🕷️ Crawler Inspector

URL Lookup

Direct Parameter Lookup

Raw Queries and Responses

1. Shard Calculation

Query:

Response:

Calculated Shard: 62 (from laksa104)

2. Crawled Status Check

Query:

curl -X POST \
  'http://laksa062.int.ahrefs:8124/' \
  -H 'Content-Type: text/plain' \
  -H 'X-ClickHouse-Database: crawler3' \
  -H 'Authorization: Basic YXBpOg==' \
  -d 'SELECT getAhrefsURLFromUnparsed(src_unparsed) AS found_url, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(download_stamp), 0) AS crawl_time, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(props_url_first_seen), 0) AS first_indexed_time, download_http_code AS http_code, src_unparsed AS src_unparsed, src_root_hash AS src_root_hash, history_drop_reason AS history_drop_reason, meta_title AS meta_title, meta_descriptions AS meta_descriptions, attrs_boilerpipe_text AS attrs_boilerpipe_text, attrs_markdown AS attrs_markdown, attrs_readable_markdown AS attrs_readable_markdown, meta_canonical AS meta_canonical FROM crawler3.page_info_local FINAL PREWHERE (src_root_hash, src_unparsed) IN ((getAhrefsRootHashFromUnparsed(getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri\')), getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri\'))) FORMAT JSONEachRow'

Response:

{"found_url":"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri","crawl_time":1775189881,"first_indexed_time":1494118066,"http_code":200,"src_unparsed":"com,britannica!www,\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri s443","src_root_hash":"5455945239613777662","history_drop_reason":null,"meta_title":"Maha Shivaratri | Shiva, Mythology, Hinduism, Shiva Puja, Celebration, & Lingam | Britannica","meta_descriptions":["Maha Shivaratri (‘Great Night of Shiva’) is an important festival for the worship of the Hindu god Shiva that occurs in February–March."],"attrs_boilerpipe_text":"Top Questions\nWhat is Shiva the god of in Hinduism?\nWhy is Shiva called the destroyer?\nWhat are some forms in which Shiva is represented?\nWho are Shiva’s family members?\nWhat is the origin of Shiva?\nWhat are some of the most important stories about Shiva?\nWhat festivals involve Shiva and how is he worshipped?\nNews\n•\nShiva\n,  one of the main deities of\nHinduism\n, whom\nShaiva\nHindus worship as the supreme god. Shiva is a complex figure,\nencompassing\ndiverse\nroles, abilities, personalities, paths of devotion, and stories. Within the Hindu\nTrimurti\n, he is the destroyer of the universe who dances the world to dissolution, following the work of\nBrahma\nthe creator and\nVishnu\nthe preserver. However, for Shaiva Hindus, Shiva is supreme and serves in all three cosmological roles. On a personal level, he can be counted on to assist devotees in daily life and to grant them liberation (\nmoksha\n) from the cycle of rebirth (\nsamsara\n). Also known for his prowess as a yogi and an\nascetic\n, he is considered the first teacher of\nyoga\npractice. In some instances, he dwells on\nMount Kailash\n, and in others, he dwells and dances in\ncremation\ngrounds and is covered in ash.\nMyths\nof Shiva’s exploits, drawn from multiple textual sources, are well known across Hinduism. Shiva is typically worshipped in the\naniconic form\nof a\nlingam\n. Prominent\ntemples\ndedicated to this multifaceted deity can be found throughout\nIndia\nand the Hindu\ndiaspora\n.\nEarly history\nPashupati seal\nSeal depicting a figure that may be an early form of Shiva, from the Indus valley civilization; in the National Museum of India, New Delhi.\nThe antiquity of Shiva is a contested subject. A seal from the\nIndus valley civilization\n(c. 2600–1900 \nbce\n) bears an image of a seated figure surrounded by animals that some observers cite as evidence of a so-called “proto-Shiva.” The seal, recovered from\nMohenjo-daro\n, is popularly called the Pashupati seal, for Shiva’s\nepithet\nmeaning “Lord of Cattle.” The main image consists of a figure wearing a large headdress who is surrounded by animals and seated cross-legged—possibly in meditation—thus\nbearing\na resemblance to later depictions of\nascetic\nShiva. However, many scholars question whether this ancient seal, with markings in an\nundeciphered script\n, can reliably be said to depict Shiva. They suggest that any perceived likeness to Shiva is insufficient proof and that knowledge of the Indus valley civilization is too incomplete for a definitive identification.