia\/25spain-coup-01-vlkj\/25spain-coup-01-vlkj-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Bettmann, via Getty Images\n- [Greek Politician Is Prosecuted for Admitting Drug Use Decades Ago](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/02\/25\/world\/europe\/greek-politician-drug-charge.html)\n  \n  ![Yanis Varoufakis in 2015. He faces prosecution for admitting to using ecstasy 36 years ago.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/25\/multimedia\/25greece-1-hflw\/25greece-1-hflw-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Angelos Tzortzinis for The New York Times\n\n### Editors’ Picks\n- [A Crisis in the Alps: Airbnb, Climate Change and Americans](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/travel\/french-alps-problems-overdevelopment-climate-change.html)\n  \n  ![A view over the Chamonix valley from the Balme-Vallorcine ski area. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/25\/multimedia\/25-alps-skiing-development-bvwc\/25-alps-skiing-development-bvwc-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Alexandre Juillet\/Chamonix-Mont Blanc\n- [Our Favorite Living Rooms](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/02\/28\/t-magazine\/best-living-room-design.html)\n  \n  ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2023\/09\/21\/t-magazine\/21tmag-justinian-slide-JOO5-copy-copy\/21tmag-justinian-slide-JOO5-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Blaine Davis\n\n### Trending in The Times\n- [The Midterms Begin With a Texas-Size Showdown](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/03\/podcasts\/the-daily\/the-midterms-begin-with-a-texas-size-showdown.html)\n  \n  ![Candidates in the Texas Senate primary, from left: the state attorney general, Ken Paxton; Representative Jasmine Crockett; Senator John Cornyn; James Talarico, a state representative; and Representative Wesley Hunt.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/02\/podcasts\/02DAILY-tx-primaries\/02DAILY-tx-primaries-square640-v2.png?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Haiyun Jiang\/The NYT; Aaron Schwartz\/Getty; Kenny Holston\/The NYT; Pool photo by Bob Daemmrich; Julio Cortez\/AP\n- [Opinion: The Reason Gen Z Isn’t Dating](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/03\/opinion\/gen-z-dating-clavicular.html)\n  \n  ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/03\/opinion\/03emba\/03emba-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Janet Mac\n- [After ‘Priceless’ Violin Flies on Lap, Lufthansa Changes Carry-On Rules](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/travel\/musical-instruments-travel-accommodations.html)\n  \n  ![Carolin Widmann was boarding a plane with a Guadagnini violin, made in 1782, when she was instructed to take it out of its case. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/24\/multimedia\/00xp-instruments-widmann\/00xp-instruments-widmann-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Brill\/ullstein bild, via Getty Images\n- [Opinion: How to Think About Trump’s War With Iran](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/opinion\/trump-iran-war-future.html)\n  \n  ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/03\/multimedia\/02friedman-lvgk\/02friedman-lvgk-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Photo Illustration by Tam Stockton for The New York Times\n- [For Actually Good Chicken Breast, Try One of Our Top-Rated Recipes](https:\/\/cooking.nytimes.com\/article\/reader-favorite-boneless-chicken-breast-recipes)\n  \n  ![Yasmin Fahr’s honey-garlic chicken breasts.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/27\/multimedia\/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt\/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Christopher Testani for The New York Times. Food Stylist: Simon Andrews.\n- [An ‘American Gigolo’ in Milan](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/style\/armani-gere-gigolo.html)\n  \n  ![The Giorgio Arman exhibition at the Pinacoteca di Brera art museum in Milan.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/02\/multimedia\/02NL-FASHIONWEEK-milan-fczm\/02NL-FASHIONWEEK-milan-fczm-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Claudia Greco\/Reuters\n- [Parents Tried to Shield Their Children From Vaccines. Instead They Got Measles.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/03\/us\/politics\/south-carolina-measles-outbreak-vaccines.html)\n  \n  ![Uptake of the vaccine has been slow, like at this public health fair at The University of South Carolina School of Medicine in Greenville, S.C.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/03\/multimedia\/03nat-measles-southcarolina-01-kcqv\/03nat-measles-southcarolina-01-kcqv-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Kaoly Gutierrez for The New York Times\n- [Reporters Seek Comment. What Happens Next May Surprise You.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/insider\/journalism-reporting-seeking-comment.html)\n  \n  ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/21\/pageoneplus\/21insider-comment\/21insider-comment-square640.png?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Photo Illustration by Mel Haasch; Grace Cary\/Getty Images\n- [3 Victims of the Austin Bar Shooting Are Identified](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/us\/austin-bar-shooting-victims.html)\n  \n  ![A shooting occurred at Buford’s, a popular bar near the University of Texas at Austin campus, early on Sunday.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/02\/multimedia\/02nat-austin-victims-wjtb\/02nat-austin-victims-wjtb-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Tova Katzman for The New York Times\n- [Watch the Moon Turn Blood Red During a Total Lunar Eclipse](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2026\/03\/02\/science\/blood-moon-lunar-eclipse-time-when-tonight.html)\n  \n  ![To best view the phenomenon, NASA recommends finding a dark place away from bright lights. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/02\/multimedia\/02hs-blood-moon-ghfj\/02hs-blood-moon-ghfj-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Jiji Press\/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images\n\nAdvertisement\n\n[SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-bottom)\n\n## Site Index\n[Go to Home Page »](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/)\n\nNews\n\n- [Home Page](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/)\n- [U.S.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/us)\n- [World](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/world)\n- [Politics](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/politics)\n- [New York](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/nyregion)\n- [Education](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/education)\n- [Sports](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/sports)\n- [Business](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/business)\n- [Tech](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/technology)\n- [Science](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/science)\n- [Weather](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/weather)\n- [The Great Read](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/the-great-read)\n- [Obituaries](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/obituaries)\n- [Headway](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/headway)\n- [Visual Investigations](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/visual-investigations)\n- [The Magazine](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/magazine)\n\nArts\n\n- [Book Review](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/books\/review)\n- [Best Sellers Book List](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/books\/best-sellers\/)\n- [Dance](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/arts\/dance)\n- [Movies](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/movies)\n- [Music](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/arts\/music)\n- [Pop Culture](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/pop-culture)\n- [Television](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/arts\/television)\n- [Theater](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/theater)\n- [Visual Arts](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/arts\/design)\n\nLifestyle\n\n- [Health](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/health)\n- [Well](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/well)\n- [Food](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/food)\n- [Restaurant Reviews](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/reviews\/dining)\n- [Love](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/fashion\/weddings)\n- [Travel](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/travel)\n- [Style](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/style)\n- [Fashion](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/fashion)\n- [Real Estate](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/realestate)\n- [T Magazine](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/t-magazine)\n\nOpinion\n\n- [Today's Opinion](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion)\n- [Columnists](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/columnists)\n- [Editorials](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/editorials)\n- [Guest Essays](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/contributors)\n- [Op-Docs](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/column\/op-docs)\n- [Letters](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/letters)\n- [Sunday Opinion](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/sunday)\n- [Opinion Video](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/opinion-video)\n- [Opinion Audio](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/series\/opinion-audio)\n\nMore\n\n- [Audio](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/podcasts)\n- [Games](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/crosswords)\n- [Cooking](https:\/\/cooking.nytimes.com\/)\n- [Wirecutter](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/wirecutter\/)\n- [The Athletic](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/athletic\/)\n- [Jobs](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/jobs)\n- [Video](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/video)\n- [Graphics](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/graphics)\n- [Trending](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/trending\/)\n- [Live Events](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/nyt-events)\n- [Corrections](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/corrections)\n- [Reader Center](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/reader-center)\n- [TimesMachine](https:\/\/timesmachine.nytimes.com\/browser)\n- [The Learning Network](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/learning)\n- [School of The NYT](https:\/\/nytedu.com\/)\n- [inEducation](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/nytimesineducation)\n\n### News\n- [Home Page](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/)\n- [U.S.](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/us)\n- [World](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/world)\n- [Politics](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/politics)\n- [New York](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/nyregion)\n- [Education](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/education)\n- [Sports](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/sports)\n- [Business](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/business)\n- [Tech](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/technology)\n- [Science](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/science)\n- [Weather](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/weather)\n- [The Great Read](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/the-great-read)\n- [Obituaries](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/obituaries)\n- [Headway](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/headway)\n- [Visual