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Raw Queries and Responses

1. Shard Calculation

Query:

Response:

Calculated Shard: 62 (from laksa025)

2. Crawled Status Check

Query:

curl -X POST \
  'http://laksa062.int.ahrefs:8124/' \
  -H 'Content-Type: text/plain' \
  -H 'X-ClickHouse-Database: crawler3' \
  -H 'Authorization: Basic YXBpOg==' \
  -d 'SELECT getAhrefsURLFromUnparsed(src_unparsed) AS found_url, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(download_stamp), 0) AS crawl_time, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(props_url_first_seen), 0) AS first_indexed_time, download_http_code AS http_code, src_unparsed AS src_unparsed, src_root_hash AS src_root_hash, history_drop_reason AS history_drop_reason, meta_title AS meta_title, meta_descriptions AS meta_descriptions, attrs_boilerpipe_text AS attrs_boilerpipe_text, attrs_markdown AS attrs_markdown, attrs_readable_markdown AS attrs_readable_markdown, meta_canonical AS meta_canonical FROM crawler3.page_info_local FINAL PREWHERE (src_root_hash, src_unparsed) IN ((getAhrefsRootHashFromUnparsed(getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station\')), getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station\'))) FORMAT JSONEachRow'

Response:

{"found_url":"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station","crawl_time":1776177116,"first_indexed_time":1472533113,"http_code":200,"src_unparsed":"com,britannica!www,\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station s443","src_root_hash":"5455945239613777662","history_drop_reason":null,"meta_title":"Mir | Description, Launch, History, & Facts | Britannica","meta_descriptions":["Mir, Soviet\/Russian modular space station, the core module of which was launched into Earth orbit by the U.S.S.R. in 1986. Over the next decade additional modules were sent aloft on separate launch vehicles and attached to the core unit, creating a habitat that served as a space laboratory for more than 14 years."],"attrs_boilerpipe_text":"Top Questions\nWhat is the International Space Station (ISS)?\nWhen was the ISS launched into space?\nWhich countries are involved in the ISS program?\nHow does the ISS stay in orbit around Earth?\nWhat is the primary purpose of the ISS?\nHow do astronauts live and work on the ISS?\nWhat kinds of experiments are conducted on the ISS?\nHow has the ISS contributed to scientific research?\nWhat challenges do astronauts face while on the ISS?\nNews\n•\nInternational Space Station (ISS)\n,\nspace station\nassembled in\nlow Earth orbit\nlargely by the\nUnited States\nand\nRussia\n, with assistance and components from a multinational\nconsortium\n. It has been continously occupied by astronauts and cosmonauts since November 2, 2000.\nThe project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Originally called\nFreedom\nin the 1980s by U.S. Pres.\nRonald Reagan\n, who authorized the\nNational Aeronautics and Space Administration\n(NASA) to build it within 10 years, it was redesigned in the 1990s to reduce costs and expand international involvement, at which time it was renamed. In 1993 the United States and Russia agreed to merge their separate space station plans into a single facility,\nintegrating\ntheir respective modules and incorporating contributions from the\nEuropean Space Agency\n(ESA) and\nJapan\n.\nAssembly of the International Space Station (ISS) began with the launches of the Russian control module\nZarya\non November 20, 1998, and the U.S.-built\nUnity\nconnecting node the following month, which were linked in orbit by U.S.\nspace shuttle\nastronauts\n. In mid-2000 the Russian-built module\nZvezda\n, a habitat and control center, was added, and on November 2 of that year the ISS received its first resident crew,\ncomprising\nRussian cosmonauts\nSergey Krikalev\nand\nYuri Gidzenko\nand American\nastronaut\nWilliam Shepherd\n, who flew up in a\nSoyuz\nspacecraft\n. The ISS has been continuously occupied since then.\nBritannica Quiz\nFamous Astronauts and Cosmonauts\nA NASA\nmicrogravity\nlaboratory called\nDestiny\nand other elements were subsequently joined to the station, with the overall plan calling for the assembly, over a period of several years, of a complex of laboratories and habitats crossed by a long truss supporting four units that held large\nsolar-power arrays and thermal radiators. Aside from the United States and Russia, station construction involved\nCanada\n, Japan, and 11 ESA members. Russian modules were carried into space by Russian expendable launch vehicles, after which they automatically rendezvoused with and docked to the ISS. Other elements were ferried up by space shuttle and assembled in orbit during space walks. During ISS construction, both shuttles and Russian\nSoyuz\nspacecraft transported people to and from the station, and a Soyuz remained docked to the ISS at all times as a “lifeboat.”\nMuch of the early research work by ISS astronauts was to focus on long-term life-sciences and material-sciences investigations in the\nweightless\nenvironment\n. After the breakup of the space shuttle orbiter\nColumbia\nin February 2003, the shuttle fleet was grounded, which effectively halted expansion of the station. Meanwhile, the crew was reduced from three to two, and their role was restricted mainly to caretaker status, limiting the amount of science that could be done. Crews flew up to and returned from the ISS in Soyuz spacecraft, and the station was serviced by automated Progress ferries.\nAfter the shuttle resumed regular flights in 2006, the ISS crew size was increased to three. Construction resumed in September of that year, with the addition of a pair of solar wings and a thermal radiator. The European-built American node,\nHarmony\n, was placed on the end of Destiny in October 2007. Harmony has a docking port for the space shuttle and connecting ports for a European laboratory, Columbus, and a Japanese laboratory,\nKibo\n. In February 2008 Columbus was mounted on Harmony’s starboard side. Columbus was Europe’s first long-duration crewed space laboratory and contained experiments in such fields as\nbiology\nand fluid\ndynamics\n.\nIn March 2008 an improved variant of the\nAriane\nV\nrocket\nlaunched Europe’s heaviest spacecraft, the\nJules Verne\nAutomated Transfer Vehicle\n(ATV), which carried 7,700 kg (17,000 pounds) of supplies to the ISS. Also in March shuttle astronauts brought the Canadian robot,\nDextre\n, which was so sophisticated that it would be able to perform tasks that previously would have required astronauts to make space walks, and the first part of Kibo. In June 2008 the main part of Kibo was installed.\nThe trusted destination for professionals, college students, and lifelong learners.\nSUBSCRIBE\nThe ISS became fully operational in May 2009 when it began hosting a six-person crew; this required two Soyuz lifeboats to be docked with the ISS at all times. The six-person crew typically consisted of three Russians, two Americans, and one astronaut from either Japan, Canada, or the ESA. An external platform was attached to the far end of Kibo in July, and a Russian docking port and airlock, Poisk, was attached to the Zvezda module in November. A third node,\nTranquility\n, was installed in 2010, and mounted on this was a cupola, whose robotic workstation and many windows enabled astronauts to supervise external operations.\nAfter completion of the ISS, the shuttle was retired from service in 2011. Thereafter, the ISS was serviced by Russia’s Progress, Europe’s ATV (from 2008 to 2015), Japan’s\nH-II Transfer Vehicle\n(HTV, from 2009 to 2020) and HTV-X (from 2025), and two commercial cargo vehicles,\nSpaceX’s\nDragon\n(from 2010) and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s\nCygnus\n(from 2013).\nA new American crew capsule, SpaceX’s\nCrew Dragon\n, had its first flight to the ISS in 2020. Prior to Crew Dragon, all astronauts used Soyuz spacecraft to reach the ISS. Crew Dragon carried four astronauts to the station, and the ISS was then able to\naccommodate\na crew of seven. A Russian science module, Nauka, was added to the station in 2021.\nThe\nBoeing Company\n’s CST-100\nStarliner\nhad its first crewed test flight on June 5, 2024. However, during the flight to the ISS, five thrusters failed, and helium leaks were detected in its propulsion system. NASA delayed Starliner’s return to\nEarth\nuntil it was sure that the craft could reenter safely. The two Starliner astronauts, commander Barry Wilmore and pilot\nSunita Williams\n, had been scheduled to be in space for about a week. They returned to Earth on a Crew Dragon on March 18, 2025, after NASA returned the Starliner to Earth empty.\nMore than 280 astronauts from 26 different countries have visited the ISS. Astronauts typically stay on the ISS for about six months. The return of a Soyuz to Earth marks the end of an ISS\nExpedition\n, and the command of the ISS is transferred to another astronaut.\nHowever, a few astronauts have spent much longer times on the ISS. On a special mission called “A Year in Space,” Russian cosmonaut\nMikhail Korniyenko\nand American astronaut\nScott Kelly\nspent 340 days in orbit from March 2015 to March 2016. Kelly’s flight was the longest by an American. (Since Kelly’s brother,\nMark\n, was his identical twin, as well as a former astronaut himself, scientists were able to use Mark as a baseline for how the long\nspaceflight\nhad changed Scott.) In 2017 Russia temporarily cut the number of its ISS crew from three to two, and American astronaut\nPeggy Whitson\nextended her mission to 289 days, which at that time was the longest single spaceflight by a woman, so the station would have a full crew of six. Whitson has been to the ISS on three other flights and in total has spent more than 675 days in space, a record for an American and a woman. Whitson’s longest consecutive spaceflight record was\nsurpassed\nby American astronaut\nChristina Koch\n, who spent 328 days on the ISS from March 2019 to February 2020. During that time Koch and American astronaut\nJessica Meir\nperformed the first all-female\nspace walk\n. Russian cosmonaut\nPyotr Dubrov and American astronaut\nMark Vande Hei\nstayed on the station for 355 days from April 2021 to March 2022. Vande Hei broke Kelly’s record for longest American spaceflight.\nThe ISS has also been a destination for\nspace tourists\n. The first such, American businessman\nDennis Tito\n, flew to the ISS on a Soyuz spacecraft on April 28, 2001. (Tito objected to the term\nspace tourist\n, and since his flight the term \nspaceflight participant\n has been more often used to distinguish space travelers from career astronauts.) Eight other individuals paid for seats on Soyuz flights to ISS between 2002 and 2021. Beginning in 2022, the American company\nAxiom\nSpace has chartered flights on Crew Dragon spacecraft to the ISS. On some Axiom flights, the passengers have been astronauts whose seat was paid for by their country’s space agency, such as Indian astronaut\nShubhanshu Shukla\n, who flew to the ISS on Axiom Mission 4 on June 25, 2025. Astronauts on chartered flights typically only stay on the ISS for a few weeks.\nThe United States, ESA, Japan, and Canada have not definitively decided when the program will end, but in 2021 the\nJoe Biden\nadministration indicated that the program would receive U.S. support through 2030. The ESA, Japan, and Canada have also committed to support the ISS through 2030. Russia announced that it would support the station through 2028 and then begin work on its own orbital space station.","attrs_markdown":"[![Encyclopedia Britannica](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel\/eb-logo\/MendelNewThistleLogo.png)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/)\n\n[![Encyclopedia Britannica](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel\/eb-logo\/MendelNewThistleLogo.png)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/)\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=global-nav&utm_campaign=blue-evergreen)\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=global-nav-mobile&utm_campaign=blue-evergreen)\n\nLogin\n\nhttps:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm\\_source=premium\\&utm\\_medium=nav-login-box\\&utm\\_campaign=evergreen\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=hamburger-menu&utm_campaign=blue)\n\n[Ask the Chatbot](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/chatbot)\n\n[Games & Quizzes](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/browse) [History & Society](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/History-Society) [Science & Tech](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Science-Tech) [Biographies](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Biographies) [Animals & Nature](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Animals-Nature) [Geography & Travel](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Geography-Travel) [Arts & Culture](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Arts-Culture) [ProCon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/procon) [Money](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money) [Videos](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/videos)\n\n[Mir](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station)\n\n[Introduction](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station)   [References & Edit History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station\/additional-info)  [Related Topics](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/facts\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station)\n\n[Images](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station\/images-videos)\n\n[![Mir](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/73218-004-CE0794B8\/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/73218-050-126F8312\/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg)  [![Mir](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/92\/70092-004-5618C164\/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/92\/70092-050-7482A08E\/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg)  [![Anatoly Yakovlevich Solovyov.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/102506-004-00BB6D39\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/102506-004-00BB6D39\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov.jpg)  [![Sergey Konstantinovich Krikalyov.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/94\/102494-004-289DAC7E\/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/94\/102494-050-A77EB0B1\/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov.jpg)  [![Valery Polyakov](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/102460-004-CE046943\/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/102460-050-92F228E7\/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov.jpg)  [![Soyuz TM-19](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/59\/136059-004-D2BB3C2B\/Talgat-Musabayev-Russian-unit-space-station-Chibis-October-1994.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/59\/136059-050-A377A116\/Talgat-Musabayev-Russian-unit-space-station-Chibis-October-1994.jpg)  [![Soyuz TM-20](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/136060-004-F1C6B34A\/Valery-Polyakov-Russian-Ulf-Merbold-blood-sample-1994.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/136060-050-EE222A56\/Valery-Polyakov-Russian-Ulf-Merbold-blood-sample-1994.jpg)  [![STS-63; Harris, Bernard A., Jr.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/82\/131982-004-EA9164F1\/Bernard-A-Harris-Jr-STS-63-space-walk-Feb-9-1995.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/82\/131982-004-EA9164F1\/Bernard-A-Harris-Jr-STS-63-space-walk-Feb-9-1995.jpg)  [![Gennady Mikhailovich Strekalov playing guitar and singing with (from left to right) astronauts Charlie Precourt, Bonnie Dunbar, and Greg Harbaugh in June 1995 during the space shuttle's first visit to the Russian space station Mir.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/102493-004-624C370A\/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov-guitar-astronauts-visit-Greg-June-1995.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/102493-050-D65D3E18\/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov-guitar-astronauts-visit-Greg-June-1995.jpg)  [![Robert Gibson and Vladimir Dezhurov](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/102418-004-CAD59B2B\/hands-Robert-Gibson-Atlantis-Vladimir-Dezhurov-Russian-June-29-1995.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/102418-050-80A86A9E\/hands-Robert-Gibson-Atlantis-Vladimir-Dezhurov-Russian-June-29-1995.jpg)\n\nQuizzes\n\n[![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/188714-131-87D4E380\/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts)\n\n[Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-179\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9)\n\nContents\n\nAsk Anything\n\n[Science](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Science)    [Astronomy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Astronomy)\n\nCITE\n\nShare\n\nFeedback\n\nExternal Websites\n\n[![Mir](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/73218-050-126F8312\/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/73218-050-126F8312\/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg)\n\n[Mir](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/73218-050-126F8312\/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg) Russian space station Mir—in the background is Cook Strait near New Zealand's South Island—as photographed March 23, 1996, from the space shuttle orbiter *Atlantis* prior to docking of the two spacecraft.\n\n(more)\n\n# Mir\nSoviet-Russian space station\n\nHomework Help\n\nWritten by\n\n[David M. Harland Space historian and freelance writer, Glasgow, Scotland. Author of *Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions; Jupiter Odyssey: The Story of NASA's Galileo Mission;* and others.](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/contributor\/David-M-Harland\/5456)\n\nDavid M. Harland\n\nFact-checked by\n\n[Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica\/4419)\n\nBritannica Editors\n\n[History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station\/additional-info#history)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-179\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9) Britannica AI\n\nAsk Anything\n\nTable of Contents\n\nTable of Contents\n\nAsk Anything\n\n**Mir**, Soviet\/[Russian](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Russia) [modular](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/modular) [space station](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/space-station), the core module (base block) of which was launched into [Earth](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Earth) [orbit](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/orbit-astronomy) by the [U.S.S.R.](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Soviet-Union) in 1986. Over the next decade additional modules were sent aloft on separate [launch vehicles](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/launch-vehicle) and attached to the core unit, creating a large habitat that served as a versatile space [laboratory](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/laboratory-science) for more than 14 years.\n\nMir (Russian: “Peace” or “World”) was the third generation of space stations developed by the Soviet Union. Its core module resembled its simpler predecessors in the [Salyut](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Salyut) series but had additional docking ports (a total of six) that accommodated not only a succession of crewed [spacecraft](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/spacecraft) and [cargo](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/cargo) ferries but also permanently attached expansion modules equipped for scientific research.\n\n[![Mir](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/92\/70092-050-7482A08E\/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/92\/70092-050-7482A08E\/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg)\n\n[Mir](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/92\/70092-050-7482A08E\/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg)Soviet\/Russian space station Mir after completion in 1996. The date shown for each module is its year of launch. Docked to the station are a Soyuz TM crewed spacecraft and an uncrewed Progress resupply ferry.\n\n(more)\n\nMir’s core module was launched on February 20, 1986. It had the form of a stepped cylinder about 13 metres (43 feet) long and 4.2 metres (13.8 feet) in diameter at its widest point. The module had a docking port at each end and four ports sited radially at its forward end. On March 13, 1986, cosmonauts Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov were sent aloft aboard a [Soyuz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Soyuz) T spacecraft to rendezvous with Mir and become its first occupants. Between March 1987 and April 1996, five expansion modules were added to the core unit—[Kvant 1](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kvant-1) (1987), an astrophysics observatory; [Kvant 2](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kvant-2) (1989), containing [supplementary](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/supplementary) life-support equipment and a large airlock; [Kristall](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kristall) (1990), a materials-sciences laboratory; and [Spektr](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Spektr) (1995) and [Priroda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Priroda) (1996), two science modules containing remote-sensing instruments for ecological and environmental studies of Earth. With the exception of its first occupants, Mir’s [cosmonaut](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/astronaut) crews traveled between the station and Earth in upgraded Soyuz TM spacecraft, and supplies were transported by robotic Progress cargo ferries.\n\n[![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/188714-131-87D4E380\/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg) Britannica Quiz Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts)\n\nMir supported human habitation from March 14, 1986, to June 15, 2000, which included an uninterrupted stretch of occupancy of almost 10 years. It hosted more than 100 people from 12 countries, including a series of U.S. astronauts in 1995–98 as part of a Mir–[space shuttle](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/space-shuttle) cooperative endeavour. Between January 1994 and March 1995, Mir cosmonaut-physician [Valery Polyakov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov) set an endurance record of 438 [continuous](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/continuous) days in space, longer than the approximately nine months estimated for a crewed voyage to the planet [Mars](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mars-planet).\n\nDesigned for only a five-year life, the aging Mir suffered a series of equipment failures and accidents in 1996–97 but remained in service. On March 23, 2001, the abandoned Mir made a controlled reentry, with the surviving pieces falling into the [Pacific Ocean](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pacific-Ocean). (*See also* [Energia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/Energia-Russian-company).)\n\nA chronology of missions to Mir is shown in the table.\n\n|   | mission | country | crew | dates | notes |\n|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n|   | Soyuz T-15\/Mir\/Salyut 7 | U.S.S.R. | Leonid Kizim; Vladimir Solovyov | March 13–July 16, 1986 | first spaceflight between two space stations |\n|   | Soyuz TM-2\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Aleksandr Laveykin; Yury Romanenko | Feb. 5–July 30, 1987 (Dec. 29 \\[Romanenko\\]) | new space endurance record (Romanenko; 326 days 12 hours); addition of Kvant 1 module to Mir |\n|   | Soyuz TM-3\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Aleksandr Viktorenko; Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov; [Muhammed Faris](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Muhammed-Faris) | July 22–30, 1987 (Dec. 29 \\[Aleksandrov\\]) | first Syrian astronaut (Faris) |\n|   | Soyuz TM-4\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Vladimir Titov; Musa Manarov; Anatoly Levchenko | Dec. 21, 1987–Dec. 21, 1988 (Dec. 29, 1987 \\[Levchenko\\]) | new space endurance record (Titov and Manarov; 365 days 23 hours) |\n| [![Anatoly Yakovlevich Solovyov.