\nOne of Shiva’s epithets is\nRudra\n(“Howler”), which is the name of an ancient Vedic deity from whom Shiva partially evolved. In the\nVedas\n(1500–1200\nbce\n), Rudra appears rarely in the form of a\nmarginal\nand fearsome being who is excluded from taking a share in the Vedic sacrifices; he gets only the polluting remainder to avoid his wrath. Yet Rudra is also a healer in these early Hindu texts. One of his most prominent appearances is in the\nShatarudriya\n(“Belonging to Hundred Rudras”), a text of the Taittiriya Samhita in the\nKrishna\n(Black) Yajur\nVeda\n. By the time of the\nBrahmanas\n(900–700 \nbce\n), Rudra begins to emerge as a more significant divinity. He is honored as the supreme deity in the\nShvetashvatara Upanishad\n, one of the first theistic\nUpanishads\n, which is dated to the last centuries before the Common Era. It is in that text that Rudra is first called Shiva.\nBritannica Quiz\nWorld Religions & Traditions\nKey myths\nShiva and Parvati\nStatues of the divine couple Shiva and Parvati, joined by their elephant-headed son, Ganesha, installed in a temple cave in Namchi, Sikkim, India.\nShiva emerges as a supreme deity in the\nHindu epics and Puranas\n. The key myths of his exploits and nature appear in these texts, often with slight variations in each telling. He is not central in the\nRamayana\nand\nMahabharata\nepics, but his role as a high divinity with a complex mythology is readily apparent. He is featured in numerous\nPuranas\n; indeed, some Puranas are strictly Shaiva in orientation. Certain commonly known stories about Shiva, among the\nmyriad\nthat exist in Hindu literature, are part of the essential vocabulary of Hinduism.\nDestruction of Daksha’s sacrifice and the death of Sati\nThe story of Shiva’s destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice narrates simultaneously the god’s journey from exclusion from Vedic\nsacrifice\nto inclusion in the Hindu pantheon. Daksha is a son of\nBrahma\n, one of the creators (a\nPrajapati\n), and the father of\nSati\n, who is Shiva’s wife. Daksha holds a great sacrifice in honor of the gods, but the gods, or Daksha independently (depending on the telling), neglect to invite Daksha’s son-in-law, Shiva. Enraged by the slight, Shiva destroys Daksha’s sacrifice, in essence sacrificing the sacrifice and making it complete. The result of this act, despite its destructive\ntreatment\nof a Vedic sacrifice, is that Shiva is firmly incorporated as a major Hindu deity.\nGoddess Sati carried by Shiva\nShiva Carrying the Dead Sati\n, watercolor on paper from Calcutta (now Kolkata), 19th century; in the Philadelphia Art Museum.\nSati, however, is deeply insulted by her father’s exclusion of her husband from the sacrifice—so much so that, according to some accounts, she self-immolates, an act that is often cited as the mythological origin of\nsati\n, or widow burning (although, contrary to that practice, her husband Shiva remains very much alive). Dismayed by her death, Shiva weeps terribly as he carries her body. In some myths, Vishnu dismembers the corpse; in others, the gods in general do, and wherever the pieces of her body fall, they turn into places of\nworship\n, known as the Shakti Pithas, which are important sites for Shakti worship. Shiva, saddened by his consort Sati’s death, then goes into a long, deep\nmeditation\n(\ntapas\n).\nBurning of Kama and marriage of Parvati\nShiva burns Kama with his third eye\nMadan-Bhasma\n(“Kama [Madana] Turned to Ash”; listed as “Madan-Bhasma (Shiva Turns to Ashes”), lithograph from India, 1890; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.\nWhile Shiva is deep in meditation, the goddess\nParvati\n—the daughter of the mountain Himavat (\nHimalaya\n) and considered to be a reincarnation of Sati—engages in intense meditation to acquire Shiva as her husband, only to be foiled because Shiva is no longer interested in worldly affairs or marriage. Meanwhile, the gods are afflicted by the demon Taraka, and they require the son of Shiva and Parvati, to be called \nSkanda\n, to kill the demon. \nIndra\n, king of the gods, approaches\nKama\n, god of desire, for help in diverting Shiva’s attentions from\ncelibate\nmeditation to desire for Parvati. When Kama shoots his flowery arrow of\nlove\nto break Shiva’s meditation and draw his attention to Parvati, an angered Shiva opens his third eye and burns Kama to ashes. A distressed Rati, Kama’s wife and the personification of passion, performs penance and pleads with Shiva to bring her husband back to life. Shiva obliges, although he revives Kama in disembodied (\nananga\n) form.