Investigations](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/visual-investigations)\n- [The Magazine](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/magazine)\n\n### Arts\n- [Book Review](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/books\/review)\n- [Best Sellers Book List](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/books\/best-sellers\/)\n- [Dance](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/arts\/dance)\n- [Movies](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/movies)\n- [Music](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/arts\/music)\n- [Pop Culture](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/pop-culture)\n- [Television](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/arts\/television)\n- [Theater](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/theater)\n- [Visual Arts](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/arts\/design)\n\n### Lifestyle\n- [Health](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/health)\n- [Well](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/well)\n- [Food](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/food)\n- [Restaurant Reviews](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/reviews\/dining)\n- [Love](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/fashion\/weddings)\n- [Travel](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/travel)\n- [Style](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/style)\n- [Fashion](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/fashion)\n- [Real Estate](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/realestate)\n- [T Magazine](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/t-magazine)\n\n### Opinion\n- [Today's Opinion](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion)\n- [Columnists](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/columnists)\n- [Editorials](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/editorials)\n- [Guest Essays](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/contributors)\n- [Op-Docs](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/column\/op-docs)\n- [Letters](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/letters)\n- [Sunday Opinion](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/opinion\/sunday)\n- [Opinion Video](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/opinion-video)\n- [Opinion Audio](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/series\/opinion-audio)\n\n### More\n- [Audio](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/podcasts)\n- [Games](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/crosswords)\n- [Cooking](https:\/\/cooking.nytimes.com\/)\n- [Wirecutter](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/wirecutter\/)\n- [The Athletic](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/athletic\/)\n- [Jobs](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/jobs)\n- [Video](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/video)\n- [Graphics](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/graphics)\n- [Trending](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/trending\/)\n- [Live Events](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/nyt-events)\n- [Corrections](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/corrections)\n- [Reader Center](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/reader-center)\n- [TimesMachine](https:\/\/timesmachine.nytimes.com\/browser)\n- [The Learning Network](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/learning)\n- [School of The NYT](https:\/\/nytedu.com\/)\n- [inEducation](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/spotlight\/nytimesineducation)\n\n### Account\n- [Subscribe](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/subscription)\n- [Manage My Account](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/account)\n- [Home Delivery](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/subscription\/home-delivery)\n- [Gift Subscriptions](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/gift)\n\n- [Group Subscriptions](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/subscription\/groups?Pardot_Campaign_Code_Form_Input=89FQX)\n- [Gift Articles](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/gift-articles)\n- [Email Newsletters](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/newsletters)\n\n- [NYT Licensing](https:\/\/nytlicensing.com\/)\n- [Replica Edition](https:\/\/nytimes.pressreader.com\/)\n- [Times Store](https:\/\/store.nytimes.com\/)\n\n## Site Information Navigation\n- [© 2026 The New York Times Company](https:\/\/help.nytimes.com\/hc\/en-us\/articles\/115014792127-Copyright-Notice)\n\n- [NYTCo](https:\/\/www.nytco.com\/)\n- [Contact Us](https:\/\/help.nytimes.com\/hc\/en-us\/articles\/115015385887-Contact-The-New-York-Times)\n- [Accessibility](https:\/\/help.nytimes.com\/hc\/en-us\/articles\/115015727108-Accessibility)\n- [Work with us](https:\/\/www.nytco.com\/careers\/)\n- [Advertise](https:\/\/advertising.nytimes.com\/)\n- [T Brand Studio](https:\/\/advertising.nytimes.com\/custom-content\/)\n- [Privacy Policy](https:\/\/help.nytimes.com\/hc\/en-us\/articles\/10940941449492-The-New-York-Times-Company-Privacy-Policy)\n- [Cookie Policy](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/privacy\/cookie-policy)\n- [Terms of Service](https:\/\/help.nytimes.com\/hc\/en-us\/articles\/115014893428-Terms-of-Service)\n- [Terms of Sale](https:\/\/help.nytimes.com\/hc\/en-us\/articles\/115014893968-Terms-of-Sale)\n- [Site Map](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/sitemap\/)\n- [Canada](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/ca\/)\n- [International](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/international\/)\n- [Help](https:\/\/help.nytimes.com\/hc\/en-us)\n- [Subscriptions](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/subscription?campaignId=37WXW)","attrs_readable_markdown":"Advertisement\n\n[SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-top)\n\nAlmost a year after it took full effect, the consequences of Britain’s split from the European Union are still unfolding. Here is a guide to what it means, how it came about and what the future may hold.\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/24\/world\/24what-is-brexit-explainer1\/merlin_168182259_bc34af0e-bb4d-4fda-818b-1e9b11af5a43-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nCelebrating in London in January 2020 as Britain officially left the European Union. A transition period ran until the end of 2020.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\nNov. 8, 2021\n\nBritain broke from the European Union’s regulatory orbit on Jan. 1, casting off nearly a half-century inside the bloc and embarking on what analysts described as the biggest overnight change in modern commercial relations between countries.\n\nFar from closing the book on Britain’s tumultuous relationship with the rest of Europe, the split, known as [Brexit](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/11\/08\/world\/europe\/uk-brexit-estonia-business.html), has opened a new chapter — one that could reshape not only the country’s economy, foreign policy and politics, but even its borders.\n\nPrime Minister Boris Johnson speaks of creating a more agile “Global Britain,” with stronger ties to the United States and other democracies, like Australia, India and South Korea.\n\nBut [while that plan has hit setbacks](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/09\/15\/world\/europe\/boris-johnson-cabinet-reshuffle.html), risks from the new dispensation have quickly become evident, including on empty supermarket shelves as the country struggles with a shortage of truck drivers.\n\nAnd arrangements for the sensitive territory of Northern Ireland have fueled rioting and diplomatic tensions.\n\n## Let’s start with the basics.\nWhy “Brexit”?\n\nA portmanteau of the words Britain and exit, Brexit caught on as shorthand for the proposal that Britain leave the European Union and change its relationship with the bloc on trade, security and migration.\n\nBritain has debated the pros and cons of a club of European nations almost since the idea was broached, after World War II. It joined in 1973 — and held a referendum on whether to leave less than three years later. Then, 67 percent of voters supported staying.\n\nBut that was hardly the end of the argument.\n\nIn 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron [promised a new national referendum](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2013\/01\/24\/world\/europe\/cameron-britain-referendum-european-union.html?module=inline). The options were “remain” or “leave,” and Mr. Cameron was convinced that “remain” would win easily.\n\nImage\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/24\/world\/24what-is-brexit-explainer2\/merlin_181442682_5c0494fb-f838-4893-b7f2-008014811726-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nTrucks waiting to enter the Port of Dover in England in December 2020. Increased border controls raised concerns about long backups.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\n## Leaving is a big deal economically.\nEurope has been Britain’s most important export market and its biggest source of foreign investment, and E.U. membership helped London cement its position as a global financial center.\n\nFor decades, British companies could move goods to and from the European Union without taxes or tariffs. People could move freely, too.\n\nBut as 2021 began, business changed for many — including British [automakers](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/01\/26\/business\/british-auto-industry-brexit.html), who rely on suppliers across Europe, and [touring musicians](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/04\/20\/arts\/music\/peter-grimes-teatro-real-brexit.html), who suddenly faced a thicket of visa rules.\n\nThe agreement that London and Brussels reached late in 2020 avoided tariffs or quotas on goods. But traders still confronted new paperwork and unpredictable delays, sometimes resulting in [rotting cargoes](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/02\/12\/world\/europe\/brexit-britain-trade.html).\n\nAnd the services sector — about [80 percent](https:\/\/commonslibrary.parliament.uk\/research-briefings\/sn02786\/) or more of British economic activity, comprising not only the financial industry, but also lawyers, architects, consultants and others — was left dependent on patchwork decisions by European regulators.\n\nBritain’s [Office for Budget Responsibility](https:\/\/obr.uk\/efo\/economic-and-fiscal-outlook-october-2021\/), an independent official body, says trade with the European Union took a sharp hit in January and remained 15 percent down in August, even as business with other countries began to recover from pandemic effects. It estimates that [Britain’s economy will be 4 percent less productive](https:\/\/obr.uk\/forecasts-in-depth\/the-economy-forecast\/brexit-analysis\/#assumptions) than it would have been inside the bloc.\n\n## Brexit’s supporters say their aim is a ‘Global Britain.’\nOpponents of Brexit describe it as an attempt to reclaim an imagined Britain of the past, one with [fewer European migrants](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/06\/17\/world\/europe\/pandemic-brexit-uk.html) and [more patriotic singing](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/09\/02\/world\/europe\/bbc-proms-johnson.html). But Mr. Johnson, like many prominent proponents, often presents it as [a way of embracing change](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/02\/01\/world\/europe\/brexit-britain.html).\n\nImage\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/24\/world\/24what-is-brexit-explainer4\/merlin_171379200_08565b53-0a35-45af-a570-591f1a1a9c55-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nParliament in London. Euroskeptic lawmakers in Britain pushed for the country to leave the bloc’s single market and customs union.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\n## Scotland could make its own split.