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Calculated Shard: 129 (from laksa168)

2. Crawled Status Check

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curl -X POST \
  'http://laksa129.int.ahrefs:8124/' \
  -H 'Content-Type: text/plain' \
  -H 'X-ClickHouse-Database: crawler3' \
  -H 'Authorization: Basic YXBpOg==' \
  -d 'SELECT getAhrefsURLFromUnparsed(src_unparsed) AS found_url, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(download_stamp), 0) AS crawl_time, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(props_url_first_seen), 0) AS first_indexed_time, download_http_code AS http_code, src_unparsed AS src_unparsed, src_root_hash AS src_root_hash, history_drop_reason AS history_drop_reason, meta_title AS meta_title, meta_descriptions AS meta_descriptions, attrs_boilerpipe_text AS attrs_boilerpipe_text, attrs_markdown AS attrs_markdown, attrs_readable_markdown AS attrs_readable_markdown, meta_canonical AS meta_canonical FROM crawler3.page_info_local FINAL PREWHERE (src_root_hash, src_unparsed) IN ((getAhrefsRootHashFromUnparsed(getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/\')), getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/\'))) FORMAT JSONEachRow'

Response:

{"found_url":"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/","crawl_time":1775037529,"first_indexed_time":1566919039,"http_code":200,"src_unparsed":"gov,nih!nlm,ncbi,www,\/books\/NBK538173\/ s443","src_root_hash":"7295144728021232729","history_drop_reason":null,"meta_title":"Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf","meta_descriptions":["Back pain is one of the most common reasons for primary- and emergency-care consultations. An estimated $200 billion is spent annually on managing back pain. Additionally, work hours, productivity, and workers' compensation are greatly reduced due to this condition.[1]"],"attrs_boilerpipe_text":"Continuing Education Activity\nBack pain is a leading reason for seeking emergency care and contributes substantially to functional disability and healthcare burden. Mechanical and nonspecific disorders account for most presentations across all age groups, although etiology varies by developmental stage. Younger individuals more frequently exhibit acute muscular strain, ligamentous injury, or intervertebral disc herniation, while older adults demonstrate a higher prevalence of degenerative disc disease, facet arthropathy, osteoporotic compression fractures, and spinal stenosis. Risk is increased by occupational or athletic mechanical stress, physical deconditioning, obesity, and tobacco use. Nociceptive signaling may originate from paraspinal musculature, intervertebral discs, facet joints, or nerve roots, with symptom location, radiation, and neurologic deficits helping localize the underlying source.\nInitial evaluation relies on thorough history and physical examination, with imaging reserved for refractory symptoms, neurologic deficits, or red flag features indicating infection, malignancy, fracture, or spinal cord or cauda equina compression. Evidence-based management emphasizes activity as tolerated, analgesics when appropriate, and physical therapy interventions. Most acute cases resolve within several weeks. Persistent symptoms increase the likelihood of chronic pain development and long-term disability.\nThis activity for healthcare professionals is designed to improve learners' competence in evaluating and managing back pain. Participants will advance their mastery of the symptom's etiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Recognition of red flags for severe conditions will be emphasized. Greater skills will equip clinicians to collaborate confidently with interprofessional teams caring for affected individuals.\nObjectives:\nDetermine the etiology of back pain based on clinical and diagnostic features, with emphasis on recognizing red flags suggestive of emergent or high-risk conditions.\nImplement evidence-based, personalized strategies for managing back pain and preventing its potential complications.\nImprove patient awareness of mechanical versus serious causes, warning signs, safe activity, and strategies to enhance function and reduce chronic pain risk.\nCollaborate with the interprofessional team to educate, treat, and monitor patients with back pain to improve functional and overall health outcomes.\nAccess free multiple choice questions on this topic.\nIntroduction\nBack pain is one of the most common reasons for primary- and emergency-care consultations. An estimated $200 billion is spent annually on managing back pain. Additionally, work hours, productivity, and workers' compensation are greatly reduced due to this condition.\n[1]\nBack pain arises from a broad range of causes in adults and children, though most are mechanical in nature or have a nonspecific origin. Mechanical back pain comprises 90% of cases, so health providers can easily miss rare causes while focusing on common etiologies.\n[2]\n[3]\n \nIdentifying red flags and determining the appropriate treatment are the most important aspects of back pain management. Most cases may be treated conservatively. Association with alarming signs, such as nerve dysfunction, warrants a thorough investigation and an interprofessional approach.\n[4]\nPharmacological treatments include pain relievers targeting peripheral and central neurologic pathways, as well as muscle relaxants.\n[5]\nVarious forms of physical therapy are available for individuals who prefer nonpharmacological approaches or are recovering from injuries.\n[6]\nAcupuncture is an alternative therapy shown to improve back pain moderately. Surgery is reserved for cases that are accompanied by severe nerve dysfunction, have resulted from serious causes such as malignancy, or manifest with refractory symptoms due to structural causes, such as spondylolisthesis.\n[7]\n[8]\n Significant back pain that does not resolve within 6 weeks of adequate conservative management may warrant imaging with radiography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).\nA thorough evaluation helps determine the cause of back pain and develop a tailored therapeutic plan. Addressing the underlying pathology significantly improves patients' functional capacity and quality of life.\nEtiology\nBack pain arises from various conditions, which may be classified into the following:\nTraumatic: Results from direct or indirect contact with an external force. Examples include whiplash injury, strain, and traumatic fractures.\nDegenerative: Musculoskeletal structures weaken over time due to aging, overuse, or preexisting pathology. Examples include intervertebral disc herniation and degenerative disc disease (see\nImage\n. Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon).\nOncologic: Primary or secondary malignant lesions can develop in back structures. Pathologic fractures of the axial skeleton may occur as complications.\nInfectious: Infections of musculoskeletal structures may arise from direct inoculation or hematogenous spread.\nInflammatory: Includes noninfectious, nonmalignant conditions. Examples are ankylosing spondylitis and sacroiliitis. Chronic inflammation may result in spinal arthritis.\nMetabolic: Disorders of calcium and bone metabolism can cause symptoms. Examples encompass osteoporosis and osteosclerosis.\nVascular: Acute or chronic aortic dissection can present as tearing back pain, usually with abrupt onset and associated cardiovascular risk factors (Source:\nZakko and Reece\n, 2024).\nReferred pain: Visceral organ pathology may produce referred back pain. Examples include biliary colic, lung disease, and aortic or vertebral artery disorders.\nPostural: Prolonged upright posture can contribute to back pain. Pregnancy and certain occupations increase risk.\nCongenital: Inborn axial skeleton conditions can cause symptoms. Examples include kyphoscoliosis and a tethered spinal cord.\nPsychiatric: Chronic pain syndromes and mental health conditions may present with back pain. Malingering may contribute to symptom amplification or inconsistent clinical findings.\n[9]\nThe duration of symptoms is important, as acute and chronic back pain often have different etiologies. A thorough clinical evaluation and appropriate diagnostic testing are usually sufficient to determine the cause. Referral to specialists, such as neurosurgeons,  orthopedic spine surgeons, neurologists, rheumatologists, physiatrists, or pain management providers, may be necessary for further evaluation and treatment planning.\nEpidemiology\nBack pain is widespread among adults. Studies report that up to 23% of adults worldwide experience chronic low back pain, with 1-year recurrence rates ranging from 24% to 80%.\n[10]\n[11]\n The lifetime prevalence of back pain in adults may reach 84%.\n[12]\nBack pain is less common in pediatric populations. A Scandinavian study found that point prevalence was approximately 1% among 12-year-olds and 5% among 15-year-olds. By age 18 for girls and 20 for boys, 50% of adolescents will have experienced at least 1 episode of back pain.\n[13]\nLifetime prevalence in adolescents increases progressively with age, approaching adult levels by 18.\n[14]\nPathophysiology\nMechanical back pain develops when nociceptive elements within the spinal motion segment or adjacent soft tissues undergo overload or structural disruption. Acute episodes typically reflect sprain or strain of paraspinal musculature and supporting ligaments after a loaded segment is driven into excessive flexion, extension, or rotation. Eccentric contraction produces microscopic tearing near the myotendinous junction, followed by edema, inflammatory mediator release, and reflex spasm that sensitize local nociceptors and restrict segmental motion.\nChronic mechanical pain more frequently arises from degenerative intervertebral disc changes. Cumulative mechanical loading and endplate injury promote annular fissuring, proteoglycan loss, disc dehydration, and progressive collapse. The structurally compromised disc demonstrates abnormal load transfer, pathologic ingrowth of nociceptive nerve fibers and blood vessels, and heightened production of proinflammatory mediators, generating discogenic pain or radiculopathy.\n[15]\nLumbar zygapophyseal (facet) joints, as synovial joints with richly innervated capsules, bear substantial axial load during extension. Repetitive shear and compression promote cartilage loss, osteophyte formation, capsular laxity or hypertrophy, and localized inflammation. Resulting capsular stretch or distension activates high- and low-threshold mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, producing referred pain to the back or buttocks. Persistent peripheral nociceptive drive from these structures may, in some cases, induce central sensitization and facilitate the transition from acute to chronic pain.\n[16]\nHistory and Physical\nDetermining the cause of back pain begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The onset of pain should be established early. Acute back pain, defined as back pain lasting less than 6 weeks, most often reflects mechanical strain or degenerative changes and less commonly results from trauma or abrupt progression of serious underlying disease such as malignancy. Chronic cases, lasting longer than 12 weeks, may involve mechanical dysfunction or arise from longstanding conditions.\nInformation regarding factors that provoke or alleviate the pain must be obtained. In addition to providing diagnostic clues, understanding these factors guides the clinician in selecting appropriate pain management strategies.\nPain quality assists in distinguishing visceral from nonvisceral sources. Well-localized pain often indicates an organic process. Any associated symptoms may offer additional insights into the underlying cause of back pain.\nOther pertinent information may be obtained from the patient’s medical, family, occupational, and social history. For example, a history of prior cancer chemotherapy should raise suspicion for metastasis or a secondary tumor. Certain autoimmune arthritides have a hereditary component. Pott disease, or spinal tuberculosis, may result from exposure in regions where tuberculosis is endemic. Prolonged sitting during work can contribute to both acute and chronic back pain.\nA focused physical examination should include inspection, auscultation, palpation, and provocative maneuvers. Visual inspection of the back may not reveal the cause unless deformity, signs of inflammation, or skin lesions are present. Auscultation is useful when back pain may be secondary to pulmonary pathology. Palpation can elicit localized musculoskeletal tenderness and help identify affected structures.\nCertain provocative maneuvers can provide diagnostic clues regarding the cause of back pain. The straight-leg-raising (SLR) test is useful for diagnosing lumbar disc herniation. The test is performed by raising the patient’s leg to 30° to 70°. A result is considered positive if ipsilateral leg pain occurs at less than 60°. The crossed SLR test involves raising the contralateral leg and is more specific than a standard SLR for identifying a disc herniation.\n[17]\n[18]\nThe Stork test, which evaluates for spondylolysis, is another clinically used maneuver. The examiner supports the patient while they stand on a leg and hyperextend their back. The maneuver is repeated on the opposite leg. The test result is positive if the patient experiences pain during hyperextension. The Adam test is used to evaluate scoliosis. The patient bends forward with feet together, arms extended, and palms touching. An examiner standing in front can detect a thoracic prominence in patients with scoliosis.\n[19]\n Assessment of range of motion, limb strength, deep tendon reflexes, and sensation aids in evaluating the integrity of both musculoskeletal and neurologic systems.\nRed flags identified during history or physical examination warrant imaging and additional diagnostic testing. The signs explained below should be carefully monitored.\nIn adults, red flags for back pain include a history of metastatic cancer or unexplained weight loss, with focal tenderness to palpation in the presence of risk factors suggesting malignancy. Infection should be suspected in patients with recent spinal procedures, intravenous drug use, immunosuppression, or prior lumbar surgery, especially if fever, spinal wounds, localized pain, or tenderness is present.\nA systematic review of 40 observational studies demonstrated that individual red flags possess limited standalone diagnostic accuracy for serious thoracolumbar pathology and frequently generate high rates of false positive results. Vertebral fractures accounted for 0.4% to 5.6% of low back pain presentations. Posttest probabilities increased substantially only when advanced age, recent trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, and female sex occurred collectively rather than independently.\nFor spinal malignancy, the most informative red flags included a prior history of cancer, unexplained weight loss, persistent pain without improvement, and concerning overall clinical judgment. In contrast, isolated night pain or broad age thresholds produced numerous false positives. Across vertebral fracture, malignancy, infection, and cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic prediction models that integrated multiple red flags consistently demonstrated higher likelihood ratios than any single historical feature or physical examination finding.\n[20]\nSymptoms suggestive of cauda equina syndrome require immediate recognition, as this condition constitutes a surgical emergency. New urinary retention, difficulty initiating micturition, bowel dysfunction, or sensory loss in the perineal or perianal region (“saddle anesthesia”) are key historical features. Bilateral sciatica, rapidly escalating leg pain, or new bilateral lower-extremity weakness further heighten concern, and the constellation of these findings indicates severe compression of the cauda equina nerve roots. Such presentations are strongly associated with massive midline disc herniation or other space-occupying lesions and demand urgent evaluation to prevent permanent neurologic deficit.\nFracture risk increases with significant trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, osteoporosis, or age over 70, and may be indicated by contusions, abrasions, or tenderness over spinous processes. Neurologic compromise is suggested by progressive motor or sensory loss, new urinary or fecal incontinence, saddle anesthesia, anal sphincter atony, or significant motor deficits across multiple myotomes.\n[21]\n[22]\nA focused neurological history should assess bladder and bowel function and document any perineal or perianal sensory loss, as these features suggest possible cauda equina or conus medullaris involvement. The neurological examination should include motor testing of key lumbosacral myotomes—hip flexion, knee extension, ankle dorsiflexion, ankle plantar flexion, great-toe extension, and foot eversion—to identify focal weakness patterns that correlate with specific nerve root compression.\nIn pediatric patients, malignancy should be considered in children who are younger than 4 years or experience nighttime pain, particularly when focal tenderness is present. Infection risk increases in children who are younger than 4, report nighttime pain, or have a history of tuberculosis exposure, especially if fever, spinal wounds, or localized tenderness occurs. Inflammatory causes are suggested by morning stiffness lasting more than 30 minutes, improving with activity or heat, accompanied by a limited range of motion and localized tenderness. Fractures may result from repetitive lumbar hyperextension during sports, with tenderness over spinous processes or a positive Stork test result.\n[23]\n[24]\nRecent recommendations for children and adolescents consolidate red flag features that warrant evaluation for specific spinal disease. Concerning findings include age younger than 10 years, significant trauma, prior or current glucocorticoid therapy, motor or sensory deficits, radicular pain, bladder or bowel dysfunction, fever, lymphadenopathy, structural deformity, and focal compression tenderness.\nThe same publication identifies evidence-based risk factors for nonspecific pediatric back pain. Increasing age in adolescence, female sex, high levels of sports participation, prior pain episodes, and psychosocial factors—such as low life satisfaction, anxiety, and depression—demonstrate strong associations, and several additional contributors also predict a chronic course. Incorporation of these red and yellow flags into routine pediatric history taking assists in distinguishing children who require prompt imaging or specialty referral from those who are suitable for initial conservative management and observation.\n[25]\nFour-Category Diagnostic Framework for Back Pain\nDuring the initial history and physical examination, back pain presentations can be organized into 4 diagnostic groups that direct subsequent evaluation and management:\nNonspecific mechanical pain\nPain arising from radiculopathy or spinal stenosis\nPain referred from nonspinal sources\nPain associated with specific or nonmechanical spinal pathology, including infection, fracture, inflammatory disease, or malignancy \n[26]\n[27]\nThis diagnostic framework clarifies the likely source of pain and prioritizes the most appropriate investigative pathway. Correct classification ensures that high-risk conditions receive urgent evaluation, while stable cases proceed with conservative care.\nEvaluation\nHistory and physical examination are sufficient to determine the cause of back pain in most cases. Early imaging in adults has been associated with poorer outcomes, as it often leads to more invasive interventions that provide minimal benefit.\n[28]\n[29]\nSimilar findings are reported in pediatric populations.\nFewer than 5% to 10% of low back pain presentations result from specific spinal pathology, whereas 90% to 95% reflect nonspecific mechanical pain suitable for conservative management without routine imaging. Degenerative changes, including disc degeneration, disc bulging, and facet arthropathy, are highly prevalent in asymptomatic adults (see\nImage\n. Facet Arthropathy). Disc degeneration occurs in more than 80% of adults older than 50. Therefore, imaging findings must be interpreted cautiously and within the clinical context.\n[30]\nNevertheless, the presence of concerning signs warrants diagnostic evaluation. In adults, imaging is indicated for back pain persisting longer than 6 weeks despite appropriate conservative management. In children, imaging is recommended for continuous pain lasting more than 4 weeks.\nPlain anteroposterior and lateral films of the axial skeleton can detect bone pathology (see\nImage\n. Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine). MRI is indicated for the evaluation of soft tissue lesions, including nerves, intervertebral discs, and tendons. Both imaging modalities can identify signs of malignancy and inflammation, but MRI is preferred when soft tissues are involved.\n[31]\n[32]\nBone scans may demonstrate osteomyelitis, discitis, and stress reactions but are inferior to MRI for assessing these conditions.\n[33]\n Single-photon emission computed tomography–CT (SPECT-CT) can aid diagnosis when MRI results are inconclusive, particularly in patients with prior spinal instrumentation, but it is not recommended as a primary imaging modality.\n[34]\n CT or magnetic resonance angiography should be performed in cases of suspected aortic dissection (see\nImage\n. Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography).\n[35]\n (Source: \nAlexiou and Sritharan\n, 2025) Adolescents with MRI evidence of disc herniation may require a CT scan to confirm or exclude apophyseal ring separation, which occurs in approximately 5.7% of these patients.\n[36]\nElectromyography or nerve conduction studies are indicated in patients with prior spinal surgery who may present with radiculopathy or plexopathy. Image-guided diagnostic injections can help confirm sacroiliac joint disease.\nLaboratory evaluation may be necessary in selected cases of back pain. Rheumatologic assays, including human leukocyte antigen B27, antinuclear antibody, rheumatoid factor, and Lyme antibodies, are generally nonspecific and not routinely helpful.\n[37]\n[38]\nInflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, can provide clinically useful information.\n[39]\nA complete blood count and blood cultures may aid in diagnosing inflammatory, infectious, or malignant processes. Elevated lactate dehydrogenase and uric acid levels are frequently observed in conditions associated with rapid marrow turnover, such as leukemia.\n[40]\nApplying the Four-Category Model to Guide Testing and Management\nThe diagnostic evaluation can be structured according to the 4-category framework. In patients with nonspecific low back pain and absence of red flag features, imaging is typically deferred for 1 to 2 months, as early radiography does not improve outcomes and often reveals incidental findings that do not alter management. When history or examination indicates specific spinal pathology, such as radiculopathy or spinal stenosis, MRI may be employed to confirm neural compression and guide interventional or surgical planning (see\nImage\n. Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis). Features suggestive of a nonspinal source—eg, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, vascular, or gynecologic—prompt targeted evaluation of the relevant organ system rather than spine-focused studies.\nLaboratory testing and more extensive imaging, often expedited, are reserved for the nonmechanical spinal category. Clues such as fever, night pain, unexplained weight loss, persistent rest pain, or progressive neurologic deficit raise suspicion for infection, malignancy, or inflammatory spondyloarthropathy and justify erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein testing, complete blood count, and early MRI. Application of this structured approach allows conservative management for most patients with nonspecific pain while ensuring timely identification of specific spinal, nonspinal, or systemic pathology requiring intensive evaluation.\nTreatment \/ Management\nAdult and pediatric back pain require distinct management strategies. Many cases have an unidentifiable cause, although degenerative disease and musculoskeletal injury are more prevalent in adults. Overuse and muscle strain are more common precipitants in children and adolescents. Rare etiologies, including malignancy and metabolic disorders, manifest differently across age groups. Consequently, treatment must be tailored to both the underlying condition and the patient’s age.\nManagement of Back Pain in Adults\nSerious conditions must be excluded initially for acute back pain in adults. The patient should be reassured and provided with symptomatic relief if no indications for further testing are present. The 1st-line management is nonpharmacological and includes early return to normal routines, except for heavy labor, avoidance of pain-provoking activities, and patient education.\nSecond-line options may include the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), muscle relaxants, or opioids, spinal manipulation, physical therapy, superficial heat application, and alternative treatments such as acupuncture or massage. Education regarding the potential causes of back pain should be individualized to each patient’s circumstances, as it plays a critical role in preventing symptom aggravation or recurrence. Follow-up is typically recommended after 2 weeks, with resumption of normal activities encouraged if the patient is asymptomatic at that time.\nIn adult patients with acute back pain with radiculopathy, management may include NSAID therapy, exercise, traction, or spinal manipulation. Diazepam and systemic steroids provide no additional benefit. Diagnostic testing is indicated if serious conditions cannot be excluded, and referral to appropriate specialists should be considered for further evaluation or treatment.\nManagement of chronic back pain follows a similar approach. Serious conditions must be ruled out first. For nonspecific pain, patients should remain active and avoid precipitating factors. Exercise therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are considered 1st-line treatments.\n[41]\n[42]\nSecond-line options include spinal manipulation, massage, acupuncture, yoga, stress reduction, intake of NSAIDs or selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and interprofessional rehabilitation.\n[43]\n[44]\n[45]\nThe effectiveness of anticonvulsants such as gabapentin and topiramate is uncertain.\n[46]\n[47]\nTranscutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units do not appear more effective than placebo for chronic back pain.\n[48]\nReferral to pain management\nReferral to pain management is indicated when low back pain persists despite adequate conservative treatment and limits daily function. Persistent severe functional impairment, unremitting pain, or plateaued improvement warrants evaluation by a pain specialist. A lower threshold for referral applies to radicular or stenotic symptoms that fail to improve, as these patients may benefit from interventional options, including epidural steroid injections. Pain extending beyond the normal period of tissue healing should prompt specialized assessment and management to interrupt progression toward chronicity and prevent deconditioning.\nSurgical referral\nUrgent surgical referral is required when clinical findings indicate potential spinal cord or nerve root compromise, infection, fracture, or malignancy. Cauda equina syndrome is the most critical indication and constitutes a surgical emergency, identified by new urinary retention or overflow incontinence, saddle anesthesia, bilateral sciatica, or bilateral lower-extremity weakness. Rapidly progressive or severe neurologic deficits, including worsening motor weakness or sensory loss, similarly warrant immediate evaluation.\nFeatures suggestive of spinal infection, including fever, recent spinal procedures, immunosuppression, intravenous drug use, or severe focal vertebral tenderness, require urgent assessment, as they may indicate osteomyelitis, epidural abscess, or septic discitis. Malignancy should be suspected in cases of unexplained weight loss, prior history of cancer, persistent night pain, or focal vertebral tenderness, with concurrent neurologic compromise necessitating immediate referral. Traumatic mechanisms combined with pain, neurologic deficits, advanced age, osteoporosis, or chronic steroid use raise concern for unstable vertebral fracture and demand prompt surgical evaluation.\nSevere spinal stenosis with progressive neurologic impairment and spondylolisthesis, accompanied by worsening weakness or disabling sciatica, also meets criteria for urgent referral. Persistent spine-related symptoms correlating with structural pathology on imaging may justify nonurgent referral to a spine surgeon when symptoms fail to improve with conservative therapy. Sciatica caused by a herniated lumbar disc that persists for 4 to 6 weeks despite nonoperative treatment represents a subgroup in which elective surgical evaluation may provide benefit.\nManagement of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents\nPediatric back pain treatments are less extensively studied. Activity modification, physical therapy, and NSAID use are broadly supported as 1st-line therapies. When serious pathology is present, treatment follows the standard of care for the underlying condition. Spondylolysis resulting from repetitive spinal stress is generally managed conservatively, similar to adults. However, young patients actively engaged in sports may require referral for surgical intervention.\n[49]\n[50]\nSymptoms persisting beyond 6 months of conservative therapy or Grade III or IV spondylolisthesis warrant evaluation by a pediatric spine surgeon.\n[51]\n[52]\nPatients with Scheuermann kyphosis may be managed conservatively with physical therapy and guided exercise if the spinal curvature is less than 60°. Bracing may be added for curvatures between 60° and 70°. Surgical correction is indicated for curvatures exceeding 75°, particularly if conservative measures fail and skeletal maturity is reached.\n[53]\n[54]\nIndications for surgical referral also include scoliotic spinal curvature of 20° or greater during peak growth, significant or progressive scoliosis, and atypical scoliosis.\n[55]\nUrgent surgical referral in children is indicated when back pain is accompanied by findings suggestive of infection, malignancy, or spinal cord compromise. Epidural abscess, presenting with fever, spinal pain, and neurologic deficits, requires immediate neurosurgical evaluation. Neoplastic processes, signaled by unremitting nighttime pain, weight loss, or myelopathic symptoms such as gait instability or limb weakness, also warrant rapid referral to neurosurgery.\nTethered cord syndrome, characterized by exertional back pain, bladder dysfunction, calf atrophy, diminished reflexes, dermatomal sensory loss, or progressive scoliosis, similarly requires urgent surgical assessment due to risk of progressive neurologic injury. Vertebral fractures associated with acute trauma, focal midline pain, radicular symptoms, or weakness necessitate immediate imaging and specialist evaluation because of potential instability or neural compression.\nSerious manifestations, including nighttime pain, systemic features, bowel or bladder dysfunction, or neurologic deficits, at any age demand prompt investigation and emergent specialty referral. These presentations reflect the higher likelihood of significant underlying spinal pathology in children.\n[56]\nDifferential Diagnosis\nThe following discussion covers adult and pediatric conditions that present with back pain, along with their associated symptoms and relevant physical examination findings. This compilation is not exhaustive but highlights the most common and clinically significant causes of this symptom in these populations.\nDifferential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Adults\nLumbosacral muscle strains and sprains typically result from traumatic incidents or repetitive overuse. Pain generally worsens with movement and improves with rest, and the range of motion is often restricted. Tenderness to palpation is commonly present. Lumbar spondylosis primarily affects patients older than 40 and may be accompanied by hip pain. Discomfort often occurs with lower limb extension or rotation, while neurologic examination findings are usually normal.\nDisc herniation most frequently involves the L4 to S1 segments and can produce paresthesia, sensory changes, and motor weakness, depending on the severity and affected nerve root. Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis are caused by repetitive spinal stress and may present with back pain radiating to the gluteal region and posterior thighs. \nVertebral compression fractures produce localized back pain that worsens with flexion and point tenderness on palpation. These injuries may be acute or chronic, with risk factors including steroid use, vitamin D deficiency, and osteoporosis. Spinal stenosis is characterized by leg sensory and motor weakness that is relieved with rest (neurologic claudication). Neurologic examination may initially appear normal but can worsen as stenosis progresses.\nSpinal tumors may present with unexplained weight loss, focal tenderness to palpation, or other risk factors for malignancy, with approximately 97% of spinal tumors being metastatic.\n[57]\nInfections of the spine should be suspected in patients with a history of spinal surgery within the past 12 months, intravenous drug use, or immunosuppression. Clinical features include fever, localized pain, tenderness, or spinal wounds. Common infectious causes encompass vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Tuberculosis should be considered in patients from endemic regions.\n[58]\nAcute or chronic aortic dissection can manifest as tearing back pain. The incidence is higher in older adults and is often associated with cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and aneurysms. In younger patients, dissection is typically linked to connective tissue disorders, including Marfan, Ehlers-Danlos, and Loeys-Dietz syndromes.\n[59]\n Vertebral fractures may result from trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, or osteoporosis and are most common in patients older than 70. Physical findings include contusions, abrasions, and tenderness over the spinous processes.\nDifferential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents\nTumors in pediatric patients may present with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Osteoid osteoma is the most common tumor causing back pain and is typically relieved by NSAID intake.\n[60]\n[61]\n[62]\n Infections are associated with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Patients may refuse to walk. Common conditions include vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Epidural abscess should be suspected if neurologic deficits or radicular pain are present.\n[63]\n[64]\nDisc herniation and slipped apophysis may present with acute back pain, radicular symptoms, and recent-onset scoliosis, with positive SLR test findings and pain on forward spinal flexion. Spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, and posterior arch lesions typically present with acute back pain and radicular symptoms, sometimes accompanied by hamstring tightness, with pain on spinal extension and positive SLR test results.\nVertebral fractures usually follow trauma but may occur as stress fractures, causing insidious onset and progressive postural changes. Muscle strain presents with acute localized tenderness without radiation. Scheuermann kyphosis is associated with chronic back pain and rigid kyphosis. Inflammatory spondyloarthropathies feature chronic pain, morning stiffness exceeding 30 minutes, and sacroiliac joint tenderness. Psychological disorders, including conversion or somatization, may cause persistent subjective pain despite normal physical findings. Idiopathic scoliosis is typically asymptomatic, with a positive Adam test result; reported back pain may have an alternative cause.\n[65]\nPrognosis\nIn adults, the prognosis of back pain depends on its etiology. Most nonspecific cases resolve without serious sequelae. The effectiveness of conservative therapy and patient education demonstrates the important contribution of psychosocial and contextual factors to symptom severity and disability. Chronic, disabling back pain is more likely with prior episodes, high symptom intensity, depression, fear-avoidant behavior, or accompanying leg or widespread symptoms.\n[66]\nSocial factors also significantly influence prognosis.\n[67]\nLow educational attainment, physically demanding work, inadequate compensation, and poor job satisfaction are associated with worse outcomes, including higher disability rates.\n[68]\n[69]\n Modifiable risk factors, such as a body mass index greater than 25 and smoking, are linked to persistent back pain.\n[70]\nFewer studies address pediatric back pain prognosis, but etiology appears similarly influential.\n[71]\nPain caused by malignancy is more likely to result in disability than muscle strain.\n[72]\nBehavioral comorbidities, including conduct problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, passive coping strategies, and fear-avoidant behavior, have been associated with poorer outcomes in younger patients.\n[73]\n[74]\n[75]\nComplications\nThe underlying etiology of back pain largely determines the risk of complications, which may be both physical and social. Physically, back pain can become chronic and may be associated with deformity, neurologic deficits, or both. Social consequences include disability, reduced productivity, and increased absenteeism. A 2015 study reported that back pain accounted for 60.1 million years of disability worldwide, making it the leading cause of global disability.\n[76]\nIn the U.S., low-back pain is the most common reason for disability.\n[77]\nEarly intervention helps prevent the progression to chronic pain and associated complications. Ambulation and maintenance of activity improve outcomes, whereas prolonged sedentariness and resultant obesity are associated with poorer prognosis.\nPostoperative and Rehabilitation Care\nThe underlying cause, patient comorbidities, and individual health goals guide back pain rehabilitation. The McKenzie method is frequently recommended for managing chronic nonspecific low-back pain.\n[78]\nClinical practice guidelines for physical therapy advocate manual therapy, trunk strengthening, centralization techniques, directional preference exercises, and progressive endurance training. Occupational therapy can support patients in managing activities of daily living and using adaptive equipment as needed. Additionally, employing assistive devices during patient transfers has been shown to reduce the incidence of low-back pain among female healthcare workers.\n[79]\n[80]\nDeterrence and Patient Education\nPatient education on preventing back pain recurrence or aggravation should be individualized. Adults with sedentary occupations should be encouraged to remain active to maintain a healthy body weight, as a body mass index greater than 25 is associated with worse outcomes. Individuals in physically demanding jobs should similarly remain active but avoid precipitating factors, such as heavy lifting and repetitive back twisting, by using lifting equipment or reducing load weight when necessary.\nAll patients should be counseled to avoid smoking, which increases back pain risk across all ages.\n[81]\n[82]\nIntensive education sessions lasting approximately 2.5 hours, covering activity modification, staying active, and early return to normal routines, have proven effective in promoting return to work among adults.\n[83]\nIn pediatric patients, evidence regarding bookbag weight as a risk factor is mixed. Nevertheless, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that bookbags not exceed 10% to 20% of a child’s body weight.\n[84]\nAlthough most back pain cases are self-limited, discharged patients should be instructed to seek immediate medical attention for concerning signs, such as sudden sensory or motor deficits.\nPearls and Other Issues\nFor adults, history and physical examination usually suffice to evaluate atraumatic, acute back pain in the absence of clinical red flags. Imaging tests should generally be deferred for 6 weeks to allow for symptom resolution.\n[85]\n[86]\nPatient education emphasizing the importance of remaining active constitutes the 1st-line treatment for nonspecific back pain. Evidence indicates that pharmacologic therapy and physical therapy do not consistently provide benefit. Second-line interventions may include treatment with NSAIDs, opioids, or SNRIs such as duloxetine, which are more effective than placebo for nonspecific chronic low-back pain.\n[87]\n[88]\nAcetaminophen, antidepressants other than SNRIs, lidocaine patches, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation units have not demonstrated consistent efficacy beyond placebo in chronic low-back pain.\n[89]\n[90]\nReferral to physical therapy for the McKenzie technique can help reduce recurrence risk.\n[91]\n[92]\nFor children, transient back pain following minor injury in the absence of abnormal physical findings may be managed conservatively without further evaluation. Indications for additional assessment include abnormal examination findings, persistent pain, nighttime pain, or radicular symptoms.