\nGo beyond the basics with trusted, in-depth knowledge for professionals, students, and lifelong learners.\nSUBSCRIBE\nWedding of Shiva and Parvati\nShiva and Parvati's wedding, with the Hindu god Brahma officiating, relief in the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India.\nThe wedding of Shiva and Parvati is described as a grand affair attended by the gods. Afterward Shiva and Parvati engage in years of amorous play, as poetically described in 5th-century poet and playwright\nKalidasa\n’s epic poem\nKumarasambhava\n(“Birth of Kumara [Skanda]”). The gods, however, still needing to defeat the demon Taraka, interrupt the couple’s play. The six-headed Skanda is then born of Shiva’s\nsemen\n, which is unbearable to all beings, and is taken up in the mouth of the god of fire,\nAgni\n, and transferred first to the river\nGanges\nand then to six of the stars in the\nPleiades\ncluster—the Krittikas—which are the wives of the\ncelestial\nsages. In other variants, Skanda is born from Shiva’s semen, dropped into the Ganges, and then raised by the Krittikas—hence his alternate name Karttikeya.\nThe submarine mare\nJust as Shiva’s semen needs to be contained to avoid harm to other gods, his power to destroy the universe is evident early but requires containment until the right moment. The fire of anger with which Shiva burned Kama threatens to burn out of control and destroy the universe. So the sages of the world go to Brahma, seeking refuge. Brahma manages to contain the fire of Shiva’s anger, places that fire inside a mare with a flaming mouth (\nvadavagni\n), and takes it to the ocean. The ocean emerges in the form of a man to speak with Brahma. Brahma requests that the ocean contain the mare with Shiva’s anger until the final dissolution of the world (\npralaya\n). Shiva’s capacity to destroy is thus contained until the proper time.\nBirth of Ganesha\nGanesha\nA Ganesha shrine with devotional objects, outside the Shiva Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India.\nAs in many of the other stories, Shiva’s anger is a main\ncatalyst\nof the birth of the elephant-headed god\nGanesha\n. One of the best-known myths of Ganesha’s birth begins with Parvati taking a bath and longing for someone to keep Shiva from barging in on her, as was his habit. As she bathes, she kneads the dirt that she rubs off her body into the shape of a child, who comes to life. But when Shiva sees the handsome young boy, he (or one of his attendants) cuts off the child’s head. Parvati is deeply saddened by this act, and the gods request that Shiva find a replacement. When Shiva cuts off an\nelephant\n’s head to bestow it on the headless Ganesha, one of the tusks is shattered, and Ganesha is depicted holding the broken-off piece in one of his hands. According to this version of the\nmyth\n, Ganesha is the child of Parvati alone—indeed, a child born despite Shiva’s negative intervention. Yet Ganesha is traditionally regarded as the child of both Shiva and Parvati. As the remover of obstacles, he is one of the most popular of Hindu deities, and he is traditionally worshipped prior to embarking on any endeavor or performing any ritual.\nBhairava\nBhairava\nA Nepali devotee performing rituals at the Kala Bhairava temple in Basantapur Durbar Square, Kathmandu, Nepal.\nAs his fierce form,\nBhairava\n, Shiva’s affiliation with death, destruction, and cremation grounds comes to the fore. The most prominent Puranic myths of Bhairava associate him with the\nKapalika\ntradition of Shaiva\nascetics\n. According to these myths, the god \nBrahma\n, who is traditionally known to have four heads, originally had five. Stories then diverge in their details: In some, the fifth head makes insulting comments about Shiva; in others, Brahma’s fifth head is\narrogant\n. In response, Shiva emanates Bhairava and commands him to remove Brahma’s insulting head. Bhairava removes Brahma’s fifth head with his thumbnail, but he is then guilty of killing a Brahmin—among the worst crimes a person can commit in Hinduism. The\nskull\nsticks to Bhairava’s hand, and, as he seeks penance for his sin, it becomes his begging bowl until it falls off in \nVaranasi\n at a location that later became a center for Bhairava worship and an important site for Hindu cremation practices.