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/102506-004-00BB6D39\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/102506-004-00BB6D39\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov.jpg) | Soyuz TM-5\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | [Anatoly Solovyov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Viktor Savinkyh; Aleksandr Panayatov Aleksandrov | June 7–17, 1988 | second Bulgarian astronaut (Aleksandrov) |\n|   | Soyuz TM-6\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Vladimir Lyakhov; [Valery Polyakov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov); [Abdul Ahad Mohmand](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Abdul-Ahad-Mohmand) | Aug. 29–Sept. 7, 1988 (April 4, 1989 \\[Polyakov\\]) | first Afghan astronaut (Mohmand) |\n| [![Sergey Konstantinovich Krikalyov.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/94\/102494-050-A77EB0B1\/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/94\/102494-050-A77EB0B1\/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov.jpg) | Soyuz TM-7\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Aleksandr Volkov; [Sergey Krikalyov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov); [Jean-Loup Chrétien](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Jean-Loup-Chretien) | Nov. 26, 1988–April 27, 1989 (Dec. 21, 1988 \\[Chrétien\\]) | Mir was left unoccupied after crew returned to Earth |\n|   | Soyuz TM-8\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Aleksandr Viktorenko; Aleksandr Serebrov | Sept. 5, 1989–Feb. 19, 1990 | addition of Kvant 2 module to Mir |\n|   | Soyuz TM-9\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | [Anatoly Solovyov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Aleksandr Balandin | Feb. 11–Aug. 9, 1990 | addition of Kristall module to Mir |\n|   | Soyuz TM-10\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Gennady Manakov; [Gennady Strekalov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov) | Aug. 1–Dec. 10, 1990 | crew performed spacewalk to fix damaged hatch on Kvant 2 |\n|   | Soyuz TM-11\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Viktor Afanasiyev; Musa Manarov; [Akiyama Toyohiro](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Akiyama-Toyohiro) | Dec. 2, 1990–May 26, 1991 (Dec. 10, 1990 \\[Akiyama\\]) | first Japanese citizen in space (Akiyama) |\n|   | Soyuz TM-12\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Anatoly Artsebarsky; [Sergey Krikalyov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov); [Helen Sharman](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Helen-Sharman) | May 18, 1991–Oct. 10, 1991 (March 25, 1992 \\[Krikalyov\\]; May 26, 1991 \\[Sharman\\]) | first British astronaut (Sharman) |\n|   | Soyuz TM-13\/Mir | U.S.S.R. | Aleksandr Volkov; Toktar Aubakirov; [Franz Viehböck](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Franz-Viehbock) | Oct. 2, 1991–March 25, 1992 (Oct. 10, 1991 \\[Aubakirov; Viehböck\\] | first Austrian astronaut (Viehböck) |\n|   | Soyuz TM-14\/Mir | Russia | Aleksandr Viktorenko; Aleksandr Kalery; Klaus-Dietrich Flade | March 17–Aug. 10, 1992 (March 25 \\[Flade\\]) | first Russian spaceflight after breakup of the U.S.S.R. |\n|   | Soyuz TM-15\/Mir | Russia | [Anatoly Solovyov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Sergey Avdeyev; Michel Tognini | July 27, 1992–Feb. 1, 1993 (Aug. 10, 1992 \\[Tognini\\]) | crew performed spacewalks to extend lifetime of Mir |\n|   | Soyuz TM-16\/Mir | Russia | Gennady Manakov; Aleksandr Poleshchuk | Jan. 24–July 22, 1993 | placed docking target on Mir for use by [space shuttle *Atlantis*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/space-shuttle) |\n|   | Soyuz TM-17\/Mir | Russia | Vasily Tsibliyev; Aleksandr Serebrov; Jean-Pierre Haigneré | July 1, 1993–Jan. 14, 1994 (July 22, 1993 \\[Haigneré\\]) | slight collision with Mir |\n| [![Valery Polyakov](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/102460-050-92F228E7\/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/102460-050-92F228E7\/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov.jpg) | Soyuz TM-18\/Mir | Russia | Viktor Afanasiyev; Yury Usachyov; [Valery Polyakov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov) | Jan. 8–July 9, 1994 (March 22, 1995 \\[Polyakov\\]) | new space endurance record (Polyakov; 437 days 18 hours) |\n| [![Soyuz TM-19](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/59\/136059-050-A377A116\/Talgat-Musabayev-Russian-unit-space-station-Chibis-October-1994.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/59\/136059-050-A377A116\/Talgat-Musabayev-Russian-unit-space-station-Chibis-October-1994.jpg) | Soyuz TM-19\/Mir | Russia | Yury Malenchenko; Talgat Musabayev | July 1–Nov. 4, 1994 | Malenchenko performed first manual docking of Progress resupply ship |\n| [![Soyuz TM-20](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/136060-050-EE222A56\/Valery-Polyakov-Russian-Ulf-Merbold-blood-sample-1994.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/136060-050-EE222A56\/Valery-Polyakov-Russian-Ulf-Merbold-blood-sample-1994.jpg) | Soyuz TM-20\/Mir | Russia | Aleksandr Viktorenko; Elena Kondakova; [Ulf Merbold](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ulf-Merbold) | Oct. 4, 1994–March 22, 1995 (Nov. 4, 1994 \\[Merbold\\]) | first woman to make a long-duration spaceflight (Kondakova) |\n| [![STS-63; Harris, Bernard A., Jr.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/82\/131982-004-EA9164F1\/Bernard-A-Harris-Jr-STS-63-space-walk-Feb-9-1995.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/82\/131982-004-EA9164F1\/Bernard-A-Harris-Jr-STS-63-space-walk-Feb-9-1995.jpg) | STS-63 (*Discovery*) | U.S. | James Wetherbee; [Eileen Collins](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Eileen-Collins); Bernard Harris; Michael Foale; Janice Voss; Vladimir Titov | Feb. 3–11, 1995 | demonstrated shuttle orbiter's ability to approach and maneuver around Mir |\n| [![Gennady Mikhailovich Strekalov playing guitar and singing with (from left to right) astronauts Charlie Precourt, Bonnie Dunbar, and Greg Harbaugh in June 1995 during the space shuttle's first visit to the Russian space station Mir.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/102493-050-D65D3E18\/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov-guitar-astronauts-visit-Greg-June-1995.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/102493-050-D65D3E18\/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov-guitar-astronauts-visit-Greg-June-1995.jpg) | Soyuz TM-21\/Mir | Russia | Vladimir Dezhurov; [Gennady Strekalov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov); Norman Thagard | March 14–July 7, 1995 | first American to fly on Russian spacecraft (Thagard); addition of Spektr module to Mir |\n| [![Robert Gibson and Vladimir Dezhurov](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/102418-050-80A86A9E\/hands-Robert-Gibson-Atlantis-Vladimir-Dezhurov-Russian-June-29-1995.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/102418-050-80A86A9E\/hands-Robert-Gibson-Atlantis-Vladimir-Dezhurov-Russian-June-29-1995.jpg) | STS-71 (*Atlantis*)\/Mir | U.S. | Robert Gibson; Charles Precourt; Ellen Baker; Gregory Harbaugh; Bonnie Dunbar; [Anatoly Solovyov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Nikolay Budarin | June 27–July 7, 1995 (Sept. 11, 1995 \\[Solovyov, Budarin\\]) | first space shuttle visit to Mir |\n| [![Soyuz TM-22](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/61\/136061-050-0CC8821E\/Sergey-Avdeyev-Thomas-Reiter-space-station-mission-November-1995.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/61\/136061-050-0CC8821E\/Sergey-Avdeyev-Thomas-Reiter-space-station-mission-November-1995.jpg) | Soyuz TM-22\/Mir | Russia | Yury Gidzenko; Sergei Avdeyev; Thomas Reiter | Sept. 3, 1995–Feb. 29, 1996 | first German to walk in space (Reiter) |\n| [![STS-74 astronauts with Mir crew](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/131977-050-DFFBAA5E\/crew-members-STS-74-cosmonauts-Kenneth-D-Cameron-November-1995.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/131977-050-DFFBAA5E\/crew-members-STS-74-cosmonauts-Kenneth-D-Cameron-November-1995.jpg) | STS-74 (*Atlantis*)\/Mir | U.S. | Kenneth Cameron; James Halsell; Chris Hadfield; Jerry Ross; William McArthur | Nov. 12–20, 1995 | attached docking module to Mir |\n| [![Soyuz TM-23](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/52\/136052-050-26AEB39D\/Shannon-Lucid-American-unstowing-supplies-space-station-March-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/52\/136052-050-26AEB39D\/Shannon-Lucid-American-unstowing-supplies-space-station-March-1996.jpg) | Soyuz TM-23\/Mir | Russia | Yury Onufriyenko; Yury Usachyov | Feb. 21–Sept. 2, 1996 | addition of Priroda module to Mir |\n| [![Lucid, Shannon Wells](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/96\/102496-050-4D3E85BD\/Shannon-Wells-Lucid-treadmill-space-station-Russian-March-28-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/96\/102496-050-4D3E85BD\/Shannon-Wells-Lucid-treadmill-space-station-Russian-March-28-1996.jpg) | STS-76 (*Atlantis*)\/Mir | U.S. | Kevin Chilton; Richard Searfoss; Ronald Sega; Michael Clifford; Linda Godwin; [Shannon Lucid](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Shannon-Wells-Lucid) | March 22–31, 1996 (Sept. 26 \\[Lucid\\]) | delivered supplies to Mir |\n| [![STS-89; Lucid, Shannon; Kalery, Aleksandr Y.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/131967-050-71D5BFDE\/Shannon-Lucid-STS-89-Aleksandr-Y-Atlantis-Russian-August-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/131967-050-71D5BFDE\/Shannon-Lucid-STS-89-Aleksandr-Y-Atlantis-Russian-August-1996.jpg) | Soyuz TM-24\/Mir | Russia | Valery Korzun; Aleksandr Kaleri; [Claudie André-Deshays](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Claudie-Haignere) | Aug. 17, 1996–March 2, 1997 (Sept. 2, 1996 \\[André-Deshays\\]) | first French woman in space (André-Deshays) |\n| [![Soyuz TM and Mir](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/12\/76512-050-93D2365C\/spacecraft-TM-Soyuz-Russian-Atlantis-port-space-September-21-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/12\/76512-050-93D2365C\/spacecraft-TM-Soyuz-Russian-Atlantis-port-space-September-21-1996.jpg) | STS-79 (*Atlantis*)\/Mir | U.S. | William Readdy; Terrence Wilcutt; Jerome Apt; Thomas Akers; Carl Walz; John Blaha | Sept. 16–26, 1996 (Jan. 22, 1997 \\[Blaha\\]) | conducted experiments in Spacelab Double Module |\n| [![STS-81; Ivins, Marsha S.; Linenger, Jerry M.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/50\/131950-050-CD9092EE\/STS-81-mission-specialists-Marsha-S-Ivins-Jerry-Dec-16-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/50\/131950-050-CD9092EE\/STS-81-mission-specialists-Marsha-S-Ivins-Jerry-Dec-16-1996.jpg) | STS-81 (*Atlantis*)\/Mir | U.S. | Michael Baker; Brent Jett; Peter Wisoff; John Grunsfeld; Marsha Ivins; Jerry Linenger | Jan. 12–22, 1997 (May 24, 1997 \\[Linenger\\]) | returned with first plants to complete a full life cycle in space |\n| [![Soyuz TM-25](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/49\/136049-050-E7BE3658\/John-E-Blaha-American-Vasily-Tsibliyev-Aleksandr-1996.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/49\/136049-050-E7BE3658\/John-E-Blaha-American-Vasily-Tsibliyev-Aleksandr-1996.jpg) | Soyuz TM-25\/Mir | Russia | Vasily Tsibliyev; Aleksandr Lazutkin; Reinhold Ewald | Feb. 10–Aug. 14, 1997 (March 2 \\[Ewald\\]) | fire seriously damaged Mir's oxygen generation system (Feb. 23); collision with Progress punctured Spektr module (June 25) |\n| [![Eileen Collins toys with a roll of paper scrap in microgravity while serving as pilot of the U.S. space shuttle orbiter Atlantis in May 1997.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/62\/21662-050-F2E0E15C\/toys-Eileen-Collins-Atlantis-roll-microgravity-paper-May-1997.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/62\/21662-050-F2E0E15C\/toys-Eileen-Collins-Atlantis-roll-microgravity-paper-May-1997.jpg) | STS-84 (*Atlantis*)\/Mir | U.S. | Charles Precourt; [Eileen Collins](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Eileen-Collins); Jean-François Clervoy; Carlos Noriega; Edward Lu; Yelena Kondakova; Michael Foale | May 15–24, 1997 (Oct. 6 \\[Foale\\]) | carried Biorack research facility, which conducted [microgravity](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/microgravity) experiments |\n| [![STS-86; Mir](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/45\/131945-004-D8006FFE\/crew-members-STS-86-Atlantis-space-station-hosts-Sept-27-1997.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/45\/131945-004-D8006FFE\/crew-members-STS-86-Atlantis-space-station-hosts-Sept-27-1997.jpg) | Soyuz TM-26\/Mir | Russia | [Anatoly Solovyov](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Pavel Vinogradov | Aug. 5, 1997–Feb. 19, 1998 | Mir's oxygen generation system repaired |\n| [![STS-86](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/131944-050-25FB3773\/space-shuttle-Atlantis-preparations-station-Kennedy-Space-1997.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/131944-050-25FB3773\/space-shuttle-Atlantis-preparations-station-Kennedy-Space-1997.jpg) | STS-86 (*Atlantis*)\/Mir | U.S. | James Wetherbee; Michael Bloomfield; Vladimir Titov; Scott Parazynski; [Jean-Loup Chrétien](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Jean-Loup-Chretien); Wendy Lawrence; David Wolf | Sept. 25–Oct. 6, 1997 (Jan. 31, 1998 \\[Wolf\\]) | carried Spacehab module, which included replacement computer for Mir |\n| [![STS-89; Reilly, James](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/131942-050-F8601855\/James-Reilly-STS-89-Mechanics-space-shuttle-Endeavour-1998.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/131942-050-F8601855\/James-Reilly-STS-89-Mechanics-space-shuttle-Endeavour-1998.jpg) | STS-89 (*Endeavour*)\/Mir | U.S. | Terrence Wilcutt; Joe Edwards; James Reilly; Michael Anderson; Bonnie Dunbar; Salizhan Sharipov; Andrew Thomas | Jan. 22–31, 1998 (June 12 \\[Thomas\\]) | carried experiments in protein crystal growth |\n| [![STS-91](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/39\/131939-050-28A7FC29\/space-shuttle-station-Discovery-Mir-STS-91-mission-June-4-1998.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/39\/131939-050-28A7FC29\/space-shuttle-station-Discovery-Mir-STS-91-mission-June-4-1998.jpg) | Soyuz TM-27\/Mir | Russia | Talgat Musabayev; Nikolay Budarin; Leopold Eyharts | Jan. 29–Aug. 25, 1998 (Feb. 19 \\[Eyharts\\]) | unsuccessful attempt to repair Spektr solar panel |\n| [![STS-91; Precourt, Charles J.; Musabayev, Talgat A.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/41\/131941-004-2F85B06D\/Charles-J-Precourt-STS-91-Talgat-A-Musabayev-June-4-1998.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/41\/131941-004-2F85B06D\/Charles-J-Precourt-STS-91-Talgat-A-Musabayev-June-4-1998.jpg) | STS-91 (*Discovery*)\/Mir | U.S. | Charles Precourt; Dominic Gorie; [Franklin Chang-Díaz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Franklin-Chang-Diaz); Wendy Lawrence; Janet Kavandi; Valery Ryumin | June 2–12, 1998 | final space shuttle mission to Mir |\n|   | Soyuz TM-28\/Mir | Russia | Gennady Padalka; Sergey Avdeyev; Yury Baturin | Aug. 13, 1998–Feb. 28, 1999 (Aug. 28, 1999 \\[Avdeyev\\]; Aug. 25, 1998 \\[Baturin\\]) | first Russian politician in space (Baturin) |\n|   | Soyuz TM-29\/Mir | Russia | Viktor Afanasiyev; Jean-Pierre Haigneré; [Ivan Bella](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ivan-Bella) | Feb. 20–Aug. 28, 1999 (Feb. 28 \\[Bella\\]) | first Slovak astronaut (Bella) |\n|   | Soyuz TM-30\/Mir | Russia | Sergey Zalyotin; Aleksandr Kaleri | April 4–June 16, 2000 | last occupants of Mir |\n\n[David M. Harland](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/contributor\/David-M-Harland\/5456)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-179\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9)Britannica AI\n\n*chevron\\_right*\n\nMir\n\n*close*\n\n[AI-generated answers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station)\n\n[Introduction & Top Questions](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station)   [References & Edit History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station\/additional-info)  [Related Topics](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/facts\/International-Space-Station)\n\n[Images & Videos](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station\/images-videos)\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/86\/118386-004-933DE6B7\/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/86\/118386-050-0FD4C54B\/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg)  [![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/52\/150352-120-E7838625\/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/52\/150352-050-935FE03E\/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg)  [![Astronaut outside the International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/72006-004-F554D837\/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/72006-050-5EF22ECB\/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg)  [![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/22\/72522-004-265B2593\/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/22\/72522-050-BDCDBD92\/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg)\n\n[![The International Space Station.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/41\/221441-138-43FDF113\/what-happens-International-Space-Station.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/what-happens-International-Space-Station\/-253183)\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/12\/73212-004-6D537A88\/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/12\/73212-050-716F4FCF\/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg)  [![Space exploration and the European Space Agency](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/37\/194337-004-8687AB84\/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/37\/194337-050-970585EB\/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg)  [![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/106036-004-4725498F\/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/106036-050-C2D66165\/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg)  [![International Space Station: Kjell Lindgren](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/31\/194331-004-0AB333A8\/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/31\/194331-050-5C1CA737\/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg)  [![Automated transfer vehicle](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/194342-004-0EB3782A\/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/194342-050-54D0E7B2\/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg)\n\nAt a Glance\n\n[![default image](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-179\/images\/shared\/new-thistle.svg?v=3.179.9)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/International-Space-Station)\n\n[International Space Station summary](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/International-Space-Station)\n\nQuizzes\n\n[![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/188714-131-87D4E380\/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts)\n\n[Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts)\n\nRelated Questions\n\n- [What is the International Space Station (ISS)?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/What-is-the-International-Space-Station-ISS)\n- [When was the ISS launched into space?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/When-was-the-ISS-launched-into-space)\n- [Which countries are involved in the ISS program?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/Which-countries-are-involved-in-the-ISS-program)\n- [How does the ISS stay in orbit around Earth?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/How-does-the-ISS-stay-in-orbit-around-Earth)\n- [What is the primary purpose of the ISS?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/What-is-the-primary-purpose-of-the-ISS)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-179\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9)\n\nAsk Anything\n\nQuick Summary\n\n[Science](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Science)    [Astronomy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Astronomy)\n\nCITE\n\nShare\n\nFeedback\n\nExternal Websites\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/86\/118386-050-0FD4C54B\/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/86\/118386-050-0FD4C54B\/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/86\/118386-050-0FD4C54B\/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg) The International Space Station as seen from the space shuttle *Endeavour* as the two spacecraft began their relative separation on March 24, 2008.\n\n(more)\n\n# International Space Station\nspace station\n\nHomework Help\n\nAlso known as: ISS, Space Station Freedom\n\nWritten by\n\n[David M. Harland Space historian and freelance writer, Glasgow, Scotland. Author of *Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions; Jupiter Odyssey: The Story of NASA's Galileo Mission;* and others.](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/contributor\/David-M-Harland\/5456)\n\nDavid M. Harland\n\nFact-checked by\n\n[Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica\/4419)\n\nBritannica Editors\n\n[History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station\/additional-info#history)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-179\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9) Britannica AI\n\nAsk Anything\n\nQuick Summary\n\nTable of Contents\n\nTable of Contents\n\nQuick Summary\n\nAsk Anything\n\nTop Questions\n\n### What is the International Space Station (ISS)?\nThe International Space Station (ISS) is a modular space station in low Earth orbit, primarily built by the United States and Russia, with contributions from a multinational consortium including the [European Space Agency](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/European-Space-Agency), Japan, and Canada. Its assembly began in 1998 with the launch of the Russian module Zarya, followed by the U.S. module Unity. The ISS has been continuously inhabited since November 2, 2000, serving as a microgravity laboratory for scientific research across various fields, including biology and physics. It is powered by large solar arrays and supports a crew of international [astronauts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/astronaut) who typically stay for about six months.\n\n### When was the ISS launched into space?\nThe International Space Station (ISS) began its assembly with the launch of the Russian control module Zarya on November 20, 1998. This was followed by the launch of the U.S.-built Unity connecting node in December 1998. These initial components were linked in orbit by U.S. [space shuttle](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/space-shuttle) astronauts, marking the beginning of the ISS’s construction in space. The ISS has been continuously occupied since November 2, 2000, when its first resident crew arrived. The station is a collaborative effort involving the United States, Russia, Canada, Japan, and 11 [European Space Agency](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/European-Space-Agency) members.\n\n### Which countries are involved in the ISS program?\nThe International Space Station (ISS) program involves a collaboration between several countries. The primary partners are the United States and Russia, who were instrumental in its assembly and operation. Additionally, the [European Space Agency](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/European-Space-Agency) (ESA), Japan, and Canada are significant contributors to the ISS. The ESA includes 11 member countries that participate in the program. This multinational effort represents one of the largest cooperative technological undertakings in history, with contributions ranging from modules and laboratories to robotic equipment and solar panels.\n\n### How does the ISS stay in orbit around Earth?