\n[93]\nPlain anteroposterior and lateral films are recommended as 1st-line radiographic studies. Laboratory testing should be considered when clinical red flags are present, as thoracic malignancy and infection are more common in children, particularly those younger than 4 years.\n[94]\nEnhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes\nIntegrating the expertise of multiple healthcare professionals ensures comprehensive care, improved outcomes, and enhanced quality of life for individuals with back pain. The interprofessional team typically includes the primary care provider, nurse, pharmacist, nutritionist, physical therapist, occupational therapist, radiologist, and other medical specialists relevant to the individual case.\nThe primary care provider is the first medical professional to examine the patient. Evaluation begins with a thorough medical history and physical examination. The primary care provider determines the appropriate initial treatment, assesses the need for diagnostic testing, and decides on referrals to specialists. This provider also leads patient education and communicates follow-up recommendations. Education should emphasize smoking cessation and maintenance of a healthy body weight.\n[95]\nThe nurse reinforces key components of patient education and follow-up instructions. Evidence-based responses should be provided to questions regarding nonpharmacologic therapies and continued physical activity in back pain management. The nurse ensures the patient is clinically stable prior to discharge and that care plans are coordinated for subsequent appointments.\nIf the primary care provider prescribes medications, the pharmacist can educate patients on the specific benefits and risks of each drug for back pain. Proper administration instructions and the potential risks of overdose should be emphasized. The pharmacist should contact the primary care provider to clarify any uncertainties regarding the patient’s prescription.\nObesity is associated with poorer outcomes in patients with back pain. Nutritionists can guide patients in making healthier dietary choices and maintaining a healthy weight. In cases of obesity, an obesity medicine specialist may prescribe antiobesity medications as an adjunct to lifestyle modifications to support significant weight loss.\nThe physical therapist designs strength and endurance exercise programs to manage back pain and reduce the risk of recurrence. Physical therapy has also been shown to assist patients with back pain in reducing or discontinuing opioid use.\n[96]\nThe occupational therapist provides ergonomic guidance and recommends assistive devices to support back pain management in both work and home environments. The radiologist assists the primary care provider in interpreting imaging findings and can recommend additional imaging studies if necessary.\nThe primary care provider may refer patients to other specialists as indicated. A pain specialist can optimize pharmacologic therapy or perform interventional procedures for chronic back pain. A rheumatologist may be consulted when back pain is associated with signs of chronic inflammatory disease. Severe radiculopathy or neurologic deterioration warrants urgent referral to a neurosurgeon or orthopedic spine surgeon. Mental health therapists can provide stress-coping strategies, administer cognitive behavioral therapy, and implement other interventions for back pain with a significant psychological component.\n[97]\nAlternative medicine practitioners may also contribute to improving patient function.\nEffective communication among the interprofessional team is essential to avoid duplicating diagnostic tests. Conflicting treatments can also impede patient progress.\nFigure\nMultiple Myeloma Involving the Spine. This lateral lumbar spine x-ray shows lytic lesions in the L1 and L4 vertebral bodies. Contributed by Steve Lange, MD\nFigure\nType B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography. Axial computed tomography section at the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus demonstrates a dissection flap within the aortic lumen, separating the true and false lumens (Image A). Coronal\n(more...)\nFigure\nDegenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon. Sagittal computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates severe degenerative disc disease with near-complete disc height loss at the affected lumbar level, creating a bone-on-bone\n(more...)\nFigure\nFacet Arthropathy. Axial computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates bilateral lumbar facet joint arthropathy with joint space vacuum phenomenon, subchondral sclerosis, and hypertrophic osteophytic change. These degenerative changes can\n(more...)\nFigure\nDegenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis. Sagittal T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates anterior translation of L4 relative to L5, consistent with degenerative spondylolisthesis, resulting in L4 and L5 central canal stenosis\n(more...)\nReferences\n1.\nFreburger JK, Holmes GM, Agans RP, Jackman AM, Darter JD, Wallace AS, Castel LD, Kalsbeek WD, Carey TS. The rising prevalence of chronic low back pain.\nArch Intern Med.\n2009 Feb 09;\n169\n(3):251-8.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC4339077\n] [\nPubMed\n: 19204216\n]\n2.\nBarros G, McGrath L, Gelfenbeyn M. Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction in Patients With Low Back Pain.\nFed Pract.\n2019 Aug;\n36\n(8):370-375.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC6707638\n] [\nPubMed\n: 31456628\n]\n3.\nCohen SP, Chen Y, Neufeld NJ. Sacroiliac joint pain: a comprehensive review of epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment.\nExpert Rev Neurother.\n2013 Jan;\n13\n(1):99-116.\n[\nPubMed\n: 23253394\n]\n4.\nBuell KG, Sivasubramaniyam S, Sykes M, Zafar K, Bingham L, Mitra A. 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Psychosocial risks for disability in children with chronic back pain.\nJ Pain.\n2006 Apr;\n7\n(4):244-51.\n[\nPubMed\n: 16618468\n]\n73.\nKorovessis P, Repantis T, Baikousis A. Factors affecting low back pain in adolescents.\nJ Spinal Disord Tech.\n2010 Dec;\n23\n(8):513-20.\n[\nPubMed\n: 20075753\n]\n74.\nRamond A, Bouton C, Richard I, Roquelaure Y, Baufreton C, Legrand E, Huez JF. Psychosocial risk factors for chronic low back pain in primary care--a systematic review.\nFam Pract.\n2011 Feb;\n28\n(1):12-21.\n[\nPubMed\n: 20833704\n]\n75.\nMustard CA, Kalcevich C, Frank JW, Boyle M. Childhood and early adult predictors of risk of incident back pain: Ontario Child Health Study 2001 follow-up.\nAm J Epidemiol.\n2005 Oct 15;\n162\n(8):779-86.\n[\nPubMed\n: 16150891\n]\n76.\nGBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.\nLancet.\n2016 Oct 08;\n388\n(10053):1545-1602.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC5055577\n] [\nPubMed\n: 27733282\n]\n77.\nUS Burden of Disease Collaborators. Mokdad AH, Ballestros K, Echko M, Glenn S, Olsen HE, Mullany E, Lee A, Khan AR, Ahmadi A, Ferrari AJ, Kasaeian A, Werdecker A, Carter A, Zipkin B, Sartorius B, Serdar B, Sykes BL, Troeger C, Fitzmaurice C, Rehm CD, Santomauro D, Kim D, Colombara D, Schwebel DC, Tsoi D, Kolte D, Nsoesie E, Nichols E, Oren E, Charlson FJ, Patton GC, Roth GA, Hosgood HD, Whiteford HA, Kyu H, Erskine HE, Huang H, Martopullo I, Singh JA, Nachega JB, Sanabria JR, Abbas K, Ong K, Tabb K, Krohn KJ, Cornaby L, Degenhardt L, Moses M, Farvid M, Griswold M, Criqui M, Bell M, Nguyen M, Wallin M, Mirarefin M, Qorbani M, Younis M, Fullman N, Liu P, Briant P, Gona P, Havmoller R, Leung R, Kimokoti R, Bazargan-Hejazi S, Hay SI, Yadgir S, Biryukov S, Vollset SE, Alam T, Frank T, Farid T, Miller T, Vos T, Bärnighausen T, Gebrehiwot TT, Yano Y, Al-Aly Z, Mehari A, Handal A, Kandel A, Anderson B, Biroscak B, Mozaffarian D, Dorsey ER, Ding EL, Park EK, Wagner G, Hu G, Chen H, Sunshine JE, Khubchandani J, Leasher J, Leung J, Salomon J, Unutzer J, Cahill L, Cooper L, Horino M, Brauer M, Breitborde N, Hotez P, Topor-Madry R, Soneji S, Stranges S, James S, Amrock S, Jayaraman S, Patel T, Akinyemiju T, Skirbekk V, Kinfu Y, Bhutta Z, Jonas JB, Murray CJL. The State of US Health, 1990-2016: Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Among US States.\nJAMA.\n2018 Apr 10;\n319\n(14):1444-1472.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC5933332\n] [\nPubMed\n: 29634829\n]\n78.\nLam OT, Strenger DM, Chan-Fee M, Pham PT, Preuss RA, Robbins SM. Effectiveness of the McKenzie Method of Mechanical Diagnosis and Therapy for Treating Low Back Pain: Literature Review With Meta-analysis.\nJ Orthop Sports Phys Ther.\n2018 Jun;\n48\n(6):476-490.\n[\nPubMed\n: 29602304\n]\n79.\nDelitto A, George SZ, Van Dillen L, Whitman JM, Sowa G, Shekelle P, Denninger TR, Godges JJ., Orthopaedic Section of the American Physical Therapy Association.  Low back pain.\nJ Orthop Sports Phys Ther.\n2012 Apr;\n42\n(4):A1-57.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC4893951\n] [\nPubMed\n: 22466247\n]\n80.\nHoltermann A, Clausen T, Jørgensen MB, Aust B, Mortensen OS, Burdorf A, Fallentin N, Andersen LL. Does rare use of assistive devices during patient handling increase the risk of low back pain? A prospective cohort study among female healthcare workers.\nInt Arch Occup Environ Health.\n2015 Apr;\n88\n(3):335-42.\n[\nPubMed\n: 25053444\n]\n81.\nHestbaek L, Leboeuf-Yde C, Kyvik KO. Are lifestyle-factors in adolescence predictors for adult low back pain? A cross-sectional and prospective study of young twins.\nBMC Musculoskelet Disord.\n2006 Mar 15;\n7\n:27.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC1464095\n] [\nPubMed\n: 16539729\n]\n82.\nLeboeuf-Yde C. Smoking and low back pain. A systematic literature review of 41 journal articles reporting 47 epidemiologic studies.\nSpine (Phila Pa 1976).\n1999 Jul 15;\n24\n(14):1463-70.\n[\nPubMed\n: 10423792\n]\n83.\nEngers A, Jellema P, Wensing M, van der Windt DA, Grol R, van Tulder MW. Individual patient education for low back pain.\nCochrane Database Syst Rev.\n2008 Jan 23;\n2008\n(1):CD004057.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC6999124\n] [\nPubMed\n: 18254037\n]\n84.\nSkaggs DL, Early SD, D'Ambra P, Tolo VT, Kay RM. Back pain and backpacks in school children.\nJ Pediatr Orthop.\n2006 May-Jun;\n26\n(3):358-63.\n[\nPubMed\n: 16670549\n]\n85.\nChou R, Qaseem A, Owens DK, Shekelle P., Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians.  Diagnostic imaging for low back pain: advice for high-value health care from the American College of Physicians.\nAnn Intern Med.\n2011 Feb 01;\n154\n(3):181-9.\n[\nPubMed\n: 21282698\n]\n86.\nSaragiotto BT, Machado GC, Ferreira ML, Pinheiro MB, Abdel Shaheed C, Maher CG. Paracetamol for low back pain.\nCochrane Database Syst Rev.\n2016 Jun 07;\n2016\n(6):CD012230.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC6353046\n] [\nPubMed\n: 27271789\n]\n87.\nRoelofs PD, Deyo RA, Koes BW, Scholten RJ, van Tulder MW. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for low back pain: an updated Cochrane review.\nSpine (Phila Pa 1976).\n2008 Jul 15;\n33\n(16):1766-74.\n[\nPubMed\n: 18580547\n]\n88.\nvan Tulder MW, Touray T, Furlan AD, Solway S, Bouter LM. Muscle relaxants for non-specific low back pain.\nCochrane Database Syst Rev.\n2003;\n2003\n(2):CD004252.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC6464310\n] [\nPubMed\n: 12804507\n]\n89.\nUrquhart DM, Hoving JL, Assendelft WW, Roland M, van Tulder MW. Antidepressants for non-specific low back pain.\nCochrane Database Syst Rev.\n2008 Jan 23;\n2008\n(1):CD001703.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC7025781\n] [\nPubMed\n: 18253994\n]\n90.\nLong A, May S, Fung T. The comparative prognostic value of directional preference and centralization: a useful tool for front-line clinicians?\nJ Man Manip Ther.\n2008;\n16\n(4):248-54.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC2716154\n] [\nPubMed\n: 19771197\n]\n91.\nAina A, May S, Clare H. The centralization phenomenon of spinal symptoms--a systematic review.\nMan Ther.\n2004 Aug;\n9\n(3):134-43.\n[\nPubMed\n: 15245707\n]\n92.\nClare HA, Adams R, Maher CG. Reliability of McKenzie classification of patients with cervical or lumbar pain.\nJ Manipulative Physiol Ther.\n2005 Feb;\n28\n(2):122-7.\n[\nPubMed\n: 15800512\n]\n93.\nSzpalski M, Gunzburg R, Balagué F, Nordin M, Mélot C. A 2-year prospective longitudinal study on low back pain in primary school children.\nEur Spine J.\n2002 Oct;\n11\n(5):459-64.\n[\nPMC free article\n: PMC3611315\n] [\nPubMed\n: 12384754\n]\n94.\nFeldman DS, Straight JJ, Badra MI, Mohaideen A, Madan SS. Evaluation of an algorithmic approach to pediatric back pain.\nJ Pediatr Orthop.\n2006 May-Jun;\n26\n(3):353-7.\n[\nPubMed\n: 16670548\n]\n95.\nRoffey DM, Ashdown LC, Dornan HD, Creech MJ, Dagenais S, Dent RM, Wai EK. Pilot evaluation of a multidisciplinary, medically supervised, nonsurgical weight loss program on the severity of low back pain in obese adults.\nSpine J.\n2011 Mar;\n11\n(3):197-204.\n[\nPubMed\n: 21377601\n]\n96.\nArnold E, La Barrie J, DaSilva L, Patti M, Goode A, Clewley D. The Effect of Timing of Physical Therapy for Acute Low Back Pain on Health Services Utilization: A Systematic Review.\nArch Phys Med Rehabil.\n2019 Jul;\n100\n(7):1324-1338.\n[\nPubMed\n: 30684490\n]\n97.\nHajihasani A, Rouhani M, Salavati M, Hedayati R, Kahlaee AH. The Influence of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Pain, Quality of Life, and Depression in Patients Receiving Physical Therapy for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review.\nPM R.\n2019 Feb;\n11\n(2):167-176.\n[\nPubMed\n: 30266349\n]\nDisclosure:\nKonstantinos Margetis declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\nDisclosure:\nCharanjeet Singh declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\nDisclosure:\nVincent Casiano declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\nDisclosure:\nMatthew Varacallo declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.","attrs_markdown":"**Warning:** The NCBI web site requires JavaScript to function. 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A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.\n\nStatPearls \\[Internet\\]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-.\n\n[![Cover of StatPearls](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/corehtml\/pmc\/pmcgifs\/bookshelf\/thumbs\/th-statpearls-lrg.png)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/n\/statpearls\/ \"Table of Contents Page\")\n\n## StatPearls \\[Internet\\].\n[Show details](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#__NBK538173_dtls__)\n\nTreasure Island (FL): [StatPearls Publishing](https:\/\/www.statpearls.com\/); 2026 Jan-.\n\n# Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management\nKonstantinos Margetis; Charanjeet Singh; Vincent E. Casiano; Matthew A. Varacallo.\n\n[Author Information and Affiliations](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#__NBK538173_ai__)\n\n#### Authors\nKonstantinos Margetis1; Charanjeet Singh2; Vincent E. Casiano3; Matthew A. Varacallo4.\n\n#### Affiliations\n1 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai\n\n2 University of Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus\n\n3 Martin Army Community Hospital\n\n4 Penn Highlands Healthcare System\n\nLast Update: December 13, 2025.\n\n## Continuing Education Activity\nBack pain is a leading reason for seeking emergency care and contributes substantially to functional disability and healthcare burden. Mechanical and nonspecific disorders account for most presentations across all age groups, although etiology varies by developmental stage. Younger individuals more frequently exhibit acute muscular strain, ligamentous injury, or intervertebral disc herniation, while older adults demonstrate a higher prevalence of degenerative disc disease, facet arthropathy, osteoporotic compression fractures, and spinal stenosis. Risk is increased by occupational or athletic mechanical stress, physical deconditioning, obesity, and tobacco use. Nociceptive signaling may originate from paraspinal musculature, intervertebral discs, facet joints, or nerve roots, with symptom location, radiation, and neurologic deficits helping localize the underlying source.\n\nInitial evaluation relies on thorough history and physical examination, with imaging reserved for refractory symptoms, neurologic deficits, or red flag features indicating infection, malignancy, fracture, or spinal cord or cauda equina compression. Evidence-based management emphasizes activity as tolerated, analgesics when appropriate, and physical therapy interventions. Most acute cases resolve within several weeks. Persistent symptoms increase the likelihood of chronic pain development and long-term disability.\n\nThis activity for healthcare professionals is designed to improve learners' competence in evaluating and managing back pain. Participants will advance their mastery of the symptom's etiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Recognition of red flags for severe conditions will be emphasized. Greater skills will equip clinicians to collaborate confidently with interprofessional teams caring for affected individuals.\n\n**Objectives:**\n\n- Determine the etiology of back pain based on clinical and diagnostic features, with emphasis on recognizing red flags suggestive of emergent or high-risk conditions.\n- Implement evidence-based, personalized strategies for managing back pain and preventing its potential complications.\n- Improve patient awareness of mechanical versus serious causes, warning signs, safe activity, and strategies to enhance function and reduce chronic pain risk.\n- Collaborate with the interprofessional team to educate, treat, and monitor patients with back pain to improve functional and overall health outcomes.\n\n[Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.](https:\/\/www.statpearls.com\/account\/trialuserreg\/?articleid=18089&utm_source=pubmed&utm_campaign=reviews&utm_content=18089)\n\n## Introduction\nBack pain is one of the most common reasons for primary- and emergency-care consultations. An estimated \\$200 billion is spent annually on managing back pain. Additionally, work hours, productivity, and workers' compensation are greatly reduced due to this condition.[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r1)\n\nBack pain arises from a broad range of causes in adults and children, though most are mechanical in nature or have a nonspecific origin. Mechanical back pain comprises 90% of cases, so health providers can easily miss rare causes while focusing on common etiologies.[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r2)[\\[3\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r3)\n\nIdentifying red flags and determining the appropriate treatment are the most important aspects of back pain management. Most cases may be treated conservatively. Association with alarming signs, such as nerve dysfunction, warrants a thorough investigation and an interprofessional approach.[\\[4\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r4)\n\nPharmacological treatments include pain relievers targeting peripheral and central neurologic pathways, as well as muscle relaxants.[\\[5\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r5) Various forms of physical therapy are available for individuals who prefer nonpharmacological approaches or are recovering from injuries.[\\[6\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r6) Acupuncture is an alternative therapy shown to improve back pain moderately. Surgery is reserved for cases that are accompanied by severe nerve dysfunction, have resulted from serious causes such as malignancy, or manifest with refractory symptoms due to structural causes, such as spondylolisthesis.[\\[7\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r7)[\\[8\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r8) Significant back pain that does not resolve within 6 weeks of adequate conservative management may warrant imaging with radiography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).\n\nA thorough evaluation helps determine the cause of back pain and develop a tailored therapeutic plan. Addressing the underlying pathology significantly improves patients' functional capacity and quality of life.\n\n## Etiology\nBack pain arises from various conditions, which may be classified into the following:\n\n- Traumatic: Results from direct or indirect contact with an external force. Examples include whiplash injury, strain, and traumatic fractures.\n- Degenerative: Musculoskeletal structures weaken over time due to aging, overuse, or preexisting pathology. Examples include intervertebral disc herniation and degenerative disc disease (see **Image**. Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon).\n- Oncologic: Primary or secondary malignant lesions can develop in back structures. Pathologic fractures of the axial skeleton may occur as complications.\n- Infectious: Infections of musculoskeletal structures may arise from direct inoculation or hematogenous spread.\n- Inflammatory: Includes noninfectious, nonmalignant conditions. Examples are ankylosing spondylitis and sacroiliitis. Chronic inflammation may result in spinal arthritis.\n- Metabolic: Disorders of calcium and bone metabolism can cause symptoms. Examples encompass osteoporosis and osteosclerosis.\n- Vascular: Acute or chronic aortic dissection can present as tearing back pain, usually with abrupt onset and associated cardiovascular risk factors (Source: [Zakko and Reece](https:\/\/evtoday.com\/articles\/2024-apr\/type-b-aortic-dissection-presenting-as-sudden-onset-sharp-back-pain), 2024).\n- Referred pain: Visceral organ pathology may produce referred back pain. Examples include biliary colic, lung disease, and aortic or vertebral artery disorders.\n- Postural: Prolonged upright posture can contribute to back pain. Pregnancy and certain occupations increase risk.\n- Congenital: Inborn axial skeleton conditions can cause symptoms. Examples include kyphoscoliosis and a tethered spinal cord.\n- Psychiatric: Chronic pain syndromes and mental health conditions may present with back pain. Malingering may contribute to symptom amplification or inconsistent clinical findings.[\\[9\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r9)\n\nThe duration of symptoms is important, as acute and chronic back pain often have different etiologies. A thorough clinical evaluation and appropriate diagnostic testing are usually sufficient to determine the cause. Referral to specialists, such as neurosurgeons, orthopedic spine surgeons, neurologists, rheumatologists, physiatrists, or pain management providers, may be necessary for further evaluation and treatment planning.\n\n## Epidemiology\nBack pain is widespread among adults. Studies report that up to 23% of adults worldwide experience chronic low back pain, with 1-year recurrence rates ranging from 24% to 80%.[\\[10\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r10)[\\[11\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r11) The lifetime prevalence of back pain in adults may reach 84%.[\\[12\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r12)\n\nBack pain is less common in pediatric populations. A Scandinavian study found that point prevalence was approximately 1% among 12-year-olds and 5% among 15-year-olds. By age 18 for girls and 20 for boys, 50% of adolescents will have experienced at least 1 episode of back pain.[\\[13\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r13) Lifetime prevalence in adolescents increases progressively with age, approaching adult levels by 18.[\\[14\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r14)\n\n## Pathophysiology\nMechanical back pain develops when nociceptive elements within the spinal motion segment or adjacent soft tissues undergo overload or structural disruption. Acute episodes typically reflect sprain or strain of paraspinal musculature and supporting ligaments after a loaded segment is driven into excessive flexion, extension, or rotation. Eccentric contraction produces microscopic tearing near the myotendinous junction, followed by edema, inflammatory mediator release, and reflex spasm that sensitize local nociceptors and restrict segmental motion.\n\nChronic mechanical pain more frequently arises from degenerative intervertebral disc changes. Cumulative mechanical loading and endplate injury promote annular fissuring, proteoglycan loss, disc dehydration, and progressive collapse. The structurally compromised disc demonstrates abnormal load transfer, pathologic ingrowth of nociceptive nerve fibers and blood vessels, and heightened production of proinflammatory mediators, generating discogenic pain or radiculopathy.[\\[15\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r15)\n\nLumbar zygapophyseal (facet) joints, as synovial joints with richly innervated capsules, bear substantial axial load during extension. Repetitive shear and compression promote cartilage loss, osteophyte formation, capsular laxity or hypertrophy, and localized inflammation. Resulting capsular stretch or distension activates high- and low-threshold mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, producing referred pain to the back or buttocks. Persistent peripheral nociceptive drive from these structures may, in some cases, induce central sensitization and facilitate the transition from acute to chronic pain.[\\[16\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r16)\n\n## History and Physical\nDetermining the cause of back pain begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The onset of pain should be established early. Acute back pain, defined as back pain lasting less than 6 weeks, most often reflects mechanical strain or degenerative changes and less commonly results from trauma or abrupt progression of serious underlying disease such as malignancy. Chronic cases, lasting longer than 12 weeks, may involve mechanical dysfunction or arise from longstanding conditions.\n\nInformation regarding factors that provoke or alleviate the pain must be obtained. In addition to providing diagnostic clues, understanding these factors guides the clinician in selecting appropriate pain management strategies.\n\nPain quality assists in distinguishing visceral from nonvisceral sources. Well-localized pain often indicates an organic process. Any associated symptoms may offer additional insights into the underlying cause of back pain.\n\nOther pertinent information may be obtained from the patient’s medical, family, occupational, and social history. For example, a history of prior cancer chemotherapy should raise suspicion for metastasis or a secondary tumor. Certain autoimmune arthritides have a hereditary component. Pott disease, or spinal tuberculosis, may result from exposure in regions where tuberculosis is endemic. Prolonged sitting during work can contribute to both acute and chronic back pain.\n\nA focused physical examination should include inspection, auscultation, palpation, and provocative maneuvers. Visual inspection of the back may not reveal the cause unless deformity, signs of inflammation, or skin lesions are present. Auscultation is useful when back pain may be secondary to pulmonary pathology. Palpation can elicit localized musculoskeletal tenderness and help identify affected structures.\n\nCertain provocative maneuvers can provide diagnostic clues regarding the cause of back pain. The straight-leg-raising (SLR) test is useful for diagnosing lumbar disc herniation. The test is performed by raising the patient’s leg to 30° to 70°. A result is considered positive if ipsilateral leg pain occurs at less than 60°. The crossed SLR test involves raising the contralateral leg and is more specific than a standard SLR for identifying a disc herniation.[\\[17\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r17)[\\[18\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r18)\n\nThe Stork test, which evaluates for spondylolysis, is another clinically used maneuver. The examiner supports the patient while they stand on a leg and hyperextend their back. The maneuver is repeated on the opposite leg. The test result is positive if the patient experiences pain during hyperextension. The Adam test is used to evaluate scoliosis. The patient bends forward with feet together, arms extended, and palms touching. An examiner standing in front can detect a thoracic prominence in patients with scoliosis.[\\[19\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r19) Assessment of range of motion, limb strength, deep tendon reflexes, and sensation aids in evaluating the integrity of both musculoskeletal and neurologic systems.\n\nRed flags identified during history or physical examination warrant imaging and additional diagnostic testing. The signs explained below should be carefully monitored.\n\nIn adults, red flags for back pain include a history of metastatic cancer or unexplained weight loss, with focal tenderness to palpation in the presence of risk factors suggesting malignancy. Infection should be suspected in patients with recent spinal procedures, intravenous drug use, immunosuppression, or prior lumbar surgery, especially if fever, spinal wounds, localized pain, or tenderness is present.\n\nA systematic review of 40 observational studies demonstrated that individual red flags possess limited standalone diagnostic accuracy for serious thoracolumbar pathology and frequently generate high rates of false positive results. Vertebral fractures accounted for 0.4% to 5.6% of low back pain presentations. Posttest probabilities increased substantially only when advanced age, recent trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, and female sex occurred collectively rather than independently.\n\nFor spinal malignancy, the most informative red flags included a prior history of cancer, unexplained weight loss, persistent pain without improvement, and concerning overall clinical judgment. In contrast, isolated night pain or broad age thresholds produced numerous false positives. Across vertebral fracture, malignancy, infection, and cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic prediction models that integrated multiple red flags consistently demonstrated higher likelihood ratios than any single historical feature or physical examination finding.[\\[20\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r20)\n\nSymptoms suggestive of cauda equina syndrome require immediate recognition, as this condition constitutes a surgical emergency. New urinary retention, difficulty initiating micturition, bowel dysfunction, or sensory loss in the perineal or perianal region (“saddle anesthesia”) are key historical features. Bilateral sciatica, rapidly escalating leg pain, or new bilateral lower-extremity weakness further heighten concern, and the constellation of these findings indicates severe compression of the cauda equina nerve roots. Such presentations are strongly associated with massive midline disc herniation or other space-occupying lesions and demand urgent evaluation to prevent permanent neurologic deficit.\n\nFracture risk increases with significant trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, osteoporosis, or age over 70, and may be indicated by contusions, abrasions, or tenderness over spinous processes. Neurologic compromise is suggested by progressive motor or sensory loss, new urinary or fecal incontinence, saddle anesthesia, anal sphincter atony, or significant motor deficits across multiple myotomes.[\\[21\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r21)[\\[22\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r22)\n\nA focused neurological history should assess bladder and bowel function and document any perineal or perianal sensory loss, as these features suggest possible cauda equina or conus medullaris involvement. The neurological examination should include motor testing of key lumbosacral myotomes—hip flexion, knee extension, ankle dorsiflexion, ankle plantar flexion, great-toe extension, and foot eversion—to identify focal weakness patterns that correlate with specific nerve root compression.\n\nIn pediatric patients, malignancy should be considered in children who are younger than 4 years or experience nighttime pain, particularly when focal tenderness is present. Infection risk increases in children who are younger than 4, report nighttime pain, or have a history of tuberculosis exposure, especially if fever, spinal wounds, or localized tenderness occurs. Inflammatory causes are suggested by morning stiffness lasting more than 30 minutes, improving with activity or heat, accompanied by a limited range of motion and localized tenderness. Fractures may result from repetitive lumbar hyperextension during sports, with tenderness over spinous processes or a positive Stork test result.[\\[23\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r23)[\\[24\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r24)\n\nRecent recommendations for children and adolescents consolidate red flag features that warrant evaluation for specific spinal disease. Concerning findings include age younger than 10 years, significant trauma, prior or current glucocorticoid therapy, motor or sensory deficits, radicular pain, bladder or bowel dysfunction, fever, lymphadenopathy, structural deformity, and focal compression tenderness.\n\nThe same publication identifies evidence-based risk factors for nonspecific pediatric back pain. Increasing age in adolescence, female sex, high levels of sports participation, prior pain episodes, and psychosocial factors—such as low life satisfaction, anxiety, and depression—demonstrate strong associations, and several additional contributors also predict a chronic course. Incorporation of these red and yellow flags into routine pediatric history taking assists in distinguishing children who require prompt imaging or specialty referral from those who are suitable for initial conservative management and observation.[\\[25\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r25)\n\n**Four-Category Diagnostic Framework for Back Pain**\n\nDuring the initial history and physical examination, back pain presentations can be organized into 4 diagnostic groups that direct subsequent evaluation and management:\n\n- Nonspecific mechanical pain\n- Pain arising from radiculopathy or spinal stenosis\n- Pain referred from nonspinal sources\n- Pain associated with specific or nonmechanical spinal pathology, including infection, fracture, inflammatory disease, or malignancy [\\[26\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r26)[\\[27\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r27)\n\nThis diagnostic framework clarifies the likely source of pain and prioritizes the most appropriate investigative pathway. Correct classification ensures that high-risk conditions receive urgent evaluation, while stable cases proceed with conservative care.\n\n## Evaluation\nHistory and physical examination are sufficient to determine the cause of back pain in most cases. Early imaging in adults has been associated with poorer outcomes, as it often leads to more invasive interventions that provide minimal benefit.[\\[28\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r28)[\\[29\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r29) Similar findings are reported in pediatric populations.\n\nFewer than 5% to 10% of low back pain presentations result from specific spinal pathology, whereas 90% to 95% reflect nonspecific mechanical pain suitable for conservative management without routine imaging. Degenerative changes, including disc degeneration, disc bulging, and facet arthropathy, are highly prevalent in asymptomatic adults (see **Image**. Facet Arthropathy). Disc degeneration occurs in more than 80% of adults older than 50. Therefore, imaging findings must be interpreted cautiously and within the clinical context.[\\[30\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r30)\n\nNevertheless, the presence of concerning signs warrants diagnostic evaluation. In adults, imaging is indicated for back pain persisting longer than 6 weeks despite appropriate conservative management. In children, imaging is recommended for continuous pain lasting more than 4 weeks.\n\nPlain anteroposterior and lateral films of the axial skeleton can detect bone pathology (see **Image**. Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine). MRI is indicated for the evaluation of soft tissue lesions, including nerves, intervertebral discs, and tendons. Both imaging modalities can identify signs of malignancy and inflammation, but MRI is preferred when soft tissues are involved.[\\[31\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r31)[\\[32\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r32)\n\nBone scans may demonstrate osteomyelitis, discitis, and stress reactions but are inferior to MRI for assessing these conditions.[\\[33\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r33) Single-photon emission computed tomography–CT (SPECT-CT) can aid diagnosis when MRI results are inconclusive, particularly in patients with prior spinal instrumentation, but it is not recommended as a primary imaging modality.[\\[34\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r34) CT or magnetic resonance angiography should be performed in cases of suspected aortic dissection (see **Image**. Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography).[\\[35\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r35) (Source: [Alexiou and Sritharan](https:\/\/bestpractice.bmj.com\/topics\/en-gb\/445), 2025) Adolescents with MRI evidence of disc herniation may require a CT scan to confirm or exclude apophyseal ring separation, which occurs in approximately 5.7% of these patients.[\\[36\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r36)\n\nElectromyography or nerve conduction studies are indicated in patients with prior spinal surgery who may present with radiculopathy or plexopathy. Image-guided diagnostic injections can help confirm sacroiliac joint disease.\n\nLaboratory evaluation may be necessary in selected cases of back pain. Rheumatologic assays, including human leukocyte antigen B27, antinuclear antibody, rheumatoid factor, and Lyme antibodies, are generally nonspecific and not routinely helpful.[\\[37\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r37)[\\[38\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r38) Inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, can provide clinically useful information.[\\[39\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r39) A complete blood count and blood cultures may aid in diagnosing inflammatory, infectious, or malignant processes. Elevated lactate dehydrogenase and uric acid levels are frequently observed in conditions associated with rapid marrow turnover, such as leukemia.[\\[40\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r40)\n\n**Applying the Four-Category Model to Guide Testing and Management**\n\nThe diagnostic evaluation can be structured according to the 4-category framework. In patients with nonspecific low back pain and absence of red flag features, imaging is typically deferred for 1 to 2 months, as early radiography does not improve outcomes and often reveals incidental findings that do not alter management. When history or examination indicates specific spinal pathology, such as radiculopathy or spinal stenosis, MRI may be employed to confirm neural compression and guide interventional or surgical planning (see **Image**. Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis). Features suggestive of a nonspinal source—eg, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, vascular, or gynecologic—prompt targeted evaluation of the relevant organ system rather than spine-focused studies.\n\nLaboratory testing and more extensive imaging, often expedited, are reserved for the nonmechanical spinal category. Clues such as fever, night pain, unexplained weight loss, persistent rest pain, or progressive neurologic deficit raise suspicion for infection, malignancy, or inflammatory spondyloarthropathy and justify erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein testing, complete blood count, and early MRI. Application of this structured approach allows conservative management for most patients with nonspecific pain while ensuring timely identification of specific spinal, nonspinal, or systemic pathology requiring intensive evaluation.\n\n## Treatment \/ Management\nAdult and pediatric back pain require distinct management strategies. Many cases have an unidentifiable cause, although degenerative disease and musculoskeletal injury are more prevalent in adults. Overuse and muscle strain are more common precipitants in children and adolescents. Rare etiologies, including malignancy and metabolic disorders, manifest differently across age groups. Consequently, treatment must be tailored to both the underlying condition and the patient’s age.\n\n**Management of Back Pain in Adults**\n\nSerious conditions must be excluded initially for acute back pain in adults. The patient should be reassured and provided with symptomatic relief if no indications for further testing are present. The 1st-line management is nonpharmacological and includes early return to normal routines, except for heavy labor, avoidance of pain-provoking activities, and patient education.\n\nSecond-line options may include the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), muscle relaxants, or opioids, spinal manipulation, physical therapy, superficial heat application, and alternative treatments such as acupuncture or massage. Education regarding the potential causes of back pain should be individualized to each patient’s circumstances, as it plays a critical role in preventing symptom aggravation or recurrence. Follow-up is typically recommended after 2 weeks, with resumption of normal activities encouraged if the patient is asymptomatic at that time.