\nAlong with Northern Ireland, Scotland rejected Brexit in the 2016 referendum, with a vote of more than 60 percent to remain in the European Union. That stark divergence of opinion has [shaken the far older union between England and Scotland](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/05\/06\/world\/scotland-election-brexit-independence.html).\n\n[Scots voted against independence from Britain in a 2014 referendum](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2014\/09\/19\/world\/europe\/scotland-independence-vote.html), but the pro-independence Scottish National Party, or S.N.P., has dominated the Scottish Parliament for more than a decade. It has promised to legislate for a rerun, with Brexit as its justification. A reversal would cost Britain 8 percent of its population, a third of its landmass and significant international prestige.\n\nFor a new referendum to be legal, however, it would almost certainly need the agreement of London, and Mr. Johnson has repeatedly said no. Scottish elections in May left the S.N.P. [one seat short of a majority](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/05\/08\/world\/europe\/scotland-election-independence-sturgeon.html), but it has support from smaller pro-independence parties. If neither side backs down, the result could be [a court battle, or even a constitutional crisis](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/05\/08\/world\/europe\/brexit-scotland-independence.html).\n\nImage\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/12\/24\/world\/24what-is-brexit-explainer3\/merlin_170437887_1845666d-63f6-4599-a5eb-b504aa1175df-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nFishing rights were among the most stubborn sticking points in the negotiations for Britain’s leaving the bloc’s single market and customs union.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\n## Fishing remains a sore point.\nBritain’s fishing fleet is a small fraction of the size it reached in the middle of the last century — a decline for which Brexit proponents have long blamed E.U. rules on sharing access to fisheries.\n\nThe British government cast its split from the European Union as a chance to revive an industry that was also [a storied way of life](https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/radio2\/radioballads\/original\/singingthefishing.shtml).\n\nIn the trade deal negotiations, both sides had to compromise: E.U. boats kept more rights in British waters than Britain had demanded, but over a shorter period than Brussels had called for. Tensions are still high: France [detained a British trawler](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/10\/28\/world\/europe\/france-detains-british-boat.html) in October, citing a dispute over licenses for dozens of French vessels. And in May, Britain [sent Royal Navy ships](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/05\/06\/world\/europe\/ships-france-uk-fishing.html) in response to a protest blockade by French fishing boats off the semiautonomous island of Jersey.\n\nThat may not help British fishing companies, which long sold much of their catch in Europe. Some seafood exporters say delays from new checks could [drive them out of business](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/01\/13\/world\/europe\/scotland-seafood-brexit-.html).\n\n## What’s next?\nFor bankers, traders, truckers, architects and millions of migrants, the Dec. 24 trade agreement was only the beginning of a high-stakes and unpredictable experiment.\n\nBritain has been short of customs agents to deal with the tens of millions of declarations now needed, industry experts said. It has repeatedly [delayed some of its own new border checks](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/03\/11\/world\/europe\/britain-brexit-border-checks.html), with several deadlines [pushed to July 2022](https:\/\/questions-statements.parliament.uk\/written-statements\/detail\/2021-09-14\/hcws285).\n\nIn the four years after Britain’s referendum, the number of Europeans migrating to the country for work plunged, and British companies sent employees to Paris, Dublin or Frankfurt. The number of jobs that will be relocated, or created in different places, is still becoming clear.\n\nBut already, many British businesses say they are [struggling to fill positions](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/09\/13\/business\/britain-unfilled-jobs-crisis.html) that might once have been taken by E.U. workers, presenting a risk to Britain’s pandemic recovery. [A lack of truck drivers](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/08\/26\/business\/britain-truck-driver-shortage.html), echoed in other countries but exacerbated by Brexit, has caused passing shortages of a bewildering range of items including [Nando’s chicken](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2021\/08\/20\/world\/europe\/nandos-chicken-shortage-closures-britain.html) and Haribo sweets.\n\nAnd the future of some E.U. citizens in Britain remains uncertain. More than two million have been granted “settled status,” the right to stay indefinitely. But applications closed at the end of June, and the process has made few provisions for those unable to complete it online, much less for those who don’t realize they need permission to stay somewhere they have lived for decades.\n\nImage\n\n![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2020\/11\/25\/business\/24what-is-brexit-explainer6\/merlin_179614221_28af5b7c-be57-488d-b30e-15d3315b1901-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n\nThe City of London, Britain’s financial hub. E.U. membership helped the capital cement its position as a global banking center.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n\nStephen Castle and Mark Landler contributed reporting.\n\n[Benjamin Mueller](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/by\/benjamin-mueller) is a health and science reporter. Previously, he covered the coronavirus pandemic as a correspondent in London and the police in New York.\n\nA version of this article appears in print on May 10, 2021, Section A, Page 8 of the New York edition with the headline: With Brexit Done, Europe Begins a New Era of Trade. [Order Reprints](https:\/\/nytimes.wrightsmedia.com\/) \\| [Today’s Paper](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/todayspaper) \\| [Subscribe](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/subscriptions\/Multiproduct\/lp8HYKU.html?campaignId=48JQY)\n\n## Related Content\n[Brexit](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/news-event\/britain-brexit-european-union)\n\nNews and opinion about Britain’s exit from the European Union.\n\n- ![Students taking part in the Erasmus exchange program arriving in Gdansk, Poland, in May 2019.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2025\/12\/17\/multimedia\/17int-uk-eu-students-013-bhqg\/17int-uk-eu-students-013-bhqg-thumbLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Andrew Testa for The New York Times\n- ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2025\/12\/09\/multimedia\/09edsall-bktc\/09edsall-bktc-thumbLarge-v2.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Photo Illustration by Daniel Stier for The New York Times\n- Mark Power\/Magnum Photos\n\n[More in Europe](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/section\/world\/europe)\n\n- ![Murmansk, Russia, in 2023. The city has been plagued by power and heating outages this winter. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/27\/multimedia\/27int-russia-utility-breakdowns-01-wckh\/27int-russia-utility-breakdowns-01-wckh-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Nanna Heitmann for The New York Times\n- ![A Ford Motor factory in Wayne, Mich. U.S. automakers are facing difficult choices.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/26\/multimedia\/00biz-auto-retrench-01-khvm\/00biz-auto-retrench-01-khvm-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Emily Elconin for The New York Times\n- ![Lt. Col. Antonio Tejero Molina, with a pistol in his hand, attempting a coup at the Spanish Parliament on Feb. 23, 1981. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/25\/multimedia\/25spain-coup-01-vlkj\/25spain-coup-01-vlkj-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Bettmann, via Getty Images\n- ![Yanis Varoufakis in 2015. He faces prosecution for admitting to using ecstasy 36 years ago.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/25\/multimedia\/25greece-1-hflw\/25greece-1-hflw-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Angelos Tzortzinis for The New York Times\n\nEditors’ Picks\n\n- ![A view over the Chamonix valley from the Balme-Vallorcine ski area. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/25\/multimedia\/25-alps-skiing-development-bvwc\/25-alps-skiing-development-bvwc-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Alexandre Juillet\/Chamonix-Mont Blanc\n- ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2023\/09\/21\/t-magazine\/21tmag-justinian-slide-JOO5-copy-copy\/21tmag-justinian-slide-JOO5-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale)\n  \n  Blaine Davis\n\nTrending in The Times\n\n- ![Candidates in the Texas Senate primary, from left: the state attorney general, Ken Paxton; Representative Jasmine Crockett; Senator John Cornyn; James Talarico, a state representative; and Representative Wesley Hunt.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/02\/podcasts\/02DAILY-tx-primaries\/02DAILY-tx-primaries-square640-v2.png?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Haiyun Jiang\/The NYT; Aaron Schwartz\/Getty; Kenny Holston\/The NYT; Pool photo by Bob Daemmrich; Julio Cortez\/AP\n- ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/03\/opinion\/03emba\/03emba-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Janet Mac\n- ![Carolin Widmann was boarding a plane with a Guadagnini violin, made in 1782, when she was instructed to take it out of its case. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/24\/multimedia\/00xp-instruments-widmann\/00xp-instruments-widmann-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Brill\/ullstein bild, via Getty Images\n- ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/03\/multimedia\/02friedman-lvgk\/02friedman-lvgk-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Photo Illustration by Tam Stockton for The New York Times\n- ![Yasmin Fahr’s honey-garlic chicken breasts.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/27\/multimedia\/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt\/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Christopher Testani for The New York Times. Food Stylist: Simon Andrews.\n- ![The Giorgio Arman exhibition at the Pinacoteca di Brera art museum in Milan.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/02\/multimedia\/02NL-FASHIONWEEK-milan-fczm\/02NL-FASHIONWEEK-milan-fczm-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Claudia Greco\/Reuters\n- ![Uptake of the vaccine has been slow, like at this public health fair at The University of South Carolina School of Medicine in Greenville, S.C.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/03\/multimedia\/03nat-measles-southcarolina-01-kcqv\/03nat-measles-southcarolina-01-kcqv-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Kaoly Gutierrez for The New York Times\n- ![](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/02\/21\/pageoneplus\/21insider-comment\/21insider-comment-square640.png?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Photo Illustration by Mel Haasch; Grace Cary\/Getty Images\n- ![A shooting occurred at Buford’s, a popular bar near the University of Texas at Austin campus, early on Sunday.](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/02\/multimedia\/02nat-austin-victims-wjtb\/02nat-austin-victims-wjtb-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Tova Katzman for The New York Times\n- ![To best view the phenomenon, NASA recommends finding a dark place away from bright lights. ](https:\/\/static01.nyt.com\/images\/2026\/03\/02\/multimedia\/02hs-blood-moon-ghfj\/02hs-blood-moon-ghfj-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350)\n  \n  Jiji Press\/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images\n\nAdvertisement\n\n[SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/article\/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-bottom)","meta_canonical":null}