\nThe International Space Station (ISS) stays in orbit around Earth by maintaining a balance between its forward velocity and the gravitational pull of the Earth. The ISS travels at a high orbital velocity, approximately 28,000 kilometers per hour (about 17,500 miles per hour), which allows it to continuously fall towards Earth but never actually reach it. This is because Earth’s surface curves away at the same rate that the ISS falls, creating a stable orbit. The gravitational force pulls the ISS towards Earth, while its inertia keeps it moving forward, resulting in a circular or elliptical orbital path.\n\n### What is the primary purpose of the ISS?\nThe primary purpose of the International Space Station (ISS) is to serve as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory where scientific research is conducted in astrobiology, [astronomy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/astronomy), [meteorology](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/meteorology), [physics](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/physics-science), and other fields. The ISS provides a unique platform for conducting experiments that require or benefit from the low-gravity environment, which cannot be replicated on Earth. Research on the ISS includes life sciences, materials science, and fundamental physics, aiming to improve our understanding of biological processes and develop new technologies. The ISS also facilitates international cooperation in space exploration, involving multiple countries and space agencies.\n\n### How do astronauts live and work on the ISS?\nAstronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) live and work in a microgravity environment, conducting scientific research and maintaining the station. They perform experiments in various fields, such as life sciences, materials science, and fluid dynamics, taking advantage of the unique conditions of space to gain insights not possible on Earth. The ISS is equipped with laboratories and habitats, and astronauts use solar panels for power and rely on a continuous supply of essentials like air, water, and food, delivered by cargo spacecraft. Crews typically stay for about six months, with some missions lasting longer to study the effects of extended space travel.\n\n### What kinds of experiments are conducted on the ISS?\nExperiments conducted on the International Space Station (ISS) cover a wide range of scientific disciplines, taking advantage of the unique microgravity environment. Key areas of research include:\n\n- **Life Sciences**: Studying the effects of microgravity on human physiology, plant growth, and animal development to understand biological processes and improve health on Earth.\n- **Materials Science**: Investigating the behavior of materials such as metals, alloys, and polymers in microgravity to enhance manufacturing processes.\n- **Biotechnology**: Producing highly ordered protein crystals and materials resembling human tissues, which are difficult to create on Earth.\n- **Fluid Physics and Combustion Science**: Exploring fluid dynamics and combustion processes without the influence of gravity.\n- **Fundamental Physics**: Conducting experiments to test theories and models in physics under conditions not possible on Earth.\n\n### How has the ISS contributed to scientific research?\nThe International Space Station (ISS) has significantly advanced scientific research by providing a unique [microgravity](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/microgravity) environment for experiments that are impossible on Earth. It has facilitated studies in life sciences, including the effects of weightlessness on human physiology and the development of plants and animals, which are crucial for long-term space exploration. The ISS has also contributed to materials science, allowing researchers to study the behavior of materials in microgravity, leading to insights that can improve manufacturing processes on Earth. Additionally, it serves as a platform for international collaboration, involving scientists from multiple countries in various research projects.\n\n### What challenges do astronauts face while on the ISS?\nAstronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) face several challenges. The microgravity environment leads to muscle atrophy and bone density loss, requiring regular exercise to mitigate these effects. Space sickness, caused by conflicting sensory information, can result in nausea and discomfort, though it usually subsides after a few days. The redistribution of bodily fluids can cause facial puffiness and sinus congestion. Additionally, astronauts are exposed to higher levels of ionizing radiation, increasing the risk of cancer and other health issues. Psychological challenges also arise from isolation and confinement, necessitating careful crew selection and support to maintain mental well-being.\n\n## News •\n[SpaceX launches huge 'Cygnus XL' cargo ship carrying over 5 tons of supplies to ISS astronauts (video)](https:\/\/www.space.com\/space-exploration\/international-space-station\/northrop-grumman-second-cygnus-xl-cargo-launch-spacex-iss)\n\n• Apr. 11, 2026, 7:31 AM ET (Space)\n\n...(Show more)\n\n[Artemis II astronauts make long-distance call to the space station as they head home from the moon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/news\/747712\/ee54471e830fee1e3e95e9891116f3d7)  • Apr. 7, 2026, 7:14 PM ET (AP)\n\n[He suddenly couldn't speak in space. NASA astronaut says his medical scare remains a mystery](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/news\/747712\/cc34793ffb73174f18443f2dd9c6ff2f)  • Mar. 27, 2026, 2:01 PM ET (AP)\n\nShow less\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/52\/150352-050-935FE03E\/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/52\/150352-050-935FE03E\/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/52\/150352-050-935FE03E\/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg)The International Space Station and the docked space shuttle *Endeavour* in a photograph taken by European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli from the Soyuz TMA-20 spacecraft, May 23, 2011.\n\n(more)\n\n**International Space Station (ISS)**, [space station](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/space-station) assembled in [low Earth orbit](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/low-Earth-orbit) largely by the [United States](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/United-States) and [Russia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Russia), with assistance and components from a multinational [consortium](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/consortium). It has been continously occupied by astronauts and cosmonauts since November 2, 2000.\n\nThe project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Originally called *Freedom* in the 1980s by U.S. Pres. [Ronald Reagan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ronald-Reagan), who authorized the [National Aeronautics and Space Administration](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/NASA) (NASA) to build it within 10 years, it was redesigned in the 1990s to reduce costs and expand international involvement, at which time it was renamed. In 1993 the United States and Russia agreed to merge their separate space station plans into a single facility, [integrating](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/integrating) their respective modules and incorporating contributions from the [European Space Agency](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/European-Space-Agency) (ESA) and [Japan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Japan).\n\n[![Astronaut outside the International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/72006-050-5EF22ECB\/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/72006-050-5EF22ECB\/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg)\n\n[Astronaut outside the International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/06\/72006-050-5EF22ECB\/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg)U.S. space shuttle astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria floating in space outside the Unity module of the International Space Station in October 2000, during an early stage of the station's assembly in Earth orbit.\n\n(more)\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/22\/72522-050-BDCDBD92\/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/22\/72522-050-BDCDBD92\/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/22\/72522-050-BDCDBD92\/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg)Crews from three countries having a meal in the Zvezda module of the International Space Station, 2001.\n\n(more)\n\nAssembly of the International Space Station (ISS) began with the launches of the Russian control module [Zarya](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Zarya) on November 20, 1998, and the U.S.-built [Unity](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Unity-United-States-space-module) connecting node the following month, which were linked in orbit by U.S. [space shuttle](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/space-shuttle) [astronauts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/astronaut). In mid-2000 the Russian-built module [Zvezda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Zvezda), a habitat and control center, was added, and on November 2 of that year the ISS received its first resident crew, [comprising](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/comprising) Russian cosmonauts [Sergey Krikalev](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov) and [Yuri Gidzenko](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Yury-Gidzenko) and American [astronaut](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/astronaut) [William Shepherd](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/William-Shepherd), who flew up in a [Soyuz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Soyuz) [spacecraft](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/spacecraft). The ISS has been continuously occupied since then.\n\n[![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/188714-131-87D4E380\/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg) Britannica Quiz Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts)\n\nA NASA [microgravity](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/microgravity) laboratory called [Destiny](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Destiny-United-States-space-module) and other elements were subsequently joined to the station, with the overall plan calling for the assembly, over a period of several years, of a complex of laboratories and habitats crossed by a long truss supporting four units that held large solar-power arrays and thermal radiators. Aside from the United States and Russia, station construction involved [Canada](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Canada), Japan, and 11 ESA members. Russian modules were carried into space by Russian expendable launch vehicles, after which they automatically rendezvoused with and docked to the ISS. Other elements were ferried up by space shuttle and assembled in orbit during space walks. During ISS construction, both shuttles and Russian [Soyuz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Soyuz) spacecraft transported people to and from the station, and a Soyuz remained docked to the ISS at all times as a “lifeboat.”\n\n[![The International Space Station.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/41\/221441-138-43FDF113\/what-happens-International-Space-Station.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)1 of 3](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/what-happens-International-Space-Station\/-253183)\n\nWhat Happens at the International Space Station?We asked NASA.\n\n(more)\n\n[See all videos for this article](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station\/images-videos)\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/12\/73212-050-716F4FCF\/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg?w=300)2 of 3](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/12\/73212-050-716F4FCF\/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/12\/73212-050-716F4FCF\/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg)The International Space Station photographed against the Rio Negro, Argentina, from the shuttle orbiter *Atlantis*, February 16, 2001. *Atlantis*'s primary mission was to deliver the Destiny laboratory module, visible at the leading end of the station.\n\n(more)\n\n[![Space exploration and the European Space Agency](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/37\/194337-050-970585EB\/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg?w=300)3 of 3](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/37\/194337-050-970585EB\/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg)\n\n[Space exploration and the European Space Agency](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/37\/194337-050-970585EB\/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg)European Space Agency astronaut Andreas Mogensen, Soyuz spacecraft commander Gennady Padalka, and Kazakh cosmonaut Aidyn Aimbetov landing in Kazakhstan, marking the end of their missions to the International Space Station, 2015.\n\n(more)\n\nMuch of the early research work by ISS astronauts was to focus on long-term life-sciences and material-sciences investigations in the [weightless](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/weightlessness) [environment](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/environment). After the breakup of the space shuttle orbiter *[Columbia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Columbia-space-shuttle)* in February 2003, the shuttle fleet was grounded, which effectively halted expansion of the station. Meanwhile, the crew was reduced from three to two, and their role was restricted mainly to caretaker status, limiting the amount of science that could be done. Crews flew up to and returned from the ISS in Soyuz spacecraft, and the station was serviced by automated Progress ferries.\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/106036-050-C2D66165\/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg?w=300)1 of 4](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/106036-050-C2D66165\/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/106036-050-C2D66165\/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg)American astronaut Peggy Whitson (right), Expedition 16 commander, greeting American astronaut Pam Melroy, STS-120 commander, after the opening of the hatch between the International Space Station and the space shuttle Discovery, October 25, 2007.\n\n(more)\n\n[![International Space Station: Kjell Lindgren](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/31\/194331-050-5C1CA737\/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg?w=300)2 of 4](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/31\/194331-050-5C1CA737\/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station: Kjell Lindgren](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/31\/194331-050-5C1CA737\/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg)American astronaut Kjell Lindgren opening a bag of fresh fruit in the International Space Station.\n\n(more)\n\n[![Automated transfer vehicle](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/194342-050-54D0E7B2\/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg?w=300)3 of 4](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/194342-050-54D0E7B2\/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg)\n\n[Automated transfer vehicle](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/194342-050-54D0E7B2\/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg)An automated transfer vehicle (ATV) arriving at the International Space Station with supplies, including hardware, food, and clothing.\n\n(more)\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/47\/194347-050-595A05F2\/Don-Pettit-NASA-node-stowage-bags-Harmony-January-4-2012.jpg?w=300)4 of 4](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/47\/194347-050-595A05F2\/Don-Pettit-NASA-node-stowage-bags-Harmony-January-4-2012.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/47\/194347-050-595A05F2\/Don-Pettit-NASA-node-stowage-bags-Harmony-January-4-2012.jpg)NASA astronaut Don Pettit underneath stowage bags in the Harmony node of the International Space Station, January 4, 2012.\n\n(more)\n\nAfter the shuttle resumed regular flights in 2006, the ISS crew size was increased to three. Construction resumed in September of that year, with the addition of a pair of solar wings and a thermal radiator. The European-built American node, [Harmony](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Harmony-space-module), was placed on the end of Destiny in October 2007. Harmony has a docking port for the space shuttle and connecting ports for a European laboratory, Columbus, and a Japanese laboratory, [Kibo](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kibo-Japanese-space-laboratory). In February 2008 Columbus was mounted on Harmony’s starboard side. Columbus was Europe’s first long-duration crewed space laboratory and contained experiments in such fields as [biology](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/biology) and fluid [dynamics](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/dynamics).\n\nIn March 2008 an improved variant of the [Ariane](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Ariane-European-launch-vehicles) [V](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/volt-unit-of-measurement) [rocket](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/rocket-jet-propulsion-device-and-vehicle) launched Europe’s heaviest spacecraft, the [Jules Verne](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Jules-Verne-spacecraft) [Automated Transfer Vehicle](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Automated-Transfer-Vehicle) (ATV), which carried 7,700 kg (17,000 pounds) of supplies to the ISS. Also in March shuttle astronauts brought the Canadian robot, [Dextre](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dextre), which was so sophisticated that it would be able to perform tasks that previously would have required astronauts to make space walks, and the first part of Kibo. In June 2008 the main part of Kibo was installed.\n\nExplore Britannica Premium\\!\n\nThe trusted destination for professionals, college students, and lifelong learners.\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=redesign-2026)\n\n![Penguin, ship, mountain, atlas](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-left.webp)\n\n![shohei ohtani, plants, andy wharhol art](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-right.webp)\n\n![Mobile](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-mobile.webp?w=400)\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/89\/124289-050-7909349A\/Diagram-order-modules-International-Space-Station.jpg)1 of 3](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/89\/124289-050-7909349A\/Diagram-order-modules-International-Space-Station.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/89\/124289-050-7909349A\/Diagram-order-modules-International-Space-Station.jpg)Diagram of the International Space Station, showing the order in which the modules were added.\n\n(more)\n\n[![Zvezda Service Module](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/72\/141472-050-76D7B8B3\/Zvezda-Service-Module-element-construction-Russian-International-1997.jpg?w=300)2 of 3](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/72\/141472-050-76D7B8B3\/Zvezda-Service-Module-element-construction-Russian-International-1997.jpg)\n\n[Zvezda Service Module](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/72\/141472-050-76D7B8B3\/Zvezda-Service-Module-element-construction-Russian-International-1997.jpg)The Zvezda Service Module, the first Russian contribution and third element to the International Space Station, is shown under construction in the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow, 1997.\n\n(more)\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/84\/133084-050-E3807B8C\/International-Space-Station-separation-space-shuttle-Endeavour-June-15-2002.jpg?w=300)3 of 3](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/84\/133084-050-E3807B8C\/International-Space-Station-separation-space-shuttle-Endeavour-June-15-2002.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/84\/133084-050-E3807B8C\/International-Space-Station-separation-space-shuttle-Endeavour-June-15-2002.jpg)The International Space Station following its separation from the space shuttle *Endeavour*, June 15, 2002.\n\n(more)\n\nThe ISS became fully operational in May 2009 when it began hosting a six-person crew; this required two Soyuz lifeboats to be docked with the ISS at all times. The six-person crew typically consisted of three Russians, two Americans, and one astronaut from either Japan, Canada, or the ESA. An external platform was attached to the far end of Kibo in July, and a Russian docking port and airlock, Poisk, was attached to the Zvezda module in November. A third node, [Tranquility](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/Tranquility), was installed in 2010, and mounted on this was a cupola, whose robotic workstation and many windows enabled astronauts to supervise external operations.\n\n[![Witness the launch of the SpaceX Dragon capsule, May 25, 2012](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/56\/171656-138-CF0BF39A\/SpaceX-Video-capsule-Dragon-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)1 of 5](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/SpaceX-Video-capsule-Dragon-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012\/-184439)\n\nWitness the launch of the SpaceX Dragon capsule, May 25, 2012Video released by spacecraft maker SpaceX celebrating its Dragon capsule, which on May 25, 2012, became the first commercial spacecraft to dock with the International Space Station.\n\n(more)\n\n[See all videos for this article](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station\/images-videos)\n\n[![SpaceX Dragon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/58\/171658-050-E92A82EB\/Dragon-capsule-SpaceX-docking-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012.jpg?w=300)2 of 5](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/58\/171658-050-E92A82EB\/Dragon-capsule-SpaceX-docking-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012.jpg)\n\n[SpaceX Dragon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/58\/171658-050-E92A82EB\/Dragon-capsule-SpaceX-docking-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012.jpg)Dragon capsule by SpaceX docking with the International Space Station on May 25, 2012—the first time a commercial spacecraft did so.\n\n(more)\n\n[![Soyuz](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/39\/194339-050-F2C6EB93\/Rocket-Expedition-33-crew-members-spacecraft-Soyuz-October-23-2012.jpg?w=300)3 of 5](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/39\/194339-050-F2C6EB93\/Rocket-Expedition-33-crew-members-spacecraft-Soyuz-October-23-2012.jpg)\n\n[Soyuz](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/39\/194339-050-F2C6EB93\/Rocket-Expedition-33-crew-members-spacecraft-Soyuz-October-23-2012.jpg)Rocket with Expedition 33 crew members on board the Soyuz TMA-06M spacecraft launching to the International Space Station on October 23, 2012, Baikonur, Kazakhstan.\n\n(more)\n\n[![International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/35\/194335-050-787001C5\/Pavel-Vinogradov-Expedition-35-space-walk-International-April-19-2013.jpg?w=300)4 of 5](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/35\/194335-050-787001C5\/Pavel-Vinogradov-Expedition-35-space-walk-International-April-19-2013.jpg)\n\n[International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/35\/194335-050-787001C5\/Pavel-Vinogradov-Expedition-35-space-walk-International-April-19-2013.jpg)Expedition 35 commander Pavel Vinogradov on a space walk outside the International Space Station, April 19, 2013.