\n\nIn adult patients with acute back pain with radiculopathy, management may include NSAID therapy, exercise, traction, or spinal manipulation. Diazepam and systemic steroids provide no additional benefit. Diagnostic testing is indicated if serious conditions cannot be excluded, and referral to appropriate specialists should be considered for further evaluation or treatment.\n\nManagement of chronic back pain follows a similar approach. Serious conditions must be ruled out first. For nonspecific pain, patients should remain active and avoid precipitating factors. Exercise therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are considered 1st-line treatments.[\\[41\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r41)[\\[42\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r42) Second-line options include spinal manipulation, massage, acupuncture, yoga, stress reduction, intake of NSAIDs or selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and interprofessional rehabilitation.[\\[43\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r43)[\\[44\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r44)[\\[45\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r45)\n\nThe effectiveness of anticonvulsants such as gabapentin and topiramate is uncertain.[\\[46\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r46)[\\[47\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r47) Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units do not appear more effective than placebo for chronic back pain.[\\[48\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r48)\n\n**Referral to pain management**\n\nReferral to pain management is indicated when low back pain persists despite adequate conservative treatment and limits daily function. Persistent severe functional impairment, unremitting pain, or plateaued improvement warrants evaluation by a pain specialist. A lower threshold for referral applies to radicular or stenotic symptoms that fail to improve, as these patients may benefit from interventional options, including epidural steroid injections. Pain extending beyond the normal period of tissue healing should prompt specialized assessment and management to interrupt progression toward chronicity and prevent deconditioning.\n\n**Surgical referral**\n\nUrgent surgical referral is required when clinical findings indicate potential spinal cord or nerve root compromise, infection, fracture, or malignancy. Cauda equina syndrome is the most critical indication and constitutes a surgical emergency, identified by new urinary retention or overflow incontinence, saddle anesthesia, bilateral sciatica, or bilateral lower-extremity weakness. Rapidly progressive or severe neurologic deficits, including worsening motor weakness or sensory loss, similarly warrant immediate evaluation.\n\nFeatures suggestive of spinal infection, including fever, recent spinal procedures, immunosuppression, intravenous drug use, or severe focal vertebral tenderness, require urgent assessment, as they may indicate osteomyelitis, epidural abscess, or septic discitis. Malignancy should be suspected in cases of unexplained weight loss, prior history of cancer, persistent night pain, or focal vertebral tenderness, with concurrent neurologic compromise necessitating immediate referral. Traumatic mechanisms combined with pain, neurologic deficits, advanced age, osteoporosis, or chronic steroid use raise concern for unstable vertebral fracture and demand prompt surgical evaluation.\n\nSevere spinal stenosis with progressive neurologic impairment and spondylolisthesis, accompanied by worsening weakness or disabling sciatica, also meets criteria for urgent referral. Persistent spine-related symptoms correlating with structural pathology on imaging may justify nonurgent referral to a spine surgeon when symptoms fail to improve with conservative therapy. Sciatica caused by a herniated lumbar disc that persists for 4 to 6 weeks despite nonoperative treatment represents a subgroup in which elective surgical evaluation may provide benefit.\n\n**Management of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents**\n\nPediatric back pain treatments are less extensively studied. Activity modification, physical therapy, and NSAID use are broadly supported as 1st-line therapies. When serious pathology is present, treatment follows the standard of care for the underlying condition. Spondylolysis resulting from repetitive spinal stress is generally managed conservatively, similar to adults. However, young patients actively engaged in sports may require referral for surgical intervention.[\\[49\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r49)[\\[50\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r50) Symptoms persisting beyond 6 months of conservative therapy or Grade III or IV spondylolisthesis warrant evaluation by a pediatric spine surgeon.[\\[51\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r51)[\\[52\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r52)\n\nPatients with Scheuermann kyphosis may be managed conservatively with physical therapy and guided exercise if the spinal curvature is less than 60°. Bracing may be added for curvatures between 60° and 70°. Surgical correction is indicated for curvatures exceeding 75°, particularly if conservative measures fail and skeletal maturity is reached.[\\[53\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r53)[\\[54\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r54) Indications for surgical referral also include scoliotic spinal curvature of 20° or greater during peak growth, significant or progressive scoliosis, and atypical scoliosis.[\\[55\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r55)\n\nUrgent surgical referral in children is indicated when back pain is accompanied by findings suggestive of infection, malignancy, or spinal cord compromise. Epidural abscess, presenting with fever, spinal pain, and neurologic deficits, requires immediate neurosurgical evaluation. Neoplastic processes, signaled by unremitting nighttime pain, weight loss, or myelopathic symptoms such as gait instability or limb weakness, also warrant rapid referral to neurosurgery.\n\nTethered cord syndrome, characterized by exertional back pain, bladder dysfunction, calf atrophy, diminished reflexes, dermatomal sensory loss, or progressive scoliosis, similarly requires urgent surgical assessment due to risk of progressive neurologic injury. Vertebral fractures associated with acute trauma, focal midline pain, radicular symptoms, or weakness necessitate immediate imaging and specialist evaluation because of potential instability or neural compression.\n\nSerious manifestations, including nighttime pain, systemic features, bowel or bladder dysfunction, or neurologic deficits, at any age demand prompt investigation and emergent specialty referral. These presentations reflect the higher likelihood of significant underlying spinal pathology in children.[\\[56\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r56)\n\n## Differential Diagnosis\nThe following discussion covers adult and pediatric conditions that present with back pain, along with their associated symptoms and relevant physical examination findings. This compilation is not exhaustive but highlights the most common and clinically significant causes of this symptom in these populations.\n\n**Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Adults**\n\nLumbosacral muscle strains and sprains typically result from traumatic incidents or repetitive overuse. Pain generally worsens with movement and improves with rest, and the range of motion is often restricted. Tenderness to palpation is commonly present. Lumbar spondylosis primarily affects patients older than 40 and may be accompanied by hip pain. Discomfort often occurs with lower limb extension or rotation, while neurologic examination findings are usually normal.\n\nDisc herniation most frequently involves the L4 to S1 segments and can produce paresthesia, sensory changes, and motor weakness, depending on the severity and affected nerve root. Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis are caused by repetitive spinal stress and may present with back pain radiating to the gluteal region and posterior thighs.\n\nVertebral compression fractures produce localized back pain that worsens with flexion and point tenderness on palpation. These injuries may be acute or chronic, with risk factors including steroid use, vitamin D deficiency, and osteoporosis. Spinal stenosis is characterized by leg sensory and motor weakness that is relieved with rest (neurologic claudication). Neurologic examination may initially appear normal but can worsen as stenosis progresses.\n\nSpinal tumors may present with unexplained weight loss, focal tenderness to palpation, or other risk factors for malignancy, with approximately 97% of spinal tumors being metastatic.[\\[57\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r57) Infections of the spine should be suspected in patients with a history of spinal surgery within the past 12 months, intravenous drug use, or immunosuppression. Clinical features include fever, localized pain, tenderness, or spinal wounds. Common infectious causes encompass vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Tuberculosis should be considered in patients from endemic regions.[\\[58\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r58)\n\nAcute or chronic aortic dissection can manifest as tearing back pain. The incidence is higher in older adults and is often associated with cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and aneurysms. In younger patients, dissection is typically linked to connective tissue disorders, including Marfan, Ehlers-Danlos, and Loeys-Dietz syndromes.[\\[59\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r59) Vertebral fractures may result from trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, or osteoporosis and are most common in patients older than 70. Physical findings include contusions, abrasions, and tenderness over the spinous processes.\n\n**Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents**\n\nTumors in pediatric patients may present with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Osteoid osteoma is the most common tumor causing back pain and is typically relieved by NSAID intake.[\\[60\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r60)[\\[61\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r61)[\\[62\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r62) Infections are associated with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Patients may refuse to walk. Common conditions include vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Epidural abscess should be suspected if neurologic deficits or radicular pain are present.[\\[63\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r63)[\\[64\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r64)\n\nDisc herniation and slipped apophysis may present with acute back pain, radicular symptoms, and recent-onset scoliosis, with positive SLR test findings and pain on forward spinal flexion. Spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, and posterior arch lesions typically present with acute back pain and radicular symptoms, sometimes accompanied by hamstring tightness, with pain on spinal extension and positive SLR test results.\n\nVertebral fractures usually follow trauma but may occur as stress fractures, causing insidious onset and progressive postural changes. Muscle strain presents with acute localized tenderness without radiation. Scheuermann kyphosis is associated with chronic back pain and rigid kyphosis. Inflammatory spondyloarthropathies feature chronic pain, morning stiffness exceeding 30 minutes, and sacroiliac joint tenderness. Psychological disorders, including conversion or somatization, may cause persistent subjective pain despite normal physical findings. Idiopathic scoliosis is typically asymptomatic, with a positive Adam test result; reported back pain may have an alternative cause.[\\[65\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r65)\n\n## Prognosis\nIn adults, the prognosis of back pain depends on its etiology. Most nonspecific cases resolve without serious sequelae. The effectiveness of conservative therapy and patient education demonstrates the important contribution of psychosocial and contextual factors to symptom severity and disability. Chronic, disabling back pain is more likely with prior episodes, high symptom intensity, depression, fear-avoidant behavior, or accompanying leg or widespread symptoms.[\\[66\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r66)\n\nSocial factors also significantly influence prognosis.[\\[67\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r67) Low educational attainment, physically demanding work, inadequate compensation, and poor job satisfaction are associated with worse outcomes, including higher disability rates.[\\[68\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r68)[\\[69\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r69) Modifiable risk factors, such as a body mass index greater than 25 and smoking, are linked to persistent back pain.[\\[70\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r70)\n\nFewer studies address pediatric back pain prognosis, but etiology appears similarly influential.[\\[71\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r71) Pain caused by malignancy is more likely to result in disability than muscle strain.[\\[72\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r72) Behavioral comorbidities, including conduct problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, passive coping strategies, and fear-avoidant behavior, have been associated with poorer outcomes in younger patients.[\\[73\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r73)[\\[74\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r74)[\\[75\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r75)\n\n## Complications\nThe underlying etiology of back pain largely determines the risk of complications, which may be both physical and social. Physically, back pain can become chronic and may be associated with deformity, neurologic deficits, or both. Social consequences include disability, reduced productivity, and increased absenteeism. A 2015 study reported that back pain accounted for 60.1 million years of disability worldwide, making it the leading cause of global disability.[\\[76\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r76) In the U.S., low-back pain is the most common reason for disability.[\\[77\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r77)\n\nEarly intervention helps prevent the progression to chronic pain and associated complications. Ambulation and maintenance of activity improve outcomes, whereas prolonged sedentariness and resultant obesity are associated with poorer prognosis.\n\n## Postoperative and Rehabilitation Care\nThe underlying cause, patient comorbidities, and individual health goals guide back pain rehabilitation. The McKenzie method is frequently recommended for managing chronic nonspecific low-back pain.[\\[78\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r78) Clinical practice guidelines for physical therapy advocate manual therapy, trunk strengthening, centralization techniques, directional preference exercises, and progressive endurance training. Occupational therapy can support patients in managing activities of daily living and using adaptive equipment as needed. Additionally, employing assistive devices during patient transfers has been shown to reduce the incidence of low-back pain among female healthcare workers.[\\[79\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r79)[\\[80\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r80)\n\n## Deterrence and Patient Education\nPatient education on preventing back pain recurrence or aggravation should be individualized. Adults with sedentary occupations should be encouraged to remain active to maintain a healthy body weight, as a body mass index greater than 25 is associated with worse outcomes. Individuals in physically demanding jobs should similarly remain active but avoid precipitating factors, such as heavy lifting and repetitive back twisting, by using lifting equipment or reducing load weight when necessary.\n\nAll patients should be counseled to avoid smoking, which increases back pain risk across all ages.[\\[81\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r81)[\\[82\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r82) Intensive education sessions lasting approximately 2.5 hours, covering activity modification, staying active, and early return to normal routines, have proven effective in promoting return to work among adults.[\\[83\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r83)\n\nIn pediatric patients, evidence regarding bookbag weight as a risk factor is mixed. Nevertheless, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that bookbags not exceed 10% to 20% of a child’s body weight.[\\[84\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r84) Although most back pain cases are self-limited, discharged patients should be instructed to seek immediate medical attention for concerning signs, such as sudden sensory or motor deficits.\n\n## Pearls and Other Issues\nFor adults, history and physical examination usually suffice to evaluate atraumatic, acute back pain in the absence of clinical red flags. Imaging tests should generally be deferred for 6 weeks to allow for symptom resolution.[\\[85\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r85)[\\[86\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r86)\n\nPatient education emphasizing the importance of remaining active constitutes the 1st-line treatment for nonspecific back pain. Evidence indicates that pharmacologic therapy and physical therapy do not consistently provide benefit. Second-line interventions may include treatment with NSAIDs, opioids, or SNRIs such as duloxetine, which are more effective than placebo for nonspecific chronic low-back pain.[\\[87\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r87)[\\[88\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r88) Acetaminophen, antidepressants other than SNRIs, lidocaine patches, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation units have not demonstrated consistent efficacy beyond placebo in chronic low-back pain.[\\[89\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r89)[\\[90\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r90) Referral to physical therapy for the McKenzie technique can help reduce recurrence risk.[\\[91\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r91)[\\[92\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r92)\n\nFor children, transient back pain following minor injury in the absence of abnormal physical findings may be managed conservatively without further evaluation. Indications for additional assessment include abnormal examination findings, persistent pain, nighttime pain, or radicular symptoms.[\\[93\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r93) Plain anteroposterior and lateral films are recommended as 1st-line radiographic studies. Laboratory testing should be considered when clinical red flags are present, as thoracic malignancy and infection are more common in children, particularly those younger than 4 years.[\\[94\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r94)\n\n## Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes\nIntegrating the expertise of multiple healthcare professionals ensures comprehensive care, improved outcomes, and enhanced quality of life for individuals with back pain. The interprofessional team typically includes the primary care provider, nurse, pharmacist, nutritionist, physical therapist, occupational therapist, radiologist, and other medical specialists relevant to the individual case.\n\nThe primary care provider is the first medical professional to examine the patient. Evaluation begins with a thorough medical history and physical examination. The primary care provider determines the appropriate initial treatment, assesses the need for diagnostic testing, and decides on referrals to specialists. This provider also leads patient education and communicates follow-up recommendations. Education should emphasize smoking cessation and maintenance of a healthy body weight.[\\[95\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r95)\n\nThe nurse reinforces key components of patient education and follow-up instructions. Evidence-based responses should be provided to questions regarding nonpharmacologic therapies and continued physical activity in back pain management. The nurse ensures the patient is clinically stable prior to discharge and that care plans are coordinated for subsequent appointments.\n\nIf the primary care provider prescribes medications, the pharmacist can educate patients on the specific benefits and risks of each drug for back pain. Proper administration instructions and the potential risks of overdose should be emphasized. The pharmacist should contact the primary care provider to clarify any uncertainties regarding the patient’s prescription.\n\nObesity is associated with poorer outcomes in patients with back pain. Nutritionists can guide patients in making healthier dietary choices and maintaining a healthy weight. In cases of obesity, an obesity medicine specialist may prescribe antiobesity medications as an adjunct to lifestyle modifications to support significant weight loss.\n\nThe physical therapist designs strength and endurance exercise programs to manage back pain and reduce the risk of recurrence. Physical therapy has also been shown to assist patients with back pain in reducing or discontinuing opioid use.[\\[96\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r96) The occupational therapist provides ergonomic guidance and recommends assistive devices to support back pain management in both work and home environments. The radiologist assists the primary care provider in interpreting imaging findings and can recommend additional imaging studies if necessary.\n\nThe primary care provider may refer patients to other specialists as indicated. A pain specialist can optimize pharmacologic therapy or perform interventional procedures for chronic back pain. A rheumatologist may be consulted when back pain is associated with signs of chronic inflammatory disease. Severe radiculopathy or neurologic deterioration warrants urgent referral to a neurosurgeon or orthopedic spine surgeon. Mental health therapists can provide stress-coping strategies, administer cognitive behavioral therapy, and implement other interventions for back pain with a significant psychological component.[\\[97\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r97) Alternative medicine practitioners may also contribute to improving patient function.\n\nEffective communication among the interprofessional team is essential to avoid duplicating diagnostic tests. Conflicting treatments can also impede patient progress.\n\n## Review Questions\n- [Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.](https:\/\/www.statpearls.com\/account\/trialuserreg\/?articleid=18089&utm_source=pubmed&utm_campaign=reviews&utm_content=18089)\n- [Click here for a simplified version.](https:\/\/mdsearchlight.com\/joint-muscle-and-bone\/back-pain-back-pain\/?utm_source=pubmedlink&utm_campaign=MDS&utm_content=18089)\n- [Comment on this article.](https:\/\/www.statpearls.com\/articlelibrary\/commentarticle\/18089\/?utm_source=pubmed&utm_campaign=comments&utm_content=18089)\n\n[![Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/Multiple__myeloma.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f1\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f1\/?report=objectonly)\nMultiple Myeloma Involving the Spine. This lateral lumbar spine x-ray shows lytic lesions in the L1 and L4 vertebral bodies. Contributed by Steve Lange, MD\n\n[![Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/Picture1.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f2\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f2\/?report=objectonly)\nType B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography. Axial computed tomography section at the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus demonstrates a dissection flap within the aortic lumen, separating the true and false lumens (Image A). Coronal [(more...)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f2\/?report=objectonly)\n\n[![Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/degenerative__disc__disease.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f3\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f3\/?report=objectonly)\nDegenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon. Sagittal computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates severe degenerative disc disease with near-complete disc height loss at the affected lumbar level, creating a bone-on-bone [(more...)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f3\/?report=objectonly)\n\n[![Facet Arthropathy](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/facet__arthropathy.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f4\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f4\/?report=objectonly)\nFacet Arthropathy. Axial computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates bilateral lumbar facet joint arthropathy with joint space vacuum phenomenon, subchondral sclerosis, and hypertrophic osteophytic change. These degenerative changes can [(more...)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f4\/?report=objectonly)\n\n[![Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/spondylolisthesis.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f5\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f5\/?report=objectonly)\nDegenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis. Sagittal T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates anterior translation of L4 relative to L5, consistent with degenerative spondylolisthesis, resulting in L4 and L5 central canal stenosis [(more...)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f5\/?report=objectonly)\n\n## References\n1\\.\n\nFreburger JK, Holmes GM, Agans RP, Jackman AM, Darter JD, Wallace AS, Castel LD, Kalsbeek WD, Carey TS. The rising prevalence of chronic low back pain. Arch Intern Med. 2009 Feb 09;169(3):251-8. \\[[PMC free article: PMC4339077](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4339077\/)\\] \\[[PubMed: 19204216](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/19204216)\\]\n\n2\\.\n\nBarros G, McGrath L, Gelfenbeyn M. Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction in Patients With Low Back Pain. 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PM R. 2019 Feb;11(2):167-176. \\[[PubMed: 30266349](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30266349)\\]\n\n**Disclosure:** Konstantinos Margetis declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\n\n**Disclosure:** Charanjeet Singh declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\n\n**Disclosure:** Vincent Casiano declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\n\n**Disclosure:** Matthew Varacallo declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\n\n[Copyright](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/about\/copyright\/) © 2026, StatPearls Publishing LLC.\n\nThis book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( [http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/](https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/) ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.\n\nBookshelf ID: NBK538173PMID: [30844200](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30844200 \"PubMed record of this page\")\n\n[Share](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/)\n\n### Views\n- [PubReader](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/?report=reader)\n- [Print View](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/?report=printable)\n- [Cite this Page](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK538173)\n  Margetis K, Singh C, Casiano VE, et al. Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management. \\[Updated 2025 Dec 13\\]. In: StatPearls \\[Internet\\]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-.\n\n### In this Page\n- [Continuing Education Activity](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s1)\n- [Introduction](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s2)\n- [Etiology](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s3)\n- [Epidemiology](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s4)\n- [Pathophysiology](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s5)\n- [History and Physical](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s6)\n- [Evaluation](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s7)\n- [Treatment \/ Management](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s8)\n- [Differential Diagnosis](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s9)\n- [Prognosis](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s10)\n- [Complications](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s11)\n- [Postoperative and Rehabilitation Care](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s12)\n- [Deterrence and Patient Education](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s13)\n- [Pearls and Other Issues](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s14)\n- [Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s15)\n- [Review Questions](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s16)\n- [References](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.s22)\n\n### Related information\n- [PMC](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/?Db=pmc&DbFrom=books&Cmd=Link&LinkName=books_pmc_refs&IdsFromResult=4731680)\n  PubMed Central citations\n- [PubMed](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/?Db=pubmed&DbFrom=books&Cmd=Link&LinkName=books_pubmed_refs&IdsFromResult=4731680)\n  Links to PubMed\n\n### Similar articles in PubMed\n- [Shoulder Arthrogram.](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/35593869)\\[StatPearls. 2026\\]\n  Shoulder Arthrogram.\n  \n  *Roberts CC, Escobar E.* *StatPearls. 2026 Jan*\n- [NP Safe Prescribing of Controlled Substances While Avoiding Drug Diversion.](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/33232099)\\[StatPearls. 2026\\]\n  NP Safe Prescribing of Controlled Substances While Avoiding Drug Diversion.\n  \n  *Dydyk AM, Sizemore DC, Haddad LM, Lindsay L, Porter BR.* *StatPearls. 2026 Jan*\n- [Vesicoureteral Reflux.](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/33085409)\\[StatPearls. 2026\\]\n  Vesicoureteral Reflux.\n  \n  *Leslie SW, Aeddula NR.* *StatPearls. 2026 Jan*\n- [Review Mechanical Low Back Pain.](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/30252425)\\[Am Fam Physician. 2018\\]\n  Review Mechanical Low Back Pain.\n  \n  *Will JS, Bury DC, Miller JA.* *Am Fam Physician. 2018 Oct 1; 98(7):421-428.*\n- [Review Red flags to screen for vertebral fracture in people presenting with low back pain.](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/37615643)\\[Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023\\]\n  Review Red flags to screen for vertebral fracture in people presenting with low back pain.\n  \n  *Han CS, Hancock MJ, Downie A, Jarvik JG, Koes BW, Machado GC, Verhagen AP, Williams CM, Chen Q, Maher CG.* *Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Aug 24; 8(8):CD014461. Epub 2023 Aug 24.*\n\n[See reviews...](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/sites\/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=link&linkname=pubmed_pubmed_reviews&uid=30844200)[See all...](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/sites\/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=link&linkname=pubmed_pubmed&uid=30844200)\n\n### Recent Activity\n[Clear]()[Turn Off]()[Turn On]()\n\n- [Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management - StatPearls](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/portal\/utils\/pageresolver.fcgi?recordid=69ccec5af7dc4e68e7f423ca)\n  Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management - StatPearls\n\nYour browsing activity is empty.\n\nActivity recording is turned off.\n\n[Turn recording back on]()\n\n[See more...](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/sites\/myncbi\/recentactivity)\n\nFollow NCBI\n\n[Connect with NLM](https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/socialmedia\/index.html)\n\nNational Library of Medicine  \n [8600 Rockville Pike  Bethesda, MD 20894](https:\/\/www.google.com\/maps\/place\/8600+Rockville+Pike,+Bethesda,+MD+20894\/@38.9959508,-77.101021,17z\/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x89b7c95e25765ddb:0x19156f88b27635b8!8m2!3d38.9959508!4d-77.0988323)\n\n[Web Policies](https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/web_policies.html)  \n [FOIA](https:\/\/www.nih.gov\/institutes-nih\/nih-office-director\/office-communications-public-liaison\/freedom-information-act-office)  \n [HHS Vulnerability Disclosure](https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/vulnerability-disclosure-policy\/index.html)\n\n[Help](https:\/\/support.nlm.nih.gov\/)  \n [Accessibility](https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/accessibility.html)  \n [Careers](https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/careers\/careers.html)\n\n- [NLM](https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/)\n- [NIH](https:\/\/www.nih.gov\/)\n- [HHS](https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/)\n- [USA.gov](https:\/\/www.usa.gov\/)\n\n![statistics](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/stat?jsdisabled=true&ncbi_db=books&ncbi_pdid=book-part&ncbi_acc=NBK538173&ncbi_domain=statpearls&ncbi_report=record&ncbi_type=fulltext&ncbi_objectid=&ncbi_pcid=\/NBK538173\/&ncbi_pagename=Low%20Back%20Pain:%20Evaluation%20and%20Management%20-%20StatPearls%20-%20NCBI%20Bookshelf&ncbi_bookparttype=chapter&ncbi_app=bookshelf)","attrs_readable_markdown":"## Continuing Education Activity\nBack pain is a leading reason for seeking emergency care and contributes substantially to functional disability and healthcare burden. Mechanical and nonspecific disorders account for most presentations across all age groups, although etiology varies by developmental stage. Younger individuals more frequently exhibit acute muscular strain, ligamentous injury, or intervertebral disc herniation, while older adults demonstrate a higher prevalence of degenerative disc disease, facet arthropathy, osteoporotic compression fractures, and spinal stenosis. Risk is increased by occupational or athletic mechanical stress, physical deconditioning, obesity, and tobacco use. Nociceptive signaling may originate from paraspinal musculature, intervertebral discs, facet joints, or nerve roots, with symptom location, radiation, and neurologic deficits helping localize the underlying source.\n\nInitial evaluation relies on thorough history and physical examination, with imaging reserved for refractory symptoms, neurologic deficits, or red flag features indicating infection, malignancy, fracture, or spinal cord or cauda equina compression. Evidence-based management emphasizes activity as tolerated, analgesics when appropriate, and physical therapy interventions. Most acute cases resolve within several weeks. Persistent symptoms increase the likelihood of chronic pain development and long-term disability.\n\nThis activity for healthcare professionals is designed to improve learners' competence in evaluating and managing back pain. Participants will advance their mastery of the symptom's etiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Recognition of red flags for severe conditions will be emphasized. Greater skills will equip clinicians to collaborate confidently with interprofessional teams caring for affected individuals.\n\n**Objectives:**\n\n- Determine the etiology of back pain based on clinical and diagnostic features, with emphasis on recognizing red flags suggestive of emergent or high-risk conditions.\n- Implement evidence-based, personalized strategies for managing back pain and preventing its potential complications.\n- Improve patient awareness of mechanical versus serious causes, warning signs, safe activity, and strategies to enhance function and reduce chronic pain risk.\n- Collaborate with the interprofessional team to educate, treat, and monitor patients with back pain to improve functional and overall health outcomes.\n\n[Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.](https:\/\/www.statpearls.com\/account\/trialuserreg\/?articleid=18089&utm_source=pubmed&utm_campaign=reviews&utm_content=18089)\n\n## Introduction\nBack pain is one of the most common reasons for primary- and emergency-care consultations. An estimated \\$200 billion is spent annually on managing back pain. Additionally, work hours, productivity, and workers' compensation are greatly reduced due to this condition.[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r1)\n\nBack pain arises from a broad range of causes in adults and children, though most are mechanical in nature or have a nonspecific origin. Mechanical back pain comprises 90% of cases, so health providers can easily miss rare causes while focusing on common etiologies.[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r2)[\\[3\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r3)\n\nIdentifying red flags and determining the appropriate treatment are the most important aspects of back pain management. Most cases may be treated conservatively. Association with alarming signs, such as nerve dysfunction, warrants a thorough investigation and an interprofessional approach.[\\[4\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r4)\n\nPharmacological treatments include pain relievers targeting peripheral and central neurologic pathways, as well as muscle relaxants.[\\[5\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r5) Various forms of physical therapy are available for individuals who prefer nonpharmacological approaches or are recovering from injuries.[\\[6\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r6) Acupuncture is an alternative therapy shown to improve back pain moderately. Surgery is reserved for cases that are accompanied by severe nerve dysfunction, have resulted from serious causes such as malignancy, or manifest with refractory symptoms due to structural causes, such as spondylolisthesis.[\\[7\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r7)[\\[8\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r8) Significant back pain that does not resolve within 6 weeks of adequate conservative management may warrant imaging with radiography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).\n\nA thorough evaluation helps determine the cause of back pain and develop a tailored therapeutic plan. Addressing the underlying pathology significantly improves patients' functional capacity and quality of life.\n\n## Etiology\nBack pain arises from various conditions, which may be classified into the following:\n\n- Traumatic: Results from direct or indirect contact with an external force. Examples include whiplash injury, strain, and traumatic fractures.\n- Degenerative: Musculoskeletal structures weaken over time due to aging, overuse, or preexisting pathology. Examples include intervertebral disc herniation and degenerative disc disease (see **Image**. Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon).\n- Oncologic: Primary or secondary malignant lesions can develop in back structures. Pathologic fractures of the axial skeleton may occur as complications.\n- Infectious: Infections of musculoskeletal structures may arise from direct inoculation or hematogenous spread.\n- Inflammatory: Includes noninfectious, nonmalignant conditions. Examples are ankylosing spondylitis and sacroiliitis. Chronic inflammation may result in spinal arthritis.\n- Metabolic: Disorders of calcium and bone metabolism can cause symptoms. Examples encompass osteoporosis and osteosclerosis.\n- Vascular: Acute or chronic aortic dissection can present as tearing back pain, usually with abrupt onset and associated cardiovascular risk factors (Source: [Zakko and Reece](https:\/\/evtoday.com\/articles\/2024-apr\/type-b-aortic-dissection-presenting-as-sudden-onset-sharp-back-pain), 2024).\n- Referred pain: Visceral organ pathology may produce referred back pain. Examples include biliary colic, lung disease, and aortic or vertebral artery disorders.\n- Postural: Prolonged upright posture can contribute to back pain. Pregnancy and certain occupations increase risk.\n- Congenital: Inborn axial skeleton conditions can cause symptoms. Examples include kyphoscoliosis and a tethered spinal cord.\n- Psychiatric: Chronic pain syndromes and mental health conditions may present with back pain. Malingering may contribute to symptom amplification or inconsistent clinical findings.[\\[9\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r9)\n\nThe duration of symptoms is important, as acute and chronic back pain often have different etiologies. A thorough clinical evaluation and appropriate diagnostic testing are usually sufficient to determine the cause. Referral to specialists, such as neurosurgeons, orthopedic spine surgeons, neurologists, rheumatologists, physiatrists, or pain management providers, may be necessary for further evaluation and treatment planning.\n\n## Epidemiology\nBack pain is widespread among adults. Studies report that up to 23% of adults worldwide experience chronic low back pain, with 1-year recurrence rates ranging from 24% to 80%.