3. Robots.txt Check

Query:

Response:

4. Spam/Ban Check

Query:

Response:

5. Seen Status Check

ℹ️ Skipped - page is already crawled

📄

INDEXABLE

✅

CRAWLED

1 month ago

🤖

ROBOTS ALLOWED

Page Info Filters

Filter	Status	Condition	Details
HTTP status	PASS	`download_http_code = 200`	HTTP 200
Age cutoff	PASS	`download_stamp > now() - 6 MONTH`	1.1 months ago
History drop	PASS	`isNull(history_drop_reason)`	No drop reason
Spam/ban	PASS	`fh_dont_index != 1 AND ml_spam_score = 0`	ml_spam_score=0
Canonical	PASS	`meta_canonical IS NULL OR = '' OR = src_unparsed`	Not set

Page Details

Property	Value
URL	https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html
Last Crawled	2026-03-03 13:56:08 (1 month ago)
First Indexed	2021-01-05 07:13:06 (5 years ago)
HTTP Status Code	200
Meta Title	What Is Brexit? Updates on Britain's Split From E.U. - The New York Times
Meta Description	Almost a year after it took full effect, the consequences of Britain’s split from the European Union are still unfolding. Here is a guide to what it means, how it came about and what the future may hold.
Meta Canonical	null
Boilerpipe Text	Advertisement SKIP ADVERTISEMENT Almost a year after it took full effect, the consequences of Britain’s split from the European Union are still unfolding. Here is a guide to what it means, how it came about and what the future may hold. Celebrating in London in January 2020 as Britain officially left the European Union. A transition period ran until the end of 2020. Credit... Andrew Testa for The New York Times Nov. 8, 2021 Britain broke from the European Union’s regulatory orbit on Jan. 1, casting off nearly a half-century inside the bloc and embarking on what analysts described as the biggest overnight change in modern commercial relations between countries. Far from closing the book on Britain’s tumultuous relationship with the rest of Europe, the split, known as Brexit , has opened a new chapter — one that could reshape not only the country’s economy, foreign policy and politics, but even its borders. Prime Minister Boris Johnson speaks of creating a more agile “Global Britain,” with stronger ties to the United States and other democracies, like Australia, India and South Korea. But while that plan has hit setbacks , risks from the new dispensation have quickly become evident, including on empty supermarket shelves as the country struggles with a shortage of truck drivers. And arrangements for the sensitive territory of Northern Ireland have fueled rioting and diplomatic tensions. Let’s start with the basics. Why “Brexit”? A portmanteau of the words Britain and exit, Brexit caught on as shorthand for the proposal that Britain leave the European Union and change its relationship with the bloc on trade, security and migration. Britain has debated the pros and cons of a club of European nations almost since the idea was broached, after World War II. It joined in 1973 — and held a referendum on whether to leave less than three years later. Then, 67 percent of voters supported staying. But that was hardly the end of the argument. In 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron promised a new national referendum . The options were “remain” or “leave,” and Mr. Cameron was convinced that “remain” would win easily. Image Trucks waiting to enter the Port of Dover in England in December 2020. Increased border controls raised concerns about long backups. Credit... Andrew Testa for The New York Times Leaving is a big deal economically. Europe has been Britain’s most important export market and its biggest source of foreign investment, and E.U. membership helped London cement its position as a global financial center. For decades, British companies could move goods to and from the European Union without taxes or tariffs. People could move freely, too. But as 2021 began, business changed for many — including British automakers , who rely on suppliers across Europe, and touring musicians , who suddenly faced a thicket of visa rules. The agreement that London and Brussels reached late in 2020 avoided tariffs or quotas on goods. But traders still confronted new paperwork and unpredictable delays, sometimes resulting in rotting cargoes . And the services sector — about 80 percent or more of British economic activity, comprising not only the financial industry, but also lawyers, architects, consultants and others — was left dependent on patchwork decisions by European regulators. Britain’s Office for Budget Responsibility , an independent official body, says trade with the European Union took a sharp hit in January and remained 15 percent down in August, even as business with other countries began to recover from pandemic effects. It estimates that Britain’s economy will be 4 percent less productive than it would have been inside the bloc. Brexit’s supporters say their aim is a ‘Global Britain.’ Opponents of Brexit describe it as an attempt to reclaim an imagined Britain of the past, one with fewer European migrants and more patriotic singing . But Mr. Johnson, like many prominent proponents, often presents it as a way of embracing change . Image Parliament in London. Euroskeptic lawmakers in Britain pushed for the country to leave the bloc’s single market and customs union. Credit... Andrew Testa for The New York Times Scotland could make its own split. Along with Northern Ireland, Scotland rejected Brexit in the 2016 referendum, with a vote of more than 60 percent to remain in the European Union. That stark divergence of opinion has shaken the far older union between England and Scotland . Scots voted against independence from Britain in a 2014 referendum , but the pro-independence Scottish National Party, or S.N.P., has dominated the Scottish Parliament for more than a decade. It has promised to legislate for a rerun, with Brexit as its justification. A reversal would cost Britain 8 percent of its population, a third of its landmass and significant international prestige. For a new referendum to be legal, however, it would almost certainly need the agreement of London, and Mr. Johnson has repeatedly said no. Scottish elections in May left the S.N.P. one seat short of a majority , but it has support from smaller pro-independence parties. If neither side backs down, the result could be a court battle, or even a constitutional crisis . Image Fishing rights were among the most stubborn sticking points in the negotiations for Britain’s leaving the bloc’s single market and customs union. Credit... Andrew Testa for The New York Times Fishing remains a sore point. Britain’s fishing fleet is a small fraction of the size it reached in the middle of the last century — a decline for which Brexit proponents have long blamed E.U. rules on sharing access to fisheries. The British government cast its split from the European Union as a chance to revive an industry that was also a storied way of life . In the trade deal negotiations, both sides had to compromise: E.U. boats kept more rights in British waters than Britain had demanded, but over a shorter period than Brussels had called for. Tensions are still high: France detained a British trawler in October, citing a dispute over licenses for dozens of French vessels. And in May, Britain sent Royal Navy ships in response to a protest blockade by French fishing boats off the semiautonomous island of Jersey. That may not help British fishing companies, which long sold much of their catch in Europe. Some seafood exporters say delays from new checks could drive them out of business . What’s next? For bankers, traders, truckers, architects and millions of migrants, the Dec. 24 trade agreement was only the beginning of a high-stakes and unpredictable experiment. Britain has been short of customs agents to deal with the tens of millions of declarations now needed, industry experts said. It has repeatedly delayed some of its own new border checks , with several deadlines pushed to July 2022 . In the four years after Britain’s referendum, the number of Europeans migrating to the country for work plunged, and British companies sent employees to Paris, Dublin or Frankfurt. The number of jobs that will be relocated, or created in different places, is still becoming clear. But already, many British businesses say they are struggling to fill positions that might once have been taken by E.U. workers, presenting a risk to Britain’s pandemic recovery. A lack of truck drivers , echoed in other countries but exacerbated by Brexit, has caused passing shortages of a bewildering range of items including Nando’s chicken and Haribo sweets. And the future of some E.U. citizens in Britain remains uncertain. More than two million have been granted “settled status,” the right to stay indefinitely. But applications closed at the end of June, and the process has made few provisions for those unable to complete it online, much less for those who don’t realize they need permission to stay somewhere they have lived for decades. Image The City of London, Britain’s financial hub. E.U. membership helped the capital cement its position as a global banking center. Credit... Andrew Testa for The New York Times Stephen Castle and Mark Landler contributed reporting. Benjamin Mueller is a health and science reporter. Previously, he covered the coronavirus pandemic as a correspondent in London and the police in New York. A version of this article appears in print on May 10, 2021 , Section A, Page 8 of the New York edition with the headline: With Brexit Done, Europe Begins a New Era of Trade . Order Reprints \| Today’s Paper \| Subscribe Related Content Brexit News and opinion about Britain’s exit from the European Union. Andrew Testa for The New York Times Photo Illustration by Daniel Stier for The New York Times Mark Power/Magnum Photos More in Europe Nanna Heitmann for The New York Times Emily Elconin for The New York Times Bettmann, via Getty Images Angelos Tzortzinis for The New York Times Editors’ Picks Alexandre Juillet/Chamonix-Mont Blanc Blaine Davis Trending in The Times Haiyun Jiang/The NYT; Aaron Schwartz/Getty; Kenny Holston/The NYT; Pool photo by Bob Daemmrich; Julio Cortez/AP Janet Mac Brill/ullstein bild, via Getty Images Photo Illustration by Tam Stockton for The New York Times Christopher Testani for The New York Times. Food Stylist: Simon Andrews. Claudia Greco/Reuters Kaoly Gutierrez for The New York Times Photo Illustration by Mel Haasch; Grace Cary/Getty Images Tova Katzman for The New York Times Jiji Press/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images Advertisement SKIP ADVERTISEMENT
Markdown	[Skip to content](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#site-content)[Skip to site index](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#site-index) Search & Section Navigation Section Navigation Search [Europe](https://www.nytimes.com/section/world/europe) [Log in](https://myaccount.nytimes.com/auth/login?response_type=cookie&client_id=vi&redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fsubscription%2Fonboarding-offer%3FcampaignId%3D7JFJX%26EXIT_URI%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.nytimes.com%252Farticle%252Fbrexit-uk-eu-explained.html&asset=masthead) Tuesday, March 3, 2026 [Today’s Paper](https://www.nytimes.com/section/todayspaper) Global Economy - [Natural Gas Prices Surge](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/business/natural-gas-prices-qatar-europe-asia.html) - [Stocks Fall](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/01/business/stock-market-iran-war-fallout.html) - [Oil Prices Jump](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/01/business/energy-environment/iran-war-oil-prices.html) - [Airline Stocks Tumble](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/business/airline-stocks-iran-attacks.html) - [Asia’s New Energy Threat](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/business/us-iran-china-japan-energy.html) - [India’s Growth](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/27/business/india-economy-gdp.html) - [Unreliable Indicators](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/03/business/economy/global-economy-forecasts.html) Advertisement [SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-top) Supported by [SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-sponsor) # What Is Brexit? And How Is It Going? Almost a year after it took full effect, the consequences of Britain’s split from the European Union are still unfolding. Here is a guide to what it means, how it came about and what the future may hold. - Share full article ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/12/24/world/24what-is-brexit-explainer1/merlin_168182259_bc34af0e-bb4d-4fda-818b-1e9b11af5a43-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Celebrating in London in January 2020 as Britain officially left the European Union. A transition period ran until the end of 2020.