\n\n(more)\n\n[![Soccer ball in the International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/46\/194346-050-6CFD6F20\/soccer-ball-Challenger-disaster-International-Space-Station-2017.jpg?w=300)5 of 5](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/46\/194346-050-6CFD6F20\/soccer-ball-Challenger-disaster-International-Space-Station-2017.jpg)\n\n[Soccer ball in the International Space Station](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/46\/194346-050-6CFD6F20\/soccer-ball-Challenger-disaster-International-Space-Station-2017.jpg)A soccer ball, which was packed onto space shuttle Challenger in 1986 and survived that disaster, orbiting Earth on board the International Space Station, 2017.\n\n(more)\n\nAfter completion of the ISS, the shuttle was retired from service in 2011. Thereafter, the ISS was serviced by Russia’s Progress, Europe’s ATV (from 2008 to 2015), Japan’s [H-II Transfer Vehicle](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/H-II-Transfer-Vehicle) (HTV, from 2009 to 2020) and HTV-X (from 2025), and two commercial cargo vehicles, [SpaceX’s](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/SpaceX) [Dragon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dragon-spacecraft) (from 2010) and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s [Cygnus](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Cygnus-spacecraft) (from 2013).\n\nA new American crew capsule, SpaceX’s [Crew Dragon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dragon-2), had its first flight to the ISS in 2020. Prior to Crew Dragon, all astronauts used Soyuz spacecraft to reach the ISS. Crew Dragon carried four astronauts to the station, and the ISS was then able to [accommodate](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/accommodate) a crew of seven. A Russian science module, Nauka, was added to the station in 2021.\n\nThe [Boeing Company](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/Boeing-Company)’s CST-100 [Starliner](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Boeing-Starliner) had its first crewed test flight on June 5, 2024. However, during the flight to the ISS, five thrusters failed, and helium leaks were detected in its propulsion system. NASA delayed Starliner’s return to [Earth](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Earth) until it was sure that the craft could reenter safely. The two Starliner astronauts, commander Barry Wilmore and pilot [Sunita Williams](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Sunita-Williams), had been scheduled to be in space for about a week. They returned to Earth on a Crew Dragon on March 18, 2025, after NASA returned the Starliner to Earth empty.\n\nMore than 280 astronauts from 26 different countries have visited the ISS. Astronauts typically stay on the ISS for about six months. The return of a Soyuz to Earth marks the end of an ISS [Expedition](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/Expedition), and the command of the ISS is transferred to another astronaut.\n\nHowever, a few astronauts have spent much longer times on the ISS. On a special mission called “A Year in Space,” Russian cosmonaut [Mikhail Korniyenko](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Mikhail-Korniyenko) and American astronaut [Scott Kelly](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Scott-Kelly) spent 340 days in orbit from March 2015 to March 2016. Kelly’s flight was the longest by an American. (Since Kelly’s brother, [Mark](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Mark-Kelly), was his identical twin, as well as a former astronaut himself, scientists were able to use Mark as a baseline for how the long [spaceflight](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/spaceflight) had changed Scott.) In 2017 Russia temporarily cut the number of its ISS crew from three to two, and American astronaut [Peggy Whitson](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Peggy-Whitson) extended her mission to 289 days, which at that time was the longest single spaceflight by a woman, so the station would have a full crew of six. Whitson has been to the ISS on three other flights and in total has spent more than 675 days in space, a record for an American and a woman. Whitson’s longest consecutive spaceflight record was [surpassed](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/surpassed) by American astronaut [Christina Koch](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Christina-Koch), who spent 328 days on the ISS from March 2019 to February 2020. During that time Koch and American astronaut [Jessica Meir](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Jessica-Meir) performed the first all-female [space walk](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/spacewalk). Russian cosmonaut Pyotr Dubrov and American astronaut [Mark Vande Hei](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Mark-Vande-Hei) stayed on the station for 355 days from April 2021 to March 2022. Vande Hei broke Kelly’s record for longest American spaceflight.\n\nThe ISS has also been a destination for [space tourists](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/space-tourism). The first such, American businessman [Dennis Tito](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/Dennis-Tito), flew to the ISS on a Soyuz spacecraft on April 28, 2001. (Tito objected to the term *space tourist*, and since his flight the term *spaceflight participant* has been more often used to distinguish space travelers from career astronauts.) Eight other individuals paid for seats on Soyuz flights to ISS between 2002 and 2021. Beginning in 2022, the American company [Axiom](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/Axiom) Space has chartered flights on Crew Dragon spacecraft to the ISS. On some Axiom flights, the passengers have been astronauts whose seat was paid for by their country’s space agency, such as Indian astronaut [Shubhanshu Shukla](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Shubhanshu-Shukla), who flew to the ISS on Axiom Mission 4 on June 25, 2025. Astronauts on chartered flights typically only stay on the ISS for a few weeks.\n\nThe United States, ESA, Japan, and Canada have not definitively decided when the program will end, but in 2021 the [Joe Biden](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Joe-Biden) administration indicated that the program would receive U.S. support through 2030. The ESA, Japan, and Canada have also committed to support the ISS through 2030. Russia announced that it would support the station through 2028 and then begin work on its own orbital space station.\n\n[David M. Harland](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/contributor\/David-M-Harland\/5456)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-179\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9)Britannica AI\n\n*chevron\\_right*\n\nInternational Space Station (ISS)\n\n*close*\n\n[AI-generated answers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.\n\nLoad Next Page\n\nFeedback\n\nThank you for your feedback\n\nOur editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.\n\n*verified*Cite\n\nWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\n\nSelect Citation Style\n\nHarland, David M.. \"Mir\". *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 16 Dec. 2025, https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station. Accessed 14 April 2026.\n\nCopy Citation\n\nShare\n\nShare to social media\n\n[Facebook](https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/BRITANNICA\/) [X](https:\/\/x.com\/britannica)\n\nURL\n\n<https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station>\n\nExternal Websites\n\n- [NASA - 20 Years Ago: Space Station Mir Reenters EarthÂ’s Atmosphere](https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/history\/20-years-ago-space-station-mir-reenters-earths-atmosphere\/)\n- [Space.com - 30 Years Later: The Legacy of the Mir Space Station](https:\/\/www.space.com\/31999-mir-space-station-30th-anniversary.html)\n- [European Space Agency - Mir FAQs - Facts and history](https:\/\/www.esa.int\/About_Us\/Corporate_news\/Mir_FAQs_-_Facts_and_history)\n\nFeedback\n\nThank you for your feedback\n\nOur editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.\n\n*verified*Cite\n\nWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\n\nSelect Citation Style\n\nHarland, David M.. \"International Space Station\". *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 3 Nov. 2025, https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station. Accessed 14 April 2026.\n\nCopy Citation\n\nShare\n\nShare to social media\n\n[Facebook](https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/BRITANNICA\/) [X](https:\/\/x.com\/britannica)\n\nURL\n\n<https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/International-Space-Station>\n\nExternal Websites\n\n- [European Space Agency - Building the International Space Station](https:\/\/www.esa.int\/Science_Exploration\/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration\/International_Space_Station\/Building_the_International_Space_Station3)\n- [NASA - Space Station 20th: Historical Origins of ISS](https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/history\/space-station-20th-historical-origins-of-iss\/)\n- [NASA - International Space Station](https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/mission_pages\/station\/main\/index.html)\n\nBritannica Websites\n\nArticles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.\n\n- [International Space Station - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)](https:\/\/kids.britannica.com\/students\/article\/International-Space-Station\/630846)","attrs_readable_markdown":"Top Questions\n\n### What is the International Space Station (ISS)?\n### When was the ISS launched into space?\n### Which countries are involved in the ISS program?\n### How does the ISS stay in orbit around Earth?\n### What is the primary purpose of the ISS?\n### How do astronauts live and work on the ISS?\n### What kinds of experiments are conducted on the ISS?\n### How has the ISS contributed to scientific research?\n### What challenges do astronauts face while on the ISS?\n## News •\n**International Space Station (ISS)**, [space station](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/space-station) assembled in [low Earth orbit](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/low-Earth-orbit) largely by the [United States](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/United-States) and [Russia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Russia), with assistance and components from a multinational [consortium](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/consortium). It has been continously occupied by astronauts and cosmonauts since November 2, 2000.\n\nThe project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Originally called *Freedom* in the 1980s by U.S. Pres. [Ronald Reagan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ronald-Reagan), who authorized the [National Aeronautics and Space Administration](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/NASA) (NASA) to build it within 10 years, it was redesigned in the 1990s to reduce costs and expand international involvement, at which time it was renamed. In 1993 the United States and Russia agreed to merge their separate space station plans into a single facility, [integrating](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/integrating) their respective modules and incorporating contributions from the [European Space Agency](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/European-Space-Agency) (ESA) and [Japan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Japan).\n\nAssembly of the International Space Station (ISS) began with the launches of the Russian control module [Zarya](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Zarya) on November 20, 1998, and the U.S.-built [Unity](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Unity-United-States-space-module) connecting node the following month, which were linked in orbit by U.S. [space shuttle](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/space-shuttle) [astronauts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/astronaut). In mid-2000 the Russian-built module [Zvezda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Zvezda), a habitat and control center, was added, and on November 2 of that year the ISS received its first resident crew, [comprising](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/comprising) Russian cosmonauts [Sergey Krikalev](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov) and [Yuri Gidzenko](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Yury-Gidzenko) and American [astronaut](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/astronaut) [William Shepherd](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/William-Shepherd), who flew up in a [Soyuz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Soyuz) [spacecraft](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/spacecraft). The ISS has been continuously occupied since then.\n\n[![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/188714-131-87D4E380\/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg) Britannica Quiz Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts)\n\nA NASA [microgravity](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/microgravity) laboratory called [Destiny](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Destiny-United-States-space-module) and other elements were subsequently joined to the station, with the overall plan calling for the assembly, over a period of several years, of a complex of laboratories and habitats crossed by a long truss supporting four units that held large solar-power arrays and thermal radiators. Aside from the United States and Russia, station construction involved [Canada](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Canada), Japan, and 11 ESA members. Russian modules were carried into space by Russian expendable launch vehicles, after which they automatically rendezvoused with and docked to the ISS. Other elements were ferried up by space shuttle and assembled in orbit during space walks. During ISS construction, both shuttles and Russian [Soyuz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Soyuz) spacecraft transported people to and from the station, and a Soyuz remained docked to the ISS at all times as a “lifeboat.”\n\nMuch of the early research work by ISS astronauts was to focus on long-term life-sciences and material-sciences investigations in the [weightless](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/weightlessness) [environment](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/environment). After the breakup of the space shuttle orbiter *[Columbia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Columbia-space-shuttle)* in February 2003, the shuttle fleet was grounded, which effectively halted expansion of the station. Meanwhile, the crew was reduced from three to two, and their role was restricted mainly to caretaker status, limiting the amount of science that could be done. Crews flew up to and returned from the ISS in Soyuz spacecraft, and the station was serviced by automated Progress ferries.\n\nAfter the shuttle resumed regular flights in 2006, the ISS crew size was increased to three. Construction resumed in September of that year, with the addition of a pair of solar wings and a thermal radiator. The European-built American node, [Harmony](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Harmony-space-module), was placed on the end of Destiny in October 2007. Harmony has a docking port for the space shuttle and connecting ports for a European laboratory, Columbus, and a Japanese laboratory, [Kibo](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kibo-Japanese-space-laboratory). In February 2008 Columbus was mounted on Harmony’s starboard side. Columbus was Europe’s first long-duration crewed space laboratory and contained experiments in such fields as [biology](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/biology) and fluid [dynamics](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/dynamics).\n\nIn March 2008 an improved variant of the [Ariane](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Ariane-European-launch-vehicles) [V](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/volt-unit-of-measurement) [rocket](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/rocket-jet-propulsion-device-and-vehicle) launched Europe’s heaviest spacecraft, the [Jules Verne](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Jules-Verne-spacecraft) [Automated Transfer Vehicle](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Automated-Transfer-Vehicle) (ATV), which carried 7,700 kg (17,000 pounds) of supplies to the ISS. Also in March shuttle astronauts brought the Canadian robot, [Dextre](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dextre), which was so sophisticated that it would be able to perform tasks that previously would have required astronauts to make space walks, and the first part of Kibo. In June 2008 the main part of Kibo was installed.\n\nThe trusted destination for professionals, college students, and lifelong learners.\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=redesign-2026)\n\n![Penguin, ship, mountain, atlas](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-left.webp)\n\n![shohei ohtani, plants, andy wharhol art](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-right.webp)\n\n![Mobile](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-mobile.webp?w=400)\n\nThe ISS became fully operational in May 2009 when it began hosting a six-person crew; this required two Soyuz lifeboats to be docked with the ISS at all times. The six-person crew typically consisted of three Russians, two Americans, and one astronaut from either Japan, Canada, or the ESA. An external platform was attached to the far end of Kibo in July, and a Russian docking port and airlock, Poisk, was attached to the Zvezda module in November. A third node, [Tranquility](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/Tranquility), was installed in 2010, and mounted on this was a cupola, whose robotic workstation and many windows enabled astronauts to supervise external operations.\n\nAfter completion of the ISS, the shuttle was retired from service in 2011. Thereafter, the ISS was serviced by Russia’s Progress, Europe’s ATV (from 2008 to 2015), Japan’s [H-II Transfer Vehicle](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/H-II-Transfer-Vehicle) (HTV, from 2009 to 2020) and HTV-X (from 2025), and two commercial cargo vehicles, [SpaceX’s](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/SpaceX) [Dragon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dragon-spacecraft) (from 2010) and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s [Cygnus](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Cygnus-spacecraft) (from 2013).\n\nA new American crew capsule, SpaceX’s [Crew Dragon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dragon-2), had its first flight to the ISS in 2020. Prior to Crew Dragon, all astronauts used Soyuz spacecraft to reach the ISS. Crew Dragon carried four astronauts to the station, and the ISS was then able to [accommodate](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/accommodate) a crew of seven. A Russian science module, Nauka, was added to the station in 2021.\n\nThe [Boeing Company](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/Boeing-Company)’s CST-100 [Starliner](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/Boeing-Starliner) had its first crewed test flight on June 5, 2024. However, during the flight to the ISS, five thrusters failed, and helium leaks were detected in its propulsion system. NASA delayed Starliner’s return to [Earth](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Earth) until it was sure that the craft could reenter safely. The two Starliner astronauts, commander Barry Wilmore and pilot [Sunita Williams](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Sunita-Williams), had been scheduled to be in space for about a week. They returned to Earth on a Crew Dragon on March 18, 2025, after NASA returned the Starliner to Earth empty.\n\nMore than 280 astronauts from 26 different countries have visited the ISS. Astronauts typically stay on the ISS for about six months. The return of a Soyuz to Earth marks the end of an ISS [Expedition](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/Expedition), and the command of the ISS is transferred to another astronaut.\n\nHowever, a few astronauts have spent much longer times on the ISS. On a special mission called “A Year in Space,” Russian cosmonaut [Mikhail Korniyenko](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Mikhail-Korniyenko) and American astronaut [Scott Kelly](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Scott-Kelly) spent 340 days in orbit from March 2015 to March 2016. Kelly’s flight was the longest by an American. (Since Kelly’s brother, [Mark](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Mark-Kelly), was his identical twin, as well as a former astronaut himself, scientists were able to use Mark as a baseline for how the long [spaceflight](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/spaceflight) had changed Scott.) In 2017 Russia temporarily cut the number of its ISS crew from three to two, and American astronaut [Peggy Whitson](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Peggy-Whitson) extended her mission to 289 days, which at that time was the longest single spaceflight by a woman, so the station would have a full crew of six. Whitson has been to the ISS on three other flights and in total has spent more than 675 days in space, a record for an American and a woman. Whitson’s longest consecutive spaceflight record was [surpassed](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/surpassed) by American astronaut [Christina Koch](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Christina-Koch), who spent 328 days on the ISS from March 2019 to February 2020. During that time Koch and American astronaut [Jessica Meir](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Jessica-Meir) performed the first all-female [space walk](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/spacewalk). Russian cosmonaut Pyotr Dubrov and American astronaut [Mark Vande Hei](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Mark-Vande-Hei) stayed on the station for 355 days from April 2021 to March 2022. Vande Hei broke Kelly’s record for longest American spaceflight.\n\nThe ISS has also been a destination for [space tourists](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/space-tourism). The first such, American businessman [Dennis Tito](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/Dennis-Tito), flew to the ISS on a Soyuz spacecraft on April 28, 2001. (Tito objected to the term *space tourist*, and since his flight the term *spaceflight participant* has been more often used to distinguish space travelers from career astronauts.) Eight other individuals paid for seats on Soyuz flights to ISS between 2002 and 2021. Beginning in 2022, the American company [Axiom](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/Axiom) Space has chartered flights on Crew Dragon spacecraft to the ISS. On some Axiom flights, the passengers have been astronauts whose seat was paid for by their country’s space agency, such as Indian astronaut [Shubhanshu Shukla](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Shubhanshu-Shukla), who flew to the ISS on Axiom Mission 4 on June 25, 2025. Astronauts on chartered flights typically only stay on the ISS for a few weeks.\n\nThe United States, ESA, Japan, and Canada have not definitively decided when the program will end, but in 2021 the [Joe Biden](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Joe-Biden) administration indicated that the program would receive U.S. support through 2030. The ESA, Japan, and Canada have also committed to support the ISS through 2030. Russia announced that it would support the station through 2028 and then begin work on its own orbital space station.","meta_canonical":null}

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Meta Title	Mir \| Description, Launch, History, & Facts \| Britannica
Meta Description	Mir, Soviet/Russian modular space station, the core module of which was launched into Earth orbit by the U.S.S.R. in 1986. Over the next decade additional modules were sent aloft on separate launch vehicles and attached to the core unit, creating a habitat that served as a space laboratory for more than 14 years.