\nDestruction of Tripura\nYet in some myths, Shiva’s fiery nature is necessary for defeating demons. The myth of Shiva’s destruction of the triple city (Tripura) tells of three fortified cities ruled by the \nasura\n brothers Tarakaksha, Kamalaksha, and Vidyunmali. Granted a boon by Brahma, the moving cities are impenetrable and can be destroyed only when aligned, once every thousand years. The demons take over the universe and\nmorality\nerodes, necessitating divine action. When the moment arrives, Shiva fires a single arrow from the Pinaka bow (his special weapon), destroying the demons and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil.\nShiva’s blue throat\nGods and demons churning the cosmic ocean\nThe Churning of the Ocean of Milk\n, depicting demons (\nasura\ns) on the right and gods (\ndeva\ns) on the left, ink and opaque watercolor on paper, from Mandi, Punjab Hills, India, c. 1780–90; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.\nIn contrast to these myths of Shiva’s destructive forms, other stories depict Shiva as the great protector. This role is especially clear in the story behind his blue throat, which earned him the name Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”). During the myth of the\nSamudra Manthana\n(“Churning of the Ocean”), as the gods and demons attempt to retrieve the\namrita\n(elixir of immortality), using the\nnaga\nVasuki as a\nchurning\nrope, Vasuki’s head vomits forth poison that threatens to fall into the ocean and contaminate the \namrita\n. But Shiva takes the poison and holds it in his throat, a feat that saves the world but, as a side effect, turns his throat blue.\nDescent of the Ganges\nDescent of the Ganges\nThe descent of the Ganges, sometimes called “Arjuna's Penance,” rock-cut relief; in Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.\nA similar myth illustrating Shiva’s protective role relates to his breaking the fall of the celestial\nGanges River\nas it plummets from heaven to earth. The Ganges is the celestial river in heaven (sometimes identified with the\nMilky Way\n) but descends at the request of the sage Bhagiratha to redeem his ancestors. His ancestors were the 60,000 sons of Sagara (“Ocean”) who went in search of Sagara’s stolen sacrificial horse and dug deep into the subterranean region (creating the ocean) but annoyed the sage\nKapila\n. Kapila cursed them, turned them into ash, and declared that they could be redeemed only by the celestial river. Bhagiratha journeys to the Himalayas and performs penance for 10,000 years. Shiva respects his meditation and becomes gracious, allowing the Ganges to descend from the sky. But out of a concern that the celestial river would crush the earth, Shiva catches the Ganges in his matted locks. Bhagiratha then continues his penance for another 10,000 years, until Shiva permits it to descend to the earth. This story illustrates both Shiva’s\nbenevolence\nand his favorable treatment of those who engage in\nascetic\npractice.\nThe crescent moon in his hair\nShiva\nA large statue of Shiva, outside the Shivoham Shiva Temple, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The mountainous background makes the god appear to be meditating in the Himalayas.\nShiva’s hair hosts an image of the crescent moon, and the god is closely associated with the moon and Monday (Sanskrit: Somavara). According to a myth and\nastrology\nrecounted in the epic \nMahabharata\n, there are 27 \nnakshatra\ns\n(lunar mansions), which are the daughters of Daksha. All the daughters are married to Chandra, the moon, but he favors only one of them, Rohini. When the other daughters complain to their father about the moon’s favoritism, Daksha curses the moon to wane and become emaciated. However, the moon’s dimmed status causes the herbs to dry up, which afflicts the animals, and they begin to waste away. In some versions of the myth, the gods ask Daksha to\nwithdraw\nthe curse, but instead he modifies it to make the moon wax and wane each month, which explains the lunar phases, and to spend equal time with his 27 wives, which explains the monthly cycle. In some tellings, such as in the\nShiva Purana\n, it is Shiva who intervenes on the moon’s behalf, devises this solution, and becomes the moon’s protector, Someshvara (“Lord of the Moon”).\nLingam myths and interpretations\nSacred ice lingam\nAn ice stalagmite revered as a lingam, inside the Amarnath cave, in the Himalayas in the Anantnag district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Formed naturally from dripping water, the ice lingam draws thousands of devotees during the annual Amarnath\nyatra\n.