[\\[10\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r10)[\\[11\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r11) The lifetime prevalence of back pain in adults may reach 84%.[\\[12\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r12)\n\nBack pain is less common in pediatric populations. A Scandinavian study found that point prevalence was approximately 1% among 12-year-olds and 5% among 15-year-olds. By age 18 for girls and 20 for boys, 50% of adolescents will have experienced at least 1 episode of back pain.[\\[13\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r13) Lifetime prevalence in adolescents increases progressively with age, approaching adult levels by 18.[\\[14\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r14)\n\n## Pathophysiology\nMechanical back pain develops when nociceptive elements within the spinal motion segment or adjacent soft tissues undergo overload or structural disruption. Acute episodes typically reflect sprain or strain of paraspinal musculature and supporting ligaments after a loaded segment is driven into excessive flexion, extension, or rotation. Eccentric contraction produces microscopic tearing near the myotendinous junction, followed by edema, inflammatory mediator release, and reflex spasm that sensitize local nociceptors and restrict segmental motion.\n\nChronic mechanical pain more frequently arises from degenerative intervertebral disc changes. Cumulative mechanical loading and endplate injury promote annular fissuring, proteoglycan loss, disc dehydration, and progressive collapse. The structurally compromised disc demonstrates abnormal load transfer, pathologic ingrowth of nociceptive nerve fibers and blood vessels, and heightened production of proinflammatory mediators, generating discogenic pain or radiculopathy.[\\[15\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r15)\n\nLumbar zygapophyseal (facet) joints, as synovial joints with richly innervated capsules, bear substantial axial load during extension. Repetitive shear and compression promote cartilage loss, osteophyte formation, capsular laxity or hypertrophy, and localized inflammation. Resulting capsular stretch or distension activates high- and low-threshold mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, producing referred pain to the back or buttocks. Persistent peripheral nociceptive drive from these structures may, in some cases, induce central sensitization and facilitate the transition from acute to chronic pain.[\\[16\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r16)\n\n## History and Physical\nDetermining the cause of back pain begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The onset of pain should be established early. Acute back pain, defined as back pain lasting less than 6 weeks, most often reflects mechanical strain or degenerative changes and less commonly results from trauma or abrupt progression of serious underlying disease such as malignancy. Chronic cases, lasting longer than 12 weeks, may involve mechanical dysfunction or arise from longstanding conditions.\n\nInformation regarding factors that provoke or alleviate the pain must be obtained. In addition to providing diagnostic clues, understanding these factors guides the clinician in selecting appropriate pain management strategies.\n\nPain quality assists in distinguishing visceral from nonvisceral sources. Well-localized pain often indicates an organic process. Any associated symptoms may offer additional insights into the underlying cause of back pain.\n\nOther pertinent information may be obtained from the patient’s medical, family, occupational, and social history. For example, a history of prior cancer chemotherapy should raise suspicion for metastasis or a secondary tumor. Certain autoimmune arthritides have a hereditary component. Pott disease, or spinal tuberculosis, may result from exposure in regions where tuberculosis is endemic. Prolonged sitting during work can contribute to both acute and chronic back pain.\n\nA focused physical examination should include inspection, auscultation, palpation, and provocative maneuvers. Visual inspection of the back may not reveal the cause unless deformity, signs of inflammation, or skin lesions are present. Auscultation is useful when back pain may be secondary to pulmonary pathology. Palpation can elicit localized musculoskeletal tenderness and help identify affected structures.\n\nCertain provocative maneuvers can provide diagnostic clues regarding the cause of back pain. The straight-leg-raising (SLR) test is useful for diagnosing lumbar disc herniation. The test is performed by raising the patient’s leg to 30° to 70°. A result is considered positive if ipsilateral leg pain occurs at less than 60°. The crossed SLR test involves raising the contralateral leg and is more specific than a standard SLR for identifying a disc herniation.[\\[17\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r17)[\\[18\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r18)\n\nThe Stork test, which evaluates for spondylolysis, is another clinically used maneuver. The examiner supports the patient while they stand on a leg and hyperextend their back. The maneuver is repeated on the opposite leg. The test result is positive if the patient experiences pain during hyperextension. The Adam test is used to evaluate scoliosis. The patient bends forward with feet together, arms extended, and palms touching. An examiner standing in front can detect a thoracic prominence in patients with scoliosis.[\\[19\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r19) Assessment of range of motion, limb strength, deep tendon reflexes, and sensation aids in evaluating the integrity of both musculoskeletal and neurologic systems.\n\nRed flags identified during history or physical examination warrant imaging and additional diagnostic testing. The signs explained below should be carefully monitored.\n\nIn adults, red flags for back pain include a history of metastatic cancer or unexplained weight loss, with focal tenderness to palpation in the presence of risk factors suggesting malignancy. Infection should be suspected in patients with recent spinal procedures, intravenous drug use, immunosuppression, or prior lumbar surgery, especially if fever, spinal wounds, localized pain, or tenderness is present.\n\nA systematic review of 40 observational studies demonstrated that individual red flags possess limited standalone diagnostic accuracy for serious thoracolumbar pathology and frequently generate high rates of false positive results. Vertebral fractures accounted for 0.4% to 5.6% of low back pain presentations. Posttest probabilities increased substantially only when advanced age, recent trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, and female sex occurred collectively rather than independently.\n\nFor spinal malignancy, the most informative red flags included a prior history of cancer, unexplained weight loss, persistent pain without improvement, and concerning overall clinical judgment. In contrast, isolated night pain or broad age thresholds produced numerous false positives. Across vertebral fracture, malignancy, infection, and cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic prediction models that integrated multiple red flags consistently demonstrated higher likelihood ratios than any single historical feature or physical examination finding.[\\[20\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r20)\n\nSymptoms suggestive of cauda equina syndrome require immediate recognition, as this condition constitutes a surgical emergency. New urinary retention, difficulty initiating micturition, bowel dysfunction, or sensory loss in the perineal or perianal region (“saddle anesthesia”) are key historical features. Bilateral sciatica, rapidly escalating leg pain, or new bilateral lower-extremity weakness further heighten concern, and the constellation of these findings indicates severe compression of the cauda equina nerve roots. Such presentations are strongly associated with massive midline disc herniation or other space-occupying lesions and demand urgent evaluation to prevent permanent neurologic deficit.\n\nFracture risk increases with significant trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, osteoporosis, or age over 70, and may be indicated by contusions, abrasions, or tenderness over spinous processes. Neurologic compromise is suggested by progressive motor or sensory loss, new urinary or fecal incontinence, saddle anesthesia, anal sphincter atony, or significant motor deficits across multiple myotomes.[\\[21\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r21)[\\[22\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r22)\n\nA focused neurological history should assess bladder and bowel function and document any perineal or perianal sensory loss, as these features suggest possible cauda equina or conus medullaris involvement. The neurological examination should include motor testing of key lumbosacral myotomes—hip flexion, knee extension, ankle dorsiflexion, ankle plantar flexion, great-toe extension, and foot eversion—to identify focal weakness patterns that correlate with specific nerve root compression.\n\nIn pediatric patients, malignancy should be considered in children who are younger than 4 years or experience nighttime pain, particularly when focal tenderness is present. Infection risk increases in children who are younger than 4, report nighttime pain, or have a history of tuberculosis exposure, especially if fever, spinal wounds, or localized tenderness occurs. Inflammatory causes are suggested by morning stiffness lasting more than 30 minutes, improving with activity or heat, accompanied by a limited range of motion and localized tenderness. Fractures may result from repetitive lumbar hyperextension during sports, with tenderness over spinous processes or a positive Stork test result.[\\[23\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r23)[\\[24\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r24)\n\nRecent recommendations for children and adolescents consolidate red flag features that warrant evaluation for specific spinal disease. Concerning findings include age younger than 10 years, significant trauma, prior or current glucocorticoid therapy, motor or sensory deficits, radicular pain, bladder or bowel dysfunction, fever, lymphadenopathy, structural deformity, and focal compression tenderness.\n\nThe same publication identifies evidence-based risk factors for nonspecific pediatric back pain. Increasing age in adolescence, female sex, high levels of sports participation, prior pain episodes, and psychosocial factors—such as low life satisfaction, anxiety, and depression—demonstrate strong associations, and several additional contributors also predict a chronic course. Incorporation of these red and yellow flags into routine pediatric history taking assists in distinguishing children who require prompt imaging or specialty referral from those who are suitable for initial conservative management and observation.[\\[25\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r25)\n\n**Four-Category Diagnostic Framework for Back Pain**\n\nDuring the initial history and physical examination, back pain presentations can be organized into 4 diagnostic groups that direct subsequent evaluation and management:\n\n- Nonspecific mechanical pain\n- Pain arising from radiculopathy or spinal stenosis\n- Pain referred from nonspinal sources\n- Pain associated with specific or nonmechanical spinal pathology, including infection, fracture, inflammatory disease, or malignancy [\\[26\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r26)[\\[27\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r27)\n\nThis diagnostic framework clarifies the likely source of pain and prioritizes the most appropriate investigative pathway. Correct classification ensures that high-risk conditions receive urgent evaluation, while stable cases proceed with conservative care.\n\n## Evaluation\nHistory and physical examination are sufficient to determine the cause of back pain in most cases. Early imaging in adults has been associated with poorer outcomes, as it often leads to more invasive interventions that provide minimal benefit.[\\[28\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r28)[\\[29\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r29) Similar findings are reported in pediatric populations.\n\nFewer than 5% to 10% of low back pain presentations result from specific spinal pathology, whereas 90% to 95% reflect nonspecific mechanical pain suitable for conservative management without routine imaging. Degenerative changes, including disc degeneration, disc bulging, and facet arthropathy, are highly prevalent in asymptomatic adults (see **Image**. Facet Arthropathy). Disc degeneration occurs in more than 80% of adults older than 50. Therefore, imaging findings must be interpreted cautiously and within the clinical context.[\\[30\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r30)\n\nNevertheless, the presence of concerning signs warrants diagnostic evaluation. In adults, imaging is indicated for back pain persisting longer than 6 weeks despite appropriate conservative management. In children, imaging is recommended for continuous pain lasting more than 4 weeks.\n\nPlain anteroposterior and lateral films of the axial skeleton can detect bone pathology (see **Image**. Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine). MRI is indicated for the evaluation of soft tissue lesions, including nerves, intervertebral discs, and tendons. Both imaging modalities can identify signs of malignancy and inflammation, but MRI is preferred when soft tissues are involved.[\\[31\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r31)[\\[32\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r32)\n\nBone scans may demonstrate osteomyelitis, discitis, and stress reactions but are inferior to MRI for assessing these conditions.[\\[33\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r33) Single-photon emission computed tomography–CT (SPECT-CT) can aid diagnosis when MRI results are inconclusive, particularly in patients with prior spinal instrumentation, but it is not recommended as a primary imaging modality.[\\[34\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r34) CT or magnetic resonance angiography should be performed in cases of suspected aortic dissection (see **Image**. Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography).[\\[35\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r35) (Source: [Alexiou and Sritharan](https:\/\/bestpractice.bmj.com\/topics\/en-gb\/445), 2025) Adolescents with MRI evidence of disc herniation may require a CT scan to confirm or exclude apophyseal ring separation, which occurs in approximately 5.7% of these patients.[\\[36\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r36)\n\nElectromyography or nerve conduction studies are indicated in patients with prior spinal surgery who may present with radiculopathy or plexopathy. Image-guided diagnostic injections can help confirm sacroiliac joint disease.\n\nLaboratory evaluation may be necessary in selected cases of back pain. Rheumatologic assays, including human leukocyte antigen B27, antinuclear antibody, rheumatoid factor, and Lyme antibodies, are generally nonspecific and not routinely helpful.[\\[37\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r37)[\\[38\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r38) Inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, can provide clinically useful information.[\\[39\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r39) A complete blood count and blood cultures may aid in diagnosing inflammatory, infectious, or malignant processes. Elevated lactate dehydrogenase and uric acid levels are frequently observed in conditions associated with rapid marrow turnover, such as leukemia.[\\[40\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r40)\n\n**Applying the Four-Category Model to Guide Testing and Management**\n\nThe diagnostic evaluation can be structured according to the 4-category framework. In patients with nonspecific low back pain and absence of red flag features, imaging is typically deferred for 1 to 2 months, as early radiography does not improve outcomes and often reveals incidental findings that do not alter management. When history or examination indicates specific spinal pathology, such as radiculopathy or spinal stenosis, MRI may be employed to confirm neural compression and guide interventional or surgical planning (see **Image**. Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis). Features suggestive of a nonspinal source—eg, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, vascular, or gynecologic—prompt targeted evaluation of the relevant organ system rather than spine-focused studies.\n\nLaboratory testing and more extensive imaging, often expedited, are reserved for the nonmechanical spinal category. Clues such as fever, night pain, unexplained weight loss, persistent rest pain, or progressive neurologic deficit raise suspicion for infection, malignancy, or inflammatory spondyloarthropathy and justify erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein testing, complete blood count, and early MRI. Application of this structured approach allows conservative management for most patients with nonspecific pain while ensuring timely identification of specific spinal, nonspinal, or systemic pathology requiring intensive evaluation.\n\n## Treatment \/ Management\nAdult and pediatric back pain require distinct management strategies. Many cases have an unidentifiable cause, although degenerative disease and musculoskeletal injury are more prevalent in adults. Overuse and muscle strain are more common precipitants in children and adolescents. Rare etiologies, including malignancy and metabolic disorders, manifest differently across age groups. Consequently, treatment must be tailored to both the underlying condition and the patient’s age.\n\n**Management of Back Pain in Adults**\n\nSerious conditions must be excluded initially for acute back pain in adults. The patient should be reassured and provided with symptomatic relief if no indications for further testing are present. The 1st-line management is nonpharmacological and includes early return to normal routines, except for heavy labor, avoidance of pain-provoking activities, and patient education.\n\nSecond-line options may include the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), muscle relaxants, or opioids, spinal manipulation, physical therapy, superficial heat application, and alternative treatments such as acupuncture or massage. Education regarding the potential causes of back pain should be individualized to each patient’s circumstances, as it plays a critical role in preventing symptom aggravation or recurrence. Follow-up is typically recommended after 2 weeks, with resumption of normal activities encouraged if the patient is asymptomatic at that time.\n\nIn adult patients with acute back pain with radiculopathy, management may include NSAID therapy, exercise, traction, or spinal manipulation. Diazepam and systemic steroids provide no additional benefit. Diagnostic testing is indicated if serious conditions cannot be excluded, and referral to appropriate specialists should be considered for further evaluation or treatment.\n\nManagement of chronic back pain follows a similar approach. Serious conditions must be ruled out first. For nonspecific pain, patients should remain active and avoid precipitating factors. Exercise therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are considered 1st-line treatments.[\\[41\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r41)[\\[42\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r42) Second-line options include spinal manipulation, massage, acupuncture, yoga, stress reduction, intake of NSAIDs or selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and interprofessional rehabilitation.[\\[43\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r43)[\\[44\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r44)[\\[45\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r45)\n\nThe effectiveness of anticonvulsants such as gabapentin and topiramate is uncertain.[\\[46\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r46)[\\[47\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r47) Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units do not appear more effective than placebo for chronic back pain.[\\[48\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r48)\n\n**Referral to pain management**\n\nReferral to pain management is indicated when low back pain persists despite adequate conservative treatment and limits daily function. Persistent severe functional impairment, unremitting pain, or plateaued improvement warrants evaluation by a pain specialist. A lower threshold for referral applies to radicular or stenotic symptoms that fail to improve, as these patients may benefit from interventional options, including epidural steroid injections. Pain extending beyond the normal period of tissue healing should prompt specialized assessment and management to interrupt progression toward chronicity and prevent deconditioning.\n\n**Surgical referral**\n\nUrgent surgical referral is required when clinical findings indicate potential spinal cord or nerve root compromise, infection, fracture, or malignancy. Cauda equina syndrome is the most critical indication and constitutes a surgical emergency, identified by new urinary retention or overflow incontinence, saddle anesthesia, bilateral sciatica, or bilateral lower-extremity weakness. Rapidly progressive or severe neurologic deficits, including worsening motor weakness or sensory loss, similarly warrant immediate evaluation.\n\nFeatures suggestive of spinal infection, including fever, recent spinal procedures, immunosuppression, intravenous drug use, or severe focal vertebral tenderness, require urgent assessment, as they may indicate osteomyelitis, epidural abscess, or septic discitis. Malignancy should be suspected in cases of unexplained weight loss, prior history of cancer, persistent night pain, or focal vertebral tenderness, with concurrent neurologic compromise necessitating immediate referral. Traumatic mechanisms combined with pain, neurologic deficits, advanced age, osteoporosis, or chronic steroid use raise concern for unstable vertebral fracture and demand prompt surgical evaluation.\n\nSevere spinal stenosis with progressive neurologic impairment and spondylolisthesis, accompanied by worsening weakness or disabling sciatica, also meets criteria for urgent referral. Persistent spine-related symptoms correlating with structural pathology on imaging may justify nonurgent referral to a spine surgeon when symptoms fail to improve with conservative therapy. Sciatica caused by a herniated lumbar disc that persists for 4 to 6 weeks despite nonoperative treatment represents a subgroup in which elective surgical evaluation may provide benefit.\n\n**Management of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents**\n\nPediatric back pain treatments are less extensively studied. Activity modification, physical therapy, and NSAID use are broadly supported as 1st-line therapies. When serious pathology is present, treatment follows the standard of care for the underlying condition. Spondylolysis resulting from repetitive spinal stress is generally managed conservatively, similar to adults. However, young patients actively engaged in sports may require referral for surgical intervention.[\\[49\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r49)[\\[50\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r50) Symptoms persisting beyond 6 months of conservative therapy or Grade III or IV spondylolisthesis warrant evaluation by a pediatric spine surgeon.[\\[51\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r51)[\\[52\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r52)\n\nPatients with Scheuermann kyphosis may be managed conservatively with physical therapy and guided exercise if the spinal curvature is less than 60°. Bracing may be added for curvatures between 60° and 70°. Surgical correction is indicated for curvatures exceeding 75°, particularly if conservative measures fail and skeletal maturity is reached.[\\[53\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r53)[\\[54\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r54) Indications for surgical referral also include scoliotic spinal curvature of 20° or greater during peak growth, significant or progressive scoliosis, and atypical scoliosis.[\\[55\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r55)\n\nUrgent surgical referral in children is indicated when back pain is accompanied by findings suggestive of infection, malignancy, or spinal cord compromise. Epidural abscess, presenting with fever, spinal pain, and neurologic deficits, requires immediate neurosurgical evaluation. Neoplastic processes, signaled by unremitting nighttime pain, weight loss, or myelopathic symptoms such as gait instability or limb weakness, also warrant rapid referral to neurosurgery.\n\nTethered cord syndrome, characterized by exertional back pain, bladder dysfunction, calf atrophy, diminished reflexes, dermatomal sensory loss, or progressive scoliosis, similarly requires urgent surgical assessment due to risk of progressive neurologic injury. Vertebral fractures associated with acute trauma, focal midline pain, radicular symptoms, or weakness necessitate immediate imaging and specialist evaluation because of potential instability or neural compression.\n\nSerious manifestations, including nighttime pain, systemic features, bowel or bladder dysfunction, or neurologic deficits, at any age demand prompt investigation and emergent specialty referral. These presentations reflect the higher likelihood of significant underlying spinal pathology in children.[\\[56\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r56)\n\n## Differential Diagnosis\nThe following discussion covers adult and pediatric conditions that present with back pain, along with their associated symptoms and relevant physical examination findings. This compilation is not exhaustive but highlights the most common and clinically significant causes of this symptom in these populations.\n\n**Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Adults**\n\nLumbosacral muscle strains and sprains typically result from traumatic incidents or repetitive overuse. Pain generally worsens with movement and improves with rest, and the range of motion is often restricted. Tenderness to palpation is commonly present. Lumbar spondylosis primarily affects patients older than 40 and may be accompanied by hip pain. Discomfort often occurs with lower limb extension or rotation, while neurologic examination findings are usually normal.\n\nDisc herniation most frequently involves the L4 to S1 segments and can produce paresthesia, sensory changes, and motor weakness, depending on the severity and affected nerve root. Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis are caused by repetitive spinal stress and may present with back pain radiating to the gluteal region and posterior thighs.\n\nVertebral compression fractures produce localized back pain that worsens with flexion and point tenderness on palpation. These injuries may be acute or chronic, with risk factors including steroid use, vitamin D deficiency, and osteoporosis. Spinal stenosis is characterized by leg sensory and motor weakness that is relieved with rest (neurologic claudication). Neurologic examination may initially appear normal but can worsen as stenosis progresses.\n\nSpinal tumors may present with unexplained weight loss, focal tenderness to palpation, or other risk factors for malignancy, with approximately 97% of spinal tumors being metastatic.[\\[57\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r57) Infections of the spine should be suspected in patients with a history of spinal surgery within the past 12 months, intravenous drug use, or immunosuppression. Clinical features include fever, localized pain, tenderness, or spinal wounds. Common infectious causes encompass vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Tuberculosis should be considered in patients from endemic regions.[\\[58\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r58)\n\nAcute or chronic aortic dissection can manifest as tearing back pain. The incidence is higher in older adults and is often associated with cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and aneurysms. In younger patients, dissection is typically linked to connective tissue disorders, including Marfan, Ehlers-Danlos, and Loeys-Dietz syndromes.[\\[59\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r59) Vertebral fractures may result from trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, or osteoporosis and are most common in patients older than 70. Physical findings include contusions, abrasions, and tenderness over the spinous processes.\n\n**Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents**\n\nTumors in pediatric patients may present with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Osteoid osteoma is the most common tumor causing back pain and is typically relieved by NSAID intake.[\\[60\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r60)[\\[61\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r61)[\\[62\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r62) Infections are associated with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Patients may refuse to walk. Common conditions include vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Epidural abscess should be suspected if neurologic deficits or radicular pain are present.[\\[63\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r63)[\\[64\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r64)\n\nDisc herniation and slipped apophysis may present with acute back pain, radicular symptoms, and recent-onset scoliosis, with positive SLR test findings and pain on forward spinal flexion. Spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, and posterior arch lesions typically present with acute back pain and radicular symptoms, sometimes accompanied by hamstring tightness, with pain on spinal extension and positive SLR test results.\n\nVertebral fractures usually follow trauma but may occur as stress fractures, causing insidious onset and progressive postural changes. Muscle strain presents with acute localized tenderness without radiation. Scheuermann kyphosis is associated with chronic back pain and rigid kyphosis. Inflammatory spondyloarthropathies feature chronic pain, morning stiffness exceeding 30 minutes, and sacroiliac joint tenderness. Psychological disorders, including conversion or somatization, may cause persistent subjective pain despite normal physical findings. Idiopathic scoliosis is typically asymptomatic, with a positive Adam test result; reported back pain may have an alternative cause.[\\[65\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r65)\n\n## Prognosis\nIn adults, the prognosis of back pain depends on its etiology. Most nonspecific cases resolve without serious sequelae. The effectiveness of conservative therapy and patient education demonstrates the important contribution of psychosocial and contextual factors to symptom severity and disability. Chronic, disabling back pain is more likely with prior episodes, high symptom intensity, depression, fear-avoidant behavior, or accompanying leg or widespread symptoms.[\\[66\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r66)\n\nSocial factors also significantly influence prognosis.[\\[67\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r67) Low educational attainment, physically demanding work, inadequate compensation, and poor job satisfaction are associated with worse outcomes, including higher disability rates.[\\[68\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r68)[\\[69\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r69) Modifiable risk factors, such as a body mass index greater than 25 and smoking, are linked to persistent back pain.[\\[70\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r70)\n\nFewer studies address pediatric back pain prognosis, but etiology appears similarly influential.[\\[71\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r71) Pain caused by malignancy is more likely to result in disability than muscle strain.[\\[72\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r72) Behavioral comorbidities, including conduct problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, passive coping strategies, and fear-avoidant behavior, have been associated with poorer outcomes in younger patients.[\\[73\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r73)[\\[74\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r74)[\\[75\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r75)\n\n## Complications\nThe underlying etiology of back pain largely determines the risk of complications, which may be both physical and social. Physically, back pain can become chronic and may be associated with deformity, neurologic deficits, or both. Social consequences include disability, reduced productivity, and increased absenteeism. A 2015 study reported that back pain accounted for 60.1 million years of disability worldwide, making it the leading cause of global disability.[\\[76\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r76) In the U.S., low-back pain is the most common reason for disability.[\\[77\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r77)\n\nEarly intervention helps prevent the progression to chronic pain and associated complications. Ambulation and maintenance of activity improve outcomes, whereas prolonged sedentariness and resultant obesity are associated with poorer prognosis.\n\n## Postoperative and Rehabilitation Care\nThe underlying cause, patient comorbidities, and individual health goals guide back pain rehabilitation. The McKenzie method is frequently recommended for managing chronic nonspecific low-back pain.[\\[78\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r78) Clinical practice guidelines for physical therapy advocate manual therapy, trunk strengthening, centralization techniques, directional preference exercises, and progressive endurance training. Occupational therapy can support patients in managing activities of daily living and using adaptive equipment as needed. Additionally, employing assistive devices during patient transfers has been shown to reduce the incidence of low-back pain among female healthcare workers.[\\[79\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r79)[\\[80\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r80)\n\n## Deterrence and Patient Education\nPatient education on preventing back pain recurrence or aggravation should be individualized. Adults with sedentary occupations should be encouraged to remain active to maintain a healthy body weight, as a body mass index greater than 25 is associated with worse outcomes. Individuals in physically demanding jobs should similarly remain active but avoid precipitating factors, such as heavy lifting and repetitive back twisting, by using lifting equipment or reducing load weight when necessary.\n\nAll patients should be counseled to avoid smoking, which increases back pain risk across all ages.[\\[81\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r81)[\\[82\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r82) Intensive education sessions lasting approximately 2.5 hours, covering activity modification, staying active, and early return to normal routines, have proven effective in promoting return to work among adults.[\\[83\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r83)\n\nIn pediatric patients, evidence regarding bookbag weight as a risk factor is mixed. Nevertheless, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that bookbags not exceed 10% to 20% of a child’s body weight.[\\[84\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r84) Although most back pain cases are self-limited, discharged patients should be instructed to seek immediate medical attention for concerning signs, such as sudden sensory or motor deficits.\n\n## Pearls and Other Issues\nFor adults, history and physical examination usually suffice to evaluate atraumatic, acute back pain in the absence of clinical red flags. Imaging tests should generally be deferred for 6 weeks to allow for symptom resolution.[\\[85\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r85)[\\[86\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r86)\n\nPatient education emphasizing the importance of remaining active constitutes the 1st-line treatment for nonspecific back pain. Evidence indicates that pharmacologic therapy and physical therapy do not consistently provide benefit. Second-line interventions may include treatment with NSAIDs, opioids, or SNRIs such as duloxetine, which are more effective than placebo for nonspecific chronic low-back pain.[\\[87\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r87)[\\[88\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r88) Acetaminophen, antidepressants other than SNRIs, lidocaine patches, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation units have not demonstrated consistent efficacy beyond placebo in chronic low-back pain.[\\[89\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r89)[\\[90\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r90) Referral to physical therapy for the McKenzie technique can help reduce recurrence risk.[\\[91\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r91)[\\[92\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r92)\n\nFor children, transient back pain following minor injury in the absence of abnormal physical findings may be managed conservatively without further evaluation. Indications for additional assessment include abnormal examination findings, persistent pain, nighttime pain, or radicular symptoms.[\\[93\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r93) Plain anteroposterior and lateral films are recommended as 1st-line radiographic studies. Laboratory testing should be considered when clinical red flags are present, as thoracic malignancy and infection are more common in children, particularly those younger than 4 years.[\\[94\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r94)\n\n## Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes\nIntegrating the expertise of multiple healthcare professionals ensures comprehensive care, improved outcomes, and enhanced quality of life for individuals with back pain. The interprofessional team typically includes the primary care provider, nurse, pharmacist, nutritionist, physical therapist, occupational therapist, radiologist, and other medical specialists relevant to the individual case.\n\nThe primary care provider is the first medical professional to examine the patient. Evaluation begins with a thorough medical history and physical examination. The primary care provider determines the appropriate initial treatment, assesses the need for diagnostic testing, and decides on referrals to specialists. This provider also leads patient education and communicates follow-up recommendations. Education should emphasize smoking cessation and maintenance of a healthy body weight.[\\[95\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r95)\n\nThe nurse reinforces key components of patient education and follow-up instructions. Evidence-based responses should be provided to questions regarding nonpharmacologic therapies and continued physical activity in back pain management. The nurse ensures the patient is clinically stable prior to discharge and that care plans are coordinated for subsequent appointments.\n\nIf the primary care provider prescribes medications, the pharmacist can educate patients on the specific benefits and risks of each drug for back pain. Proper administration instructions and the potential risks of overdose should be emphasized. The pharmacist should contact the primary care provider to clarify any uncertainties regarding the patient’s prescription.\n\nObesity is associated with poorer outcomes in patients with back pain. Nutritionists can guide patients in making healthier dietary choices and maintaining a healthy weight. In cases of obesity, an obesity medicine specialist may prescribe antiobesity medications as an adjunct to lifestyle modifications to support significant weight loss.\n\nThe physical therapist designs strength and endurance exercise programs to manage back pain and reduce the risk of recurrence. Physical therapy has also been shown to assist patients with back pain in reducing or discontinuing opioid use.[\\[96\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r96) The occupational therapist provides ergonomic guidance and recommends assistive devices to support back pain management in both work and home environments. The radiologist assists the primary care provider in interpreting imaging findings and can recommend additional imaging studies if necessary.\n\nThe primary care provider may refer patients to other specialists as indicated. A pain specialist can optimize pharmacologic therapy or perform interventional procedures for chronic back pain. A rheumatologist may be consulted when back pain is associated with signs of chronic inflammatory disease. Severe radiculopathy or neurologic deterioration warrants urgent referral to a neurosurgeon or orthopedic spine surgeon. Mental health therapists can provide stress-coping strategies, administer cognitive behavioral therapy, and implement other interventions for back pain with a significant psychological component.