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Boilerpipe Text	Top Questions What is the International Space Station (ISS)? When was the ISS launched into space? Which countries are involved in the ISS program? How does the ISS stay in orbit around Earth? What is the primary purpose of the ISS? How do astronauts live and work on the ISS? What kinds of experiments are conducted on the ISS? How has the ISS contributed to scientific research? What challenges do astronauts face while on the ISS? News • International Space Station (ISS) , space station assembled in low Earth orbit largely by the United States and Russia , with assistance and components from a multinational consortium . It has been continously occupied by astronauts and cosmonauts since November 2, 2000. The project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Originally called Freedom in the 1980s by U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan , who authorized the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to build it within 10 years, it was redesigned in the 1990s to reduce costs and expand international involvement, at which time it was renamed. In 1993 the United States and Russia agreed to merge their separate space station plans into a single facility, integrating their respective modules and incorporating contributions from the European Space Agency (ESA) and Japan . Assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) began with the launches of the Russian control module Zarya on November 20, 1998, and the U.S.-built Unity connecting node the following month, which were linked in orbit by U.S. space shuttle astronauts . In mid-2000 the Russian-built module Zvezda , a habitat and control center, was added, and on November 2 of that year the ISS received its first resident crew, comprising Russian cosmonauts Sergey Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko and American astronaut William Shepherd , who flew up in a Soyuz spacecraft . The ISS has been continuously occupied since then. Britannica Quiz Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts A NASA microgravity laboratory called Destiny and other elements were subsequently joined to the station, with the overall plan calling for the assembly, over a period of several years, of a complex of laboratories and habitats crossed by a long truss supporting four units that held large solar-power arrays and thermal radiators. Aside from the United States and Russia, station construction involved Canada , Japan, and 11 ESA members. Russian modules were carried into space by Russian expendable launch vehicles, after which they automatically rendezvoused with and docked to the ISS. Other elements were ferried up by space shuttle and assembled in orbit during space walks. During ISS construction, both shuttles and Russian Soyuz spacecraft transported people to and from the station, and a Soyuz remained docked to the ISS at all times as a “lifeboat.” Much of the early research work by ISS astronauts was to focus on long-term life-sciences and material-sciences investigations in the weightless environment . After the breakup of the space shuttle orbiter Columbia in February 2003, the shuttle fleet was grounded, which effectively halted expansion of the station. Meanwhile, the crew was reduced from three to two, and their role was restricted mainly to caretaker status, limiting the amount of science that could be done. Crews flew up to and returned from the ISS in Soyuz spacecraft, and the station was serviced by automated Progress ferries. After the shuttle resumed regular flights in 2006, the ISS crew size was increased to three. Construction resumed in September of that year, with the addition of a pair of solar wings and a thermal radiator. The European-built American node, Harmony , was placed on the end of Destiny in October 2007. Harmony has a docking port for the space shuttle and connecting ports for a European laboratory, Columbus, and a Japanese laboratory, Kibo . In February 2008 Columbus was mounted on Harmony’s starboard side. Columbus was Europe’s first long-duration crewed space laboratory and contained experiments in such fields as biology and fluid dynamics . In March 2008 an improved variant of the Ariane V rocket launched Europe’s heaviest spacecraft, the Jules Verne Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), which carried 7,700 kg (17,000 pounds) of supplies to the ISS. Also in March shuttle astronauts brought the Canadian robot, Dextre , which was so sophisticated that it would be able to perform tasks that previously would have required astronauts to make space walks, and the first part of Kibo. In June 2008 the main part of Kibo was installed. The trusted destination for professionals, college students, and lifelong learners. SUBSCRIBE The ISS became fully operational in May 2009 when it began hosting a six-person crew; this required two Soyuz lifeboats to be docked with the ISS at all times. The six-person crew typically consisted of three Russians, two Americans, and one astronaut from either Japan, Canada, or the ESA. An external platform was attached to the far end of Kibo in July, and a Russian docking port and airlock, Poisk, was attached to the Zvezda module in November. A third node, Tranquility , was installed in 2010, and mounted on this was a cupola, whose robotic workstation and many windows enabled astronauts to supervise external operations. After completion of the ISS, the shuttle was retired from service in 2011. Thereafter, the ISS was serviced by Russia’s Progress, Europe’s ATV (from 2008 to 2015), Japan’s H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV, from 2009 to 2020) and HTV-X (from 2025), and two commercial cargo vehicles, SpaceX’s Dragon (from 2010) and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Cygnus (from 2013). A new American crew capsule, SpaceX’s Crew Dragon , had its first flight to the ISS in 2020. Prior to Crew Dragon, all astronauts used Soyuz spacecraft to reach the ISS. Crew Dragon carried four astronauts to the station, and the ISS was then able to accommodate a crew of seven. A Russian science module, Nauka, was added to the station in 2021. The Boeing Company ’s CST-100 Starliner had its first crewed test flight on June 5, 2024. However, during the flight to the ISS, five thrusters failed, and helium leaks were detected in its propulsion system. NASA delayed Starliner’s return to Earth until it was sure that the craft could reenter safely. The two Starliner astronauts, commander Barry Wilmore and pilot Sunita Williams , had been scheduled to be in space for about a week. They returned to Earth on a Crew Dragon on March 18, 2025, after NASA returned the Starliner to Earth empty. More than 280 astronauts from 26 different countries have visited the ISS. Astronauts typically stay on the ISS for about six months. The return of a Soyuz to Earth marks the end of an ISS Expedition , and the command of the ISS is transferred to another astronaut. However, a few astronauts have spent much longer times on the ISS. On a special mission called “A Year in Space,” Russian cosmonaut Mikhail Korniyenko and American astronaut Scott Kelly spent 340 days in orbit from March 2015 to March 2016. Kelly’s flight was the longest by an American. (Since Kelly’s brother, Mark , was his identical twin, as well as a former astronaut himself, scientists were able to use Mark as a baseline for how the long spaceflight had changed Scott.) In 2017 Russia temporarily cut the number of its ISS crew from three to two, and American astronaut Peggy Whitson extended her mission to 289 days, which at that time was the longest single spaceflight by a woman, so the station would have a full crew of six. Whitson has been to the ISS on three other flights and in total has spent more than 675 days in space, a record for an American and a woman. Whitson’s longest consecutive spaceflight record was surpassed by American astronaut Christina Koch , who spent 328 days on the ISS from March 2019 to February 2020. During that time Koch and American astronaut Jessica Meir performed the first all-female space walk . Russian cosmonaut Pyotr Dubrov and American astronaut Mark Vande Hei stayed on the station for 355 days from April 2021 to March 2022. Vande Hei broke Kelly’s record for longest American spaceflight. The ISS has also been a destination for space tourists . The first such, American businessman Dennis Tito , flew to the ISS on a Soyuz spacecraft on April 28, 2001. (Tito objected to the term space tourist , and since his flight the term spaceflight participant has been more often used to distinguish space travelers from career astronauts.) Eight other individuals paid for seats on Soyuz flights to ISS between 2002 and 2021. Beginning in 2022, the American company Axiom Space has chartered flights on Crew Dragon spacecraft to the ISS. On some Axiom flights, the passengers have been astronauts whose seat was paid for by their country’s space agency, such as Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla , who flew to the ISS on Axiom Mission 4 on June 25, 2025. Astronauts on chartered flights typically only stay on the ISS for a few weeks. The United States, ESA, Japan, and Canada have not definitively decided when the program will end, but in 2021 the Joe Biden administration indicated that the program would receive U.S. support through 2030. The ESA, Japan, and Canada have also committed to support the ISS through 2030. Russia announced that it would support the station through 2028 and then begin work on its own orbital space station.
Markdown	[![Encyclopedia Britannica](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png)](https://www.britannica.com/) [![Encyclopedia Britannica](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png)](https://www.britannica.com/) [SUBSCRIBE](https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=global-nav&utm_campaign=blue-evergreen) [SUBSCRIBE](https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=global-nav-mobile&utm_campaign=blue-evergreen) Login https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm\_source=premium\&utm\_medium=nav-login-box\&utm\_campaign=evergreen [SUBSCRIBE](https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=hamburger-menu&utm_campaign=blue) [Ask the Chatbot](https://www.britannica.com/chatbot) [Games & Quizzes](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/browse) [History & Society](https://www.britannica.com/History-Society) [Science & Tech](https://www.britannica.com/Science-Tech) [Biographies](https://www.britannica.com/Biographies) [Animals & Nature](https://www.britannica.com/Animals-Nature) [Geography & Travel](https://www.britannica.com/Geography-Travel) [Arts & Culture](https://www.britannica.com/Arts-Culture) [ProCon](https://www.britannica.com/procon) [Money](https://www.britannica.com/money) [Videos](https://www.britannica.com/videos) [Mir](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station) [Introduction](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station) [References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station/additional-info) [Related Topics](https://www.britannica.com/facts/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station) [Images](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station/images-videos) [![Mir](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/73218-004-CE0794B8/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/73218-050-126F8312/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg) [![Mir](https://cdn.britannica.com/92/70092-004-5618C164/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/92/70092-050-7482A08E/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg) [![Anatoly Yakovlevich Solovyov.](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/102506-004-00BB6D39/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/102506-004-00BB6D39/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov.jpg) [![Sergey Konstantinovich Krikalyov.](https://cdn.britannica.com/94/102494-004-289DAC7E/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/94/102494-050-A77EB0B1/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov.jpg) [![Valery Polyakov](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/102460-004-CE046943/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/102460-050-92F228E7/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov.jpg) [![Soyuz TM-19](https://cdn.britannica.com/59/136059-004-D2BB3C2B/Talgat-Musabayev-Russian-unit-space-station-Chibis-October-1994.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/59/136059-050-A377A116/Talgat-Musabayev-Russian-unit-space-station-Chibis-October-1994.jpg) [![Soyuz TM-20](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/136060-004-F1C6B34A/Valery-Polyakov-Russian-Ulf-Merbold-blood-sample-1994.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/136060-050-EE222A56/Valery-Polyakov-Russian-Ulf-Merbold-blood-sample-1994.jpg) [![STS-63; Harris, Bernard A., Jr.](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/131982-004-EA9164F1/Bernard-A-Harris-Jr-STS-63-space-walk-Feb-9-1995.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/131982-004-EA9164F1/Bernard-A-Harris-Jr-STS-63-space-walk-Feb-9-1995.jpg) [![Gennady Mikhailovich Strekalov playing guitar and singing with (from left to right) astronauts Charlie Precourt, Bonnie Dunbar, and Greg Harbaugh in June 1995 during the space shuttle's first visit to the Russian space station Mir.](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/102493-004-624C370A/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov-guitar-astronauts-visit-Greg-June-1995.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/102493-050-D65D3E18/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov-guitar-astronauts-visit-Greg-June-1995.jpg) [![Robert Gibson and Vladimir Dezhurov](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/102418-004-CAD59B2B/hands-Robert-Gibson-Atlantis-Vladimir-Dezhurov-Russian-June-29-1995.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/102418-050-80A86A9E/hands-Robert-Gibson-Atlantis-Vladimir-Dezhurov-Russian-June-29-1995.jpg) Quizzes [![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/188714-131-87D4E380/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts) [Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-179/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9) Contents Ask Anything [Science](https://www.britannica.com/browse/Science) [Astronomy](https://www.britannica.com/browse/Astronomy) CITE Share Feedback External Websites [![Mir](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/73218-050-126F8312/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop)](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/73218-050-126F8312/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg) [Mir](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/73218-050-126F8312/space-station-Mir-Russian-Atlantis-Cook-Strait-March-23-1996.jpg) Russian space station Mir—in the background is Cook Strait near New Zealand's South Island—as photographed March 23, 1996, from the space shuttle orbiter Atlantis prior to docking of the two spacecraft. (more) # Mir Soviet-Russian space station Homework Help Written by [David M. Harland Space historian and freelance writer, Glasgow, Scotland. Author of Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions; Jupiter Odyssey: The Story of NASA's Galileo Mission; and others.](https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-M-Harland/5456) David M. Harland Fact-checked by [Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419) Britannica Editors [History](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station/additional-info#history) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-179/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9) Britannica AI Ask Anything Table of Contents Table of Contents Ask Anything Mir, Soviet/[Russian](https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia) [modular](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/modular) [space station](https://www.britannica.com/technology/space-station), the core module (base block) of which was launched into [Earth](https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth) [orbit](https://www.britannica.com/science/orbit-astronomy) by the [U.S.S.R.](https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union) in 1986. Over the next decade additional modules were sent aloft on separate [launch vehicles](https://www.britannica.com/technology/launch-vehicle) and attached to the core unit, creating a large habitat that served as a versatile space [laboratory](https://www.britannica.com/science/laboratory-science) for more than 14 years. Mir (Russian: “Peace” or “World”) was the third generation of space stations developed by the Soviet Union. Its core module resembled its simpler predecessors in the [Salyut](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Salyut) series but had additional docking ports (a total of six) that accommodated not only a succession of crewed [spacecraft](https://www.britannica.com/technology/spacecraft) and [cargo](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/cargo) ferries but also permanently attached expansion modules equipped for scientific research. [![Mir](https://cdn.britannica.com/92/70092-050-7482A08E/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/92/70092-050-7482A08E/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg) [Mir](https://cdn.britannica.com/92/70092-050-7482A08E/space-station-Soviet-Russian-Mir-completion-module-1996.jpg)Soviet/Russian space station Mir after completion in 1996. The date shown for each module is its year of launch. Docked to the station are a Soyuz TM crewed spacecraft and an uncrewed Progress resupply ferry. (more) Mir’s core module was launched on February 20, 1986. It had the form of a stepped cylinder about 13 metres (43 feet) long and 4.2 metres (13.8 feet) in diameter at its widest point. The module had a docking port at each end and four ports sited radially at its forward end. On March 13, 1986, cosmonauts Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov were sent aloft aboard a [Soyuz](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Soyuz) T spacecraft to rendezvous with Mir and become its first occupants. Between March 1987 and April 1996, five expansion modules were added to the core unit—[Kvant 1](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kvant-1) (1987), an astrophysics observatory; [Kvant 2](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kvant-2) (1989), containing [supplementary](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/supplementary) life-support equipment and a large airlock; [Kristall](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kristall) (1990), a materials-sciences laboratory; and [Spektr](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Spektr) (1995) and [Priroda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Priroda) (1996), two science modules containing remote-sensing instruments for ecological and environmental studies of Earth. With the exception of its first occupants, Mir’s [cosmonaut](https://www.britannica.com/topic/astronaut) crews traveled between the station and Earth in upgraded Soyuz TM spacecraft, and supplies were transported by robotic Progress cargo ferries. [![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/188714-131-87D4E380/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg) Britannica Quiz Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts) Mir supported human habitation from March 14, 1986, to June 15, 2000, which included an uninterrupted stretch of occupancy of almost 10 years. It hosted more than 100 people from 12 countries, including a series of U.S. astronauts in 1995–98 as part of a Mir–[space shuttle](https://www.britannica.com/technology/space-shuttle) cooperative endeavour. Between January 1994 and March 1995, Mir cosmonaut-physician [Valery Polyakov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov) set an endurance record of 438 [continuous](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/continuous) days in space, longer than the approximately nine months estimated for a crewed voyage to the planet [Mars](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mars-planet). Designed for only a five-year life, the aging Mir suffered a series of equipment failures and accidents in 1996–97 but remained in service. On March 23, 2001, the abandoned Mir made a controlled reentry, with the surviving pieces falling into the [Pacific Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean). (See also [Energia](https://www.britannica.com/money/Energia-Russian-company).) A chronology of missions to Mir is shown in the table. \| \| mission \| country \| crew \| dates \| notes \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| \| Soyuz T-15/Mir/Salyut 7 \| U.S.S.R. \| Leonid Kizim; Vladimir Solovyov \| March 13–July 16, 1986 \| first spaceflight between two space stations \| \| \| Soyuz TM-2/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Aleksandr Laveykin; Yury Romanenko \| Feb. 5–July 30, 1987 (Dec. 29 \[Romanenko\]) \| new space endurance record (Romanenko; 326 days 12 hours); addition of Kvant 1 module to Mir \| \| \| Soyuz TM-3/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Aleksandr Viktorenko; Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov; [Muhammed Faris](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammed-Faris) \| July 22–30, 1987 (Dec. 29 \[Aleksandrov\]) \| first Syrian astronaut (Faris) \| \| \| Soyuz TM-4/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Vladimir Titov; Musa Manarov; Anatoly Levchenko \| Dec. 21, 1987–Dec. 21, 1988 (Dec. 29, 1987 \[Levchenko\]) \| new space endurance record (Titov and Manarov; 365 days 23 hours) \| \| [![Anatoly Yakovlevich Solovyov.](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/102506-004-00BB6D39/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/102506-004-00BB6D39/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-5/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| [Anatoly Solovyov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Viktor Savinkyh; Aleksandr Panayatov Aleksandrov \| June 7–17, 1988 \| second Bulgarian astronaut (Aleksandrov) \| \| \| Soyuz TM-6/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Vladimir Lyakhov; [Valery Polyakov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov); [Abdul Ahad Mohmand](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abdul-Ahad-Mohmand) \| Aug. 29–Sept. 7, 1988 (April 4, 1989 \[Polyakov\]) \| first Afghan astronaut (Mohmand) \| \| [![Sergey Konstantinovich Krikalyov.](https://cdn.britannica.com/94/102494-050-A77EB0B1/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/94/102494-050-A77EB0B1/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-7/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Aleksandr Volkov; [Sergey Krikalyov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov); [Jean-Loup Chrétien](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Loup-Chretien) \| Nov. 26, 1988–April 27, 1989 (Dec. 21, 1988 \[Chrétien\]) \| Mir was left unoccupied after crew returned to Earth \| \| \| Soyuz TM-8/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Aleksandr Viktorenko; Aleksandr Serebrov \| Sept. 5, 1989–Feb. 19, 1990 \| addition of Kvant 2 module to Mir \| \| \| Soyuz TM-9/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| [Anatoly Solovyov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Aleksandr Balandin \| Feb. 11–Aug. 9, 1990 \| addition of Kristall module to Mir \| \| \| Soyuz TM-10/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Gennady Manakov; [Gennady Strekalov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov) \| Aug. 1–Dec. 10, 1990 \| crew performed spacewalk to fix damaged hatch on Kvant 2 \| \| \| Soyuz TM-11/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Viktor Afanasiyev; Musa Manarov; [Akiyama Toyohiro](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akiyama-Toyohiro) \| Dec. 2, 1990–May 26, 1991 (Dec. 10, 1990 \[Akiyama\]) \| first Japanese citizen in space (Akiyama) \| \| \| Soyuz TM-12/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Anatoly Artsebarsky; [Sergey Krikalyov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov); [Helen Sharman](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Helen-Sharman) \| May 18, 1991–Oct. 10, 1991 (March 25, 1992 \[Krikalyov\]; May 26, 1991 \[Sharman\]) \| first British astronaut (Sharman) \| \| \| Soyuz TM-13/Mir \| U.S.S.R. \| Aleksandr Volkov; Toktar Aubakirov; [Franz Viehböck](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-Viehbock) \| Oct. 2, 1991–March 25, 1992 (Oct. 10, 1991 \[Aubakirov; Viehböck\] \| first Austrian astronaut (Viehböck) \| \| \| Soyuz TM-14/Mir \| Russia \| Aleksandr Viktorenko; Aleksandr Kalery; Klaus-Dietrich Flade \| March 17–Aug. 10, 1992 (March 25 \[Flade\]) \| first Russian spaceflight after breakup of the U.S.S.R. \| \| \| Soyuz TM-15/Mir \| Russia \| [Anatoly Solovyov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Sergey Avdeyev; Michel Tognini \| July 27, 1992–Feb. 1, 1993 (Aug. 10, 1992 \[Tognini\]) \| crew performed spacewalks to extend lifetime of Mir \| \| \| Soyuz TM-16/Mir \| Russia \| Gennady Manakov; Aleksandr Poleshchuk \| Jan. 24–July 22, 1993 \| placed docking target on Mir for use by [space shuttle Atlantis](https://www.britannica.com/technology/space-shuttle) \| \| \| Soyuz TM-17/Mir \| Russia \| Vasily Tsibliyev; Aleksandr Serebrov; Jean-Pierre Haigneré \| July 1, 1993–Jan. 14, 1994 (July 22, 1993 \[Haigneré\]) \| slight collision with Mir \| \| [![Valery Polyakov](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/102460-050-92F228E7/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/102460-050-92F228E7/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-18/Mir \| Russia \| Viktor Afanasiyev; Yury Usachyov; [Valery Polyakov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Valery-Vladimirovich-Polyakov) \| Jan. 8–July 9, 1994 (March 22, 1995 \[Polyakov\]) \| new space endurance record (Polyakov; 437 days 18 hours) \| \| [![Soyuz TM-19](https://cdn.britannica.com/59/136059-050-A377A116/Talgat-Musabayev-Russian-unit-space-station-Chibis-October-1994.