\nThe representation of Shiva in the form of a\nlingam\nhas multiple mythological roots with two distinct interpretations and many further variations. In some myths, the lingam is a pillar of fire and light and an abstract representation of the deity; in other myths, however, the lingam is Shiva’s phallus. The lingam is either abstract or physical. The tendency in modern Hinduism is to prefer the interpretation of the lingam as an abstract\nsymbol\n. Even in the myths where it is more explicitly a phallus, there is a certain\ntrepidation\nabout this association that relates to the long-standing tension of Shiva as simultaneously erotic and ascetic, physical and divine, all too human and far beyond human.\nShiva’s lingam is clearly a phallus in the story of his encounter with sages in the Pine Forest. As these sages, sons of Brahma, are practicing\nasceticism\n, Shiva enters their encampment, meaning to show them grace, but he appears naked, covered in ash, with a frightening appearance while dancing and screaming in a terrifying manner. The wives of the sages, however, become enchanted by him. Angered by his behavior, the sages\ncurse\nhis lingam (phallus) to fall off. In other versions, Shiva chooses to remove his lingam. In a story in the\nMahabharata\n, Brahma instructs Shiva to create creatures, which he does, but he finds them imperfect, so he hides in water. Becoming impatient, Brahma asks another creator being (a Prajapati) to do the job. Shiva later emerges from the water, finds the creatures created and thriving, and, in a rage, he tears off his lingam and throws it on the ground, declaring it now useless.\nLingodbhavamurti\nA lingam of Shiva depicting the story of his appearance as an endless pillar of fire, located in a temple from the 12th century, Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, India.\nThe story of the lingam as a pillar of light, often depicted as a\nlingodbhavamurti\n, begins with the gods Vishnu and Brahma debating their respective importance, each claiming to be the superior god. Shiva appears in the form of a blazing pillar to\nquell\ntheir pride. In response, Brahma takes the form of a swan and flies upward to see if he can find the top of the pillar, and Vishnu takes the form of a boar and dives below to find its source. Neither is successful, and both are compelled to recognize Shiva’s priority and superiority.\nFollowing these dual interpretations, images of the lingam can also be either phallic or abstract aniconic pillars. In temples and in private shrines, Shiva is also worshipped in the form of the\nlingam\n, a cylindrical votary object that is often embedded in a\nyoni\n, or spouted dish. The yoni (also the Sanskrit word for “vulva”) represents Shakti, the female cosmic power. The union of lingam and yoni is said to symbolize the union of Shiva and Parvati and of the eternal process of creation and regeneration. Regardless of this sexual\nresonance\nin some texts and theologies, in modern Hinduism, lingams of Shiva are read as aniconic, representing Shiva’s divinity in an abstract way. That strand is centuries old, too; the images on\nlingodbhavamurti\ns portray Vishnu and Brahma seeking the farthest reaches of Shiva’s divine pillar of light.\nForms, iconography, and family\nEpithets of Shiva\nShiva is a god of many names, as are most\nHindu deities\n. Hindu sources often enumerate the 108 names of Shiva, or even the thousand names of Shiva. In many texts he referred to by various names within the course of merely a few sentences, which reflects the deity’s multitudinous powers, natures, and mythologies. The following\nabridged\nlist of Shiva’s many epithets illustrates his range and can be useful for navigating the ways this polyonymous deity appears in texts, speech, and temples through history and across India.