[\\[97\\]](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/#article-18089.r97) Alternative medicine practitioners may also contribute to improving patient function.\n\nEffective communication among the interprofessional team is essential to avoid duplicating diagnostic tests. Conflicting treatments can also impede patient progress.\n\n[![Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/Multiple__myeloma.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f1\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f1\/?report=objectonly)\nMultiple Myeloma Involving the Spine. This lateral lumbar spine x-ray shows lytic lesions in the L1 and L4 vertebral bodies. Contributed by Steve Lange, MD\n\n[![Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/Picture1.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f2\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f2\/?report=objectonly)\nType B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography. Axial computed tomography section at the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus demonstrates a dissection flap within the aortic lumen, separating the true and false lumens (Image A). Coronal [(more...)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f2\/?report=objectonly)\n\n[![Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/degenerative__disc__disease.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f3\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f3\/?report=objectonly)\nDegenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon. Sagittal computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates severe degenerative disc disease with near-complete disc height loss at the affected lumbar level, creating a bone-on-bone [(more...)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f3\/?report=objectonly)\n\n[![Facet Arthropathy](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/facet__arthropathy.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f4\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f4\/?report=objectonly)\nFacet Arthropathy. Axial computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates bilateral lumbar facet joint arthropathy with joint space vacuum phenomenon, subchondral sclerosis, and hypertrophic osteophytic change. These degenerative changes can [(more...)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f4\/?report=objectonly)\n\n[![Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/bin\/spondylolisthesis.gif)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f5\/?report=objectonly \"Figure\")\n\n#### [Figure](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f5\/?report=objectonly)\nDegenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis. Sagittal T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates anterior translation of L4 relative to L5, consistent with degenerative spondylolisthesis, resulting in L4 and L5 central canal stenosis [(more...)](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK538173\/figure\/article-18089.image.f5\/?report=objectonly)\n\n## References\n1\\.\n\nFreburger JK, Holmes GM, Agans RP, Jackman AM, Darter JD, Wallace AS, Castel LD, Kalsbeek WD, Carey TS. The rising prevalence of chronic low back pain. Arch Intern Med. 2009 Feb 09;169(3):251-8. \\[[PMC free article: PMC4339077](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4339077\/)\\] \\[[PubMed: 19204216](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/19204216)\\]\n\n2\\.\n\nBarros G, McGrath L, Gelfenbeyn M. Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction in Patients With Low Back Pain. 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The role of fear avoidance beliefs as a prognostic factor for outcome in patients with nonspecific low back pain: a systematic review. Spine J. 2014 May 01;14(5):816-36.e4. \\[[PubMed: 24412032](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/24412032)\\]\n\n70\\.\n\nChou R, Shekelle P. Will this patient develop persistent disabling low back pain? JAMA. 2010 Apr 07;303(13):1295-302. \\[[PubMed: 20371789](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20371789)\\]\n\n71\\.\n\nJones GT, Watson KD, Silman AJ, Symmons DP, Macfarlane GJ. Predictors of low back pain in British schoolchildren: a population-based prospective cohort study. Pediatrics. 2003 Apr;111(4 Pt 1):822-8. \\[[PubMed: 12671119](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/12671119)\\]\n\n72\\.\n\nLynch AM, Kashikar-Zuck S, Goldschneider KR, Jones BA. Psychosocial risks for disability in children with chronic back pain. 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Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet. 2016 Oct 08;388(10053):1545-1602. \\[[PMC free article: PMC5055577](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5055577\/)\\] \\[[PubMed: 27733282](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/27733282)\\]\n\n77\\.\n\nUS Burden of Disease Collaborators. Mokdad AH, Ballestros K, Echko M, Glenn S, Olsen HE, Mullany E, Lee A, Khan AR, Ahmadi A, Ferrari AJ, Kasaeian A, Werdecker A, Carter A, Zipkin B, Sartorius B, Serdar B, Sykes BL, Troeger C, Fitzmaurice C, Rehm CD, Santomauro D, Kim D, Colombara D, Schwebel DC, Tsoi D, Kolte D, Nsoesie E, Nichols E, Oren E, Charlson FJ, Patton GC, Roth GA, Hosgood HD, Whiteford HA, Kyu H, Erskine HE, Huang H, Martopullo I, Singh JA, Nachega JB, Sanabria JR, Abbas K, Ong K, Tabb K, Krohn KJ, Cornaby L, Degenhardt L, Moses M, Farvid M, Griswold M, Criqui M, Bell M, Nguyen M, Wallin M, Mirarefin M, Qorbani M, Younis M, Fullman N, Liu P, Briant P, Gona P, Havmoller R, Leung R, Kimokoti R, Bazargan-Hejazi S, Hay SI, Yadgir S, Biryukov S, Vollset SE, Alam T, Frank T, Farid T, Miller T, Vos T, Bärnighausen T, Gebrehiwot TT, Yano Y, Al-Aly Z, Mehari A, Handal A, Kandel A, Anderson B, Biroscak B, Mozaffarian D, Dorsey ER, Ding EL, Park EK, Wagner G, Hu G, Chen H, Sunshine JE, Khubchandani J, Leasher J, Leung J, Salomon J, Unutzer J, Cahill L, Cooper L, Horino M, Brauer M, Breitborde N, Hotez P, Topor-Madry R, Soneji S, Stranges S, James S, Amrock S, Jayaraman S, Patel T, Akinyemiju T, Skirbekk V, Kinfu Y, Bhutta Z, Jonas JB, Murray CJL. The State of US Health, 1990-2016: Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Among US States. JAMA. 2018 Apr 10;319(14):1444-1472. \\[[PMC free article: PMC5933332](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5933332\/)\\] \\[[PubMed: 29634829](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29634829)\\]\n\n78\\.\n\nLam OT, Strenger DM, Chan-Fee M, Pham PT, Preuss RA, Robbins SM. Effectiveness of the McKenzie Method of Mechanical Diagnosis and Therapy for Treating Low Back Pain: Literature Review With Meta-analysis. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2018 Jun;48(6):476-490. \\[[PubMed: 29602304](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29602304)\\]\n\n79\\.\n\nDelitto A, George SZ, Van Dillen L, Whitman JM, Sowa G, Shekelle P, Denninger TR, Godges JJ., Orthopaedic Section of the American Physical Therapy Association. Low back pain. 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Eur Spine J. 2002 Oct;11(5):459-64. \\[[PMC free article: PMC3611315](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3611315\/)\\] \\[[PubMed: 12384754](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/12384754)\\]\n\n94\\.\n\nFeldman DS, Straight JJ, Badra MI, Mohaideen A, Madan SS. Evaluation of an algorithmic approach to pediatric back pain. J Pediatr Orthop. 2006 May-Jun;26(3):353-7. \\[[PubMed: 16670548](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/16670548)\\]\n\n95\\.\n\nRoffey DM, Ashdown LC, Dornan HD, Creech MJ, Dagenais S, Dent RM, Wai EK. Pilot evaluation of a multidisciplinary, medically supervised, nonsurgical weight loss program on the severity of low back pain in obese adults. Spine J. 2011 Mar;11(3):197-204. \\[[PubMed: 21377601](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21377601)\\]\n\n96\\.\n\nArnold E, La Barrie J, DaSilva L, Patti M, Goode A, Clewley D. The Effect of Timing of Physical Therapy for Acute Low Back Pain on Health Services Utilization: A Systematic Review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2019 Jul;100(7):1324-1338. \\[[PubMed: 30684490](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30684490)\\]\n\n97\\.\n\nHajihasani A, Rouhani M, Salavati M, Hedayati R, Kahlaee AH. The Influence of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Pain, Quality of Life, and Depression in Patients Receiving Physical Therapy for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review. PM R. 2019 Feb;11(2):167-176. \\[[PubMed: 30266349](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/30266349)\\]\n\n**Disclosure:** Konstantinos Margetis declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\n\n**Disclosure:** Charanjeet Singh declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\n\n**Disclosure:** Vincent Casiano declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.\n\n**Disclosure:** Matthew Varacallo declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.","meta_canonical":null}

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Meta Title	Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Meta Description	Back pain is one of the most common reasons for primary- and emergency-care consultations. An estimated $200 billion is spent annually on managing back pain. Additionally, work hours, productivity, and workers' compensation are greatly reduced due to this condition.[1]
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Boilerpipe Text	Continuing Education Activity Back pain is a leading reason for seeking emergency care and contributes substantially to functional disability and healthcare burden. Mechanical and nonspecific disorders account for most presentations across all age groups, although etiology varies by developmental stage. Younger individuals more frequently exhibit acute muscular strain, ligamentous injury, or intervertebral disc herniation, while older adults demonstrate a higher prevalence of degenerative disc disease, facet arthropathy, osteoporotic compression fractures, and spinal stenosis. Risk is increased by occupational or athletic mechanical stress, physical deconditioning, obesity, and tobacco use. Nociceptive signaling may originate from paraspinal musculature, intervertebral discs, facet joints, or nerve roots, with symptom location, radiation, and neurologic deficits helping localize the underlying source. Initial evaluation relies on thorough history and physical examination, with imaging reserved for refractory symptoms, neurologic deficits, or red flag features indicating infection, malignancy, fracture, or spinal cord or cauda equina compression. Evidence-based management emphasizes activity as tolerated, analgesics when appropriate, and physical therapy interventions. Most acute cases resolve within several weeks. Persistent symptoms increase the likelihood of chronic pain development and long-term disability. This activity for healthcare professionals is designed to improve learners' competence in evaluating and managing back pain. Participants will advance their mastery of the symptom's etiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Recognition of red flags for severe conditions will be emphasized. Greater skills will equip clinicians to collaborate confidently with interprofessional teams caring for affected individuals. Objectives: Determine the etiology of back pain based on clinical and diagnostic features, with emphasis on recognizing red flags suggestive of emergent or high-risk conditions. Implement evidence-based, personalized strategies for managing back pain and preventing its potential complications. Improve patient awareness of mechanical versus serious causes, warning signs, safe activity, and strategies to enhance function and reduce chronic pain risk. Collaborate with the interprofessional team to educate, treat, and monitor patients with back pain to improve functional and overall health outcomes. Access free multiple choice questions on this topic. Introduction Back pain is one of the most common reasons for primary- and emergency-care consultations. An estimated $200 billion is spent annually on managing back pain. Additionally, work hours, productivity, and workers' compensation are greatly reduced due to this condition. [1] Back pain arises from a broad range of causes in adults and children, though most are mechanical in nature or have a nonspecific origin. Mechanical back pain comprises 90% of cases, so health providers can easily miss rare causes while focusing on common etiologies. [2] [3] Identifying red flags and determining the appropriate treatment are the most important aspects of back pain management. Most cases may be treated conservatively. Association with alarming signs, such as nerve dysfunction, warrants a thorough investigation and an interprofessional approach. [4] Pharmacological treatments include pain relievers targeting peripheral and central neurologic pathways, as well as muscle relaxants. [5] Various forms of physical therapy are available for individuals who prefer nonpharmacological approaches or are recovering from injuries. [6] Acupuncture is an alternative therapy shown to improve back pain moderately. Surgery is reserved for cases that are accompanied by severe nerve dysfunction, have resulted from serious causes such as malignancy, or manifest with refractory symptoms due to structural causes, such as spondylolisthesis. [7] [8] Significant back pain that does not resolve within 6 weeks of adequate conservative management may warrant imaging with radiography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A thorough evaluation helps determine the cause of back pain and develop a tailored therapeutic plan. Addressing the underlying pathology significantly improves patients' functional capacity and quality of life. Etiology Back pain arises from various conditions, which may be classified into the following: Traumatic: Results from direct or indirect contact with an external force. Examples include whiplash injury, strain, and traumatic fractures. Degenerative: Musculoskeletal structures weaken over time due to aging, overuse, or preexisting pathology. Examples include intervertebral disc herniation and degenerative disc disease (see Image . Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon). Oncologic: Primary or secondary malignant lesions can develop in back structures. Pathologic fractures of the axial skeleton may occur as complications. Infectious: Infections of musculoskeletal structures may arise from direct inoculation or hematogenous spread. Inflammatory: Includes noninfectious, nonmalignant conditions. Examples are ankylosing spondylitis and sacroiliitis. Chronic inflammation may result in spinal arthritis. Metabolic: Disorders of calcium and bone metabolism can cause symptoms. Examples encompass osteoporosis and osteosclerosis. Vascular: Acute or chronic aortic dissection can present as tearing back pain, usually with abrupt onset and associated cardiovascular risk factors (Source: Zakko and Reece , 2024). Referred pain: Visceral organ pathology may produce referred back pain. Examples include biliary colic, lung disease, and aortic or vertebral artery disorders. Postural: Prolonged upright posture can contribute to back pain. Pregnancy and certain occupations increase risk. Congenital: Inborn axial skeleton conditions can cause symptoms. Examples include kyphoscoliosis and a tethered spinal cord. Psychiatric: Chronic pain syndromes and mental health conditions may present with back pain. Malingering may contribute to symptom amplification or inconsistent clinical findings. [9] The duration of symptoms is important, as acute and chronic back pain often have different etiologies. A thorough clinical evaluation and appropriate diagnostic testing are usually sufficient to determine the cause. Referral to specialists, such as neurosurgeons, orthopedic spine surgeons, neurologists, rheumatologists, physiatrists, or pain management providers, may be necessary for further evaluation and treatment planning. Epidemiology Back pain is widespread among adults. Studies report that up to 23% of adults worldwide experience chronic low back pain, with 1-year recurrence rates ranging from 24% to 80%. [10] [11] The lifetime prevalence of back pain in adults may reach 84%. [12] Back pain is less common in pediatric populations. A Scandinavian study found that point prevalence was approximately 1% among 12-year-olds and 5% among 15-year-olds. By age 18 for girls and 20 for boys, 50% of adolescents will have experienced at least 1 episode of back pain. [13] Lifetime prevalence in adolescents increases progressively with age, approaching adult levels by 18. [14] Pathophysiology Mechanical back pain develops when nociceptive elements within the spinal motion segment or adjacent soft tissues undergo overload or structural disruption. Acute episodes typically reflect sprain or strain of paraspinal musculature and supporting ligaments after a loaded segment is driven into excessive flexion, extension, or rotation. Eccentric contraction produces microscopic tearing near the myotendinous junction, followed by edema, inflammatory mediator release, and reflex spasm that sensitize local nociceptors and restrict segmental motion. Chronic mechanical pain more frequently arises from degenerative intervertebral disc changes. Cumulative mechanical loading and endplate injury promote annular fissuring, proteoglycan loss, disc dehydration, and progressive collapse. The structurally compromised disc demonstrates abnormal load transfer, pathologic ingrowth of nociceptive nerve fibers and blood vessels, and heightened production of proinflammatory mediators, generating discogenic pain or radiculopathy. [15] Lumbar zygapophyseal (facet) joints, as synovial joints with richly innervated capsules, bear substantial axial load during extension. Repetitive shear and compression promote cartilage loss, osteophyte formation, capsular laxity or hypertrophy, and localized inflammation. Resulting capsular stretch or distension activates high- and low-threshold mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, producing referred pain to the back or buttocks. Persistent peripheral nociceptive drive from these structures may, in some cases, induce central sensitization and facilitate the transition from acute to chronic pain. [16] History and Physical Determining the cause of back pain begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The onset of pain should be established early. Acute back pain, defined as back pain lasting less than 6 weeks, most often reflects mechanical strain or degenerative changes and less commonly results from trauma or abrupt progression of serious underlying disease such as malignancy. Chronic cases, lasting longer than 12 weeks, may involve mechanical dysfunction or arise from longstanding conditions. Information regarding factors that provoke or alleviate the pain must be obtained. In addition to providing diagnostic clues, understanding these factors guides the clinician in selecting appropriate pain management strategies. Pain quality assists in distinguishing visceral from nonvisceral sources. Well-localized pain often indicates an organic process. Any associated symptoms may offer additional insights into the underlying cause of back pain. Other pertinent information may be obtained from the patient’s medical, family, occupational, and social history. For example, a history of prior cancer chemotherapy should raise suspicion for metastasis or a secondary tumor. Certain autoimmune arthritides have a hereditary component. Pott disease, or spinal tuberculosis, may result from exposure in regions where tuberculosis is endemic. Prolonged sitting during work can contribute to both acute and chronic back pain. A focused physical examination should include inspection, auscultation, palpation, and provocative maneuvers. Visual inspection of the back may not reveal the cause unless deformity, signs of inflammation, or skin lesions are present. Auscultation is useful when back pain may be secondary to pulmonary pathology. Palpation can elicit localized musculoskeletal tenderness and help identify affected structures. Certain provocative maneuvers can provide diagnostic clues regarding the cause of back pain. The straight-leg-raising (SLR) test is useful for diagnosing lumbar disc herniation. The test is performed by raising the patient’s leg to 30° to 70°. A result is considered positive if ipsilateral leg pain occurs at less than 60°. The crossed SLR test involves raising the contralateral leg and is more specific than a standard SLR for identifying a disc herniation. [17] [18] The Stork test, which evaluates for spondylolysis, is another clinically used maneuver. The examiner supports the patient while they stand on a leg and hyperextend their back. The maneuver is repeated on the opposite leg. The test result is positive if the patient experiences pain during hyperextension. The Adam test is used to evaluate scoliosis. The patient bends forward with feet together, arms extended, and palms touching. An examiner standing in front can detect a thoracic prominence in patients with scoliosis. [19] Assessment of range of motion, limb strength, deep tendon reflexes, and sensation aids in evaluating the integrity of both musculoskeletal and neurologic systems. Red flags identified during history or physical examination warrant imaging and additional diagnostic testing. The signs explained below should be carefully monitored. In adults, red flags for back pain include a history of metastatic cancer or unexplained weight loss, with focal tenderness to palpation in the presence of risk factors suggesting malignancy. Infection should be suspected in patients with recent spinal procedures, intravenous drug use, immunosuppression, or prior lumbar surgery, especially if fever, spinal wounds, localized pain, or tenderness is present. A systematic review of 40 observational studies demonstrated that individual red flags possess limited standalone diagnostic accuracy for serious thoracolumbar pathology and frequently generate high rates of false positive results. Vertebral fractures accounted for 0.4% to 5.6% of low back pain presentations. Posttest probabilities increased substantially only when advanced age, recent trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, and female sex occurred collectively rather than independently. For spinal malignancy, the most informative red flags included a prior history of cancer, unexplained weight loss, persistent pain without improvement, and concerning overall clinical judgment. In contrast, isolated night pain or broad age thresholds produced numerous false positives. Across vertebral fracture, malignancy, infection, and cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic prediction models that integrated multiple red flags consistently demonstrated higher likelihood ratios than any single historical feature or physical examination finding. [20] Symptoms suggestive of cauda equina syndrome require immediate recognition, as this condition constitutes a surgical emergency. New urinary retention, difficulty initiating micturition, bowel dysfunction, or sensory loss in the perineal or perianal region (“saddle anesthesia”) are key historical features. Bilateral sciatica, rapidly escalating leg pain, or new bilateral lower-extremity weakness further heighten concern, and the constellation of these findings indicates severe compression of the cauda equina nerve roots. Such presentations are strongly associated with massive midline disc herniation or other space-occupying lesions and demand urgent evaluation to prevent permanent neurologic deficit. Fracture risk increases with significant trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, osteoporosis, or age over 70, and may be indicated by contusions, abrasions, or tenderness over spinous processes. Neurologic compromise is suggested by progressive motor or sensory loss, new urinary or fecal incontinence, saddle anesthesia, anal sphincter atony, or significant motor deficits across multiple myotomes. [21] [22] A focused neurological history should assess bladder and bowel function and document any perineal or perianal sensory loss, as these features suggest possible cauda equina or conus medullaris involvement. The neurological examination should include motor testing of key lumbosacral myotomes—hip flexion, knee extension, ankle dorsiflexion, ankle plantar flexion, great-toe extension, and foot eversion—to identify focal weakness patterns that correlate with specific nerve root compression. In pediatric patients, malignancy should be considered in children who are younger than 4 years or experience nighttime pain, particularly when focal tenderness is present. Infection risk increases in children who are younger than 4, report nighttime pain, or have a history of tuberculosis exposure, especially if fever, spinal wounds, or localized tenderness occurs. Inflammatory causes are suggested by morning stiffness lasting more than 30 minutes, improving with activity or heat, accompanied by a limited range of motion and localized tenderness. Fractures may result from repetitive lumbar hyperextension during sports, with tenderness over spinous processes or a positive Stork test result. [23] [24] Recent recommendations for children and adolescents consolidate red flag features that warrant evaluation for specific spinal disease. Concerning findings include age younger than 10 years, significant trauma, prior or current glucocorticoid therapy, motor or sensory deficits, radicular pain, bladder or bowel dysfunction, fever, lymphadenopathy, structural deformity, and focal compression tenderness. The same publication identifies evidence-based risk factors for nonspecific pediatric back pain. Increasing age in adolescence, female sex, high levels of sports participation, prior pain episodes, and psychosocial factors—such as low life satisfaction, anxiety, and depression—demonstrate strong associations, and several additional contributors also predict a chronic course. Incorporation of these red and yellow flags into routine pediatric history taking assists in distinguishing children who require prompt imaging or specialty referral from those who are suitable for initial conservative management and observation. [25] Four-Category Diagnostic Framework for Back Pain During the initial history and physical examination, back pain presentations can be organized into 4 diagnostic groups that direct subsequent evaluation and management: Nonspecific mechanical pain Pain arising from radiculopathy or spinal stenosis Pain referred from nonspinal sources Pain associated with specific or nonmechanical spinal pathology, including infection, fracture, inflammatory disease, or malignancy [26] [27] This diagnostic framework clarifies the likely source of pain and prioritizes the most appropriate investigative pathway. Correct classification ensures that high-risk conditions receive urgent evaluation, while stable cases proceed with conservative care. Evaluation History and physical examination are sufficient to determine the cause of back pain in most cases. Early imaging in adults has been associated with poorer outcomes, as it often leads to more invasive interventions that provide minimal benefit. [28] [29] Similar findings are reported in pediatric populations. Fewer than 5% to 10% of low back pain presentations result from specific spinal pathology, whereas 90% to 95% reflect nonspecific mechanical pain suitable for conservative management without routine imaging. Degenerative changes, including disc degeneration, disc bulging, and facet arthropathy, are highly prevalent in asymptomatic adults (see Image . Facet Arthropathy). Disc degeneration occurs in more than 80% of adults older than 50. Therefore, imaging findings must be interpreted cautiously and within the clinical context. [30] Nevertheless, the presence of concerning signs warrants diagnostic evaluation. In adults, imaging is indicated for back pain persisting longer than 6 weeks despite appropriate conservative management. In children, imaging is recommended for continuous pain lasting more than 4 weeks. Plain anteroposterior and lateral films of the axial skeleton can detect bone pathology (see Image . Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine). MRI is indicated for the evaluation of soft tissue lesions, including nerves, intervertebral discs, and tendons. Both imaging modalities can identify signs of malignancy and inflammation, but MRI is preferred when soft tissues are involved. [31] [32] Bone scans may demonstrate osteomyelitis, discitis, and stress reactions but are inferior to MRI for assessing these conditions. [33] Single-photon emission computed tomography–CT (SPECT-CT) can aid diagnosis when MRI results are inconclusive, particularly in patients with prior spinal instrumentation, but it is not recommended as a primary imaging modality. [34] CT or magnetic resonance angiography should be performed in cases of suspected aortic dissection (see Image . Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography). [35] (Source: Alexiou and Sritharan , 2025) Adolescents with MRI evidence of disc herniation may require a CT scan to confirm or exclude apophyseal ring separation, which occurs in approximately 5.7% of these patients. [36] Electromyography or nerve conduction studies are indicated in patients with prior spinal surgery who may present with radiculopathy or plexopathy. Image-guided diagnostic injections can help confirm sacroiliac joint disease. Laboratory evaluation may be necessary in selected cases of back pain. Rheumatologic assays, including human leukocyte antigen B27, antinuclear antibody, rheumatoid factor, and Lyme antibodies, are generally nonspecific and not routinely helpful. [37] [38] Inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, can provide clinically useful information. [39] A complete blood count and blood cultures may aid in diagnosing inflammatory, infectious, or malignant processes. Elevated lactate dehydrogenase and uric acid levels are frequently observed in conditions associated with rapid marrow turnover, such as leukemia. [40] Applying the Four-Category Model to Guide Testing and Management The diagnostic evaluation can be structured according to the 4-category framework. In patients with nonspecific low back pain and absence of red flag features, imaging is typically deferred for 1 to 2 months, as early radiography does not improve outcomes and often reveals incidental findings that do not alter management. When history or examination indicates specific spinal pathology, such as radiculopathy or spinal stenosis, MRI may be employed to confirm neural compression and guide interventional or surgical planning (see Image . Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis). Features suggestive of a nonspinal source—eg, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, vascular, or gynecologic—prompt targeted evaluation of the relevant organ system rather than spine-focused studies. Laboratory testing and more extensive imaging, often expedited, are reserved for the nonmechanical spinal category. Clues such as fever, night pain, unexplained weight loss, persistent rest pain, or progressive neurologic deficit raise suspicion for infection, malignancy, or inflammatory spondyloarthropathy and justify erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein testing, complete blood count, and early MRI. Application of this structured approach allows conservative management for most patients with nonspecific pain while ensuring timely identification of specific spinal, nonspinal, or systemic pathology requiring intensive evaluation. Treatment / Management Adult and pediatric back pain require distinct management strategies. Many cases have an unidentifiable cause, although degenerative disease and musculoskeletal injury are more prevalent in adults. Overuse and muscle strain are more common precipitants in children and adolescents. Rare etiologies, including malignancy and metabolic disorders, manifest differently across age groups. Consequently, treatment must be tailored to both the underlying condition and the patient’s age. Management of Back Pain in Adults Serious conditions must be excluded initially for acute back pain in adults. The patient should be reassured and provided with symptomatic relief if no indications for further testing are present. The 1st-line management is nonpharmacological and includes early return to normal routines, except for heavy labor, avoidance of pain-provoking activities, and patient education. Second-line options may include the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), muscle relaxants, or opioids, spinal manipulation, physical therapy, superficial heat application, and alternative treatments such as acupuncture or massage. Education regarding the potential causes of back pain should be individualized to each patient’s circumstances, as it plays a critical role in preventing symptom aggravation or recurrence. Follow-up is typically recommended after 2 weeks, with resumption of normal activities encouraged if the patient is asymptomatic at that time. In adult patients with acute back pain with radiculopathy, management may include NSAID therapy, exercise, traction, or spinal manipulation. Diazepam and systemic steroids provide no additional benefit. Diagnostic testing is indicated if serious conditions cannot be excluded, and referral to appropriate specialists should be considered for further evaluation or treatment. Management of chronic back pain follows a similar approach. Serious conditions must be ruled out first. For nonspecific pain, patients should remain active and avoid precipitating factors. Exercise therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are considered 1st-line treatments. [41] [42] Second-line options include spinal manipulation, massage, acupuncture, yoga, stress reduction, intake of NSAIDs or selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and interprofessional rehabilitation. [43] [44] [45] The effectiveness of anticonvulsants such as gabapentin and topiramate is uncertain. [46] [47] Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units do not appear more effective than placebo for chronic back pain. [48] Referral to pain management Referral to pain management is indicated when low back pain persists despite adequate conservative treatment and limits daily function. Persistent severe functional impairment, unremitting pain, or plateaued improvement warrants evaluation by a pain specialist. A lower threshold for referral applies to radicular or stenotic symptoms that fail to improve, as these patients may benefit from interventional options, including epidural steroid injections. Pain extending beyond the normal period of tissue healing should prompt specialized assessment and management to interrupt progression toward chronicity and prevent deconditioning. Surgical referral Urgent surgical referral is required when clinical findings indicate potential spinal cord or nerve root compromise, infection, fracture, or malignancy. Cauda equina syndrome is the most critical indication and constitutes a surgical emergency, identified by new urinary retention or overflow incontinence, saddle anesthesia, bilateral sciatica, or bilateral lower-extremity weakness. Rapidly progressive or severe neurologic deficits, including worsening motor weakness or sensory loss, similarly warrant immediate evaluation. Features suggestive of spinal infection, including fever, recent spinal procedures, immunosuppression, intravenous drug use, or severe focal vertebral tenderness, require urgent assessment, as they may indicate osteomyelitis, epidural abscess, or septic discitis. Malignancy should be suspected in cases of unexplained weight loss, prior history of cancer, persistent night pain, or focal vertebral tenderness, with concurrent neurologic compromise necessitating immediate referral. Traumatic mechanisms combined with pain, neurologic deficits, advanced age, osteoporosis, or chronic steroid use raise concern for unstable vertebral fracture and demand prompt surgical evaluation. Severe spinal stenosis with progressive neurologic impairment and spondylolisthesis, accompanied by worsening weakness or disabling sciatica, also meets criteria for urgent referral. Persistent spine-related symptoms correlating with structural pathology on imaging may justify nonurgent referral to a spine surgeon when symptoms fail to improve with conservative therapy. Sciatica caused by a herniated lumbar disc that persists for 4 to 6 weeks despite nonoperative treatment represents a subgroup in which elective surgical evaluation may provide benefit. Management of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents Pediatric back pain treatments are less extensively studied. Activity modification, physical therapy, and NSAID use are broadly supported as 1st-line therapies. When serious pathology is present, treatment follows the standard of care for the underlying condition. Spondylolysis resulting from repetitive spinal stress is generally managed conservatively, similar to adults. However, young patients actively engaged in sports may require referral for surgical intervention. [49] [50] Symptoms persisting beyond 6 months of conservative therapy or Grade III or IV spondylolisthesis warrant evaluation by a pediatric spine surgeon. [51] [52] Patients with Scheuermann kyphosis may be managed conservatively with physical therapy and guided exercise if the spinal curvature is less than 60°. Bracing may be added for curvatures between 60° and 70°. Surgical correction is indicated for curvatures exceeding 75°, particularly if conservative measures fail and skeletal maturity is reached. [53] [54] Indications for surgical referral also include scoliotic spinal curvature of 20° or greater during peak growth, significant or progressive scoliosis, and atypical scoliosis. [55] Urgent surgical referral in children is indicated when back pain is accompanied by findings suggestive of infection, malignancy, or spinal cord compromise. Epidural abscess, presenting with fever, spinal pain, and neurologic deficits, requires immediate neurosurgical evaluation. Neoplastic processes, signaled by unremitting nighttime pain, weight loss, or myelopathic symptoms such as gait instability or limb weakness, also warrant rapid referral to neurosurgery. Tethered cord syndrome, characterized by exertional back pain, bladder dysfunction, calf atrophy, diminished reflexes, dermatomal sensory loss, or progressive scoliosis, similarly requires urgent surgical assessment due to risk of progressive neurologic injury. Vertebral fractures associated with acute trauma, focal midline pain, radicular symptoms, or weakness necessitate immediate imaging and specialist evaluation because of potential instability or neural compression. Serious manifestations, including nighttime pain, systemic features, bowel or bladder dysfunction, or neurologic deficits, at any age demand prompt investigation and emergent specialty referral. These presentations reflect the higher likelihood of significant underlying spinal pathology in children. [56] Differential Diagnosis The following discussion covers adult and pediatric conditions that present with back pain, along with their associated symptoms and relevant physical examination findings. This compilation is not exhaustive but highlights the most common and clinically significant causes of this symptom in these populations. Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Adults Lumbosacral muscle strains and sprains typically result from traumatic incidents or repetitive overuse. Pain generally worsens with movement and improves with rest, and the range of motion is often restricted. Tenderness to palpation is commonly present. Lumbar spondylosis primarily affects patients older than 40 and may be accompanied by hip pain. Discomfort often occurs with lower limb extension or rotation, while neurologic examination findings are usually normal. Disc herniation most frequently involves the L4 to S1 segments and can produce paresthesia, sensory changes, and motor weakness, depending on the severity and affected nerve root. Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis are caused by repetitive spinal stress and may present with back pain radiating to the gluteal region and posterior thighs. Vertebral compression fractures produce localized back pain that worsens with flexion and point tenderness on palpation. These injuries may be acute or chronic, with risk factors including steroid use, vitamin D deficiency, and osteoporosis. Spinal stenosis is characterized by leg sensory and motor weakness that is relieved with rest (neurologic claudication). Neurologic examination may initially appear normal but can worsen as stenosis progresses. Spinal tumors may present with unexplained weight loss, focal tenderness to palpation, or other risk factors for malignancy, with approximately 97% of spinal tumors being metastatic. [57] Infections of the spine should be suspected in patients with a history of spinal surgery within the past 12 months, intravenous drug use, or immunosuppression. Clinical features include fever, localized pain, tenderness, or spinal wounds. Common infectious causes encompass vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Tuberculosis should be considered in patients from endemic regions. [58] Acute or chronic aortic dissection can manifest as tearing back pain. The incidence is higher in older adults and is often associated with cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and aneurysms. In younger patients, dissection is typically linked to connective tissue disorders, including Marfan, Ehlers-Danlos, and Loeys-Dietz syndromes. [59] Vertebral fractures may result from trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, or osteoporosis and are most common in patients older than 70. Physical findings include contusions, abrasions, and tenderness over the spinous processes. Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents Tumors in pediatric patients may present with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Osteoid osteoma is the most common tumor causing back pain and is typically relieved by NSAID intake. [60] [61] [62] Infections are associated with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Patients may refuse to walk. Common conditions include vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Epidural abscess should be suspected if neurologic deficits or radicular pain are present. [63] [64] Disc herniation and slipped apophysis may present with acute back pain, radicular symptoms, and recent-onset scoliosis, with positive SLR test findings and pain on forward spinal flexion. Spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, and posterior arch lesions typically present with acute back pain and radicular symptoms, sometimes accompanied by hamstring tightness, with pain on spinal extension and positive SLR test results. Vertebral fractures usually follow trauma but may occur as stress fractures, causing insidious onset and progressive postural changes. Muscle strain presents with acute localized tenderness without radiation. Scheuermann kyphosis is associated with chronic back pain and rigid kyphosis. Inflammatory spondyloarthropathies feature chronic pain, morning stiffness exceeding 30 minutes, and sacroiliac joint tenderness. Psychological disorders, including conversion or somatization, may cause persistent subjective pain despite normal physical findings. Idiopathic scoliosis is typically asymptomatic, with a positive Adam test result; reported back pain may have an alternative cause. [65] Prognosis In adults, the prognosis of back pain depends on its etiology. Most nonspecific cases resolve without serious sequelae. The effectiveness of conservative therapy and patient education demonstrates the important contribution of psychosocial and contextual factors to symptom severity and disability. Chronic, disabling back pain is more likely with prior episodes, high symptom intensity, depression, fear-avoidant behavior, or accompanying leg or widespread symptoms. [66] Social factors also significantly influence prognosis. [67] Low educational attainment, physically demanding work, inadequate compensation, and poor job satisfaction are associated with worse outcomes, including higher disability rates. [68] [69] Modifiable risk factors, such as a body mass index greater than 25 and smoking, are linked to persistent back pain. [70] Fewer studies address pediatric back pain prognosis, but etiology appears similarly influential. [71] Pain caused by malignancy is more likely to result in disability than muscle strain. [72] Behavioral comorbidities, including conduct problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, passive coping strategies, and fear-avoidant behavior, have been associated with poorer outcomes in younger patients. [73] [74] [75] Complications The underlying etiology of back pain largely determines the risk of complications, which may be both physical and social. Physically, back pain can become chronic and may be associated with deformity, neurologic deficits, or both. Social consequences include disability, reduced productivity, and increased absenteeism. A 2015 study reported that back pain accounted for 60.1 million years of disability worldwide, making it the leading cause of global disability. [76] In the U.S., low-back pain is the most common reason for disability. [77] Early intervention helps prevent the progression to chronic pain and associated complications. Ambulation and maintenance of activity improve outcomes, whereas prolonged sedentariness and resultant obesity are associated with poorer prognosis. Postoperative and Rehabilitation Care The underlying cause, patient comorbidities, and individual health goals guide back pain rehabilitation. The McKenzie method is frequently recommended for managing chronic nonspecific low-back pain. [78] Clinical practice guidelines for physical therapy advocate manual therapy, trunk strengthening, centralization techniques, directional preference exercises, and progressive endurance training. Occupational therapy can support patients in managing activities of daily living and using adaptive equipment as needed. Additionally, employing assistive devices during patient transfers has been shown to reduce the incidence of low-back pain among female healthcare workers. [79] [80] Deterrence and Patient Education Patient education on preventing back pain recurrence or aggravation should be individualized. Adults with sedentary occupations should be encouraged to remain active to maintain a healthy body weight, as a body mass index greater than 25 is associated with worse outcomes. Individuals in physically demanding jobs should similarly remain active but avoid precipitating factors, such as heavy lifting and repetitive back twisting, by using lifting equipment or reducing load weight when necessary. All patients should be counseled to avoid smoking, which increases back pain risk across all ages. [81] [82] Intensive education sessions lasting approximately 2.5 hours, covering activity modification, staying active, and early return to normal routines, have proven effective in promoting return to work among adults. [83] In pediatric patients, evidence regarding bookbag weight as a risk factor is mixed. Nevertheless, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that bookbags not exceed 10% to 20% of a child’s body weight. [84] Although most back pain cases are self-limited, discharged patients should be instructed to seek immediate medical attention for concerning signs, such as sudden sensory or motor deficits. Pearls and Other Issues For adults, history and physical examination usually suffice to evaluate atraumatic, acute back pain in the absence of clinical red flags. Imaging tests should generally be deferred for 6 weeks to allow for symptom resolution. [85] [86] Patient education emphasizing the importance of remaining active constitutes the 1st-line treatment for nonspecific back pain. Evidence indicates that pharmacologic therapy and physical therapy do not consistently provide benefit. Second-line interventions may include treatment with NSAIDs, opioids, or SNRIs such as duloxetine, which are more effective than placebo for nonspecific chronic low-back pain. [87] [88] Acetaminophen, antidepressants other than SNRIs, lidocaine patches, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation units have not demonstrated consistent efficacy beyond placebo in chronic low-back pain. [89] [90] Referral to physical therapy for the McKenzie technique can help reduce recurrence risk. [91] [92] For children, transient back pain following minor injury in the absence of abnormal physical findings may be managed conservatively without further evaluation. Indications for additional assessment include abnormal examination findings, persistent pain, nighttime pain, or radicular symptoms. [93] Plain anteroposterior and lateral films are recommended as 1st-line radiographic studies. Laboratory testing should be considered when clinical red flags are present, as thoracic malignancy and infection are more common in children, particularly those younger than 4 years. [94] Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes Integrating the expertise of multiple healthcare professionals ensures comprehensive care, improved outcomes, and enhanced quality of life for individuals with back pain. The interprofessional team typically includes the primary care provider, nurse, pharmacist, nutritionist, physical therapist, occupational therapist, radiologist, and other medical specialists relevant to the individual case. The primary care provider is the first medical professional to examine the patient. Evaluation begins with a thorough medical history and physical examination. The primary care provider determines the appropriate initial treatment, assesses the need for diagnostic testing, and decides on referrals to specialists. This provider also leads patient education and communicates follow-up recommendations. Education should emphasize smoking cessation and maintenance of a healthy body weight. [95] The nurse reinforces key components of patient education and follow-up instructions. Evidence-based responses should be provided to questions regarding nonpharmacologic therapies and continued physical activity in back pain management. The nurse ensures the patient is clinically stable prior to discharge and that care plans are coordinated for subsequent appointments. If the primary care provider prescribes medications, the pharmacist can educate patients on the specific benefits and risks of each drug for back pain. Proper administration instructions and the potential risks of overdose should be emphasized. The pharmacist should contact the primary care provider to clarify any uncertainties regarding the patient’s prescription. Obesity is associated with poorer outcomes in patients with back pain. Nutritionists can guide patients in making healthier dietary choices and maintaining a healthy weight. In cases of obesity, an obesity medicine specialist may prescribe antiobesity medications as an adjunct to lifestyle modifications to support significant weight loss. The physical therapist designs strength and endurance exercise programs to manage back pain and reduce the risk of recurrence. Physical therapy has also been shown to assist patients with back pain in reducing or discontinuing opioid use. [96] The occupational therapist provides ergonomic guidance and recommends assistive devices to support back pain management in both work and home environments. The radiologist assists the primary care provider in interpreting imaging findings and can recommend additional imaging studies if necessary. The primary care provider may refer patients to other specialists as indicated. A pain specialist can optimize pharmacologic therapy or perform interventional procedures for chronic back pain. A rheumatologist may be consulted when back pain is associated with signs of chronic inflammatory disease. Severe radiculopathy or neurologic deterioration warrants urgent referral to a neurosurgeon or orthopedic spine surgeon. Mental health therapists can provide stress-coping strategies, administer cognitive behavioral therapy, and implement other interventions for back pain with a significant psychological component. [97] Alternative medicine practitioners may also contribute to improving patient function. Effective communication among the interprofessional team is essential to avoid duplicating diagnostic tests. Conflicting treatments can also impede patient progress. Figure Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine. This lateral lumbar spine x-ray shows lytic lesions in the L1 and L4 vertebral bodies. Contributed by Steve Lange, MD Figure Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography. Axial computed tomography section at the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus demonstrates a dissection flap within the aortic lumen, separating the true and false lumens (Image A). Coronal (more...) Figure Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon. Sagittal computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates severe degenerative disc disease with near-complete disc height loss at the affected lumbar level, creating a bone-on-bone (more...) Figure Facet Arthropathy. Axial computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates bilateral lumbar facet joint arthropathy with joint space vacuum phenomenon, subchondral sclerosis, and hypertrophic osteophytic change. These degenerative changes can (more...) Figure Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis. Sagittal T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates anterior translation of L4 relative to L5, consistent with degenerative spondylolisthesis, resulting in L4 and L5 central canal stenosis (more...) 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The Influence of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Pain, Quality of Life, and Depression in Patients Receiving Physical Therapy for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review. PM R. 2019 Feb; 11 (2):167-176. [ PubMed : 30266349 ] Disclosure: Konstantinos Margetis declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Charanjeet Singh declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Vincent Casiano declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Matthew Varacallo declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.
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A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. StatPearls \[Internet\]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. [![Cover of StatPearls](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/bookshelf/thumbs/th-statpearls-lrg.png)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/n/statpearls/ "Table of Contents Page") ## StatPearls \[Internet\]. [Show details](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#__NBK538173_dtls__) Treasure Island (FL): [StatPearls Publishing](https://www.statpearls.com/); 2026 Jan-. # Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management Konstantinos Margetis; Charanjeet Singh; Vincent E. Casiano; Matthew A. Varacallo. [Author Information and Affiliations](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#__NBK538173_ai__) #### Authors Konstantinos Margetis1; Charanjeet Singh2; Vincent E. Casiano3; Matthew A. Varacallo4. #### Affiliations 1 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai 2 University of Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus 3 Martin Army Community Hospital 4 Penn Highlands Healthcare System Last Update: December 13, 2025. ## Continuing Education Activity Back pain is a leading reason for seeking emergency care and contributes substantially to functional disability and healthcare burden. Mechanical and nonspecific disorders account for most presentations across all age groups, although etiology varies by developmental stage. Younger individuals more frequently exhibit acute muscular strain, ligamentous injury, or intervertebral disc herniation, while older adults demonstrate a higher prevalence of degenerative disc disease, facet arthropathy, osteoporotic compression fractures, and spinal stenosis. Risk is increased by occupational or athletic mechanical stress, physical deconditioning, obesity, and tobacco use. Nociceptive signaling may originate from paraspinal musculature, intervertebral discs, facet joints, or nerve roots, with symptom location, radiation, and neurologic deficits helping localize the underlying source. Initial evaluation relies on thorough history and physical examination, with imaging reserved for refractory symptoms, neurologic deficits, or red flag features indicating infection, malignancy, fracture, or spinal cord or cauda equina compression. Evidence-based management emphasizes activity as tolerated, analgesics when appropriate, and physical therapy interventions. Most acute cases resolve within several weeks. Persistent symptoms increase the likelihood of chronic pain development and long-term disability. This activity for healthcare professionals is designed to improve learners' competence in evaluating and managing back pain. Participants will advance their mastery of the symptom's etiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Recognition of red flags for severe conditions will be emphasized. Greater skills will equip clinicians to collaborate confidently with interprofessional teams caring for affected individuals. Objectives: - Determine the etiology of back pain based on clinical and diagnostic features, with emphasis on recognizing red flags suggestive of emergent or high-risk conditions. - Implement evidence-based, personalized strategies for managing back pain and preventing its potential complications. - Improve patient awareness of mechanical versus serious causes, warning signs, safe activity, and strategies to enhance function and reduce chronic pain risk. - Collaborate with the interprofessional team to educate, treat, and monitor patients with back pain to improve functional and overall health outcomes. [Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.](https://www.statpearls.com/account/trialuserreg/?articleid=18089&utm_source=pubmed&utm_campaign=reviews&utm_content=18089) ## Introduction Back pain is one of the most common reasons for primary- and emergency-care consultations. An estimated \$200 billion is spent annually on managing back pain. Additionally, work hours, productivity, and workers' compensation are greatly reduced due to this condition.[\[1\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r1) Back pain arises from a broad range of causes in adults and children, though most are mechanical in nature or have a nonspecific origin. Mechanical back pain comprises 90% of cases, so health providers can easily miss rare causes while focusing on common etiologies.[\[2\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r2)[\[3\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r3) Identifying red flags and determining the appropriate treatment are the most important aspects of back pain management. Most cases may be treated conservatively. Association with alarming signs, such as nerve dysfunction, warrants a thorough investigation and an interprofessional approach.[\[4\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r4) Pharmacological treatments include pain relievers targeting peripheral and central neurologic pathways, as well as muscle relaxants.[\[5\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r5) Various forms of physical therapy are available for individuals who prefer nonpharmacological approaches or are recovering from injuries.[\[6\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r6) Acupuncture is an alternative therapy shown to improve back pain moderately. Surgery is reserved for cases that are accompanied by severe nerve dysfunction, have resulted from serious causes such as malignancy, or manifest with refractory symptoms due to structural causes, such as spondylolisthesis.[\[7\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r7)[\[8\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r8) Significant back pain that does not resolve within 6 weeks of adequate conservative management may warrant imaging with radiography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A thorough evaluation helps determine the cause of back pain and develop a tailored therapeutic plan. Addressing the underlying pathology significantly improves patients' functional capacity and quality of life. ## Etiology Back pain arises from various conditions, which may be classified into the following: - Traumatic: Results from direct or indirect contact with an external force. Examples include whiplash injury, strain, and traumatic fractures. - Degenerative: Musculoskeletal structures weaken over time due to aging, overuse, or preexisting pathology. Examples include intervertebral disc herniation and degenerative disc disease (see Image. Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon). - Oncologic: Primary or secondary malignant lesions can develop in back structures. Pathologic fractures of the axial skeleton may occur as complications. - Infectious: Infections of musculoskeletal structures may arise from direct inoculation or hematogenous spread. - Inflammatory: Includes noninfectious, nonmalignant conditions. Examples are ankylosing spondylitis and sacroiliitis. Chronic inflammation may result in spinal arthritis. - Metabolic: Disorders of calcium and bone metabolism can cause symptoms. Examples encompass osteoporosis and osteosclerosis. - Vascular: Acute or chronic aortic dissection can present as tearing back pain, usually with abrupt onset and associated cardiovascular risk factors (Source: [Zakko and Reece](https://evtoday.com/articles/2024-apr/type-b-aortic-dissection-presenting-as-sudden-onset-sharp-back-pain), 2024). - Referred pain: Visceral organ pathology may produce referred back pain. Examples include biliary colic, lung disease, and aortic or vertebral artery disorders. - Postural: Prolonged upright posture can contribute to back pain. Pregnancy and certain occupations increase risk. - Congenital: Inborn axial skeleton conditions can cause symptoms. Examples include kyphoscoliosis and a tethered spinal cord. - Psychiatric: Chronic pain syndromes and mental health conditions may present with back pain. Malingering may contribute to symptom amplification or inconsistent clinical findings.[\[9\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r9) The duration of symptoms is important, as acute and chronic back pain often have different etiologies. A thorough clinical evaluation and appropriate diagnostic testing are usually sufficient to determine the cause. Referral to specialists, such as neurosurgeons, orthopedic spine surgeons, neurologists, rheumatologists, physiatrists, or pain management providers, may be necessary for further evaluation and treatment planning. ## Epidemiology Back pain is widespread among adults. Studies report that up to 23% of adults worldwide experience chronic low back pain, with 1-year recurrence rates ranging from 24% to 80%.[\[10\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r10)[\[11\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r11) The lifetime prevalence of back pain in adults may reach 84%.[\[12\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r12) Back pain is less common in pediatric populations. A Scandinavian study found that point prevalence was approximately 1% among 12-year-olds and 5% among 15-year-olds. By age 18 for girls and 20 for boys, 50% of adolescents will have experienced at least 1 episode of back pain.[\[13\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r13) Lifetime prevalence in adolescents increases progressively with age, approaching adult levels by 18.[\[14\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r14) ## Pathophysiology Mechanical back pain develops when nociceptive elements within the spinal motion segment or adjacent soft tissues undergo overload or structural disruption. Acute episodes typically reflect sprain or strain of paraspinal musculature and supporting ligaments after a loaded segment is driven into excessive flexion, extension, or rotation. Eccentric contraction produces microscopic tearing near the myotendinous junction, followed by edema, inflammatory mediator release, and reflex spasm that sensitize local nociceptors and restrict segmental motion. Chronic mechanical pain more frequently arises from degenerative intervertebral disc changes. Cumulative mechanical loading and endplate injury promote annular fissuring, proteoglycan loss, disc dehydration, and progressive collapse. The structurally compromised disc demonstrates abnormal load transfer, pathologic ingrowth of nociceptive nerve fibers and blood vessels, and heightened production of proinflammatory mediators, generating discogenic pain or radiculopathy.[\[15\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r15) Lumbar zygapophyseal (facet) joints, as synovial joints with richly innervated capsules, bear substantial axial load during extension. Repetitive shear and compression promote cartilage loss, osteophyte formation, capsular laxity or hypertrophy, and localized inflammation. Resulting capsular stretch or distension activates high- and low-threshold mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, producing referred pain to the back or buttocks. Persistent peripheral nociceptive drive from these structures may, in some cases, induce central sensitization and facilitate the transition from acute to chronic pain.[\[16\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r16) ## History and Physical Determining the cause of back pain begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The onset of pain should be established early. Acute back pain, defined as back pain lasting less than 6 weeks, most often reflects mechanical strain or degenerative changes and less commonly results from trauma or abrupt progression of serious underlying disease such as malignancy. Chronic cases, lasting longer than 12 weeks, may involve mechanical dysfunction or arise from longstanding conditions. Information regarding factors that provoke or alleviate the pain must be obtained. In addition to providing diagnostic clues, understanding these factors guides the clinician in selecting appropriate pain management strategies. Pain quality assists in distinguishing visceral from nonvisceral sources. Well-localized pain often indicates an organic process. Any associated symptoms may offer additional insights into the underlying cause of back pain. Other pertinent information may be obtained from the patient’s medical, family, occupational, and social history. For example, a history of prior cancer chemotherapy should raise suspicion for metastasis or a secondary tumor. Certain autoimmune arthritides have a hereditary component. Pott disease, or spinal tuberculosis, may result from exposure in regions where tuberculosis is endemic. Prolonged sitting during work can contribute to both acute and chronic back pain. A focused physical examination should include inspection, auscultation, palpation, and provocative maneuvers. Visual inspection of the back may not reveal the cause unless deformity, signs of inflammation, or skin lesions are present. Auscultation is useful when back pain may be secondary to pulmonary pathology. Palpation can elicit localized musculoskeletal tenderness and help identify affected structures. Certain provocative maneuvers can provide diagnostic clues regarding the cause of back pain. The straight-leg-raising (SLR) test is useful for diagnosing lumbar disc herniation. The test is performed by raising the patient’s leg to 30° to 70°. A result is considered positive if ipsilateral leg pain occurs at less than 60°. The crossed SLR test involves raising the contralateral leg and is more specific than a standard SLR for identifying a disc herniation.[\[17\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r17)[\[18\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r18) The Stork test, which evaluates for spondylolysis, is another clinically used maneuver. The examiner supports the patient while they stand on a leg and hyperextend their back. The maneuver is repeated on the opposite leg. The test result is positive if the patient experiences pain during hyperextension. The Adam test is used to evaluate scoliosis. The patient bends forward with feet together, arms extended, and palms touching. An examiner standing in front can detect a thoracic prominence in patients with scoliosis.[\[19\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r19) Assessment of range of motion, limb strength, deep tendon reflexes, and sensation aids in evaluating the integrity of both musculoskeletal and neurologic systems. Red flags identified during history or physical examination warrant imaging and additional diagnostic testing. The signs explained below should be carefully monitored. In adults, red flags for back pain include a history of metastatic cancer or unexplained weight loss, with focal tenderness to palpation in the presence of risk factors suggesting malignancy. Infection should be suspected in patients with recent spinal procedures, intravenous drug use, immunosuppression, or prior lumbar surgery, especially if fever, spinal wounds, localized pain, or tenderness is present. A systematic review of 40 observational studies demonstrated that individual red flags possess limited standalone diagnostic accuracy for serious thoracolumbar pathology and frequently generate high rates of false positive results. Vertebral fractures accounted for 0.4% to 5.6% of low back pain presentations. Posttest probabilities increased substantially only when advanced age, recent trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, and female sex occurred collectively rather than independently. For spinal malignancy, the most informative red flags included a prior history of cancer, unexplained weight loss, persistent pain without improvement, and concerning overall clinical judgment. In contrast, isolated night pain or broad age thresholds produced numerous false positives. Across vertebral fracture, malignancy, infection, and cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic prediction models that integrated multiple red flags consistently demonstrated higher likelihood ratios than any single historical feature or physical examination finding.[\[20\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r20) Symptoms suggestive of cauda equina syndrome require immediate recognition, as this condition constitutes a surgical emergency. New urinary retention, difficulty initiating micturition, bowel dysfunction, or sensory loss in the perineal or perianal region (“saddle anesthesia”) are key historical features. Bilateral sciatica, rapidly escalating leg pain, or new bilateral lower-extremity weakness further heighten concern, and the constellation of these findings indicates severe compression of the cauda equina nerve roots. Such presentations are strongly associated with massive midline disc herniation or other space-occupying lesions and demand urgent evaluation to prevent permanent neurologic deficit. Fracture risk increases with significant trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, osteoporosis, or age over 70, and may be indicated by contusions, abrasions, or tenderness over spinous processes. Neurologic compromise is suggested by progressive motor or sensory loss, new urinary or fecal incontinence, saddle anesthesia, anal sphincter atony, or significant motor deficits across multiple myotomes.[\[21\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r21)[\[22\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r22) A focused neurological history should assess bladder and bowel function and document any perineal or perianal sensory loss, as these features suggest possible cauda equina or conus medullaris involvement. The neurological examination should include motor testing of key lumbosacral myotomes—hip flexion, knee extension, ankle dorsiflexion, ankle plantar flexion, great-toe extension, and foot eversion—to identify focal weakness patterns that correlate with specific nerve root compression. In pediatric patients, malignancy should be considered in children who are younger than 4 years or experience nighttime pain, particularly when focal tenderness is present. Infection risk increases in children who are younger than 4, report nighttime pain, or have a history of tuberculosis exposure, especially if fever, spinal wounds, or localized tenderness occurs. Inflammatory causes are suggested by morning stiffness lasting more than 30 minutes, improving with activity or heat, accompanied by a limited range of motion and localized tenderness. Fractures may result from repetitive lumbar hyperextension during sports, with tenderness over spinous processes or a positive Stork test result.[\[23\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r23)[\[24\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r24) Recent recommendations for children and adolescents consolidate red flag features that warrant evaluation for specific spinal disease. Concerning findings include age younger than 10 years, significant trauma, prior or current glucocorticoid therapy, motor or sensory deficits, radicular pain, bladder or bowel dysfunction, fever, lymphadenopathy, structural deformity, and focal compression tenderness. The same publication identifies evidence-based risk factors for nonspecific pediatric back pain. Increasing age in adolescence, female sex, high levels of sports participation, prior pain episodes, and psychosocial factors—such as low life satisfaction, anxiety, and depression—demonstrate strong associations, and several additional contributors also predict a chronic course. Incorporation of these red and yellow flags into routine pediatric history taking assists in distinguishing children who require prompt imaging or specialty referral from those who are suitable for initial conservative management and observation.[\[25\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r25) Four-Category Diagnostic Framework for Back Pain During the initial history and physical examination, back pain presentations can be organized into 4 diagnostic groups that direct subsequent evaluation and management: - Nonspecific mechanical pain - Pain arising from radiculopathy or spinal stenosis - Pain referred from nonspinal sources - Pain associated with specific or nonmechanical spinal pathology, including infection, fracture, inflammatory disease, or malignancy [\[26\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r26)[\[27\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r27) This diagnostic framework clarifies the likely source of pain and prioritizes the most appropriate investigative pathway. Correct classification ensures that high-risk conditions receive urgent evaluation, while stable cases proceed with conservative care. ## Evaluation History and physical examination are sufficient to determine the cause of back pain in most cases. Early imaging in adults has been associated with poorer outcomes, as it often leads to more invasive interventions that provide minimal benefit.[\[28\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r28)[\[29\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r29) Similar findings are reported in pediatric populations. Fewer than 5% to 10% of low back pain presentations result from specific spinal pathology, whereas 90% to 95% reflect nonspecific mechanical pain suitable for conservative management without routine imaging. Degenerative changes, including disc degeneration, disc bulging, and facet arthropathy, are highly prevalent in asymptomatic adults (see Image. Facet Arthropathy). Disc degeneration occurs in more than 80% of adults older than 50. Therefore, imaging findings must be interpreted cautiously and within the clinical context.[\[30\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r30) Nevertheless, the presence of concerning signs warrants diagnostic evaluation. In adults, imaging is indicated for back pain persisting longer than 6 weeks despite appropriate conservative management. In children, imaging is recommended for continuous pain lasting more than 4 weeks. Plain anteroposterior and lateral films of the axial skeleton can detect bone pathology (see Image. Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine). MRI is indicated for the evaluation of soft tissue lesions, including nerves, intervertebral discs, and tendons. Both imaging modalities can identify signs of malignancy and inflammation, but MRI is preferred when soft tissues are involved.[\[31\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r31)[\[32\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r32) Bone scans may demonstrate osteomyelitis, discitis, and stress reactions but are inferior to MRI for assessing these conditions.[\[33\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r33) Single-photon emission computed tomography–CT (SPECT-CT) can aid diagnosis when MRI results are inconclusive, particularly in patients with prior spinal instrumentation, but it is not recommended as a primary imaging modality.[\[34\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r34) CT or magnetic resonance angiography should be performed in cases of suspected aortic dissection (see Image. Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography).[\[35\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r35) (Source: [Alexiou and Sritharan](https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/445), 2025) Adolescents with MRI evidence of disc herniation may require a CT scan to confirm or exclude apophyseal ring separation, which occurs in approximately 5.7% of these patients.[\[36\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r36) Electromyography or nerve conduction studies are indicated in patients with prior spinal surgery who may present with radiculopathy or plexopathy. Image-guided diagnostic injections can help confirm sacroiliac joint disease. Laboratory evaluation may be necessary in selected cases of back pain. Rheumatologic assays, including human leukocyte antigen B27, antinuclear antibody, rheumatoid factor, and Lyme antibodies, are generally nonspecific and not routinely helpful.[\[37\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r37)[\[38\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r38) Inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, can provide clinically useful information.[\[39\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r39) A complete blood count and blood cultures may aid in diagnosing inflammatory, infectious, or malignant processes. Elevated lactate dehydrogenase and uric acid levels are frequently observed in conditions associated with rapid marrow turnover, such as leukemia.[\[40\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r40) Applying the Four-Category Model to Guide Testing and Management The diagnostic evaluation can be structured according to the 4-category framework. In patients with nonspecific low back pain and absence of red flag features, imaging is typically deferred for 1 to 2 months, as early radiography does not improve outcomes and often reveals incidental findings that do not alter management. When history or examination indicates specific spinal pathology, such as radiculopathy or spinal stenosis, MRI may be employed to confirm neural compression and guide interventional or surgical planning (see Image. Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis). Features suggestive of a nonspinal source—eg, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, vascular, or gynecologic—prompt targeted evaluation of the relevant organ system rather than spine-focused studies. Laboratory testing and more extensive imaging, often expedited, are reserved for the nonmechanical spinal category. Clues such as fever, night pain, unexplained weight loss, persistent rest pain, or progressive neurologic deficit raise suspicion for infection, malignancy, or inflammatory spondyloarthropathy and justify erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein testing, complete blood count, and early MRI. Application of this structured approach allows conservative management for most patients with nonspecific pain while ensuring timely identification of specific spinal, nonspinal, or systemic pathology requiring intensive evaluation. ## Treatment / Management Adult and pediatric back pain require distinct management strategies. Many cases have an unidentifiable cause, although degenerative disease and musculoskeletal injury are more prevalent in adults. Overuse and muscle strain are more common precipitants in children and adolescents. Rare etiologies, including malignancy and metabolic disorders, manifest differently across age groups. Consequently, treatment must be tailored to both the underlying condition and the patient’s age. Management of Back Pain in Adults Serious conditions must be excluded initially for acute back pain in adults. The patient should be reassured and provided with symptomatic relief if no indications for further testing are present. The 1st-line management is nonpharmacological and includes early return to normal routines, except for heavy labor, avoidance of pain-provoking activities, and patient education. Second-line options may include the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), muscle relaxants, or opioids, spinal manipulation, physical therapy, superficial heat application, and alternative treatments such as acupuncture or massage. Education regarding the potential causes of back pain should be individualized to each patient’s circumstances, as it plays a critical role in preventing symptom aggravation or recurrence. Follow-up is typically recommended after 2 weeks, with resumption of normal activities encouraged if the patient is asymptomatic at that time. In adult patients with acute back pain with radiculopathy, management may include NSAID therapy, exercise, traction, or spinal manipulation. Diazepam and systemic steroids provide no additional benefit. Diagnostic testing is indicated if serious conditions cannot be excluded, and referral to appropriate specialists should be considered for further evaluation or treatment. Management of chronic back pain follows a similar approach. Serious conditions must be ruled out first. For nonspecific pain, patients should remain active and avoid precipitating factors. Exercise therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are considered 1st-line treatments.[\[41\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r41)[\[42\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r42) Second-line options include spinal manipulation, massage, acupuncture, yoga, stress reduction, intake of NSAIDs or selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and interprofessional rehabilitation.[\[43\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r43)[\[44\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r44)[\[45\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r45) The effectiveness of anticonvulsants such as gabapentin and topiramate is uncertain.[\[46\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r46)[\[47\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r47) Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units do not appear more effective than placebo for chronic back pain.