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times By [Benjamin Mueller](https://www.nytimes.com/by/benjamin-mueller) and Peter Robins Nov. 8, 2021 [Leer en español](https://www.nytimes.com/es/2020/12/24/espanol/brexit-union-europea.html "Read in Spanish") Britain broke from the European Union’s regulatory orbit on Jan. 1, casting off nearly a half-century inside the bloc and embarking on what analysts described as the biggest overnight change in modern commercial relations between countries. Far from closing the book on Britain’s tumultuous relationship with the rest of Europe, the split, known as [Brexit](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/08/world/europe/uk-brexit-estonia-business.html), has opened a new chapter — one that could reshape not only the country’s economy, foreign policy and politics, but even its borders. Prime Minister Boris Johnson speaks of creating a more agile “Global Britain,” with stronger ties to the United States and other democracies, like Australia, India and South Korea. But [while that plan has hit setbacks](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/15/world/europe/boris-johnson-cabinet-reshuffle.html), risks from the new dispensation have quickly become evident, including on empty supermarket shelves as the country struggles with a shortage of truck drivers. And arrangements for the sensitive territory of Northern Ireland have fueled rioting and diplomatic tensions. ### Here’s what you need to know: - [Let’s start with the basics.](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-5577c4ce) - [Leaving is a big deal economically.](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-5ad10db6) - [Brexit’s supporters say their aim is a ‘Global Britain.’](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-3c762cd) - [In Northern Ireland, Brexit is waking old demons.](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-623c8787) - [Scotland could make its own split.](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-12f00660) - [Fishing remains a sore point.](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-51403d3d) - [What’s next?](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#link-b30f02b) ## Let’s start with the basics. Why “Brexit”? A portmanteau of the words Britain and exit, Brexit caught on as shorthand for the proposal that Britain leave the European Union and change its relationship with the bloc on trade, security and migration. Britain has debated the pros and cons of a club of European nations almost since the idea was broached, after World War II. It joined in 1973 — and held a referendum on whether to leave less than three years later. Then, 67 percent of voters supported staying. But that was hardly the end of the argument. In 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron [promised a new national referendum](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/24/world/europe/cameron-britain-referendum-european-union.html?module=inline). The options were “remain” or “leave,” and Mr. Cameron was convinced that “remain” would win easily. ## Editors’ Picks [![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/01/nyregion/01diary-illos-1/01diary-illos-1-thumbLarge.jpg)‘He Opened the Safe and Took Out All the Cash That Was There’](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/01/nyregion/metropolitan-diary.html) [![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/27/multimedia/27FD-KOMOLAFE-Cameroon-Eru-promo-phlt/27FD-KOMOLAFE-Cameroon-Eru-promo-phlt-thumbLarge.jpg)A Lesson in Transforming the Bitter Into the Sweet](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/27/dining/cameroon-eru-soup-stew-recipe.html) [![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/27/multimedia/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt-thumbLarge.jpg)For Actually Good Chicken Breast, Try One of Our Top-Rated Recipes](https://cooking.nytimes.com/article/reader-favorite-boneless-chicken-breast-recipes) Advertisement [SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-pp_edpick) But by the time of the vote on June 23, 2016, a refugee crisis had made migration a subject of political rage across Europe. After an acrimonious campaign, in which the “leave” side was criticized as [pushing misleading and contradictory messages](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/27/world/europe/having-won-some-brexit-campaigners-begin-backpedaling.html) and later [accused of breaking election rules](https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/media-centre/vote-leave-fined-and-referred-police-breaking-electoral-law), withdrawal from the European Union emerged with the support of 52 percent of voters. Image ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/12/24/world/24what-is-brexit-explainer2/merlin_181442682_5c0494fb-f838-4893-b7f2-008014811726-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Trucks waiting to enter the Port of Dover in England in December 2020. Increased border controls raised concerns about long backups.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times ## Leaving is a big deal economically. Europe has been Britain’s most important export market and its biggest source of foreign investment, and E.U. membership helped London cement its position as a global financial center. For decades, British companies could move goods to and from the European Union without taxes or tariffs. People could move freely, too. But as 2021 began, business changed for many — including British [automakers](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/26/business/british-auto-industry-brexit.html), who rely on suppliers across Europe, and [touring musicians](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/20/arts/music/peter-grimes-teatro-real-brexit.html), who suddenly faced a thicket of visa rules. The agreement that London and Brussels reached late in 2020 avoided tariffs or quotas on goods. But traders still confronted new paperwork and unpredictable delays, sometimes resulting in [rotting cargoes](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/12/world/europe/brexit-britain-trade.html). And the services sector — about [80 percent](https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn02786/) or more of British economic activity, comprising not only the financial industry, but also lawyers, architects, consultants and others — was left dependent on patchwork decisions by European regulators. Britain’s [Office for Budget Responsibility](https://obr.uk/efo/economic-and-fiscal-outlook-october-2021/), an independent official body, says trade with the European Union took a sharp hit in January and remained 15 percent down in August, even as business with other countries began to recover from pandemic effects. It estimates that [Britain’s economy will be 4 percent less productive](https://obr.uk/forecasts-in-depth/the-economy-forecast/brexit-analysis/#assumptions) than it would have been inside the bloc. ## Brexit’s supporters say their aim is a ‘Global Britain.’ Opponents of Brexit describe it as an attempt to reclaim an imagined Britain of the past, one with [fewer European migrants](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/17/world/europe/pandemic-brexit-uk.html) and [more patriotic singing](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/02/world/europe/bbc-proms-johnson.html). But Mr. Johnson, like many prominent proponents, often presents it as [a way of embracing change](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/01/world/europe/brexit-britain.html). Outside the E.U. single market, with its shared regulations, Britain can set rules to encourage innovation, although the deal permits either side to seek redress for regulatory changes that might create an unfair advantage. Outside the bloc’s customs union, with its common tariffs, Britain can seek trade deals with countries such as India and the United States. It signed [a major trade deal with Australia](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/15/business/britain-australia-trade-deal.html) in June. Some Brexit supporters also argue that ending free migration for European Union citizens will allow more flexibility for others — a case that [resonated in British Asian communities](https://ukandeu.ac.uk/inside-the-british-asian-brexit-vote-and-why-it-contains-a-few-surprises/) during the referendum campaign. When China imposed a security law last year on Hong Kong, Mr. Johnson [offered British residency rights](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/03/world/europe/boris-johnson-uk-hong-kong-china.html) to three million people in the city, though [without helping them leave](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/03/world/europe/johnson-brexit-hong-kong.html). [A British agreement alongside the United States](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/15/us/politics/biden-australia-britain-china.html) in September to help Australia deploy nuclear submarines was hailed by Brexit supporters as a success for the new approach. It also [upset an Australian defense deal with France](https://www.reuters.com/world/us-move-dislodge-france-australia-submarine-deal-is-incoherent-french-ministers-2021-09-15/), striking a blow in [a rivalry that Brexit has sharpened](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/04/world/europe/brexit-britain-france-johnson-macron.html). But most benefits of a Global Britain so far remain theoretical. The Office for Budget Responsibility has said it expects barely any effect from new trade deals. ## In Northern Ireland, Brexit is waking old demons. Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom, has the country’s only land border with the European Union — [the politically delicate 310-mile frontier with the Republic of Ireland](https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/26/business/ireland-border-brexit.html). [Thousands died in decades of sectarian strife](https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/04/world/europe/northern-ireland-troubles.html) there before a peace process in the 1990s, and both sides in the Brexit talks made it a priority to avoid reimposing border checks. They [struck a deal](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/24/world/europe/northern-ireland-brexit.html) that the region would keep following many European rules, so trucks could cross the Irish border freely, with [new paperwork](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/world/europe/truckers-uk-ports-brexit.html) for goods moving between Northern Ireland and the rest of the United Kingdom. The changes have prompted British companies to limit distribution there. Britain has indefinitely delayed some checks, as part of a back-and-forth that led Brussels to [begin](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/15/world/europe/northern-island-great-britain.html) and then later [suspend](https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/STATEMENT_21_4586) legal action. The situation has contributed to a rise in sectarian tension, with [outbreaks of rioting](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/12/world/europe/Northern-Ireland-Brexit-Covid-Troubles.html) in the spring. Mr. Johnson had [tense exchanges on the subject with President Emmanuel Macron of France](https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/06/13/world/g7-summit#northern-ireland-uk-eu) at the Group of 7 summit in June, where President Biden is also said to have raised it privately. The prime minister has said that this part of the Brexit agreement, [known as the Northern Ireland protocol](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/21/world/europe/northern-ireland-protocol-uk.html), might have to be abandoned if it cannot be rewritten. European officials said they [would seek creative solutions but would not renegotiate](https://twitter.com/MarosSefcovic/status/1417897904975585282). Image ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/12/24/world/24what-is-brexit-explainer4/merlin_171379200_08565b53-0a35-45af-a570-591f1a1a9c55-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Parliament in London. Euroskeptic lawmakers in Britain pushed for the country to leave the bloc’s single market and customs union.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times ## Scotland could make its own split. Along with Northern Ireland, Scotland rejected Brexit in the 2016 referendum, with a vote of more than 60 percent to remain in the European Union. That stark divergence of opinion has [shaken the far older union between England and Scotland](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/06/world/scotland-election-brexit-independence.html). [Scots voted against independence from Britain in a 2014 referendum](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/19/world/europe/scotland-independence-vote.html), but the pro-independence Scottish National Party, or S.N.P., has dominated the Scottish Parliament for more than a decade. It has promised to legislate for a rerun, with Brexit as its justification. A reversal would cost Britain 8 percent of its population, a third of its landmass and significant international prestige. For a new referendum to be legal, however, it would almost certainly need the agreement of London, and Mr. Johnson has repeatedly said no. Scottish elections in May left the S.N.P. [one seat short of a majority](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/08/world/europe/scotland-election-independence-sturgeon.html), but it has support from smaller pro-independence parties. If neither side backs down, the result could be [a court battle, or even a constitutional crisis](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/08/world/europe/brexit-scotland-independence.html). Image ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/12/24/world/24what-is-brexit-explainer3/merlin_170437887_1845666d-63f6-4599-a5eb-b504aa1175df-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Fishing rights were among the most stubborn sticking points in the negotiations for Britain’s leaving the bloc’s single market and customs union.