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/59/136059-050-A377A116/Talgat-Musabayev-Russian-unit-space-station-Chibis-October-1994.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-19/Mir \| Russia \| Yury Malenchenko; Talgat Musabayev \| July 1–Nov. 4, 1994 \| Malenchenko performed first manual docking of Progress resupply ship \| \| [![Soyuz TM-20](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/136060-050-EE222A56/Valery-Polyakov-Russian-Ulf-Merbold-blood-sample-1994.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/136060-050-EE222A56/Valery-Polyakov-Russian-Ulf-Merbold-blood-sample-1994.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-20/Mir \| Russia \| Aleksandr Viktorenko; Elena Kondakova; [Ulf Merbold](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ulf-Merbold) \| Oct. 4, 1994–March 22, 1995 (Nov. 4, 1994 \[Merbold\]) \| first woman to make a long-duration spaceflight (Kondakova) \| \| [![STS-63; Harris, Bernard A., Jr.](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/131982-004-EA9164F1/Bernard-A-Harris-Jr-STS-63-space-walk-Feb-9-1995.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/82/131982-004-EA9164F1/Bernard-A-Harris-Jr-STS-63-space-walk-Feb-9-1995.jpg) \| STS-63 (Discovery) \| U.S. \| James Wetherbee; [Eileen Collins](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eileen-Collins); Bernard Harris; Michael Foale; Janice Voss; Vladimir Titov \| Feb. 3–11, 1995 \| demonstrated shuttle orbiter's ability to approach and maneuver around Mir \| \| [![Gennady Mikhailovich Strekalov playing guitar and singing with (from left to right) astronauts Charlie Precourt, Bonnie Dunbar, and Greg Harbaugh in June 1995 during the space shuttle's first visit to the Russian space station Mir.](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/102493-050-D65D3E18/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov-guitar-astronauts-visit-Greg-June-1995.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/102493-050-D65D3E18/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov-guitar-astronauts-visit-Greg-June-1995.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-21/Mir \| Russia \| Vladimir Dezhurov; [Gennady Strekalov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gennady-Mikhailovich-Strekalov); Norman Thagard \| March 14–July 7, 1995 \| first American to fly on Russian spacecraft (Thagard); addition of Spektr module to Mir \| \| [![Robert Gibson and Vladimir Dezhurov](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/102418-050-80A86A9E/hands-Robert-Gibson-Atlantis-Vladimir-Dezhurov-Russian-June-29-1995.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/102418-050-80A86A9E/hands-Robert-Gibson-Atlantis-Vladimir-Dezhurov-Russian-June-29-1995.jpg) \| STS-71 (Atlantis)/Mir \| U.S. \| Robert Gibson; Charles Precourt; Ellen Baker; Gregory Harbaugh; Bonnie Dunbar; [Anatoly Solovyov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Nikolay Budarin \| June 27–July 7, 1995 (Sept. 11, 1995 \[Solovyov, Budarin\]) \| first space shuttle visit to Mir \| \| [![Soyuz TM-22](https://cdn.britannica.com/61/136061-050-0CC8821E/Sergey-Avdeyev-Thomas-Reiter-space-station-mission-November-1995.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/61/136061-050-0CC8821E/Sergey-Avdeyev-Thomas-Reiter-space-station-mission-November-1995.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-22/Mir \| Russia \| Yury Gidzenko; Sergei Avdeyev; Thomas Reiter \| Sept. 3, 1995–Feb. 29, 1996 \| first German to walk in space (Reiter) \| \| [![STS-74 astronauts with Mir crew](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/131977-050-DFFBAA5E/crew-members-STS-74-cosmonauts-Kenneth-D-Cameron-November-1995.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/131977-050-DFFBAA5E/crew-members-STS-74-cosmonauts-Kenneth-D-Cameron-November-1995.jpg) \| STS-74 (Atlantis)/Mir \| U.S. \| Kenneth Cameron; James Halsell; Chris Hadfield; Jerry Ross; William McArthur \| Nov. 12–20, 1995 \| attached docking module to Mir \| \| [![Soyuz TM-23](https://cdn.britannica.com/52/136052-050-26AEB39D/Shannon-Lucid-American-unstowing-supplies-space-station-March-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/52/136052-050-26AEB39D/Shannon-Lucid-American-unstowing-supplies-space-station-March-1996.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-23/Mir \| Russia \| Yury Onufriyenko; Yury Usachyov \| Feb. 21–Sept. 2, 1996 \| addition of Priroda module to Mir \| \| [![Lucid, Shannon Wells](https://cdn.britannica.com/96/102496-050-4D3E85BD/Shannon-Wells-Lucid-treadmill-space-station-Russian-March-28-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/96/102496-050-4D3E85BD/Shannon-Wells-Lucid-treadmill-space-station-Russian-March-28-1996.jpg) \| STS-76 (Atlantis)/Mir \| U.S. \| Kevin Chilton; Richard Searfoss; Ronald Sega; Michael Clifford; Linda Godwin; [Shannon Lucid](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shannon-Wells-Lucid) \| March 22–31, 1996 (Sept. 26 \[Lucid\]) \| delivered supplies to Mir \| \| [![STS-89; Lucid, Shannon; Kalery, Aleksandr Y.](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/131967-050-71D5BFDE/Shannon-Lucid-STS-89-Aleksandr-Y-Atlantis-Russian-August-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/131967-050-71D5BFDE/Shannon-Lucid-STS-89-Aleksandr-Y-Atlantis-Russian-August-1996.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-24/Mir \| Russia \| Valery Korzun; Aleksandr Kaleri; [Claudie André-Deshays](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Claudie-Haignere) \| Aug. 17, 1996–March 2, 1997 (Sept. 2, 1996 \[André-Deshays\]) \| first French woman in space (André-Deshays) \| \| [![Soyuz TM and Mir](https://cdn.britannica.com/12/76512-050-93D2365C/spacecraft-TM-Soyuz-Russian-Atlantis-port-space-September-21-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/12/76512-050-93D2365C/spacecraft-TM-Soyuz-Russian-Atlantis-port-space-September-21-1996.jpg) \| STS-79 (Atlantis)/Mir \| U.S. \| William Readdy; Terrence Wilcutt; Jerome Apt; Thomas Akers; Carl Walz; John Blaha \| Sept. 16–26, 1996 (Jan. 22, 1997 \[Blaha\]) \| conducted experiments in Spacelab Double Module \| \| [![STS-81; Ivins, Marsha S.; Linenger, Jerry M.](https://cdn.britannica.com/50/131950-050-CD9092EE/STS-81-mission-specialists-Marsha-S-Ivins-Jerry-Dec-16-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/50/131950-050-CD9092EE/STS-81-mission-specialists-Marsha-S-Ivins-Jerry-Dec-16-1996.jpg) \| STS-81 (Atlantis)/Mir \| U.S. \| Michael Baker; Brent Jett; Peter Wisoff; John Grunsfeld; Marsha Ivins; Jerry Linenger \| Jan. 12–22, 1997 (May 24, 1997 \[Linenger\]) \| returned with first plants to complete a full life cycle in space \| \| [![Soyuz TM-25](https://cdn.britannica.com/49/136049-050-E7BE3658/John-E-Blaha-American-Vasily-Tsibliyev-Aleksandr-1996.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/49/136049-050-E7BE3658/John-E-Blaha-American-Vasily-Tsibliyev-Aleksandr-1996.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-25/Mir \| Russia \| Vasily Tsibliyev; Aleksandr Lazutkin; Reinhold Ewald \| Feb. 10–Aug. 14, 1997 (March 2 \[Ewald\]) \| fire seriously damaged Mir's oxygen generation system (Feb. 23); collision with Progress punctured Spektr module (June 25) \| \| [![Eileen Collins toys with a roll of paper scrap in microgravity while serving as pilot of the U.S. space shuttle orbiter Atlantis in May 1997.](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/21662-050-F2E0E15C/toys-Eileen-Collins-Atlantis-roll-microgravity-paper-May-1997.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/21662-050-F2E0E15C/toys-Eileen-Collins-Atlantis-roll-microgravity-paper-May-1997.jpg) \| STS-84 (Atlantis)/Mir \| U.S. \| Charles Precourt; [Eileen Collins](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eileen-Collins); Jean-François Clervoy; Carlos Noriega; Edward Lu; Yelena Kondakova; Michael Foale \| May 15–24, 1997 (Oct. 6 \[Foale\]) \| carried Biorack research facility, which conducted [microgravity](https://www.britannica.com/science/microgravity) experiments \| \| [![STS-86; Mir](https://cdn.britannica.com/45/131945-004-D8006FFE/crew-members-STS-86-Atlantis-space-station-hosts-Sept-27-1997.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/45/131945-004-D8006FFE/crew-members-STS-86-Atlantis-space-station-hosts-Sept-27-1997.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-26/Mir \| Russia \| [Anatoly Solovyov](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anatoly-Yakovlevich-Solovyov); Pavel Vinogradov \| Aug. 5, 1997–Feb. 19, 1998 \| Mir's oxygen generation system repaired \| \| [![STS-86](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/131944-050-25FB3773/space-shuttle-Atlantis-preparations-station-Kennedy-Space-1997.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/131944-050-25FB3773/space-shuttle-Atlantis-preparations-station-Kennedy-Space-1997.jpg) \| STS-86 (Atlantis)/Mir \| U.S. \| James Wetherbee; Michael Bloomfield; Vladimir Titov; Scott Parazynski; [Jean-Loup Chrétien](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Loup-Chretien); Wendy Lawrence; David Wolf \| Sept. 25–Oct. 6, 1997 (Jan. 31, 1998 \[Wolf\]) \| carried Spacehab module, which included replacement computer for Mir \| \| [![STS-89; Reilly, James](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/131942-050-F8601855/James-Reilly-STS-89-Mechanics-space-shuttle-Endeavour-1998.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/131942-050-F8601855/James-Reilly-STS-89-Mechanics-space-shuttle-Endeavour-1998.jpg) \| STS-89 (Endeavour)/Mir \| U.S. \| Terrence Wilcutt; Joe Edwards; James Reilly; Michael Anderson; Bonnie Dunbar; Salizhan Sharipov; Andrew Thomas \| Jan. 22–31, 1998 (June 12 \[Thomas\]) \| carried experiments in protein crystal growth \| \| [![STS-91](https://cdn.britannica.com/39/131939-050-28A7FC29/space-shuttle-station-Discovery-Mir-STS-91-mission-June-4-1998.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/39/131939-050-28A7FC29/space-shuttle-station-Discovery-Mir-STS-91-mission-June-4-1998.jpg) \| Soyuz TM-27/Mir \| Russia \| Talgat Musabayev; Nikolay Budarin; Leopold Eyharts \| Jan. 29–Aug. 25, 1998 (Feb. 19 \[Eyharts\]) \| unsuccessful attempt to repair Spektr solar panel \| \| [![STS-91; Precourt, Charles J.; Musabayev, Talgat A.](https://cdn.britannica.com/41/131941-004-2F85B06D/Charles-J-Precourt-STS-91-Talgat-A-Musabayev-June-4-1998.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/41/131941-004-2F85B06D/Charles-J-Precourt-STS-91-Talgat-A-Musabayev-June-4-1998.jpg) \| STS-91 (Discovery)/Mir \| U.S. \| Charles Precourt; Dominic Gorie; [Franklin Chang-Díaz](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Franklin-Chang-Diaz); Wendy Lawrence; Janet Kavandi; Valery Ryumin \| June 2–12, 1998 \| final space shuttle mission to Mir \| \| \| Soyuz TM-28/Mir \| Russia \| Gennady Padalka; Sergey Avdeyev; Yury Baturin \| Aug. 13, 1998–Feb. 28, 1999 (Aug. 28, 1999 \[Avdeyev\]; Aug. 25, 1998 \[Baturin\]) \| first Russian politician in space (Baturin) \| \| \| Soyuz TM-29/Mir \| Russia \| Viktor Afanasiyev; Jean-Pierre Haigneré; [Ivan Bella](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ivan-Bella) \| Feb. 20–Aug. 28, 1999 (Feb. 28 \[Bella\]) \| first Slovak astronaut (Bella) \| \| \| Soyuz TM-30/Mir \| Russia \| Sergey Zalyotin; Aleksandr Kaleri \| April 4–June 16, 2000 \| last occupants of Mir \| [David M. Harland](https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-M-Harland/5456) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-179/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9)Britannica AI chevron\_right Mir close [AI-generated answers](https://www.britannica.com/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles. [International Space Station](https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station) [Introduction & Top Questions](https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station) [References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station/additional-info) [Related Topics](https://www.britannica.com/facts/International-Space-Station) [Images & Videos](https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station/images-videos) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/86/118386-004-933DE6B7/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/86/118386-050-0FD4C54B/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/52/150352-120-E7838625/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/52/150352-050-935FE03E/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg) [![Astronaut outside the International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/72006-004-F554D837/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/72006-050-5EF22ECB/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/22/72522-004-265B2593/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/22/72522-050-BDCDBD92/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg) [![The International Space Station.](https://cdn.britannica.com/41/221441-138-43FDF113/what-happens-International-Space-Station.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop)](https://www.britannica.com/video/what-happens-International-Space-Station/-253183) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/12/73212-004-6D537A88/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/12/73212-050-716F4FCF/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg) [![Space exploration and the European Space Agency](https://cdn.britannica.com/37/194337-004-8687AB84/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/37/194337-050-970585EB/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/106036-004-4725498F/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/106036-050-C2D66165/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg) [![International Space Station: Kjell Lindgren](https://cdn.britannica.com/31/194331-004-0AB333A8/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/31/194331-050-5C1CA737/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg) [![Automated transfer vehicle](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/194342-004-0EB3782A/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/194342-050-54D0E7B2/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg) At a Glance [![default image](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-179/images/shared/new-thistle.svg?v=3.179.9)](https://www.britannica.com/summary/International-Space-Station) [International Space Station summary](https://www.britannica.com/summary/International-Space-Station) Quizzes [![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/188714-131-87D4E380/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts) [Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts) Related Questions - [What is the International Space Station (ISS)?](https://www.britannica.com/question/What-is-the-International-Space-Station-ISS) - [When was the ISS launched into space?](https://www.britannica.com/question/When-was-the-ISS-launched-into-space) - [Which countries are involved in the ISS program?](https://www.britannica.com/question/Which-countries-are-involved-in-the-ISS-program) - [How does the ISS stay in orbit around Earth?](https://www.britannica.com/question/How-does-the-ISS-stay-in-orbit-around-Earth) - [What is the primary purpose of the ISS?](https://www.britannica.com/question/What-is-the-primary-purpose-of-the-ISS) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-179/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9) Ask Anything Quick Summary [Science](https://www.britannica.com/browse/Science) [Astronomy](https://www.britannica.com/browse/Astronomy) CITE Share Feedback External Websites [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/86/118386-050-0FD4C54B/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop)](https://cdn.britannica.com/86/118386-050-0FD4C54B/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/86/118386-050-0FD4C54B/International-Space-Station-spacecraft-space-shuttle-Endeavour-March-24-2008.jpg) The International Space Station as seen from the space shuttle Endeavour as the two spacecraft began their relative separation on March 24, 2008. (more) # International Space Station space station Homework Help Also known as: ISS, Space Station Freedom Written by [David M. Harland Space historian and freelance writer, Glasgow, Scotland. Author of Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions; Jupiter Odyssey: The Story of NASA's Galileo Mission; and others.](https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-M-Harland/5456) David M. Harland Fact-checked by [Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419) Britannica Editors [History](https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station/additional-info#history) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-179/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9) Britannica AI Ask Anything Quick Summary Table of Contents Table of Contents Quick Summary Ask Anything Top Questions ### What is the International Space Station (ISS)? The International Space Station (ISS) is a modular space station in low Earth orbit, primarily built by the United States and Russia, with contributions from a multinational consortium including the [European Space Agency](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Space-Agency), Japan, and Canada. Its assembly began in 1998 with the launch of the Russian module Zarya, followed by the U.S. module Unity. The ISS has been continuously inhabited since November 2, 2000, serving as a microgravity laboratory for scientific research across various fields, including biology and physics. It is powered by large solar arrays and supports a crew of international [astronauts](https://www.britannica.com/topic/astronaut) who typically stay for about six months. ### When was the ISS launched into space? The International Space Station (ISS) began its assembly with the launch of the Russian control module Zarya on November 20, 1998. This was followed by the launch of the U.S.