[\[48\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r48) Referral to pain management Referral to pain management is indicated when low back pain persists despite adequate conservative treatment and limits daily function. Persistent severe functional impairment, unremitting pain, or plateaued improvement warrants evaluation by a pain specialist. A lower threshold for referral applies to radicular or stenotic symptoms that fail to improve, as these patients may benefit from interventional options, including epidural steroid injections. Pain extending beyond the normal period of tissue healing should prompt specialized assessment and management to interrupt progression toward chronicity and prevent deconditioning. Surgical referral Urgent surgical referral is required when clinical findings indicate potential spinal cord or nerve root compromise, infection, fracture, or malignancy. Cauda equina syndrome is the most critical indication and constitutes a surgical emergency, identified by new urinary retention or overflow incontinence, saddle anesthesia, bilateral sciatica, or bilateral lower-extremity weakness. Rapidly progressive or severe neurologic deficits, including worsening motor weakness or sensory loss, similarly warrant immediate evaluation. Features suggestive of spinal infection, including fever, recent spinal procedures, immunosuppression, intravenous drug use, or severe focal vertebral tenderness, require urgent assessment, as they may indicate osteomyelitis, epidural abscess, or septic discitis. Malignancy should be suspected in cases of unexplained weight loss, prior history of cancer, persistent night pain, or focal vertebral tenderness, with concurrent neurologic compromise necessitating immediate referral. Traumatic mechanisms combined with pain, neurologic deficits, advanced age, osteoporosis, or chronic steroid use raise concern for unstable vertebral fracture and demand prompt surgical evaluation. Severe spinal stenosis with progressive neurologic impairment and spondylolisthesis, accompanied by worsening weakness or disabling sciatica, also meets criteria for urgent referral. Persistent spine-related symptoms correlating with structural pathology on imaging may justify nonurgent referral to a spine surgeon when symptoms fail to improve with conservative therapy. Sciatica caused by a herniated lumbar disc that persists for 4 to 6 weeks despite nonoperative treatment represents a subgroup in which elective surgical evaluation may provide benefit. Management of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents Pediatric back pain treatments are less extensively studied. Activity modification, physical therapy, and NSAID use are broadly supported as 1st-line therapies. When serious pathology is present, treatment follows the standard of care for the underlying condition. Spondylolysis resulting from repetitive spinal stress is generally managed conservatively, similar to adults. However, young patients actively engaged in sports may require referral for surgical intervention.[\[49\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r49)[\[50\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r50) Symptoms persisting beyond 6 months of conservative therapy or Grade III or IV spondylolisthesis warrant evaluation by a pediatric spine surgeon.[\[51\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r51)[\[52\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r52) Patients with Scheuermann kyphosis may be managed conservatively with physical therapy and guided exercise if the spinal curvature is less than 60°. Bracing may be added for curvatures between 60° and 70°. Surgical correction is indicated for curvatures exceeding 75°, particularly if conservative measures fail and skeletal maturity is reached.[\[53\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r53)[\[54\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r54) Indications for surgical referral also include scoliotic spinal curvature of 20° or greater during peak growth, significant or progressive scoliosis, and atypical scoliosis.[\[55\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r55) Urgent surgical referral in children is indicated when back pain is accompanied by findings suggestive of infection, malignancy, or spinal cord compromise. Epidural abscess, presenting with fever, spinal pain, and neurologic deficits, requires immediate neurosurgical evaluation. Neoplastic processes, signaled by unremitting nighttime pain, weight loss, or myelopathic symptoms such as gait instability or limb weakness, also warrant rapid referral to neurosurgery. Tethered cord syndrome, characterized by exertional back pain, bladder dysfunction, calf atrophy, diminished reflexes, dermatomal sensory loss, or progressive scoliosis, similarly requires urgent surgical assessment due to risk of progressive neurologic injury. Vertebral fractures associated with acute trauma, focal midline pain, radicular symptoms, or weakness necessitate immediate imaging and specialist evaluation because of potential instability or neural compression. Serious manifestations, including nighttime pain, systemic features, bowel or bladder dysfunction, or neurologic deficits, at any age demand prompt investigation and emergent specialty referral. These presentations reflect the higher likelihood of significant underlying spinal pathology in children.[\[56\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r56) ## Differential Diagnosis The following discussion covers adult and pediatric conditions that present with back pain, along with their associated symptoms and relevant physical examination findings. This compilation is not exhaustive but highlights the most common and clinically significant causes of this symptom in these populations. Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Adults Lumbosacral muscle strains and sprains typically result from traumatic incidents or repetitive overuse. Pain generally worsens with movement and improves with rest, and the range of motion is often restricted. Tenderness to palpation is commonly present. Lumbar spondylosis primarily affects patients older than 40 and may be accompanied by hip pain. Discomfort often occurs with lower limb extension or rotation, while neurologic examination findings are usually normal. Disc herniation most frequently involves the L4 to S1 segments and can produce paresthesia, sensory changes, and motor weakness, depending on the severity and affected nerve root. Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis are caused by repetitive spinal stress and may present with back pain radiating to the gluteal region and posterior thighs. Vertebral compression fractures produce localized back pain that worsens with flexion and point tenderness on palpation. These injuries may be acute or chronic, with risk factors including steroid use, vitamin D deficiency, and osteoporosis. Spinal stenosis is characterized by leg sensory and motor weakness that is relieved with rest (neurologic claudication). Neurologic examination may initially appear normal but can worsen as stenosis progresses. Spinal tumors may present with unexplained weight loss, focal tenderness to palpation, or other risk factors for malignancy, with approximately 97% of spinal tumors being metastatic.[\[57\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r57) Infections of the spine should be suspected in patients with a history of spinal surgery within the past 12 months, intravenous drug use, or immunosuppression. Clinical features include fever, localized pain, tenderness, or spinal wounds. Common infectious causes encompass vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Tuberculosis should be considered in patients from endemic regions.[\[58\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r58) Acute or chronic aortic dissection can manifest as tearing back pain. The incidence is higher in older adults and is often associated with cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and aneurysms. In younger patients, dissection is typically linked to connective tissue disorders, including Marfan, Ehlers-Danlos, and Loeys-Dietz syndromes.[\[59\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r59) Vertebral fractures may result from trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, or osteoporosis and are most common in patients older than 70. Physical findings include contusions, abrasions, and tenderness over the spinous processes. Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents Tumors in pediatric patients may present with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Osteoid osteoma is the most common tumor causing back pain and is typically relieved by NSAID intake.[\[60\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r60)[\[61\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r61)[\[62\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r62) Infections are associated with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Patients may refuse to walk. Common conditions include vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Epidural abscess should be suspected if neurologic deficits or radicular pain are present.[\[63\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r63)[\[64\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r64) Disc herniation and slipped apophysis may present with acute back pain, radicular symptoms, and recent-onset scoliosis, with positive SLR test findings and pain on forward spinal flexion. Spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, and posterior arch lesions typically present with acute back pain and radicular symptoms, sometimes accompanied by hamstring tightness, with pain on spinal extension and positive SLR test results. Vertebral fractures usually follow trauma but may occur as stress fractures, causing insidious onset and progressive postural changes. Muscle strain presents with acute localized tenderness without radiation. Scheuermann kyphosis is associated with chronic back pain and rigid kyphosis. Inflammatory spondyloarthropathies feature chronic pain, morning stiffness exceeding 30 minutes, and sacroiliac joint tenderness. Psychological disorders, including conversion or somatization, may cause persistent subjective pain despite normal physical findings. Idiopathic scoliosis is typically asymptomatic, with a positive Adam test result; reported back pain may have an alternative cause.[\[65\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r65) ## Prognosis In adults, the prognosis of back pain depends on its etiology. Most nonspecific cases resolve without serious sequelae. The effectiveness of conservative therapy and patient education demonstrates the important contribution of psychosocial and contextual factors to symptom severity and disability. Chronic, disabling back pain is more likely with prior episodes, high symptom intensity, depression, fear-avoidant behavior, or accompanying leg or widespread symptoms.[\[66\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r66) Social factors also significantly influence prognosis.[\[67\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r67) Low educational attainment, physically demanding work, inadequate compensation, and poor job satisfaction are associated with worse outcomes, including higher disability rates.[\[68\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r68)[\[69\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r69) Modifiable risk factors, such as a body mass index greater than 25 and smoking, are linked to persistent back pain.[\[70\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r70) Fewer studies address pediatric back pain prognosis, but etiology appears similarly influential.[\[71\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r71) Pain caused by malignancy is more likely to result in disability than muscle strain.[\[72\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r72) Behavioral comorbidities, including conduct problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, passive coping strategies, and fear-avoidant behavior, have been associated with poorer outcomes in younger patients.[\[73\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r73)[\[74\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r74)[\[75\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r75) ## Complications The underlying etiology of back pain largely determines the risk of complications, which may be both physical and social. Physically, back pain can become chronic and may be associated with deformity, neurologic deficits, or both. Social consequences include disability, reduced productivity, and increased absenteeism. A 2015 study reported that back pain accounted for 60.1 million years of disability worldwide, making it the leading cause of global disability.[\[76\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r76) In the U.S., low-back pain is the most common reason for disability.[\[77\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r77) Early intervention helps prevent the progression to chronic pain and associated complications. Ambulation and maintenance of activity improve outcomes, whereas prolonged sedentariness and resultant obesity are associated with poorer prognosis. ## Postoperative and Rehabilitation Care The underlying cause, patient comorbidities, and individual health goals guide back pain rehabilitation. The McKenzie method is frequently recommended for managing chronic nonspecific low-back pain.[\[78\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r78) Clinical practice guidelines for physical therapy advocate manual therapy, trunk strengthening, centralization techniques, directional preference exercises, and progressive endurance training. Occupational therapy can support patients in managing activities of daily living and using adaptive equipment as needed. Additionally, employing assistive devices during patient transfers has been shown to reduce the incidence of low-back pain among female healthcare workers.[\[79\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r79)[\[80\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r80) ## Deterrence and Patient Education Patient education on preventing back pain recurrence or aggravation should be individualized. Adults with sedentary occupations should be encouraged to remain active to maintain a healthy body weight, as a body mass index greater than 25 is associated with worse outcomes. Individuals in physically demanding jobs should similarly remain active but avoid precipitating factors, such as heavy lifting and repetitive back twisting, by using lifting equipment or reducing load weight when necessary. All patients should be counseled to avoid smoking, which increases back pain risk across all ages.[\[81\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r81)[\[82\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r82) Intensive education sessions lasting approximately 2.5 hours, covering activity modification, staying active, and early return to normal routines, have proven effective in promoting return to work among adults.[\[83\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r83) In pediatric patients, evidence regarding bookbag weight as a risk factor is mixed. Nevertheless, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that bookbags not exceed 10% to 20% of a child’s body weight.[\[84\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r84) Although most back pain cases are self-limited, discharged patients should be instructed to seek immediate medical attention for concerning signs, such as sudden sensory or motor deficits. ## Pearls and Other Issues For adults, history and physical examination usually suffice to evaluate atraumatic, acute back pain in the absence of clinical red flags. Imaging tests should generally be deferred for 6 weeks to allow for symptom resolution.[\[85\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r85)[\[86\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r86) Patient education emphasizing the importance of remaining active constitutes the 1st-line treatment for nonspecific back pain. Evidence indicates that pharmacologic therapy and physical therapy do not consistently provide benefit. Second-line interventions may include treatment with NSAIDs, opioids, or SNRIs such as duloxetine, which are more effective than placebo for nonspecific chronic low-back pain.[\[87\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r87)[\[88\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r88) Acetaminophen, antidepressants other than SNRIs, lidocaine patches, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation units have not demonstrated consistent efficacy beyond placebo in chronic low-back pain.[\[89\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r89)[\[90\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r90) Referral to physical therapy for the McKenzie technique can help reduce recurrence risk.[\[91\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r91)[\[92\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r92) For children, transient back pain following minor injury in the absence of abnormal physical findings may be managed conservatively without further evaluation. Indications for additional assessment include abnormal examination findings, persistent pain, nighttime pain, or radicular symptoms.[\[93\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r93) Plain anteroposterior and lateral films are recommended as 1st-line radiographic studies. Laboratory testing should be considered when clinical red flags are present, as thoracic malignancy and infection are more common in children, particularly those younger than 4 years.[\[94\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r94) ## Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes Integrating the expertise of multiple healthcare professionals ensures comprehensive care, improved outcomes, and enhanced quality of life for individuals with back pain. The interprofessional team typically includes the primary care provider, nurse, pharmacist, nutritionist, physical therapist, occupational therapist, radiologist, and other medical specialists relevant to the individual case. The primary care provider is the first medical professional to examine the patient. Evaluation begins with a thorough medical history and physical examination. The primary care provider determines the appropriate initial treatment, assesses the need for diagnostic testing, and decides on referrals to specialists. This provider also leads patient education and communicates follow-up recommendations. Education should emphasize smoking cessation and maintenance of a healthy body weight.[\[95\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r95) The nurse reinforces key components of patient education and follow-up instructions. Evidence-based responses should be provided to questions regarding nonpharmacologic therapies and continued physical activity in back pain management. The nurse ensures the patient is clinically stable prior to discharge and that care plans are coordinated for subsequent appointments. If the primary care provider prescribes medications, the pharmacist can educate patients on the specific benefits and risks of each drug for back pain. Proper administration instructions and the potential risks of overdose should be emphasized. The pharmacist should contact the primary care provider to clarify any uncertainties regarding the patient’s prescription. Obesity is associated with poorer outcomes in patients with back pain. Nutritionists can guide patients in making healthier dietary choices and maintaining a healthy weight. In cases of obesity, an obesity medicine specialist may prescribe antiobesity medications as an adjunct to lifestyle modifications to support significant weight loss. The physical therapist designs strength and endurance exercise programs to manage back pain and reduce the risk of recurrence. Physical therapy has also been shown to assist patients with back pain in reducing or discontinuing opioid use.[\[96\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r96) The occupational therapist provides ergonomic guidance and recommends assistive devices to support back pain management in both work and home environments. The radiologist assists the primary care provider in interpreting imaging findings and can recommend additional imaging studies if necessary. The primary care provider may refer patients to other specialists as indicated. A pain specialist can optimize pharmacologic therapy or perform interventional procedures for chronic back pain. A rheumatologist may be consulted when back pain is associated with signs of chronic inflammatory disease. Severe radiculopathy or neurologic deterioration warrants urgent referral to a neurosurgeon or orthopedic spine surgeon. Mental health therapists can provide stress-coping strategies, administer cognitive behavioral therapy, and implement other interventions for back pain with a significant psychological component.[\[97\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r97) Alternative medicine practitioners may also contribute to improving patient function. Effective communication among the interprofessional team is essential to avoid duplicating diagnostic tests. Conflicting treatments can also impede patient progress. ## Review Questions - [Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.](https://www.statpearls.com/account/trialuserreg/?articleid=18089&utm_source=pubmed&utm_campaign=reviews&utm_content=18089) - [Click here for a simplified version.](https://mdsearchlight.com/joint-muscle-and-bone/back-pain-back-pain/?utm_source=pubmedlink&utm_campaign=MDS&utm_content=18089) - [Comment on this article.](https://www.statpearls.com/articlelibrary/commentarticle/18089/?utm_source=pubmed&utm_campaign=comments&utm_content=18089) [![Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/Multiple__myeloma.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f1/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f1/?report=objectonly) Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine. This lateral lumbar spine x-ray shows lytic lesions in the L1 and L4 vertebral bodies. Contributed by Steve Lange, MD [![Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/Picture1.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f2/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f2/?report=objectonly) Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography. Axial computed tomography section at the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus demonstrates a dissection flap within the aortic lumen, separating the true and false lumens (Image A). Coronal [(more...)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f2/?report=objectonly) [![Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/degenerative__disc__disease.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f3/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f3/?report=objectonly) Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon. Sagittal computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates severe degenerative disc disease with near-complete disc height loss at the affected lumbar level, creating a bone-on-bone [(more...)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f3/?report=objectonly) [![Facet Arthropathy](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/facet__arthropathy.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f4/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f4/?report=objectonly) Facet Arthropathy. Axial computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates bilateral lumbar facet joint arthropathy with joint space vacuum phenomenon, subchondral sclerosis, and hypertrophic osteophytic change. These degenerative changes can [(more...)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f4/?report=objectonly) [![Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/spondylolisthesis.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f5/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f5/?report=objectonly) Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis. Sagittal T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates anterior translation of L4 relative to L5, consistent with degenerative spondylolisthesis, resulting in L4 and L5 central canal stenosis [(more...)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f5/?report=objectonly) ## References 1\. Freburger JK, Holmes GM, Agans RP, Jackman AM, Darter JD, Wallace AS, Castel LD, Kalsbeek WD, Carey TS. 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Pilot evaluation of a multidisciplinary, medically supervised, nonsurgical weight loss program on the severity of low back pain in obese adults. Spine J. 2011 Mar;11(3):197-204. \[[PubMed: 21377601](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21377601)\] 96\. Arnold E, La Barrie J, DaSilva L, Patti M, Goode A, Clewley D. The Effect of Timing of Physical Therapy for Acute Low Back Pain on Health Services Utilization: A Systematic Review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2019 Jul;100(7):1324-1338. \[[PubMed: 30684490](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30684490)\] 97\. Hajihasani A, Rouhani M, Salavati M, Hedayati R, Kahlaee AH. The Influence of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Pain, Quality of Life, and Depression in Patients Receiving Physical Therapy for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review. PM R. 2019 Feb;11(2):167-176. \[[PubMed: 30266349](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30266349)\] Disclosure: Konstantinos Margetis declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Charanjeet Singh declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Vincent Casiano declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Matthew Varacallo declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. [Copyright](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/about/copyright/) © 2026, StatPearls Publishing LLC. This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal. 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Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. ### In this Page - [Continuing Education Activity](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s1) - [Introduction](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s2) - [Etiology](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s3) - [Epidemiology](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s4) - [Pathophysiology](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s5) - [History and Physical](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s6) - [Evaluation](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s7) - [Treatment / Management](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s8) - [Differential Diagnosis](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s9) - [Prognosis](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s10) - [Complications](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s11) - [Postoperative and Rehabilitation Care](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s12) - [Deterrence and Patient Education](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s13) - [Pearls and Other Issues](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s14) - [Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s15) - [Review Questions](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s16) - [References](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.s22) ### Related information - [PMC](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/?Db=pmc&DbFrom=books&Cmd=Link&LinkName=books_pmc_refs&IdsFromResult=4731680) PubMed Central citations - [PubMed](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/?Db=pubmed&DbFrom=books&Cmd=Link&LinkName=books_pubmed_refs&IdsFromResult=4731680) Links to PubMed ### Similar articles in PubMed - [Shoulder Arthrogram.](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35593869)\[StatPearls. 2026\] Shoulder Arthrogram. Roberts CC, Escobar E. StatPearls. 2026 Jan - [NP Safe Prescribing of Controlled Substances While Avoiding Drug Diversion.](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33232099)\[StatPearls. 2026\] NP Safe Prescribing of Controlled Substances While Avoiding Drug Diversion. Dydyk AM, Sizemore DC, Haddad LM, Lindsay L, Porter BR. StatPearls. 2026 Jan - [Vesicoureteral Reflux.](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33085409)\[StatPearls. 2026\] Vesicoureteral Reflux. Leslie SW, Aeddula NR. StatPearls. 2026 Jan - [Review Mechanical Low Back Pain.](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30252425)\[Am Fam Physician. 2018\] Review Mechanical Low Back Pain. Will JS, Bury DC, Miller JA. Am Fam Physician. 2018 Oct 1; 98(7):421-428. - [Review Red flags to screen for vertebral fracture in people presenting with low back pain.](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37615643)\[Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023\] Review Red flags to screen for vertebral fracture in people presenting with low back pain. Han CS, Hancock MJ, Downie A, Jarvik JG, Koes BW, Machado GC, Verhagen AP, Williams CM, Chen Q, Maher CG. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Aug 24; 8(8):CD014461. Epub 2023 Aug 24. [See reviews...](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=link&linkname=pubmed_pubmed_reviews&uid=30844200)[See all...](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=link&linkname=pubmed_pubmed&uid=30844200) ### Recent Activity [Clear]()[Turn Off]()[Turn On]() - [Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management - StatPearls](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/portal/utils/pageresolver.fcgi?recordid=69ccec5af7dc4e68e7f423ca) Low Back Pain: Evaluation and Management - StatPearls Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. 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Readable Markdown	## Continuing Education Activity Back pain is a leading reason for seeking emergency care and contributes substantially to functional disability and healthcare burden. Mechanical and nonspecific disorders account for most presentations across all age groups, although etiology varies by developmental stage. Younger individuals more frequently exhibit acute muscular strain, ligamentous injury, or intervertebral disc herniation, while older adults demonstrate a higher prevalence of degenerative disc disease, facet arthropathy, osteoporotic compression fractures, and spinal stenosis. Risk is increased by occupational or athletic mechanical stress, physical deconditioning, obesity, and tobacco use. Nociceptive signaling may originate from paraspinal musculature, intervertebral discs, facet joints, or nerve roots, with symptom location, radiation, and neurologic deficits helping localize the underlying source. Initial evaluation relies on thorough history and physical examination, with imaging reserved for refractory symptoms, neurologic deficits, or red flag features indicating infection, malignancy, fracture, or spinal cord or cauda equina compression. Evidence-based management emphasizes activity as tolerated, analgesics when appropriate, and physical therapy interventions. Most acute cases resolve within several weeks. Persistent symptoms increase the likelihood of chronic pain development and long-term disability. This activity for healthcare professionals is designed to improve learners' competence in evaluating and managing back pain. Participants will advance their mastery of the symptom's etiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Recognition of red flags for severe conditions will be emphasized. Greater skills will equip clinicians to collaborate confidently with interprofessional teams caring for affected individuals. Objectives: - Determine the etiology of back pain based on clinical and diagnostic features, with emphasis on recognizing red flags suggestive of emergent or high-risk conditions. - Implement evidence-based, personalized strategies for managing back pain and preventing its potential complications. - Improve patient awareness of mechanical versus serious causes, warning signs, safe activity, and strategies to enhance function and reduce chronic pain risk. - Collaborate with the interprofessional team to educate, treat, and monitor patients with back pain to improve functional and overall health outcomes. [Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.](https://www.statpearls.com/account/trialuserreg/?articleid=18089&utm_source=pubmed&utm_campaign=reviews&utm_content=18089) ## Introduction Back pain is one of the most common reasons for primary- and emergency-care consultations. An estimated \$200 billion is spent annually on managing back pain. Additionally, work hours, productivity, and workers' compensation are greatly reduced due to this condition.[\[1\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r1) Back pain arises from a broad range of causes in adults and children, though most are mechanical in nature or have a nonspecific origin. Mechanical back pain comprises 90% of cases, so health providers can easily miss rare causes while focusing on common etiologies.[\[2\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r2)[\[3\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r3) Identifying red flags and determining the appropriate treatment are the most important aspects of back pain management. Most cases may be treated conservatively. Association with alarming signs, such as nerve dysfunction, warrants a thorough investigation and an interprofessional approach.[\[4\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r4) Pharmacological treatments include pain relievers targeting peripheral and central neurologic pathways, as well as muscle relaxants.[\[5\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r5) Various forms of physical therapy are available for individuals who prefer nonpharmacological approaches or are recovering from injuries.[\[6\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r6) Acupuncture is an alternative therapy shown to improve back pain moderately. Surgery is reserved for cases that are accompanied by severe nerve dysfunction, have resulted from serious causes such as malignancy, or manifest with refractory symptoms due to structural causes, such as spondylolisthesis.[\[7\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r7)[\[8\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r8) Significant back pain that does not resolve within 6 weeks of adequate conservative management may warrant imaging with radiography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A thorough evaluation helps determine the cause of back pain and develop a tailored therapeutic plan. Addressing the underlying pathology significantly improves patients' functional capacity and quality of life. ## Etiology Back pain arises from various conditions, which may be classified into the following: - Traumatic: Results from direct or indirect contact with an external force. Examples include whiplash injury, strain, and traumatic fractures. - Degenerative: Musculoskeletal structures weaken over time due to aging, overuse, or preexisting pathology. Examples include intervertebral disc herniation and degenerative disc disease (see Image. Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon). - Oncologic: Primary or secondary malignant lesions can develop in back structures. Pathologic fractures of the axial skeleton may occur as complications. - Infectious: Infections of musculoskeletal structures may arise from direct inoculation or hematogenous spread. - Inflammatory: Includes noninfectious, nonmalignant conditions. Examples are ankylosing spondylitis and sacroiliitis. Chronic inflammation may result in spinal arthritis. - Metabolic: Disorders of calcium and bone metabolism can cause symptoms. Examples encompass osteoporosis and osteosclerosis. - Vascular: Acute or chronic aortic dissection can present as tearing back pain, usually with abrupt onset and associated cardiovascular risk factors (Source: [Zakko and Reece](https://evtoday.com/articles/2024-apr/type-b-aortic-dissection-presenting-as-sudden-onset-sharp-back-pain), 2024). - Referred pain: Visceral organ pathology may produce referred back pain. Examples include biliary colic, lung disease, and aortic or vertebral artery disorders. - Postural: Prolonged upright posture can contribute to back pain. Pregnancy and certain occupations increase risk. - Congenital: Inborn axial skeleton conditions can cause symptoms. Examples include kyphoscoliosis and a tethered spinal cord. - Psychiatric: Chronic pain syndromes and mental health conditions may present with back pain. Malingering may contribute to symptom amplification or inconsistent clinical findings.[\[9\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r9) The duration of symptoms is important, as acute and chronic back pain often have different etiologies. A thorough clinical evaluation and appropriate diagnostic testing are usually sufficient to determine the cause. Referral to specialists, such as neurosurgeons, orthopedic spine surgeons, neurologists, rheumatologists, physiatrists, or pain management providers, may be necessary for further evaluation and treatment planning. ## Epidemiology Back pain is widespread among adults. Studies report that up to 23% of adults worldwide experience chronic low back pain, with 1-year recurrence rates ranging from 24% to 80%.[\[10\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r10)[\[11\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r11) The lifetime prevalence of back pain in adults may reach 84%.[\[12\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r12) Back pain is less common in pediatric populations. A Scandinavian study found that point prevalence was approximately 1% among 12-year-olds and 5% among 15-year-olds. By age 18 for girls and 20 for boys, 50% of adolescents will have experienced at least 1 episode of back pain.[\[13\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r13) Lifetime prevalence in adolescents increases progressively with age, approaching adult levels by 18.[\[14\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r14) ## Pathophysiology Mechanical back pain develops when nociceptive elements within the spinal motion segment or adjacent soft tissues undergo overload or structural disruption. Acute episodes typically reflect sprain or strain of paraspinal musculature and supporting ligaments after a loaded segment is driven into excessive flexion, extension, or rotation. Eccentric contraction produces microscopic tearing near the myotendinous junction, followed by edema, inflammatory mediator release, and reflex spasm that sensitize local nociceptors and restrict segmental motion. Chronic mechanical pain more frequently arises from degenerative intervertebral disc changes. Cumulative mechanical loading and endplate injury promote annular fissuring, proteoglycan loss, disc dehydration, and progressive collapse. The structurally compromised disc demonstrates abnormal load transfer, pathologic ingrowth of nociceptive nerve fibers and blood vessels, and heightened production of proinflammatory mediators, generating discogenic pain or radiculopathy.[\[15\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r15) Lumbar zygapophyseal (facet) joints, as synovial joints with richly innervated capsules, bear substantial axial load during extension. Repetitive shear and compression promote cartilage loss, osteophyte formation, capsular laxity or hypertrophy, and localized inflammation. Resulting capsular stretch or distension activates high- and low-threshold mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, producing referred pain to the back or buttocks. Persistent peripheral nociceptive drive from these structures may, in some cases, induce central sensitization and facilitate the transition from acute to chronic pain.[\[16\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r16) ## History and Physical Determining the cause of back pain begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The onset of pain should be established early. Acute back pain, defined as back pain lasting less than 6 weeks, most often reflects mechanical strain or degenerative changes and less commonly results from trauma or abrupt progression of serious underlying disease such as malignancy. Chronic cases, lasting longer than 12 weeks, may involve mechanical dysfunction or arise from longstanding conditions. Information regarding factors that provoke or alleviate the pain must be obtained. In addition to providing diagnostic clues, understanding these factors guides the clinician in selecting appropriate pain management strategies. Pain quality assists in distinguishing visceral from nonvisceral sources. Well-localized pain often indicates an organic process. Any associated symptoms may offer additional insights into the underlying cause of back pain. Other pertinent information may be obtained from the patient’s medical, family, occupational, and social history. For example, a history of prior cancer chemotherapy should raise suspicion for metastasis or a secondary tumor. Certain autoimmune arthritides have a hereditary component. Pott disease, or spinal tuberculosis, may result from exposure in regions where tuberculosis is endemic. Prolonged sitting during work can contribute to both acute and chronic back pain. A focused physical examination should include inspection, auscultation, palpation, and provocative maneuvers. Visual inspection of the back may not reveal the cause unless deformity, signs of inflammation, or skin lesions are present. Auscultation is useful when back pain may be secondary to pulmonary pathology. Palpation can elicit localized musculoskeletal tenderness and help identify affected structures. Certain provocative maneuvers can provide diagnostic clues regarding the cause of back pain. The straight-leg-raising (SLR) test is useful for diagnosing lumbar disc herniation. The test is performed by raising the patient’s leg to 30° to 70°. A result is considered positive if ipsilateral leg pain occurs at less than 60°. The crossed SLR test involves raising the contralateral leg and is more specific than a standard SLR for identifying a disc herniation.