\nShambhu\n(“Benign”)\nShankara\n(“Beneficent”)\nMahesha\n(“Great Lord”)\nMahadeva\n(“Great God”)\nParameshvara\n(“Supreme God”)\nVishvanatha\n(“Lord of the Universe”)\nBhava\n(“Existence”)\nMahakala\n(“Great Time”)\nSthanu\n(“Standing Firm”)\nPashupati\n(“Lord of Cattle”)\nNataraja\n(“Lord of the Dance”)\nBhole\n(“Innocent”)\nBholenath\n(“Lord of the Innocent”)\nRudra\n(“Howler”)\nHara\n(“Destroyer” or “Seizer”)\nUgra\n(“Fierce”)\nShmashanavasin\n(“He Who Dwells in a Cremation Ground”)\nKamari\n(“Enemy of Kama”)\nTripurari\n(“Enemy of Tripura”)\nVaidyanatha\n(“Lord of Physicians”)\nNilakantha\n(“Blue Throat”)\nGangadhara\n(“Receiver of the\nGanges\n”)\nChandrasekhara\n(“Moon-Crested” Lord)\nSomnath\n(“Lord of the Moon”)\nTrilochana\n(“Three-Eyed” Lord)\nTryambaka\n(“Three-Eyed” Lord)\nKapardin\n(“He Who Has Matted Locks”)\nDakshinamurti\n(“Lord Who Faces South”)\nShiva is represented in a variety of forms: in a pacific mood with his consort\nParvati\nand son\nSkanda\n, as the cosmic dancer (\nNataraja\n), as a naked ascetic, as a mendicant beggar, as a yogi, as a demonic\nTantric\nbeing (\nBhairava\n) accompanied by a dog, and as the\nandrogynous\nunion of Shiva and his consort in one body, half-male and half-female (\nArdhanarishvara\n). He is both the great ascetic and the master of fertility, and he is the master of both poison and medicine, through his ambivalent power over snakes. As Lord of Cattle (\nPashupata\n), he is the\nbenevolent\nherdsman—or, at times, the merciless slaughterer of the “beasts” that are the human souls in his care. As Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”), he is the revered first teacher or\nguru\n, especially of\nyogic\npractice. Although some of the combinations of roles may be explained by Shiva’s identification with earlier mythological figures, they arise primarily from a tendency in Hinduism to see complementary qualities in a single\nambiguous\nfigure.\nShiva is usually depicted in painting and sculpture as white (from the ashes of cremated corpses that are smeared on his body) with a blue neck (from holding in his throat the\nhalahala\npoison that emerged at the\nChurning of the Ocean\n, which threatened to destroy the world), his hair arranged in a coil of matted locks (\njatamakuta\n) and adorned with the crescent moon and the Ganges. Shiva has three eyes, the third eye bestowing inward vision but capable of burning destruction (as\nKama\nexperienced) when focused outward. He wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his neck, and he carries in his two (sometimes four) hands a deerskin, a trident, a small hand drum, or a club with a skull at the end. Shiva’s weapon, the trident (\ntrishula\n), was\nforged\nby the god\nVishvakarma\n. Shiva is also often depicted wearing or sitting upon a tiger hide and often perched in meditation in his Himalayan home on\nMount Kailash\n.\nShiva Nataraja\nShiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja)\n, bronze, from southern India, Chola period, 901–1100; in the Art Institute of Chicago.\nIn images of Shiva as Nataraja, he is shown with four arms and flying locks dancing on a diminutive figure, who is sometimes identified as demon Apasmara (a symbol of human ignorance; \napasmara\n means “forgetfulness” or “heedlessness”). Shiva’s back right hand holds the \ndamaru\n (hourglass-shaped drum); the front right hand is in the \nabhaya\n \nmudra\n (the “fear-not” gesture, made by holding the palm outward with fingers pointing up); the back left hand carries \nAgni\n (fire) in a\nvessel\nor in the palm of the hand; and the front left hand is held across his chest in the \ngajahasta\n (\nelephant\n-trunk) pose, with wrist limp and fingers pointed downward toward the uplifted left foot. Shiva is shown as the source of all movement within the cosmos and as the god whose doomsday dance (\ntandava\n), represented by the arch of flames, accompanies the dissolution of the universe at the end of an eon. The gestures of the dance represent Shiva’s five activities (\npanchakritya\n): creation (symbolized by the drum), protection (by the “fear-not” pose of the hand), destruction (by the fire), embodiment (by the foot planted on the ground), and\nmoksha\n(by the foot held aloft).\nShiva is commonly depicted with his family. His female consort is known under various\nmanifestations\nas Uma,\nSati\n, Parvati,\nDurga\n, and\nKali\n; Shiva is also sometimes paired with\nShakti\n, the embodiment of power. The divine couple, together with their sons—\nSkanda\nand the elephant-headed\nGanesha\n—are said to dwell on\nMount Kailasa\nin the\nHimalayas\n. Shiva’s vehicle in the world, his\nvahana\n, is the\nbull\nNandi\n; a sculpture of Nandi sits opposite the main sanctuary of many Shiva\ntemples\n.\nShiva and Shakti: The divine couple\nCarving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage\nThe Marriage of Shiva and Parvati: The Wedding of the Charming One\n, plaque of carved ivory with traces of tamarind juice, from Madurai, southern India, 1766; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.