-built Unity connecting node in December 1998. These initial components were linked in orbit by U.S. [space shuttle](https://www.britannica.com/technology/space-shuttle) astronauts, marking the beginning of the ISS’s construction in space. The ISS has been continuously occupied since November 2, 2000, when its first resident crew arrived. The station is a collaborative effort involving the United States, Russia, Canada, Japan, and 11 [European Space Agency](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Space-Agency) members. ### Which countries are involved in the ISS program? The International Space Station (ISS) program involves a collaboration between several countries. The primary partners are the United States and Russia, who were instrumental in its assembly and operation. Additionally, the [European Space Agency](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Space-Agency) (ESA), Japan, and Canada are significant contributors to the ISS. The ESA includes 11 member countries that participate in the program. This multinational effort represents one of the largest cooperative technological undertakings in history, with contributions ranging from modules and laboratories to robotic equipment and solar panels. ### How does the ISS stay in orbit around Earth? The International Space Station (ISS) stays in orbit around Earth by maintaining a balance between its forward velocity and the gravitational pull of the Earth. The ISS travels at a high orbital velocity, approximately 28,000 kilometers per hour (about 17,500 miles per hour), which allows it to continuously fall towards Earth but never actually reach it. This is because Earth’s surface curves away at the same rate that the ISS falls, creating a stable orbit. The gravitational force pulls the ISS towards Earth, while its inertia keeps it moving forward, resulting in a circular or elliptical orbital path. ### What is the primary purpose of the ISS? The primary purpose of the International Space Station (ISS) is to serve as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory where scientific research is conducted in astrobiology, [astronomy](https://www.britannica.com/science/astronomy), [meteorology](https://www.britannica.com/science/meteorology), [physics](https://www.britannica.com/science/physics-science), and other fields. The ISS provides a unique platform for conducting experiments that require or benefit from the low-gravity environment, which cannot be replicated on Earth. Research on the ISS includes life sciences, materials science, and fundamental physics, aiming to improve our understanding of biological processes and develop new technologies. The ISS also facilitates international cooperation in space exploration, involving multiple countries and space agencies. ### How do astronauts live and work on the ISS? Astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) live and work in a microgravity environment, conducting scientific research and maintaining the station. They perform experiments in various fields, such as life sciences, materials science, and fluid dynamics, taking advantage of the unique conditions of space to gain insights not possible on Earth. The ISS is equipped with laboratories and habitats, and astronauts use solar panels for power and rely on a continuous supply of essentials like air, water, and food, delivered by cargo spacecraft. Crews typically stay for about six months, with some missions lasting longer to study the effects of extended space travel. ### What kinds of experiments are conducted on the ISS? Experiments conducted on the International Space Station (ISS) cover a wide range of scientific disciplines, taking advantage of the unique microgravity environment. Key areas of research include: - Life Sciences: Studying the effects of microgravity on human physiology, plant growth, and animal development to understand biological processes and improve health on Earth. - Materials Science: Investigating the behavior of materials such as metals, alloys, and polymers in microgravity to enhance manufacturing processes. - Biotechnology: Producing highly ordered protein crystals and materials resembling human tissues, which are difficult to create on Earth. - Fluid Physics and Combustion Science: Exploring fluid dynamics and combustion processes without the influence of gravity. - Fundamental Physics: Conducting experiments to test theories and models in physics under conditions not possible on Earth. ### How has the ISS contributed to scientific research? The International Space Station (ISS) has significantly advanced scientific research by providing a unique [microgravity](https://www.britannica.com/science/microgravity) environment for experiments that are impossible on Earth. It has facilitated studies in life sciences, including the effects of weightlessness on human physiology and the development of plants and animals, which are crucial for long-term space exploration. The ISS has also contributed to materials science, allowing researchers to study the behavior of materials in microgravity, leading to insights that can improve manufacturing processes on Earth. Additionally, it serves as a platform for international collaboration, involving scientists from multiple countries in various research projects. ### What challenges do astronauts face while on the ISS? Astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) face several challenges. The microgravity environment leads to muscle atrophy and bone density loss, requiring regular exercise to mitigate these effects. Space sickness, caused by conflicting sensory information, can result in nausea and discomfort, though it usually subsides after a few days. The redistribution of bodily fluids can cause facial puffiness and sinus congestion. Additionally, astronauts are exposed to higher levels of ionizing radiation, increasing the risk of cancer and other health issues. Psychological challenges also arise from isolation and confinement, necessitating careful crew selection and support to maintain mental well-being. ## News • [SpaceX launches huge 'Cygnus XL' cargo ship carrying over 5 tons of supplies to ISS astronauts (video)](https://www.space.com/space-exploration/international-space-station/northrop-grumman-second-cygnus-xl-cargo-launch-spacex-iss) • Apr. 11, 2026, 7:31 AM ET (Space) ...(Show more) [Artemis II astronauts make long-distance call to the space station as they head home from the moon](https://www.britannica.com/news/747712/ee54471e830fee1e3e95e9891116f3d7) • Apr. 7, 2026, 7:14 PM ET (AP) [He suddenly couldn't speak in space. NASA astronaut says his medical scare remains a mystery](https://www.britannica.com/news/747712/cc34793ffb73174f18443f2dd9c6ff2f) • Mar. 27, 2026, 2:01 PM ET (AP) Show less [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/52/150352-050-935FE03E/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/52/150352-050-935FE03E/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/52/150352-050-935FE03E/International-Space-Station-Paolo-Nespoli-space-shuttle-May-23-2011.jpg)The International Space Station and the docked space shuttle Endeavour in a photograph taken by European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli from the Soyuz TMA-20 spacecraft, May 23, 2011. (more) International Space Station (ISS), [space station](https://www.britannica.com/technology/space-station) assembled in [low Earth orbit](https://www.britannica.com/technology/low-Earth-orbit) largely by the [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States) and [Russia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia), with assistance and components from a multinational [consortium](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consortium). It has been continously occupied by astronauts and cosmonauts since November 2, 2000. The project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Originally called Freedom in the 1980s by U.S. Pres. [Ronald Reagan](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ronald-Reagan), who authorized the [National Aeronautics and Space Administration](https://www.britannica.com/topic/NASA) (NASA) to build it within 10 years, it was redesigned in the 1990s to reduce costs and expand international involvement, at which time it was renamed. In 1993 the United States and Russia agreed to merge their separate space station plans into a single facility, [integrating](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integrating) their respective modules and incorporating contributions from the [European Space Agency](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Space-Agency) (ESA) and [Japan](https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan). [![Astronaut outside the International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/72006-050-5EF22ECB/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/72006-050-5EF22ECB/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg) [Astronaut outside the International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/06/72006-050-5EF22ECB/Michael-Lopez-Alegria-space-module-station-assembly-International-October-2000.jpg)U.S. space shuttle astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria floating in space outside the Unity module of the International Space Station in October 2000, during an early stage of the station's assembly in Earth orbit. (more) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/22/72522-050-BDCDBD92/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/22/72522-050-BDCDBD92/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/22/72522-050-BDCDBD92/Crews-countries-meal-module-Zvezda-International-Space-2001.jpg)Crews from three countries having a meal in the Zvezda module of the International Space Station, 2001. (more) Assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) began with the launches of the Russian control module [Zarya](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zarya) on November 20, 1998, and the U.S.-built [Unity](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Unity-United-States-space-module) connecting node the following month, which were linked in orbit by U.S. [space shuttle](https://www.britannica.com/technology/space-shuttle) [astronauts](https://www.britannica.com/topic/astronaut). In mid-2000 the Russian-built module [Zvezda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zvezda), a habitat and control center, was added, and on November 2 of that year the ISS received its first resident crew, [comprising](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/comprising) Russian cosmonauts [Sergey Krikalev](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov) and [Yuri Gidzenko](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Yury-Gidzenko) and American [astronaut](https://www.britannica.com/topic/astronaut) [William Shepherd](https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Shepherd), who flew up in a [Soyuz](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Soyuz) [spacecraft](https://www.britannica.com/technology/spacecraft). The ISS has been continuously occupied since then. [![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/188714-131-87D4E380/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg) Britannica Quiz Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts) A NASA [microgravity](https://www.britannica.com/science/microgravity) laboratory called [Destiny](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Destiny-United-States-space-module) and other elements were subsequently joined to the station, with the overall plan calling for the assembly, over a period of several years, of a complex of laboratories and habitats crossed by a long truss supporting four units that held large solar-power arrays and thermal radiators. Aside from the United States and Russia, station construction involved [Canada](https://www.britannica.com/place/Canada), Japan, and 11 ESA members. Russian modules were carried into space by Russian expendable launch vehicles, after which they automatically rendezvoused with and docked to the ISS. Other elements were ferried up by space shuttle and assembled in orbit during space walks. During ISS construction, both shuttles and Russian [Soyuz](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Soyuz) spacecraft transported people to and from the station, and a Soyuz remained docked to the ISS at all times as a “lifeboat.” [![The International Space Station.](https://cdn.britannica.com/41/221441-138-43FDF113/what-happens-International-Space-Station.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)1 of 3](https://www.britannica.com/video/what-happens-International-Space-Station/-253183) What Happens at the International Space Station?We asked NASA. (more) [See all videos for this article](https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station/images-videos) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/12/73212-050-716F4FCF/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg?w=300)2 of 3](https://cdn.britannica.com/12/73212-050-716F4FCF/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/12/73212-050-716F4FCF/Atlantis-International-Space-Station-Rio-Negro-Argentina-February-16-2001.jpg)The International Space Station photographed against the Rio Negro, Argentina, from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis, February 16, 2001. Atlantis's primary mission was to deliver the Destiny laboratory module, visible at the leading end of the station. (more) [![Space exploration and the European Space Agency](https://cdn.britannica.com/37/194337-050-970585EB/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg?w=300)3 of 3](https://cdn.britannica.com/37/194337-050-970585EB/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg) [Space exploration and the European Space Agency](https://cdn.britannica.com/37/194337-050-970585EB/Andreas-Mogensen-Gennady-Padalka-European-Space-Agency-2015.jpg)European Space Agency astronaut Andreas Mogensen, Soyuz spacecraft commander Gennady Padalka, and Kazakh cosmonaut Aidyn Aimbetov landing in Kazakhstan, marking the end of their missions to the International Space Station, 2015. (more) Much of the early research work by ISS astronauts was to focus on long-term life-sciences and material-sciences investigations in the [weightless](https://www.britannica.com/science/weightlessness) [environment](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/environment). After the breakup of the space shuttle orbiter [Columbia](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Columbia-space-shuttle) in February 2003, the shuttle fleet was grounded, which effectively halted expansion of the station. Meanwhile, the crew was reduced from three to two, and their role was restricted mainly to caretaker status, limiting the amount of science that could be done. Crews flew up to and returned from the ISS in Soyuz spacecraft, and the station was serviced by automated Progress ferries. [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/106036-050-C2D66165/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg?w=300)1 of 4](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/106036-050-C2D66165/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/106036-050-C2D66165/Peggy-Whitson-Pamela-Melroy-hatch-spacecraft-International-Oct-25-2007.jpg)American astronaut Peggy Whitson (right), Expedition 16 commander, greeting American astronaut Pam Melroy, STS-120 commander, after the opening of the hatch between the International Space Station and the space shuttle Discovery, October 25, 2007. (more) [![International Space Station: Kjell Lindgren](https://cdn.britannica.com/31/194331-050-5C1CA737/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg?w=300)2 of 4](https://cdn.britannica.com/31/194331-050-5C1CA737/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg) [International Space Station: Kjell Lindgren](https://cdn.britannica.com/31/194331-050-5C1CA737/Kjell-Lindgren-American-bag-fruit-International-Space.jpg)American astronaut Kjell Lindgren opening a bag of fresh fruit in the International Space Station. (more) [![Automated transfer vehicle](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/194342-050-54D0E7B2/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg?w=300)3 of 4](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/194342-050-54D0E7B2/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg) [Automated transfer vehicle](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/194342-050-54D0E7B2/transfer-vehicle-supplies-food-International-Space-Station.jpg)An automated transfer vehicle (ATV) arriving at the International Space Station with supplies, including hardware, food, and clothing. (more) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/47/194347-050-595A05F2/Don-Pettit-NASA-node-stowage-bags-Harmony-January-4-2012.jpg?w=300)4 of 4](https://cdn.britannica.com/47/194347-050-595A05F2/Don-Pettit-NASA-node-stowage-bags-Harmony-January-4-2012.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/47/194347-050-595A05F2/Don-Pettit-NASA-node-stowage-bags-Harmony-January-4-2012.jpg)NASA astronaut Don Pettit underneath stowage bags in the Harmony node of the International Space Station, January 4, 2012. (more) After the shuttle resumed regular flights in 2006, the ISS crew size was increased to three. Construction resumed in September of that year, with the addition of a pair of solar wings and a thermal radiator. The European-built American node, [Harmony](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harmony-space-module), was placed on the end of Destiny in October 2007. Harmony has a docking port for the space shuttle and connecting ports for a European laboratory, Columbus, and a Japanese laboratory, [Kibo](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kibo-Japanese-space-laboratory). In February 2008 Columbus was mounted on Harmony’s starboard side. Columbus was Europe’s first long-duration crewed space laboratory and contained experiments in such fields as [biology](https://www.britannica.com/science/biology) and fluid [dynamics](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dynamics). In March 2008 an improved variant of the [Ariane](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Ariane-European-launch-vehicles) [V](https://www.britannica.com/science/volt-unit-of-measurement) [rocket](https://www.britannica.com/technology/rocket-jet-propulsion-device-and-vehicle) launched Europe’s heaviest spacecraft, the [Jules Verne](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jules-Verne-spacecraft) [Automated Transfer Vehicle](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Automated-Transfer-Vehicle) (ATV), which carried 7,700 kg (17,000 pounds) of supplies to the ISS. Also in March shuttle astronauts brought the Canadian robot, [Dextre](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dextre), which was so sophisticated that it would be able to perform tasks that previously would have required astronauts to make space walks, and the first part of Kibo. In June 2008 the main part of Kibo was installed. Explore Britannica Premium\! The trusted destination for professionals, college students, and lifelong learners. [SUBSCRIBE](https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=redesign-2026) ![Penguin, ship, mountain, atlas](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-left.webp) ![shohei ohtani, plants, andy wharhol art](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-right.webp) ![Mobile](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-mobile.webp?w=400) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/89/124289-050-7909349A/Diagram-order-modules-International-Space-Station.jpg)1 of 3](https://cdn.britannica.com/89/124289-050-7909349A/Diagram-order-modules-International-Space-Station.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/89/124289-050-7909349A/Diagram-order-modules-International-Space-Station.jpg)Diagram of the International Space Station, showing the order in which the modules were added. (more) [![Zvezda Service Module](https://cdn.britannica.com/72/141472-050-76D7B8B3/Zvezda-Service-Module-element-construction-Russian-International-1997.jpg?w=300)2 of 3](https://cdn.britannica.com/72/141472-050-76D7B8B3/Zvezda-Service-Module-element-construction-Russian-International-1997.jpg) [Zvezda Service Module](https://cdn.britannica.com/72/141472-050-76D7B8B3/Zvezda-Service-Module-element-construction-Russian-International-1997.jpg)The Zvezda Service Module, the first Russian contribution and third element to the International Space Station, is shown under construction in the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow, 1997. (more) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/84/133084-050-E3807B8C/International-Space-Station-separation-space-shuttle-Endeavour-June-15-2002.jpg?w=300)3 of 3](https://cdn.britannica.com/84/133084-050-E3807B8C/International-Space-Station-separation-space-shuttle-Endeavour-June-15-2002.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/84/133084-050-E3807B8C/International-Space-Station-separation-space-shuttle-Endeavour-June-15-2002.jpg)The International Space Station following its separation from the space shuttle Endeavour, June 15, 2002. (more) The ISS became fully operational in May 2009 when it began hosting a six-person crew; this required two Soyuz lifeboats to be docked with the ISS at all times. The six-person crew typically consisted of three Russians, two Americans, and one astronaut from either Japan, Canada, or the ESA. An external platform was attached to the far end of Kibo in July, and a Russian docking port and airlock, Poisk, was attached to the Zvezda module in November. A third node, [Tranquility](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Tranquility), was installed in 2010, and mounted on this was a cupola, whose robotic workstation and many windows enabled astronauts to supervise external operations. [![Witness the launch of the SpaceX Dragon capsule, May 25, 2012](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/171656-138-CF0BF39A/SpaceX-Video-capsule-Dragon-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)1 of 5](https://www.britannica.com/video/SpaceX-Video-capsule-Dragon-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012/-184439) Witness the launch of the SpaceX Dragon capsule, May 25, 2012Video released by spacecraft maker SpaceX celebrating its Dragon capsule, which on May 25, 2012, became the first commercial spacecraft to dock with the International Space Station. (more) [See all videos for this article](https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station/images-videos) [![SpaceX Dragon](https://cdn.britannica.com/58/171658-050-E92A82EB/Dragon-capsule-SpaceX-docking-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012.jpg?w=300)2 of 5](https://cdn.britannica.com/58/171658-050-E92A82EB/Dragon-capsule-SpaceX-docking-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012.jpg) [SpaceX Dragon](https://cdn.britannica.com/58/171658-050-E92A82EB/Dragon-capsule-SpaceX-docking-spacecraft-International-Space-May-25-2012.jpg)Dragon capsule by SpaceX docking with the International Space Station on May 25, 2012—the first time a commercial spacecraft did so. (more) [![Soyuz](https://cdn.britannica.com/39/194339-050-F2C6EB93/Rocket-Expedition-33-crew-members-spacecraft-Soyuz-October-23-2012.jpg?w=300)3 of 5](https://cdn.britannica.com/39/194339-050-F2C6EB93/Rocket-Expedition-33-crew-members-spacecraft-Soyuz-October-23-2012.jpg) [Soyuz](https://cdn.britannica.com/39/194339-050-F2C6EB93/Rocket-Expedition-33-crew-members-spacecraft-Soyuz-October-23-2012.jpg)Rocket with Expedition 33 crew members on board the Soyuz TMA-06M spacecraft launching to the International Space Station on October 23, 2012, Baikonur, Kazakhstan. (more) [![International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/35/194335-050-787001C5/Pavel-Vinogradov-Expedition-35-space-walk-International-April-19-2013.jpg?w=300)4 of 5](https://cdn.britannica.com/35/194335-050-787001C5/Pavel-Vinogradov-Expedition-35-space-walk-International-April-19-2013.jpg) [International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/35/194335-050-787001C5/Pavel-Vinogradov-Expedition-35-space-walk-International-April-19-2013.jpg)Expedition 35 commander Pavel Vinogradov on a space walk outside the International Space Station, April 19, 2013. (more) [![Soccer ball in the International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/194346-050-6CFD6F20/soccer-ball-Challenger-disaster-International-Space-Station-2017.jpg?w=300)5 of 5](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/194346-050-6CFD6F20/soccer-ball-Challenger-disaster-International-Space-Station-2017.jpg) [Soccer