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times ## Fishing remains a sore point. Britain’s fishing fleet is a small fraction of the size it reached in the middle of the last century — a decline for which Brexit proponents have long blamed E.U. rules on sharing access to fisheries. The British government cast its split from the European Union as a chance to revive an industry that was also [a storied way of life](https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/radioballads/original/singingthefishing.shtml). In the trade deal negotiations, both sides had to compromise: E.U. boats kept more rights in British waters than Britain had demanded, but over a shorter period than Brussels had called for. Tensions are still high: France [detained a British trawler](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/28/world/europe/france-detains-british-boat.html) in October, citing a dispute over licenses for dozens of French vessels. And in May, Britain [sent Royal Navy ships](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/06/world/europe/ships-france-uk-fishing.html) in response to a protest blockade by French fishing boats off the semiautonomous island of Jersey. That may not help British fishing companies, which long sold much of their catch in Europe. Some seafood exporters say delays from new checks could [drive them out of business](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/13/world/europe/scotland-seafood-brexit-.html). ## What’s next? For bankers, traders, truckers, architects and millions of migrants, the Dec. 24 trade agreement was only the beginning of a high-stakes and unpredictable experiment. Britain has been short of customs agents to deal with the tens of millions of declarations now needed, industry experts said. It has repeatedly [delayed some of its own new border checks](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/11/world/europe/britain-brexit-border-checks.html), with several deadlines [pushed to July 2022](https://questions-statements.parliament.uk/written-statements/detail/2021-09-14/hcws285). In the four years after Britain’s referendum, the number of Europeans migrating to the country for work plunged, and British companies sent employees to Paris, Dublin or Frankfurt. The number of jobs that will be relocated, or created in different places, is still becoming clear. But already, many British businesses say they are [struggling to fill positions](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/13/business/britain-unfilled-jobs-crisis.html) that might once have been taken by E.U. workers, presenting a risk to Britain’s pandemic recovery. [A lack of truck drivers](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/26/business/britain-truck-driver-shortage.html), echoed in other countries but exacerbated by Brexit, has caused passing shortages of a bewildering range of items including [Nando’s chicken](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/20/world/europe/nandos-chicken-shortage-closures-britain.html) and Haribo sweets. And the future of some E.U. citizens in Britain remains uncertain. More than two million have been granted “settled status,” the right to stay indefinitely. But applications closed at the end of June, and the process has made few provisions for those unable to complete it online, much less for those who don’t realize they need permission to stay somewhere they have lived for decades. Image ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/11/25/business/24what-is-brexit-explainer6/merlin_179614221_28af5b7c-be57-488d-b30e-15d3315b1901-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) The City of London, Britain’s financial hub. E.U. membership helped the capital cement its position as a global banking center.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times Stephen Castle and Mark Landler contributed reporting. [Benjamin Mueller](https://www.nytimes.com/by/benjamin-mueller) is a health and science reporter. Previously, he covered the coronavirus pandemic as a correspondent in London and the police in New York. A version of this article appears in print on May 10, 2021, Section A, Page 8 of the New York edition with the headline: With Brexit Done, Europe Begins a New Era of Trade. [Order Reprints](https://nytimes.wrightsmedia.com/) \\| [Today’s Paper](https://www.nytimes.com/section/todayspaper) \\| [Subscribe](https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp8HYKU.html?campaignId=48JQY) See more on: [European Union](https://www.nytimes.com/topic/organization/european-union) - Share full article ## Related Content ### [Brexit](https://www.nytimes.com/news-event/britain-brexit-european-union) News and opinion about Britain’s exit from the European Union. - [Britain Rejoins E.U. Student Exchange Program That It Left After Brexit](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/12/17/world/europe/uk-eu-erasmus-scheme-students-brexit.html) ![Students taking part in the Erasmus exchange program arriving in Gdansk, Poland, in May 2019.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2025/12/17/multimedia/17int-uk-eu-students-013-bhqg/17int-uk-eu-students-013-bhqg-thumbLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Andrew Testa for The New York Times - [Why the ‘Affordability Hoax’ Is a Trap for Trump](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/12/09/opinion/trump-affordability-crisis-hoax.html) ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2025/12/09/multimedia/09edsall-bktc/09edsall-bktc-thumbLarge-v2.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Photo Illustration by Daniel Stier for The New York Times - [Britain’s Struggles Are America’s Future](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/12/08/opinion/brexit-tariffs-trump-uncertainty.html) Mark Power/Magnum Photos ### [More in Europe](https://www.nytimes.com/section/world/europe) - [Russians Shiver as War Worsens Underfunding of Heat and Power Systems](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/27/world/europe/russia-blackouts-heating-breakdowns.html) ![Murmansk, Russia, in 2023. The city has been plagued by power and heating outages this winter. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/27/multimedia/27int-russia-utility-breakdowns-01-wckh/27int-russia-utility-breakdowns-01-wckh-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Nanna Heitmann for The New York Times - [Automakers’ Dilemma: Invest in New Tech or Stick to Gas Cars?](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/03/business/ford-gm-ev-self-driving-cars-china.html) ![A Ford Motor factory in Wayne, Mich. U.S. automakers are facing difficult choices.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/26/multimedia/00biz-auto-retrench-01-khvm/00biz-auto-retrench-01-khvm-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Emily Elconin for The New York Times - [45 Years After Botched Coup, Spain Declassifies Files About Why It Failed](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/25/world/europe/spain-coup-1981-files-revealed.html) ![Lt. Col. Antonio Tejero Molina, with a pistol in his hand, attempting a coup at the Spanish Parliament on Feb. 23, 1981. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/25/multimedia/25spain-coup-01-vlkj/25spain-coup-01-vlkj-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Bettmann, via Getty Images - [Greek Politician Is Prosecuted for Admitting Drug Use Decades Ago](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/25/world/europe/greek-politician-drug-charge.html) ![Yanis Varoufakis in 2015. He faces prosecution for admitting to using ecstasy 36 years ago.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/25/multimedia/25greece-1-hflw/25greece-1-hflw-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Angelos Tzortzinis for The New York Times ### Editors’ Picks - [A Crisis in the Alps: Airbnb, Climate Change and Americans](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/travel/french-alps-problems-overdevelopment-climate-change.html) ![A view over the Chamonix valley from the Balme-Vallorcine ski area. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/25/multimedia/25-alps-skiing-development-bvwc/25-alps-skiing-development-bvwc-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Alexandre Juillet/Chamonix-Mont Blanc - [Our Favorite Living Rooms](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/28/t-magazine/best-living-room-design.html) ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2023/09/21/t-magazine/21tmag-justinian-slide-JOO5-copy-copy/21tmag-justinian-slide-JOO5-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Blaine Davis ### Trending in The Times - [The Midterms Begin With a Texas-Size Showdown](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/03/podcasts/the-daily/the-midterms-begin-with-a-texas-size-showdown.html) ![Candidates in the Texas Senate primary, from left: the state attorney general, Ken Paxton; Representative Jasmine Crockett; Senator John Cornyn; James Talarico, a state representative; and Representative Wesley Hunt.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/02/podcasts/02DAILY-tx-primaries/02DAILY-tx-primaries-square640-v2.png?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Haiyun Jiang/The NYT; Aaron Schwartz/Getty; Kenny Holston/The NYT; Pool photo by Bob Daemmrich; Julio Cortez/AP - [Opinion: The Reason Gen Z Isn’t Dating](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/03/opinion/gen-z-dating-clavicular.html) ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/03/opinion/03emba/03emba-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Janet Mac - [After ‘Priceless’ Violin Flies on Lap, Lufthansa Changes Carry-On Rules](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/travel/musical-instruments-travel-accommodations.html) ![Carolin Widmann was boarding a plane with a Guadagnini violin, made in 1782, when she was instructed to take it out of its case. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/24/multimedia/00xp-instruments-widmann/00xp-instruments-widmann-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Brill/ullstein bild, via Getty Images - [Opinion: How to Think About Trump’s War With Iran](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/opinion/trump-iran-war-future.html) ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/03/multimedia/02friedman-lvgk/02friedman-lvgk-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Photo Illustration by Tam Stockton for The New York Times - [For Actually Good Chicken Breast, Try One of Our Top-Rated Recipes](https://cooking.nytimes.com/article/reader-favorite-boneless-chicken-breast-recipes) ![Yasmin Fahr’s honey-garlic chicken breasts.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/27/multimedia/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Christopher Testani for The New York Times. Food Stylist: Simon Andrews. - [An ‘American Gigolo’ in Milan](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/style/armani-gere-gigolo.html) ![The Giorgio Arman exhibition at the Pinacoteca di Brera art museum in Milan.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/02/multimedia/02NL-FASHIONWEEK-milan-fczm/02NL-FASHIONWEEK-milan-fczm-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Claudia Greco/Reuters - [Parents Tried to Shield Their Children From Vaccines. Instead They Got Measles.](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/03/us/politics/south-carolina-measles-outbreak-vaccines.html) ![Uptake of the vaccine has been slow, like at this public health fair at The University of South Carolina School of Medicine in Greenville, S.C.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/03/multimedia/03nat-measles-southcarolina-01-kcqv/03nat-measles-southcarolina-01-kcqv-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Kaoly Gutierrez for The New York Times - [Reporters Seek Comment. What Happens Next May Surprise You.](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/insider/journalism-reporting-seeking-comment.html) ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/21/pageoneplus/21insider-comment/21insider-comment-square640.png?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Photo Illustration by Mel Haasch; Grace Cary/Getty Images - [3 Victims of the Austin Bar Shooting Are Identified](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/us/austin-bar-shooting-victims.html) ![A shooting occurred at Buford’s, a popular bar near the University of Texas at Austin campus, early on Sunday.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/02/multimedia/02nat-austin-victims-wjtb/02nat-austin-victims-wjtb-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Tova Katzman for The New York Times - [Watch the Moon Turn Blood Red During a Total Lunar Eclipse](https://www.nytimes.com/2026/03/02/science/blood-moon-lunar-eclipse-time-when-tonight.html) ![To best view the phenomenon, NASA recommends finding a dark place away from bright lights. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/02/multimedia/02hs-blood-moon-ghfj/02hs-blood-moon-ghfj-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Jiji Press/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images Advertisement [SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-bottom) ## Site Index [Go to Home Page »](https://www.nytimes.com/) News - [Home Page](https://www.nytimes.com/) - [U.S.](https://www.nytimes.com/section/us) - [World](https://www.nytimes.com/section/world) - [Politics](https://www.nytimes.com/section/politics) - [New York](https://www.nytimes.com/section/nyregion) - [Education](https://www.nytimes.com/section/education) - [Sports](https://www.nytimes.com/section/sports) - [Business](https://www.nytimes.com/section/business) - [Tech](https://www.nytimes.com/section/technology) - [Science](https://www.nytimes.com/section/science) - [Weather](https://www.nytimes.com/section/weather) - [The Great Read](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/the-great-read) - [Obituaries](https://www.nytimes.com/section/obituaries) - [Headway](https://www.nytimes.com/section/headway) - [Visual Investigations](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/visual-investigations) - [The Magazine](https://www.nytimes.com/section/magazine) Arts - [Book Review](https://www.nytimes.com/section/books/review) - [Best Sellers Book List](https://www.nytimes.com/books/best-sellers/) - [Dance](https://www.nytimes.com/section/arts/dance) - [Movies](https://www.nytimes.com/section/movies) - [Music](https://www.nytimes.com/section/arts/music) - [Pop Culture](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/pop-culture) - [Television](https://www.nytimes.com/section/arts/television) - [Theater](https://www.nytimes.com/section/theater) - [Visual Arts](https://www.nytimes.com/section/arts/design) Lifestyle - [Health](https://www.nytimes.com/section/health) - [Well](https://www.nytimes.com/section/well) - [Food](https://www.nytimes.com/section/food) - [Restaurant Reviews](https://www.nytimes.com/reviews/dining) - [Love](https://www.nytimes.com/section/fashion/weddings) - [Travel](https://www.nytimes.com/section/travel) - [Style](https://www.nytimes.com/section/style) - [Fashion](https://www.nytimes.com/section/fashion) - [Real Estate](https://www.nytimes.com/section/realestate) - [T Magazine](https://www.nytimes.com/section/t-magazine) Opinion - [Today's Opinion](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion) - [Columnists](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/columnists) - [Editorials](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/editorials) - [Guest Essays](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/contributors) - [Op-Docs](https://www.nytimes.com/column/op-docs) - [Letters](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/letters) - [Sunday Opinion](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/sunday) - [Opinion Video](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/opinion-video) - [Opinion Audio](https://www.nytimes.com/series/opinion-audio) More - [Audio](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/podcasts) - [Games](https://www.nytimes.com/crosswords) - [Cooking](https://cooking.nytimes.com/) - [Wirecutter](https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/) - [The Athletic](https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/) - [Jobs](https://www.nytimes.com/section/jobs) - [Video](https://www.nytimes.com/video) - [Graphics](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/graphics) - [Trending](https://www.nytimes.com/trending/) - [Live Events](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/nyt-events) - [Corrections](https://www.nytimes.com/section/corrections) - [Reader Center](https://www.nytimes.com/section/reader-center) - [TimesMachine](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/browser) - [The Learning Network](https://www.nytimes.com/section/learning) - [School of The NYT](https://nytedu.com/) - [inEducation](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/nytimesineducation) ### News - [Home Page](https://www.nytimes.com/) - [U.S.](https://www.nytimes.com/section/us) - [World](https://www.nytimes.com/section/world) - [Politics](https://www.nytimes.com/section/politics) - [New York](https://www.nytimes.com/section/nyregion) - [Education](https://www.nytimes.com/section/education) - [Sports](https://www.nytimes.com/section/sports) - [Business](https://www.nytimes.com/section/business) - [Tech](https://www.nytimes.com/section/technology) - [Science](https://www.nytimes.com/section/science) - [Weather](https://www.nytimes.com/section/weather) - [The Great Read](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/the-great-read) - [Obituaries](https://www.nytimes.com/section/obituaries) - [Headway](https://www.nytimes.com/section/headway) - [Visual Investigations](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/visual-investigations) - [The Magazine](https://www.nytimes.com/section/magazine) ### Arts - [Book Review](https://www.nytimes.com/section/books/review) - [Best Sellers Book List](https://www.nytimes.com/books/best-sellers/) - [Dance](https://www.nytimes.com/section/arts/dance) - [Movies](https://www.nytimes.com/section/movies) - [Music](https://www.nytimes.com/section/arts/music) - [Pop Culture](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/pop-culture) - [Television](https://www.nytimes.com/section/arts/television) - [Theater](https://www.nytimes.com/section/theater) - [Visual Arts](https://www.nytimes.com/section/arts/design) ### Lifestyle - [Health](https://www.nytimes.com/section/health) - [Well](https://www.nytimes.com/section/well) - [Food](https://www.nytimes.com/section/food) - [Restaurant Reviews](https://www.nytimes.com/reviews/dining) - [Love](https://www.nytimes.com/section/fashion/weddings) - [Travel](https://www.nytimes.com/section/travel) - [Style](https://www.nytimes.com/section/style) - [Fashion](https://www.nytimes.com/section/fashion) - [Real Estate](https://www.nytimes.com/section/realestate) - [T Magazine](https://www.nytimes.com/section/t-magazine) ### Opinion - [Today's Opinion](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion) - [Columnists](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/columnists) - [Editorials](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/editorials) - [Guest Essays](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/contributors) - [Op-Docs](https://www.nytimes.com/column/op-docs) - [Letters](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/letters) - [Sunday Opinion](https://www.nytimes.com/section/opinion/sunday) - [Opinion Video](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/opinion-video) - [Opinion Audio](https://www.nytimes.com/series/opinion-audio) ### More - [Audio](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/podcasts) - [Games](https://www.nytimes.com/crosswords) - [Cooking](https://cooking.nytimes.com/) - [Wirecutter](https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/) - [The Athletic](https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/) - [Jobs](https://www.nytimes.com/section/jobs) - [Video](https://www.nytimes.com/video) - [Graphics](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/graphics) - [Trending](https://www.nytimes.com/trending/) - [Live Events](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/nyt-events) - [Corrections](https://www.nytimes.com/section/corrections) - [Reader Center](https://www.nytimes.com/section/reader-center) - [TimesMachine](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/browser) - [The Learning Network](https://www.nytimes.com/section/learning) - [School of The NYT](https://nytedu.com/) - [inEducation](https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/nytimesineducation) ### Account - [Subscribe](https://www.nytimes.com/subscription) - [Manage My Account](https://www.nytimes.com/account) - [Home Delivery](https://www.nytimes.com/subscription/home-delivery) - [Gift Subscriptions](https://www.nytimes.com/gift) - [Group Subscriptions](https://www.nytimes.com/subscription/groups?Pardot_Campaign_Code_Form_Input=89FQX) - [Gift Articles](https://www.nytimes.com/gift-articles) - [Email Newsletters](https://www.nytimes.com/newsletters) - [NYT Licensing](https://nytlicensing.com/) - [Replica Edition](https://nytimes.pressreader.com/) - [Times Store](https://store.nytimes.com/) ## Site Information Navigation - [© 2026 The New York Times Company](https://help.nytimes.com/hc/en-us/articles/115014792127-Copyright-Notice) - [NYTCo](https://www.nytco.com/) - [Contact Us](https://help.nytimes.com/hc/en-us/articles/115015385887-Contact-The-New-York-Times) - [Accessibility](https://help.nytimes.com/hc/en-us/articles/115015727108-Accessibility) - [Work with us](https://www.nytco.com/careers/) - [Advertise](https://advertising.nytimes.com/) - [T Brand Studio](https://advertising.nytimes.com/custom-content/) - [Privacy Policy](https://help.nytimes.com/hc/en-us/articles/10940941449492-The-New-York-Times-Company-Privacy-Policy) - [Cookie Policy](https://www.nytimes.com/privacy/cookie-policy) - [Terms of Service](https://help.nytimes.com/hc/en-us/articles/115014893428-Terms-of-Service) - [Terms of Sale](https://help.nytimes.com/hc/en-us/articles/115014893968-Terms-of-Sale) - [Site Map](https://www.nytimes.com/sitemap/) - [Canada](https://www.nytimes.com/ca/) - [International](https://www.nytimes.com/international/) - [Help](https://help.nytimes.com/hc/en-us) - [Subscriptions](https://www.nytimes.com/subscription?campaignId=37WXW)
Readable Markdown	Advertisement [SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-top) Almost a year after it took full effect, the consequences of Britain’s split from the European Union are still unfolding. Here is a guide to what it means, how it came about and what the future may hold. ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/12/24/world/24what-is-brexit-explainer1/merlin_168182259_bc34af0e-bb4d-4fda-818b-1e9b11af5a43-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Celebrating in London in January 2020 as Britain officially left the European Union. A transition period ran until the end of 2020.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times Nov. 8, 2021 Britain broke from the European Union’s regulatory orbit on Jan. 1, casting off nearly a half-century inside the bloc and embarking on what analysts described as the biggest overnight change in modern commercial relations between countries. Far from closing the book on Britain’s tumultuous relationship with the rest of Europe, the split, known as [Brexit](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/08/world/europe/uk-brexit-estonia-business.html), has opened a new chapter — one that could reshape not only the country’s economy, foreign policy and politics, but even its borders. Prime Minister Boris Johnson speaks of creating a more agile “Global Britain,” with stronger ties to the United States and other democracies, like Australia, India and South Korea. But [while that plan has hit setbacks](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/15/world/europe/boris-johnson-cabinet-reshuffle.html), risks from the new dispensation have quickly become evident, including on empty supermarket shelves as the country struggles with a shortage of truck drivers. And arrangements for the sensitive territory of Northern Ireland have fueled rioting and diplomatic tensions. ## Let’s start with the basics. Why “Brexit”? A portmanteau of the words Britain and exit, Brexit caught on as shorthand for the proposal that Britain leave the European Union and change its relationship with the bloc on trade, security and migration. Britain has debated the pros and cons of a club of European nations almost since the idea was broached, after World War II. It joined in 1973 — and held a referendum on whether to leave less than three years later. Then, 67 percent of voters supported staying. But that was hardly the end of the argument. In 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron [promised a new national referendum](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/24/world/europe/cameron-britain-referendum-european-union.html?module=inline). The options were “remain” or “leave,” and Mr. Cameron was convinced that “remain” would win easily. Image ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/12/24/world/24what-is-brexit-explainer2/merlin_181442682_5c0494fb-f838-4893-b7f2-008014811726-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Trucks waiting to enter the Port of Dover in England in December 2020. Increased border controls raised concerns about long backups.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times ## Leaving is a big deal economically. Europe has been Britain’s most important export market and its biggest source of foreign investment, and E.U. membership helped London cement its position as a global financial center. For decades, British companies could move goods to and from the European Union without taxes or tariffs. People could move freely, too. But as 2021 began, business changed for many — including British [automakers](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/26/business/british-auto-industry-brexit.html), who rely on suppliers across Europe, and [touring musicians](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/20/arts/music/peter-grimes-teatro-real-brexit.html), who suddenly faced a thicket of visa rules. The agreement that London and Brussels reached late in 2020 avoided tariffs or quotas on goods. But traders still confronted new paperwork and unpredictable delays, sometimes resulting in [rotting cargoes](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/12/world/europe/brexit-britain-trade.html). And the services sector — about [80 percent](https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn02786/) or more of British economic activity, comprising not only the financial industry, but also lawyers, architects, consultants and others — was left dependent on patchwork decisions by European regulators. Britain’s [Office for Budget Responsibility](https://obr.uk/efo/economic-and-fiscal-outlook-october-2021/), an independent official body, says trade with the European Union took a sharp hit in January and remained 15 percent down in August, even as business with other countries began to recover from pandemic effects. It estimates that [Britain’s economy will be 4 percent less productive](https://obr.uk/forecasts-in-depth/the-economy-forecast/brexit-analysis/#assumptions) than it would have been inside the bloc. ## Brexit’s supporters say their aim is a ‘Global Britain.’ Opponents of Brexit describe it as an attempt to reclaim an imagined Britain of the past, one with [fewer European migrants](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/17/world/europe/pandemic-brexit-uk.html) and [more patriotic singing](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/02/world/europe/bbc-proms-johnson.html). But Mr. Johnson, like many prominent proponents, often presents it as [a way of embracing change](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/01/world/europe/brexit-britain.html). Image ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/12/24/world/24what-is-brexit-explainer4/merlin_171379200_08565b53-0a35-45af-a570-591f1a1a9c55-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Parliament in London. Euroskeptic lawmakers in Britain pushed for the country to leave the bloc’s single market and customs union.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times ## Scotland could make its own split. Along with Northern Ireland, Scotland rejected Brexit in the 2016 referendum, with a vote of more than 60 percent to remain in the European Union. That stark divergence of opinion has [shaken the far older union between England and Scotland](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/06/world/scotland-election-brexit-independence.html). [Scots voted against independence from Britain in a 2014 referendum](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/19/world/europe/scotland-independence-vote.html), but the pro-independence Scottish National Party, or S.N.P., has dominated the Scottish Parliament for more than a decade. It has promised to legislate for a rerun, with Brexit as its justification. A reversal would cost Britain 8 percent of its population, a third of its landmass and significant international prestige. For a new referendum to be legal, however, it would almost certainly need the agreement of London, and Mr. Johnson has repeatedly said no. Scottish elections in May left the S.N.P. [one seat short of a majority](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/08/world/europe/scotland-election-independence-sturgeon.html), but it has support from smaller pro-independence parties. If neither side backs down, the result could be [a court battle, or even a constitutional crisis](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/08/world/europe/brexit-scotland-independence.html). Image ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/12/24/world/24what-is-brexit-explainer3/merlin_170437887_1845666d-63f6-4599-a5eb-b504aa1175df-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Fishing rights were among the most stubborn sticking points in the negotiations for Britain’s leaving the bloc’s single market and customs union.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times ## Fishing remains a sore point. Britain’s fishing fleet is a small fraction of the size it reached in the middle of the last century — a decline for which Brexit proponents have long blamed E.U. rules on sharing access to fisheries. The British government cast its split from the European Union as a chance to revive an industry that was also [a storied way of life](https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/radioballads/original/singingthefishing.shtml). In the trade deal negotiations, both sides had to compromise: E.U. boats kept more rights in British waters than Britain had demanded, but over a shorter period than Brussels had called for. Tensions are still high: France [detained a British trawler](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/28/world/europe/france-detains-british-boat.html) in October, citing a dispute over licenses for dozens of French vessels. And in May, Britain [sent Royal Navy ships](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/06/world/europe/ships-france-uk-fishing.html) in response to a protest blockade by French fishing boats off the semiautonomous island of Jersey. That may not help British fishing companies, which long sold much of their catch in Europe. Some seafood exporters say delays from new checks could [drive them out of business](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/13/world/europe/scotland-seafood-brexit-.html). ## What’s next? For bankers, traders, truckers, architects and millions of migrants, the Dec. 24 trade agreement was only the beginning of a high-stakes and unpredictable experiment. Britain has been short of customs agents to deal with the tens of millions of declarations now needed, industry experts said. It has repeatedly [delayed some of its own new border checks](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/11/world/europe/britain-brexit-border-checks.html), with several deadlines [pushed to July 2022](https://questions-statements.parliament.uk/written-statements/detail/2021-09-14/hcws285). In the four years after Britain’s referendum, the number of Europeans migrating to the country for work plunged, and British companies sent employees to Paris, Dublin or Frankfurt. The number of jobs that will be relocated, or created in different places, is still becoming clear. But already, many British businesses say they are [struggling to fill positions](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/13/business/britain-unfilled-jobs-crisis.html) that might once have been taken by E.U. workers, presenting a risk to Britain’s pandemic recovery. [A lack of truck drivers](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/26/business/britain-truck-driver-shortage.html), echoed in other countries but exacerbated by Brexit, has caused passing shortages of a bewildering range of items including [Nando’s chicken](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/20/world/europe/nandos-chicken-shortage-closures-britain.html) and Haribo sweets. And the future of some E.U. citizens in Britain remains uncertain. More than two million have been granted “settled status,” the right to stay indefinitely. But applications closed at the end of June, and the process has made few provisions for those unable to complete it online, much less for those who don’t realize they need permission to stay somewhere they have lived for decades. Image ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2020/11/25/business/24what-is-brexit-explainer6/merlin_179614221_28af5b7c-be57-488d-b30e-15d3315b1901-articleLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) The City of London, Britain’s financial hub. E.U. membership helped the capital cement its position as a global banking center.Credit...Andrew Testa for The New York Times Stephen Castle and Mark Landler contributed reporting. [Benjamin Mueller](https://www.nytimes.com/by/benjamin-mueller) is a health and science reporter. Previously, he covered the coronavirus pandemic as a correspondent in London and the police in New York. A version of this article appears in print on May 10, 2021, Section A, Page 8 of the New York edition with the headline: With Brexit Done, Europe Begins a New Era of Trade. [Order Reprints](https://nytimes.wrightsmedia.com/) \\| [Today’s Paper](https://www.nytimes.com/section/todayspaper) \\| [Subscribe](https://www.nytimes.com/subscriptions/Multiproduct/lp8HYKU.html?campaignId=48JQY) ## Related Content [Brexit](https://www.nytimes.com/news-event/britain-brexit-european-union) News and opinion about Britain’s exit from the European Union. - ![Students taking part in the Erasmus exchange program arriving in Gdansk, Poland, in May 2019.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2025/12/17/multimedia/17int-uk-eu-students-013-bhqg/17int-uk-eu-students-013-bhqg-thumbLarge.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Andrew Testa for The New York Times - ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2025/12/09/multimedia/09edsall-bktc/09edsall-bktc-thumbLarge-v2.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Photo Illustration by Daniel Stier for The New York Times - Mark Power/Magnum Photos [More in Europe](https://www.nytimes.com/section/world/europe) - ![Murmansk, Russia, in 2023. The city has been plagued by power and heating outages this winter. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/27/multimedia/27int-russia-utility-breakdowns-01-wckh/27int-russia-utility-breakdowns-01-wckh-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Nanna Heitmann for The New York Times - ![A Ford Motor factory in Wayne, Mich. U.S. automakers are facing difficult choices.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/26/multimedia/00biz-auto-retrench-01-khvm/00biz-auto-retrench-01-khvm-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Emily Elconin for The New York Times - ![Lt. Col. Antonio Tejero Molina, with a pistol in his hand, attempting a coup at the Spanish Parliament on Feb. 23, 1981. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/25/multimedia/25spain-coup-01-vlkj/25spain-coup-01-vlkj-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Bettmann, via Getty Images - ![Yanis Varoufakis in 2015. He faces prosecution for admitting to using ecstasy 36 years ago.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/25/multimedia/25greece-1-hflw/25greece-1-hflw-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Angelos Tzortzinis for The New York Times Editors’ Picks - ![A view over the Chamonix valley from the Balme-Vallorcine ski area. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/25/multimedia/25-alps-skiing-development-bvwc/25-alps-skiing-development-bvwc-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Alexandre Juillet/Chamonix-Mont Blanc - ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2023/09/21/t-magazine/21tmag-justinian-slide-JOO5-copy-copy/21tmag-justinian-slide-JOO5-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale) Blaine Davis Trending in The Times - ![Candidates in the Texas Senate primary, from left: the state attorney general, Ken Paxton; Representative Jasmine Crockett; Senator John Cornyn; James Talarico, a state representative; and Representative Wesley Hunt.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/02/podcasts/02DAILY-tx-primaries/02DAILY-tx-primaries-square640-v2.png?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Haiyun Jiang/The NYT; Aaron Schwartz/Getty; Kenny Holston/The NYT; Pool photo by Bob Daemmrich; Julio Cortez/AP - ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/03/opinion/03emba/03emba-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Janet Mac - ![Carolin Widmann was boarding a plane with a Guadagnini violin, made in 1782, when she was instructed to take it out of its case. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/24/multimedia/00xp-instruments-widmann/00xp-instruments-widmann-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Brill/ullstein bild, via Getty Images - ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/03/multimedia/02friedman-lvgk/02friedman-lvgk-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Photo Illustration by Tam Stockton for The New York Times - ![Yasmin Fahr’s honey-garlic chicken breasts.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/27/multimedia/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt/27FD-CHICKEN-BREAST-ROUNDUP-honeygarlicchicken-hwbt-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Christopher Testani for The New York Times. Food Stylist: Simon Andrews. - ![The Giorgio Arman exhibition at the Pinacoteca di Brera art museum in Milan.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/02/multimedia/02NL-FASHIONWEEK-milan-fczm/02NL-FASHIONWEEK-milan-fczm-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Claudia Greco/Reuters - ![Uptake of the vaccine has been slow, like at this public health fair at The University of South Carolina School of Medicine in Greenville, S.C.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/03/multimedia/03nat-measles-southcarolina-01-kcqv/03nat-measles-southcarolina-01-kcqv-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Kaoly Gutierrez for The New York Times - ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/02/21/pageoneplus/21insider-comment/21insider-comment-square640.png?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Photo Illustration by Mel Haasch; Grace Cary/Getty Images - ![A shooting occurred at Buford’s, a popular bar near the University of Texas at Austin campus, early on Sunday.](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/02/multimedia/02nat-austin-victims-wjtb/02nat-austin-victims-wjtb-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Tova Katzman for The New York Times - ![To best view the phenomenon, NASA recommends finding a dark place away from bright lights. ](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2026/03/02/multimedia/02hs-blood-moon-ghfj/02hs-blood-moon-ghfj-square640.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp&disable=upscale&width=350) Jiji Press/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images Advertisement [SKIP ADVERTISEMENT](https://www.nytimes.com/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html#after-bottom)
Shard	84 (laksa)
Root Hash	4566504020376537684
Unparsed URL	com,nytimes!www,/article/brexit-uk-eu-explained.html s443