\nThe deep connection between Shiva and his consort\nParvati\n(also called Shakti) appears frequently in Hindu\npoetry\nand\nIndian philosophy\n. The first\nshloka\nof 5th-century poet and playwright\nKalidasa\n’s\nRaghuvamsha\npraises the pair at the\ninception\nof his poetic production.\nFor mastery of word and meaning, I venerate the parents of the world,\nWho are entwined together like word and meaning: Parvati and Parameshvara.\nShiva’s reliance on Shakti is expressed in the opening line of\nSaundarya Lahari\n(“Flood of Beauty”), a poem to Shakti attributed to\nShankara\n, the revered 8th-century\nAdvaita Vedanta\nphilosopher.\nIf Śiva is united with Śakti, he is able to exert his powers as lord;\nIf not, the god is not able to stir.\nWorship, holidays, and temples\nParalleling Shiva’s dual role as an ascetic and erotic figure, devotees of Shiva (\nShaivas\n) generally fall into either lay worshippers or mendicants. The tension between\nhouseholders and renouncers\nis long-standing in Hinduism, and Shiva\nencompasses\nboth. Lay worshippers generally approach and propitiate Shiva in a manner similar to Hindu devotional activities performed for other gods, although specific rites and regulations can vary widely across India. Shaivas visit temples, they pray, and they give offerings to the god. Worshippers of Shiva are also known for marking their foreheads with a\ntilaka\n, a mark of ash in three horizontal stripes (called\ntripundra\n).\nShiva is known in\nbhakti\ntraditions for his capacity to grant liberation (\nmoksha\n) to devotees with his divine grace, often for even the most minimal signs of devotion and without regard to\ncaste\nor to\nritual\nformalities. An oft-cited example is that of Kannappa, a\nNayanar\nsaint who was born a member of an outcaste tribal group of hunters. He finds a Shiva lingam in the forest and is moved to worship it. Yet he does not offer it the typical\nBrahmin\nofferings; he kicks away offerings from a Brahmin (the touch of the foot is seen as polluting) and instead offers meat (also polluting) and even spits on the lingam (also a polluting act). The Brahmin returns and is angry. Then Shiva makes his own eye bleed, whereupon Kannappa plucks out his own eye and replaces Shiva’s with it. Shiva extends his blessing to Kannappa, and the hunter merges with the god. Love for the deity proves more significant than outward ritual purity.\nMonastic and ascetic followers of Shiva have a lengthy and varied history: Over nearly two millennia they have adhered to numerous different schools of thought and practice. Some of these schools have pursued comparatively extreme paths to spiritual liberation, having gone beyond what is typically considered Hindu orthodoxy. The earliest recorded Shaiva worshippers were the\nPashupatas\n, who likely emerged about the 2nd century\nce\n. These Brahmin celibate ascetics acted in antisocial ways, including living in cremation grounds, in order to achieve eventual union with Shiva. Later,\nKapalika and Kalamukha\ngroups also pursued\nesoteric\nrituals and contributed to the development of\nTantric\nritual practices. The\nShaiva Siddhanta\nschool was an influential form of\nShaivism\nin southern India that borrowed from bhakti traditions and emphasized the soul’s bondage in reality. For Shaiva Siddhantas, the goal of ascetic practice is to gain proximity to Shiva and a Shiva-like status. In\nKashmiri Shaivism\nthe goal is to attain recognition of one’s identity with Shiva.\nNot all subsets of Shaivas are ascetic, however. For example, the\nLingayats\n(or Virashaivas) in southern India, particularly in\nKarnataka\n, developed from the bhakti tradition. Their movement was founded by 12th-century reformer\nBasava\n. They are noted for wearing small lingams on necklaces as well as for rejecting the\ncaste\nsystem, the authority of the\nVedas\n, the\ntransmigration of souls\n, and various Hindu social norms. In the early 21st century some Lingayats began to call for a separate religious identity apart from Hinduism.