ball in the International Space Station](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/194346-050-6CFD6F20/soccer-ball-Challenger-disaster-International-Space-Station-2017.jpg)A soccer ball, which was packed onto space shuttle Challenger in 1986 and survived that disaster, orbiting Earth on board the International Space Station, 2017. (more) After completion of the ISS, the shuttle was retired from service in 2011. Thereafter, the ISS was serviced by Russia’s Progress, Europe’s ATV (from 2008 to 2015), Japan’s [H-II Transfer Vehicle](https://www.britannica.com/technology/H-II-Transfer-Vehicle) (HTV, from 2009 to 2020) and HTV-X (from 2025), and two commercial cargo vehicles, [SpaceX’s](https://www.britannica.com/money/SpaceX) [Dragon](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dragon-spacecraft) (from 2010) and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s [Cygnus](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Cygnus-spacecraft) (from 2013). A new American crew capsule, SpaceX’s [Crew Dragon](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dragon-2), had its first flight to the ISS in 2020. Prior to Crew Dragon, all astronauts used Soyuz spacecraft to reach the ISS. Crew Dragon carried four astronauts to the station, and the ISS was then able to [accommodate](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/accommodate) a crew of seven. A Russian science module, Nauka, was added to the station in 2021. The [Boeing Company](https://www.britannica.com/money/Boeing-Company)’s CST-100 [Starliner](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Boeing-Starliner) had its first crewed test flight on June 5, 2024. However, during the flight to the ISS, five thrusters failed, and helium leaks were detected in its propulsion system. NASA delayed Starliner’s return to [Earth](https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth) until it was sure that the craft could reenter safely. The two Starliner astronauts, commander Barry Wilmore and pilot [Sunita Williams](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sunita-Williams), had been scheduled to be in space for about a week. They returned to Earth on a Crew Dragon on March 18, 2025, after NASA returned the Starliner to Earth empty. More than 280 astronauts from 26 different countries have visited the ISS. Astronauts typically stay on the ISS for about six months. The return of a Soyuz to Earth marks the end of an ISS [Expedition](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Expedition), and the command of the ISS is transferred to another astronaut. However, a few astronauts have spent much longer times on the ISS. On a special mission called “A Year in Space,” Russian cosmonaut [Mikhail Korniyenko](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mikhail-Korniyenko) and American astronaut [Scott Kelly](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Scott-Kelly) spent 340 days in orbit from March 2015 to March 2016. Kelly’s flight was the longest by an American. (Since Kelly’s brother, [Mark](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Kelly), was his identical twin, as well as a former astronaut himself, scientists were able to use Mark as a baseline for how the long [spaceflight](https://www.britannica.com/science/spaceflight) had changed Scott.) In 2017 Russia temporarily cut the number of its ISS crew from three to two, and American astronaut [Peggy Whitson](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Peggy-Whitson) extended her mission to 289 days, which at that time was the longest single spaceflight by a woman, so the station would have a full crew of six. Whitson has been to the ISS on three other flights and in total has spent more than 675 days in space, a record for an American and a woman. Whitson’s longest consecutive spaceflight record was [surpassed](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/surpassed) by American astronaut [Christina Koch](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christina-Koch), who spent 328 days on the ISS from March 2019 to February 2020. During that time Koch and American astronaut [Jessica Meir](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jessica-Meir) performed the first all-female [space walk](https://www.britannica.com/science/spacewalk). Russian cosmonaut Pyotr Dubrov and American astronaut [Mark Vande Hei](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Vande-Hei) stayed on the station for 355 days from April 2021 to March 2022. Vande Hei broke Kelly’s record for longest American spaceflight. The ISS has also been a destination for [space tourists](https://www.britannica.com/topic/space-tourism). The first such, American businessman [Dennis Tito](https://www.britannica.com/money/Dennis-Tito), flew to the ISS on a Soyuz spacecraft on April 28, 2001. (Tito objected to the term space tourist, and since his flight the term spaceflight participant has been more often used to distinguish space travelers from career astronauts.) Eight other individuals paid for seats on Soyuz flights to ISS between 2002 and 2021. Beginning in 2022, the American company [Axiom](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Axiom) Space has chartered flights on Crew Dragon spacecraft to the ISS. On some Axiom flights, the passengers have been astronauts whose seat was paid for by their country’s space agency, such as Indian astronaut [Shubhanshu Shukla](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shubhanshu-Shukla), who flew to the ISS on Axiom Mission 4 on June 25, 2025. Astronauts on chartered flights typically only stay on the ISS for a few weeks. The United States, ESA, Japan, and Canada have not definitively decided when the program will end, but in 2021 the [Joe Biden](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joe-Biden) administration indicated that the program would receive U.S. support through 2030. The ESA, Japan, and Canada have also committed to support the ISS through 2030. Russia announced that it would support the station through 2028 and then begin work on its own orbital space station. [David M. Harland](https://www.britannica.com/contributor/David-M-Harland/5456) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-179/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.179.9)Britannica AI chevron\_right International Space Station (ISS) close [AI-generated answers](https://www.britannica.com/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles. Load Next Page Feedback Thank you for your feedback Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. verifiedCite While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Select Citation Style Harland, David M.. "Mir". Encyclopedia Britannica, 16 Dec. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station. Accessed 14 April 2026. Copy Citation Share Share to social media [Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/) [X](https://x.com/britannica) URL <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station> External Websites - [NASA - 20 Years Ago: Space Station Mir Reenters EarthÂ’s Atmosphere](https://www.nasa.gov/history/20-years-ago-space-station-mir-reenters-earths-atmosphere/) - [Space.com - 30 Years Later: The Legacy of the Mir Space Station](https://www.space.com/31999-mir-space-station-30th-anniversary.html) - [European Space Agency - Mir FAQs - Facts and history](https://www.esa.int/About_Us/Corporate_news/Mir_FAQs_-_Facts_and_history) Feedback Thank you for your feedback Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. verifiedCite While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Select Citation Style Harland, David M.. "International Space Station". Encyclopedia Britannica, 3 Nov. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station. Accessed 14 April 2026. Copy Citation Share Share to social media [Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/) [X](https://x.com/britannica) URL <https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station> External Websites - [European Space Agency - Building the International Space Station](https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/Building_the_International_Space_Station3) - [NASA - Space Station 20th: Historical Origins of ISS](https://www.nasa.gov/history/space-station-20th-historical-origins-of-iss/) - [NASA - International Space Station](https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html) Britannica Websites Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. - [International Space Station - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)](https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/International-Space-Station/630846)
Readable Markdown	Top Questions ### What is the International Space Station (ISS)? ### When was the ISS launched into space? ### Which countries are involved in the ISS program? ### How does the ISS stay in orbit around Earth? ### What is the primary purpose of the ISS? ### How do astronauts live and work on the ISS? ### What kinds of experiments are conducted on the ISS? ### How has the ISS contributed to scientific research? ### What challenges do astronauts face while on the ISS? ## News • International Space Station (ISS), [space station](https://www.britannica.com/technology/space-station) assembled in [low Earth orbit](https://www.britannica.com/technology/low-Earth-orbit) largely by the [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States) and [Russia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia), with assistance and components from a multinational [consortium](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consortium). It has been continously occupied by astronauts and cosmonauts since November 2, 2000. The project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Originally called Freedom in the 1980s by U.S. Pres. [Ronald Reagan](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ronald-Reagan), who authorized the [National Aeronautics and Space Administration](https://www.britannica.com/topic/NASA) (NASA) to build it within 10 years, it was redesigned in the 1990s to reduce costs and expand international involvement, at which time it was renamed. In 1993 the United States and Russia agreed to merge their separate space station plans into a single facility, [integrating](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integrating) their respective modules and incorporating contributions from the [European Space Agency](https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Space-Agency) (ESA) and [Japan](https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan). Assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) began with the launches of the Russian control module [Zarya](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zarya) on November 20, 1998, and the U.S.-built [Unity](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Unity-United-States-space-module) connecting node the following month, which were linked in orbit by U.S. [space shuttle](https://www.britannica.com/technology/space-shuttle) [astronauts](https://www.britannica.com/topic/astronaut). In mid-2000 the Russian-built module [Zvezda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zvezda), a habitat and control center, was added, and on November 2 of that year the ISS received its first resident crew, [comprising](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/comprising) Russian cosmonauts [Sergey Krikalev](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sergey-Konstantinovich-Krikalyov) and [Yuri Gidzenko](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Yury-Gidzenko) and American [astronaut](https://www.britannica.com/topic/astronaut) [William Shepherd](https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Shepherd), who flew up in a [Soyuz](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Soyuz) [spacecraft](https://www.britannica.com/technology/spacecraft). The ISS has been continuously occupied since then. [![Edwin E. Aldrin (Buzz Aldrin) stands on the moon, Apollo 11](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/188714-131-87D4E380/moon-Edwin-E-Aldrin-Apollo-11.jpg) Britannica Quiz Famous Astronauts and Cosmonauts](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/famous-astronauts-and-cosmonauts) A NASA [microgravity](https://www.britannica.com/science/microgravity) laboratory called [Destiny](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Destiny-United-States-space-module) and other elements were subsequently joined to the station, with the overall plan calling for the assembly, over a period of several years, of a complex of laboratories and habitats crossed by a long truss supporting four units that held large solar-power arrays and thermal radiators. Aside from the United States and Russia, station construction involved [Canada](https://www.britannica.com/place/Canada), Japan, and 11 ESA members. Russian modules were carried into space by Russian expendable launch vehicles, after which they automatically rendezvoused with and docked to the ISS. Other elements were ferried up by space shuttle and assembled in orbit during space walks. During ISS construction, both shuttles and Russian [Soyuz](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Soyuz) spacecraft transported people to and from the station, and a Soyuz remained docked to the ISS at all times as a “lifeboat.” Much of the early research work by ISS astronauts was to focus on long-term life-sciences and material-sciences investigations in the [weightless](https://www.britannica.com/science/weightlessness) [environment](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/environment). After the breakup of the space shuttle orbiter [Columbia](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Columbia-space-shuttle) in February 2003, the shuttle fleet was grounded, which effectively halted expansion of the station. Meanwhile, the crew was reduced from three to two, and their role was restricted mainly to caretaker status, limiting the amount of science that could be done. Crews flew up to and returned from the ISS in Soyuz spacecraft, and the station was serviced by automated Progress ferries. After the shuttle resumed regular flights in 2006, the ISS crew size was increased to three. Construction resumed in September of that year, with the addition of a pair of solar wings and a thermal radiator. The European-built American node, [Harmony](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harmony-space-module), was placed on the end of Destiny in October 2007. Harmony has a docking port for the space shuttle and connecting ports for a European laboratory, Columbus, and a Japanese laboratory, [Kibo](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kibo-Japanese-space-laboratory). In February 2008 Columbus was mounted on Harmony’s starboard side. Columbus was Europe’s first long-duration crewed space laboratory and contained experiments in such fields as [biology](https://www.britannica.com/science/biology) and fluid [dynamics](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dynamics). In March 2008 an improved variant of the [Ariane](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Ariane-European-launch-vehicles) [V](https://www.britannica.com/science/volt-unit-of-measurement) [rocket](https://www.britannica.com/technology/rocket-jet-propulsion-device-and-vehicle) launched Europe’s heaviest spacecraft, the [Jules Verne](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jules-Verne-spacecraft) [Automated Transfer Vehicle](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Automated-Transfer-Vehicle) (ATV), which carried 7,700 kg (17,000 pounds) of supplies to the ISS. Also in March shuttle astronauts brought the Canadian robot, [Dextre](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dextre), which was so sophisticated that it would be able to perform tasks that previously would have required astronauts to make space walks, and the first part of Kibo. In June 2008 the main part of Kibo was installed. The trusted destination for professionals, college students, and lifelong learners. [SUBSCRIBE](https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=redesign-2026) ![Penguin, ship, mountain, atlas](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-left.webp) ![shohei ohtani, plants, andy wharhol art](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-right.webp) ![Mobile](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-mobile.webp?w=400) The ISS became fully operational in May 2009 when it began hosting a six-person crew; this required two Soyuz lifeboats to be docked with the ISS at all times. The six-person crew typically consisted of three Russians, two Americans, and one astronaut from either Japan, Canada, or the ESA. An external platform was attached to the far end of Kibo in July, and a Russian docking port and airlock, Poisk, was attached to the Zvezda module in November. A third node, [Tranquility](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Tranquility), was installed in 2010, and mounted on this was a cupola, whose robotic workstation and many windows enabled astronauts to supervise external operations. After completion of the ISS, the shuttle was retired from service in 2011. Thereafter, the ISS was serviced by Russia’s Progress, Europe’s ATV (from 2008 to 2015), Japan’s [H-II Transfer Vehicle](https://www.britannica.com/technology/H-II-Transfer-Vehicle) (HTV, from 2009 to 2020) and HTV-X (from 2025), and two commercial cargo vehicles, [SpaceX’s](https://www.britannica.com/money/SpaceX) [Dragon](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dragon-spacecraft) (from 2010) and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s [Cygnus](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Cygnus-spacecraft) (from 2013). A new American crew capsule, SpaceX’s [Crew Dragon](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dragon-2), had its first flight to the ISS in 2020. Prior to Crew Dragon, all astronauts used Soyuz spacecraft to reach the ISS. Crew Dragon carried four astronauts to the station, and the ISS was then able to [accommodate](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/accommodate) a crew of seven. A Russian science module, Nauka, was added to the station in 2021. The [Boeing Company](https://www.britannica.com/money/Boeing-Company)’s CST-100 [Starliner](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Boeing-Starliner) had its first crewed test flight on June 5, 2024. However, during the flight to the ISS, five thrusters failed, and helium leaks were detected in its propulsion system. NASA delayed Starliner’s return to [Earth](https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth) until it was sure that the craft could reenter safely. The two Starliner astronauts, commander Barry Wilmore and pilot [Sunita Williams](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sunita-Williams), had been scheduled to be in space for about a week. They returned to Earth on a Crew Dragon on March 18, 2025, after NASA returned the Starliner to Earth empty. More than 280 astronauts from 26 different countries have visited the ISS. Astronauts typically stay on the ISS for about six months. The return of a Soyuz to Earth marks the end of an ISS [Expedition](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Expedition), and the command of the ISS is transferred to another astronaut. However, a few astronauts have spent much longer times on the ISS. On a special mission called “A Year in Space,” Russian cosmonaut [Mikhail Korniyenko](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mikhail-Korniyenko) and American astronaut [Scott Kelly](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Scott-Kelly) spent 340 days in orbit from March 2015 to March 2016. Kelly’s flight was the longest by an American. (Since Kelly’s brother, [Mark](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Kelly), was his identical twin, as well as a former astronaut himself, scientists were able to use Mark as a baseline for how the long [spaceflight](https://www.britannica.com/science/spaceflight) had changed Scott.) In 2017 Russia temporarily cut the number of its ISS crew from three to two, and American astronaut [Peggy Whitson](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Peggy-Whitson) extended her mission to 289 days, which at that time was the longest single spaceflight by a woman, so the station would have a full crew of six. Whitson has been to the ISS on three other flights and in total has spent more than 675 days in space, a record for an American and a woman. Whitson’s longest consecutive spaceflight record was [surpassed](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/surpassed) by American astronaut [Christina Koch](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christina-Koch), who spent 328 days on the ISS from March 2019 to February 2020. During that time Koch and American astronaut [Jessica Meir](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jessica-Meir) performed the first all-female [space walk](https://www.britannica.com/science/spacewalk). Russian cosmonaut Pyotr Dubrov and American astronaut [Mark Vande Hei](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Vande-Hei) stayed on the station for 355 days from April 2021 to March 2022. Vande Hei broke Kelly’s record for longest American spaceflight. The ISS has also been a destination for [space tourists](https://www.britannica.com/topic/space-tourism). The first such, American businessman [Dennis Tito](https://www.britannica.com/money/Dennis-Tito), flew to the ISS on a Soyuz spacecraft on April 28, 2001. (Tito objected to the term space tourist, and since his flight the term spaceflight participant has been more often used to distinguish space travelers from career astronauts.) Eight other individuals paid for seats on Soyuz flights to ISS between 2002 and 2021. Beginning in 2022, the American company [Axiom](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Axiom) Space has chartered flights on Crew Dragon spacecraft to the ISS. On some Axiom flights, the passengers have been astronauts whose seat was paid for by their country’s space agency, such as Indian astronaut [Shubhanshu Shukla](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shubhanshu-Shukla), who flew to the ISS on Axiom Mission 4 on June 25, 2025. Astronauts on chartered flights typically only stay on the ISS for a few weeks. The United States, ESA, Japan, and Canada have not definitively decided when the program will end, but in 2021 the [Joe Biden](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joe-Biden) administration indicated that the program would receive U.S. support through 2030. The ESA, Japan, and Canada have also committed to support the ISS through 2030. Russia announced that it would support the station through 2028 and then begin work on its own orbital space station.
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