[\[17\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r17)[\[18\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r18) The Stork test, which evaluates for spondylolysis, is another clinically used maneuver. The examiner supports the patient while they stand on a leg and hyperextend their back. The maneuver is repeated on the opposite leg. The test result is positive if the patient experiences pain during hyperextension. The Adam test is used to evaluate scoliosis. The patient bends forward with feet together, arms extended, and palms touching. An examiner standing in front can detect a thoracic prominence in patients with scoliosis.[\[19\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r19) Assessment of range of motion, limb strength, deep tendon reflexes, and sensation aids in evaluating the integrity of both musculoskeletal and neurologic systems. Red flags identified during history or physical examination warrant imaging and additional diagnostic testing. The signs explained below should be carefully monitored. In adults, red flags for back pain include a history of metastatic cancer or unexplained weight loss, with focal tenderness to palpation in the presence of risk factors suggesting malignancy. Infection should be suspected in patients with recent spinal procedures, intravenous drug use, immunosuppression, or prior lumbar surgery, especially if fever, spinal wounds, localized pain, or tenderness is present. A systematic review of 40 observational studies demonstrated that individual red flags possess limited standalone diagnostic accuracy for serious thoracolumbar pathology and frequently generate high rates of false positive results. Vertebral fractures accounted for 0.4% to 5.6% of low back pain presentations. Posttest probabilities increased substantially only when advanced age, recent trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, and female sex occurred collectively rather than independently. For spinal malignancy, the most informative red flags included a prior history of cancer, unexplained weight loss, persistent pain without improvement, and concerning overall clinical judgment. In contrast, isolated night pain or broad age thresholds produced numerous false positives. Across vertebral fracture, malignancy, infection, and cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic prediction models that integrated multiple red flags consistently demonstrated higher likelihood ratios than any single historical feature or physical examination finding.[\[20\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r20) Symptoms suggestive of cauda equina syndrome require immediate recognition, as this condition constitutes a surgical emergency. New urinary retention, difficulty initiating micturition, bowel dysfunction, or sensory loss in the perineal or perianal region (“saddle anesthesia”) are key historical features. Bilateral sciatica, rapidly escalating leg pain, or new bilateral lower-extremity weakness further heighten concern, and the constellation of these findings indicates severe compression of the cauda equina nerve roots. Such presentations are strongly associated with massive midline disc herniation or other space-occupying lesions and demand urgent evaluation to prevent permanent neurologic deficit. Fracture risk increases with significant trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, osteoporosis, or age over 70, and may be indicated by contusions, abrasions, or tenderness over spinous processes. Neurologic compromise is suggested by progressive motor or sensory loss, new urinary or fecal incontinence, saddle anesthesia, anal sphincter atony, or significant motor deficits across multiple myotomes.[\[21\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r21)[\[22\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r22) A focused neurological history should assess bladder and bowel function and document any perineal or perianal sensory loss, as these features suggest possible cauda equina or conus medullaris involvement. The neurological examination should include motor testing of key lumbosacral myotomes—hip flexion, knee extension, ankle dorsiflexion, ankle plantar flexion, great-toe extension, and foot eversion—to identify focal weakness patterns that correlate with specific nerve root compression. In pediatric patients, malignancy should be considered in children who are younger than 4 years or experience nighttime pain, particularly when focal tenderness is present. Infection risk increases in children who are younger than 4, report nighttime pain, or have a history of tuberculosis exposure, especially if fever, spinal wounds, or localized tenderness occurs. Inflammatory causes are suggested by morning stiffness lasting more than 30 minutes, improving with activity or heat, accompanied by a limited range of motion and localized tenderness. Fractures may result from repetitive lumbar hyperextension during sports, with tenderness over spinous processes or a positive Stork test result.[\[23\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r23)[\[24\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r24) Recent recommendations for children and adolescents consolidate red flag features that warrant evaluation for specific spinal disease. Concerning findings include age younger than 10 years, significant trauma, prior or current glucocorticoid therapy, motor or sensory deficits, radicular pain, bladder or bowel dysfunction, fever, lymphadenopathy, structural deformity, and focal compression tenderness. The same publication identifies evidence-based risk factors for nonspecific pediatric back pain. Increasing age in adolescence, female sex, high levels of sports participation, prior pain episodes, and psychosocial factors—such as low life satisfaction, anxiety, and depression—demonstrate strong associations, and several additional contributors also predict a chronic course. Incorporation of these red and yellow flags into routine pediatric history taking assists in distinguishing children who require prompt imaging or specialty referral from those who are suitable for initial conservative management and observation.[\[25\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r25) Four-Category Diagnostic Framework for Back Pain During the initial history and physical examination, back pain presentations can be organized into 4 diagnostic groups that direct subsequent evaluation and management: - Nonspecific mechanical pain - Pain arising from radiculopathy or spinal stenosis - Pain referred from nonspinal sources - Pain associated with specific or nonmechanical spinal pathology, including infection, fracture, inflammatory disease, or malignancy [\[26\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r26)[\[27\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r27) This diagnostic framework clarifies the likely source of pain and prioritizes the most appropriate investigative pathway. Correct classification ensures that high-risk conditions receive urgent evaluation, while stable cases proceed with conservative care. ## Evaluation History and physical examination are sufficient to determine the cause of back pain in most cases. Early imaging in adults has been associated with poorer outcomes, as it often leads to more invasive interventions that provide minimal benefit.[\[28\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r28)[\[29\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r29) Similar findings are reported in pediatric populations. Fewer than 5% to 10% of low back pain presentations result from specific spinal pathology, whereas 90% to 95% reflect nonspecific mechanical pain suitable for conservative management without routine imaging. Degenerative changes, including disc degeneration, disc bulging, and facet arthropathy, are highly prevalent in asymptomatic adults (see Image. Facet Arthropathy). Disc degeneration occurs in more than 80% of adults older than 50. Therefore, imaging findings must be interpreted cautiously and within the clinical context.[\[30\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r30) Nevertheless, the presence of concerning signs warrants diagnostic evaluation. In adults, imaging is indicated for back pain persisting longer than 6 weeks despite appropriate conservative management. In children, imaging is recommended for continuous pain lasting more than 4 weeks. Plain anteroposterior and lateral films of the axial skeleton can detect bone pathology (see Image. Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine). MRI is indicated for the evaluation of soft tissue lesions, including nerves, intervertebral discs, and tendons. Both imaging modalities can identify signs of malignancy and inflammation, but MRI is preferred when soft tissues are involved.[\[31\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r31)[\[32\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r32) Bone scans may demonstrate osteomyelitis, discitis, and stress reactions but are inferior to MRI for assessing these conditions.[\[33\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r33) Single-photon emission computed tomography–CT (SPECT-CT) can aid diagnosis when MRI results are inconclusive, particularly in patients with prior spinal instrumentation, but it is not recommended as a primary imaging modality.[\[34\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r34) CT or magnetic resonance angiography should be performed in cases of suspected aortic dissection (see Image. Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography).[\[35\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r35) (Source: [Alexiou and Sritharan](https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/445), 2025) Adolescents with MRI evidence of disc herniation may require a CT scan to confirm or exclude apophyseal ring separation, which occurs in approximately 5.7% of these patients.[\[36\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r36) Electromyography or nerve conduction studies are indicated in patients with prior spinal surgery who may present with radiculopathy or plexopathy. Image-guided diagnostic injections can help confirm sacroiliac joint disease. Laboratory evaluation may be necessary in selected cases of back pain. Rheumatologic assays, including human leukocyte antigen B27, antinuclear antibody, rheumatoid factor, and Lyme antibodies, are generally nonspecific and not routinely helpful.[\[37\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r37)[\[38\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r38) Inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, can provide clinically useful information.[\[39\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r39) A complete blood count and blood cultures may aid in diagnosing inflammatory, infectious, or malignant processes. Elevated lactate dehydrogenase and uric acid levels are frequently observed in conditions associated with rapid marrow turnover, such as leukemia.[\[40\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r40) Applying the Four-Category Model to Guide Testing and Management The diagnostic evaluation can be structured according to the 4-category framework. In patients with nonspecific low back pain and absence of red flag features, imaging is typically deferred for 1 to 2 months, as early radiography does not improve outcomes and often reveals incidental findings that do not alter management. When history or examination indicates specific spinal pathology, such as radiculopathy or spinal stenosis, MRI may be employed to confirm neural compression and guide interventional or surgical planning (see Image. Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis). Features suggestive of a nonspinal source—eg, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, vascular, or gynecologic—prompt targeted evaluation of the relevant organ system rather than spine-focused studies. Laboratory testing and more extensive imaging, often expedited, are reserved for the nonmechanical spinal category. Clues such as fever, night pain, unexplained weight loss, persistent rest pain, or progressive neurologic deficit raise suspicion for infection, malignancy, or inflammatory spondyloarthropathy and justify erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein testing, complete blood count, and early MRI. Application of this structured approach allows conservative management for most patients with nonspecific pain while ensuring timely identification of specific spinal, nonspinal, or systemic pathology requiring intensive evaluation. ## Treatment / Management Adult and pediatric back pain require distinct management strategies. Many cases have an unidentifiable cause, although degenerative disease and musculoskeletal injury are more prevalent in adults. Overuse and muscle strain are more common precipitants in children and adolescents. Rare etiologies, including malignancy and metabolic disorders, manifest differently across age groups. Consequently, treatment must be tailored to both the underlying condition and the patient’s age. Management of Back Pain in Adults Serious conditions must be excluded initially for acute back pain in adults. The patient should be reassured and provided with symptomatic relief if no indications for further testing are present. The 1st-line management is nonpharmacological and includes early return to normal routines, except for heavy labor, avoidance of pain-provoking activities, and patient education. Second-line options may include the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), muscle relaxants, or opioids, spinal manipulation, physical therapy, superficial heat application, and alternative treatments such as acupuncture or massage. Education regarding the potential causes of back pain should be individualized to each patient’s circumstances, as it plays a critical role in preventing symptom aggravation or recurrence. Follow-up is typically recommended after 2 weeks, with resumption of normal activities encouraged if the patient is asymptomatic at that time. In adult patients with acute back pain with radiculopathy, management may include NSAID therapy, exercise, traction, or spinal manipulation. Diazepam and systemic steroids provide no additional benefit. Diagnostic testing is indicated if serious conditions cannot be excluded, and referral to appropriate specialists should be considered for further evaluation or treatment. Management of chronic back pain follows a similar approach. Serious conditions must be ruled out first. For nonspecific pain, patients should remain active and avoid precipitating factors. Exercise therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are considered 1st-line treatments.[\[41\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r41)[\[42\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r42) Second-line options include spinal manipulation, massage, acupuncture, yoga, stress reduction, intake of NSAIDs or selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and interprofessional rehabilitation.[\[43\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r43)[\[44\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r44)[\[45\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r45) The effectiveness of anticonvulsants such as gabapentin and topiramate is uncertain.[\[46\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r46)[\[47\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r47) Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units do not appear more effective than placebo for chronic back pain.[\[48\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r48) Referral to pain management Referral to pain management is indicated when low back pain persists despite adequate conservative treatment and limits daily function. Persistent severe functional impairment, unremitting pain, or plateaued improvement warrants evaluation by a pain specialist. A lower threshold for referral applies to radicular or stenotic symptoms that fail to improve, as these patients may benefit from interventional options, including epidural steroid injections. Pain extending beyond the normal period of tissue healing should prompt specialized assessment and management to interrupt progression toward chronicity and prevent deconditioning. Surgical referral Urgent surgical referral is required when clinical findings indicate potential spinal cord or nerve root compromise, infection, fracture, or malignancy. Cauda equina syndrome is the most critical indication and constitutes a surgical emergency, identified by new urinary retention or overflow incontinence, saddle anesthesia, bilateral sciatica, or bilateral lower-extremity weakness. Rapidly progressive or severe neurologic deficits, including worsening motor weakness or sensory loss, similarly warrant immediate evaluation. Features suggestive of spinal infection, including fever, recent spinal procedures, immunosuppression, intravenous drug use, or severe focal vertebral tenderness, require urgent assessment, as they may indicate osteomyelitis, epidural abscess, or septic discitis. Malignancy should be suspected in cases of unexplained weight loss, prior history of cancer, persistent night pain, or focal vertebral tenderness, with concurrent neurologic compromise necessitating immediate referral. Traumatic mechanisms combined with pain, neurologic deficits, advanced age, osteoporosis, or chronic steroid use raise concern for unstable vertebral fracture and demand prompt surgical evaluation. Severe spinal stenosis with progressive neurologic impairment and spondylolisthesis, accompanied by worsening weakness or disabling sciatica, also meets criteria for urgent referral. Persistent spine-related symptoms correlating with structural pathology on imaging may justify nonurgent referral to a spine surgeon when symptoms fail to improve with conservative therapy. Sciatica caused by a herniated lumbar disc that persists for 4 to 6 weeks despite nonoperative treatment represents a subgroup in which elective surgical evaluation may provide benefit. Management of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents Pediatric back pain treatments are less extensively studied. Activity modification, physical therapy, and NSAID use are broadly supported as 1st-line therapies. When serious pathology is present, treatment follows the standard of care for the underlying condition. Spondylolysis resulting from repetitive spinal stress is generally managed conservatively, similar to adults. However, young patients actively engaged in sports may require referral for surgical intervention.[\[49\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r49)[\[50\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r50) Symptoms persisting beyond 6 months of conservative therapy or Grade III or IV spondylolisthesis warrant evaluation by a pediatric spine surgeon.[\[51\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r51)[\[52\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r52) Patients with Scheuermann kyphosis may be managed conservatively with physical therapy and guided exercise if the spinal curvature is less than 60°. Bracing may be added for curvatures between 60° and 70°. Surgical correction is indicated for curvatures exceeding 75°, particularly if conservative measures fail and skeletal maturity is reached.[\[53\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r53)[\[54\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r54) Indications for surgical referral also include scoliotic spinal curvature of 20° or greater during peak growth, significant or progressive scoliosis, and atypical scoliosis.[\[55\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r55) Urgent surgical referral in children is indicated when back pain is accompanied by findings suggestive of infection, malignancy, or spinal cord compromise. Epidural abscess, presenting with fever, spinal pain, and neurologic deficits, requires immediate neurosurgical evaluation. Neoplastic processes, signaled by unremitting nighttime pain, weight loss, or myelopathic symptoms such as gait instability or limb weakness, also warrant rapid referral to neurosurgery. Tethered cord syndrome, characterized by exertional back pain, bladder dysfunction, calf atrophy, diminished reflexes, dermatomal sensory loss, or progressive scoliosis, similarly requires urgent surgical assessment due to risk of progressive neurologic injury. Vertebral fractures associated with acute trauma, focal midline pain, radicular symptoms, or weakness necessitate immediate imaging and specialist evaluation because of potential instability or neural compression. Serious manifestations, including nighttime pain, systemic features, bowel or bladder dysfunction, or neurologic deficits, at any age demand prompt investigation and emergent specialty referral. These presentations reflect the higher likelihood of significant underlying spinal pathology in children.[\[56\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r56) ## Differential Diagnosis The following discussion covers adult and pediatric conditions that present with back pain, along with their associated symptoms and relevant physical examination findings. This compilation is not exhaustive but highlights the most common and clinically significant causes of this symptom in these populations. Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Adults Lumbosacral muscle strains and sprains typically result from traumatic incidents or repetitive overuse. Pain generally worsens with movement and improves with rest, and the range of motion is often restricted. Tenderness to palpation is commonly present. Lumbar spondylosis primarily affects patients older than 40 and may be accompanied by hip pain. Discomfort often occurs with lower limb extension or rotation, while neurologic examination findings are usually normal. Disc herniation most frequently involves the L4 to S1 segments and can produce paresthesia, sensory changes, and motor weakness, depending on the severity and affected nerve root. Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis are caused by repetitive spinal stress and may present with back pain radiating to the gluteal region and posterior thighs. Vertebral compression fractures produce localized back pain that worsens with flexion and point tenderness on palpation. These injuries may be acute or chronic, with risk factors including steroid use, vitamin D deficiency, and osteoporosis. Spinal stenosis is characterized by leg sensory and motor weakness that is relieved with rest (neurologic claudication). Neurologic examination may initially appear normal but can worsen as stenosis progresses. Spinal tumors may present with unexplained weight loss, focal tenderness to palpation, or other risk factors for malignancy, with approximately 97% of spinal tumors being metastatic.[\[57\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r57) Infections of the spine should be suspected in patients with a history of spinal surgery within the past 12 months, intravenous drug use, or immunosuppression. Clinical features include fever, localized pain, tenderness, or spinal wounds. Common infectious causes encompass vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Tuberculosis should be considered in patients from endemic regions.[\[58\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r58) Acute or chronic aortic dissection can manifest as tearing back pain. The incidence is higher in older adults and is often associated with cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and aneurysms. In younger patients, dissection is typically linked to connective tissue disorders, including Marfan, Ehlers-Danlos, and Loeys-Dietz syndromes.[\[59\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r59) Vertebral fractures may result from trauma, prolonged corticosteroid use, or osteoporosis and are most common in patients older than 70. Physical findings include contusions, abrasions, and tenderness over the spinous processes. Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain in Children and Adolescents Tumors in pediatric patients may present with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Osteoid osteoma is the most common tumor causing back pain and is typically relieved by NSAID intake.[\[60\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r60)[\[61\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r61)[\[62\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r62) Infections are associated with fever, malaise, weight loss, nighttime pain, and recent-onset scoliosis. Patients may refuse to walk. Common conditions include vertebral osteomyelitis, discitis, septic sacroiliitis, epidural abscess, and paraspinal muscle abscess. Epidural abscess should be suspected if neurologic deficits or radicular pain are present.[\[63\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r63)[\[64\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r64) Disc herniation and slipped apophysis may present with acute back pain, radicular symptoms, and recent-onset scoliosis, with positive SLR test findings and pain on forward spinal flexion. Spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, and posterior arch lesions typically present with acute back pain and radicular symptoms, sometimes accompanied by hamstring tightness, with pain on spinal extension and positive SLR test results. Vertebral fractures usually follow trauma but may occur as stress fractures, causing insidious onset and progressive postural changes. Muscle strain presents with acute localized tenderness without radiation. Scheuermann kyphosis is associated with chronic back pain and rigid kyphosis. Inflammatory spondyloarthropathies feature chronic pain, morning stiffness exceeding 30 minutes, and sacroiliac joint tenderness. Psychological disorders, including conversion or somatization, may cause persistent subjective pain despite normal physical findings. Idiopathic scoliosis is typically asymptomatic, with a positive Adam test result; reported back pain may have an alternative cause.[\[65\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r65) ## Prognosis In adults, the prognosis of back pain depends on its etiology. Most nonspecific cases resolve without serious sequelae. The effectiveness of conservative therapy and patient education demonstrates the important contribution of psychosocial and contextual factors to symptom severity and disability. Chronic, disabling back pain is more likely with prior episodes, high symptom intensity, depression, fear-avoidant behavior, or accompanying leg or widespread symptoms.[\[66\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r66) Social factors also significantly influence prognosis.[\[67\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r67) Low educational attainment, physically demanding work, inadequate compensation, and poor job satisfaction are associated with worse outcomes, including higher disability rates.[\[68\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r68)[\[69\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r69) Modifiable risk factors, such as a body mass index greater than 25 and smoking, are linked to persistent back pain.[\[70\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r70) Fewer studies address pediatric back pain prognosis, but etiology appears similarly influential.[\[71\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r71) Pain caused by malignancy is more likely to result in disability than muscle strain.[\[72\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r72) Behavioral comorbidities, including conduct problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, passive coping strategies, and fear-avoidant behavior, have been associated with poorer outcomes in younger patients.[\[73\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r73)[\[74\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r74)[\[75\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r75) ## Complications The underlying etiology of back pain largely determines the risk of complications, which may be both physical and social. Physically, back pain can become chronic and may be associated with deformity, neurologic deficits, or both. Social consequences include disability, reduced productivity, and increased absenteeism. A 2015 study reported that back pain accounted for 60.1 million years of disability worldwide, making it the leading cause of global disability.[\[76\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r76) In the U.S., low-back pain is the most common reason for disability.[\[77\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r77) Early intervention helps prevent the progression to chronic pain and associated complications. Ambulation and maintenance of activity improve outcomes, whereas prolonged sedentariness and resultant obesity are associated with poorer prognosis. ## Postoperative and Rehabilitation Care The underlying cause, patient comorbidities, and individual health goals guide back pain rehabilitation. The McKenzie method is frequently recommended for managing chronic nonspecific low-back pain.[\[78\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r78) Clinical practice guidelines for physical therapy advocate manual therapy, trunk strengthening, centralization techniques, directional preference exercises, and progressive endurance training. Occupational therapy can support patients in managing activities of daily living and using adaptive equipment as needed. Additionally, employing assistive devices during patient transfers has been shown to reduce the incidence of low-back pain among female healthcare workers.[\[79\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r79)[\[80\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r80) ## Deterrence and Patient Education Patient education on preventing back pain recurrence or aggravation should be individualized. Adults with sedentary occupations should be encouraged to remain active to maintain a healthy body weight, as a body mass index greater than 25 is associated with worse outcomes. Individuals in physically demanding jobs should similarly remain active but avoid precipitating factors, such as heavy lifting and repetitive back twisting, by using lifting equipment or reducing load weight when necessary. All patients should be counseled to avoid smoking, which increases back pain risk across all ages.[\[81\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r81)[\[82\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r82) Intensive education sessions lasting approximately 2.5 hours, covering activity modification, staying active, and early return to normal routines, have proven effective in promoting return to work among adults.[\[83\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r83) In pediatric patients, evidence regarding bookbag weight as a risk factor is mixed. Nevertheless, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that bookbags not exceed 10% to 20% of a child’s body weight.[\[84\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r84) Although most back pain cases are self-limited, discharged patients should be instructed to seek immediate medical attention for concerning signs, such as sudden sensory or motor deficits. ## Pearls and Other Issues For adults, history and physical examination usually suffice to evaluate atraumatic, acute back pain in the absence of clinical red flags. Imaging tests should generally be deferred for 6 weeks to allow for symptom resolution.[\[85\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r85)[\[86\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r86) Patient education emphasizing the importance of remaining active constitutes the 1st-line treatment for nonspecific back pain. Evidence indicates that pharmacologic therapy and physical therapy do not consistently provide benefit. Second-line interventions may include treatment with NSAIDs, opioids, or SNRIs such as duloxetine, which are more effective than placebo for nonspecific chronic low-back pain.[\[87\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r87)[\[88\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r88) Acetaminophen, antidepressants other than SNRIs, lidocaine patches, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation units have not demonstrated consistent efficacy beyond placebo in chronic low-back pain.[\[89\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r89)[\[90\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r90) Referral to physical therapy for the McKenzie technique can help reduce recurrence risk.[\[91\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r91)[\[92\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r92) For children, transient back pain following minor injury in the absence of abnormal physical findings may be managed conservatively without further evaluation. Indications for additional assessment include abnormal examination findings, persistent pain, nighttime pain, or radicular symptoms.[\[93\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r93) Plain anteroposterior and lateral films are recommended as 1st-line radiographic studies. Laboratory testing should be considered when clinical red flags are present, as thoracic malignancy and infection are more common in children, particularly those younger than 4 years.[\[94\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r94) ## Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes Integrating the expertise of multiple healthcare professionals ensures comprehensive care, improved outcomes, and enhanced quality of life for individuals with back pain. The interprofessional team typically includes the primary care provider, nurse, pharmacist, nutritionist, physical therapist, occupational therapist, radiologist, and other medical specialists relevant to the individual case. The primary care provider is the first medical professional to examine the patient. Evaluation begins with a thorough medical history and physical examination. The primary care provider determines the appropriate initial treatment, assesses the need for diagnostic testing, and decides on referrals to specialists. This provider also leads patient education and communicates follow-up recommendations. Education should emphasize smoking cessation and maintenance of a healthy body weight.[\[95\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r95) The nurse reinforces key components of patient education and follow-up instructions. Evidence-based responses should be provided to questions regarding nonpharmacologic therapies and continued physical activity in back pain management. The nurse ensures the patient is clinically stable prior to discharge and that care plans are coordinated for subsequent appointments. If the primary care provider prescribes medications, the pharmacist can educate patients on the specific benefits and risks of each drug for back pain. Proper administration instructions and the potential risks of overdose should be emphasized. The pharmacist should contact the primary care provider to clarify any uncertainties regarding the patient’s prescription. Obesity is associated with poorer outcomes in patients with back pain. Nutritionists can guide patients in making healthier dietary choices and maintaining a healthy weight. In cases of obesity, an obesity medicine specialist may prescribe antiobesity medications as an adjunct to lifestyle modifications to support significant weight loss. The physical therapist designs strength and endurance exercise programs to manage back pain and reduce the risk of recurrence. Physical therapy has also been shown to assist patients with back pain in reducing or discontinuing opioid use.[\[96\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r96) The occupational therapist provides ergonomic guidance and recommends assistive devices to support back pain management in both work and home environments. The radiologist assists the primary care provider in interpreting imaging findings and can recommend additional imaging studies if necessary. The primary care provider may refer patients to other specialists as indicated. A pain specialist can optimize pharmacologic therapy or perform interventional procedures for chronic back pain. A rheumatologist may be consulted when back pain is associated with signs of chronic inflammatory disease. Severe radiculopathy or neurologic deterioration warrants urgent referral to a neurosurgeon or orthopedic spine surgeon. Mental health therapists can provide stress-coping strategies, administer cognitive behavioral therapy, and implement other interventions for back pain with a significant psychological component.[\[97\]](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/#article-18089.r97) Alternative medicine practitioners may also contribute to improving patient function. Effective communication among the interprofessional team is essential to avoid duplicating diagnostic tests. Conflicting treatments can also impede patient progress. [![Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/Multiple__myeloma.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f1/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f1/?report=objectonly) Multiple Myeloma Involving the Spine. This lateral lumbar spine x-ray shows lytic lesions in the L1 and L4 vertebral bodies. Contributed by Steve Lange, MD [![Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/Picture1.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f2/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f2/?report=objectonly) Type B Aortic Dissection on Computed Tomography Angiography. Axial computed tomography section at the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus demonstrates a dissection flap within the aortic lumen, separating the true and false lumens (Image A). Coronal [(more...)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f2/?report=objectonly) [![Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/degenerative__disc__disease.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f3/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f3/?report=objectonly) Degenerative Disc Disease with Vacuum Phenomenon. Sagittal computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates severe degenerative disc disease with near-complete disc height loss at the affected lumbar level, creating a bone-on-bone [(more...)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f3/?report=objectonly) [![Facet Arthropathy](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/facet__arthropathy.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f4/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f4/?report=objectonly) Facet Arthropathy. Axial computed tomography in a bone window setting demonstrates bilateral lumbar facet joint arthropathy with joint space vacuum phenomenon, subchondral sclerosis, and hypertrophic osteophytic change. These degenerative changes can [(more...)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f4/?report=objectonly) [![Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/bin/spondylolisthesis.gif)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f5/?report=objectonly "Figure") #### [Figure](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f5/?report=objectonly) Degenerative Spondylolisthesis with Lumbar Spinal Stenosis. Sagittal T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates anterior translation of L4 relative to L5, consistent with degenerative spondylolisthesis, resulting in L4 and L5 central canal stenosis [(more...)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538173/figure/article-18089.image.f5/?report=objectonly) ## References 1\. Freburger JK, Holmes GM, Agans RP, Jackman AM, Darter JD, Wallace AS, Castel LD, Kalsbeek WD, Carey TS. 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Pilot evaluation of a multidisciplinary, medically supervised, nonsurgical weight loss program on the severity of low back pain in obese adults. Spine J. 2011 Mar;11(3):197-204. \[[PubMed: 21377601](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21377601)\] 96\. Arnold E, La Barrie J, DaSilva L, Patti M, Goode A, Clewley D. The Effect of Timing of Physical Therapy for Acute Low Back Pain on Health Services Utilization: A Systematic Review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2019 Jul;100(7):1324-1338. \[[PubMed: 30684490](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30684490)\] 97\. Hajihasani A, Rouhani M, Salavati M, Hedayati R, Kahlaee AH. The Influence of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Pain, Quality of Life, and Depression in Patients Receiving Physical Therapy for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review. PM R. 2019 Feb;11(2):167-176. \[[PubMed: 30266349](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30266349)\] Disclosure: Konstantinos Margetis declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Charanjeet Singh declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Vincent Casiano declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Matthew Varacallo declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.
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Root Hash	7295144728021232729
Unparsed URL	gov,nih!nlm,ncbi,www,/books/NBK538173/ s443