\nMaha Shivaratri\nis the most important holiday of the year for Shaiva Hindus. The 14th day of the dark half (waning moon) of each lunar month is especially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurs in the month of Magha (January–February) and especially in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it is an observance of particular rejoicing known as Maha Shivaratri (“Great Night of Shiva”), which is celebrated in different ways across India. The holiday\ncommemorates\nvarious events in Shiva’s mythology, including the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, the emergence of the lingam (\nlingodbhava\n), Shiva’s swallowing of poison during the Churning of the Ocean, or his destruction of Tripura. For some Hindus,\nHoli\nmemorializes Shiva’s burning of Kama, and\nDiwali\ncelebrates a game of dice between Shiva and Parvati. The month of Shravana (July–August) is also considered holy to Shiva, specifically Mondays during that month. Shiva’s role as the first teacher or\nguru\nis cited as one of the origins of the holiday\nGuru Purnima\n, a festival to honor spiritual and academic teachers and mentors.\nTemples\ndevoted to Shiva can be found throughout India, neighboring countries in\nSouth Asia\n, and across the Indian\ndiaspora\n. Of particular importance are the 12\njyotirlinga\ns, or columns of light, which are sacred places where Shiva is said to have self-manifested as a column of light.\nSanskrit:\n“Auspicious One”\nAlso spelled:\nŚiva, Shiv, or Śiwa\nNageshwar Temple (near\nDwarka\n, Gujarat)\nGhrishneshwar Temple (near the\nEllora Caves\n, Maharashtra)\nTrimbakeshwar Temple (near the source of the\nGodavari River\n, India)\nBrihadishvara Temple\nThe central\nvimana\n(spire) of Brihadishvara Temple towering over the temple's courtyard and the city of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India, as seen by looking to the northeast.\nSome other notable temples devoted to Shiva are the\nBrihadishvara Temple\n(\nThanjavur\n, Tamil Nadu), the Nataraja Temple (\nChidambaram\n, Tamil Nadu), the\nAmarnath Temple\n(\nAnantnag\n district, \nJammu and Kashmir\n), the\nPashupatinath Temple\n(\nKathmandu\n,\nNepal\n), and Lara Jonggrang (\nPrambanan\n,\nIndonesia\n).","attrs_markdown":"[![Encyclopedia 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History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri\/additional-info)  [Related Topics](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/facts\/Maha-shivaratri)\n\n[Images](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri\/images-videos)\n\n[![Maha Shivaratri ritual](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/269165-004-E4A4013D\/Shivling-with-bel-fruit-offerings-Maha-Shivratri-Hindu-festival-Shiva.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/269165-050-B0FCD22F\/Shivling-with-bel-fruit-offerings-Maha-Shivratri-Hindu-festival-Shiva.jpg)  [![Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-004-15EC94B0\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)  [![Maha Shivaratri fair](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/269166-004-C2C593E6\/Maha-Shivratri-parade-gods-on-palanquins-Mandi-Himachal-Pradesh-Shiva-Hindu-festival.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/269166-050-513DAEA2\/Maha-Shivratri-parade-gods-on-palanquins-Mandi-Himachal-Pradesh-Shiva-Hindu-festival.jpg)  [![Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/269167-004-CB7C49B7\/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/269167-050-B4A8ED78\/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg)\n\nQuizzes\n\n[![A woman and her daughter smear color powder on one another's face on Holi, the Indian festival of colors.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/11\/232411-131-6E1C57A3\/woman-daughter-color-power-Holi-celebration.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/hindu-holiday-quiz)\n\n[Hindu Holiday 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Shivaratri\nHindu festival\n\nHomework Help\n\nWritten by\n\n[Anoushka Pant Anoushka Pant holds a degree in elementary education, with a focus on mathematics, education, and psychology, from Miranda House, University of Delhi.](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/anoushka-pant\/13086400)\n\nAnoushka Pant\n\nFact-checked by\n\n[Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica\/4419)\n\nBritannica Editors\n\nLast updated\n\nMar. 30, 2026\n\n•[History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri\/additional-info#history)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-178\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5) Britannica AI\n\nAsk Anything\n\nTable of Contents\n\nTable of Contents\n\nAsk Anything\n\nTop Questions\n\n### What is Maha Shivaratri?\nMaha Shivaratri is the most important sectarian festival for devotees of the [Hindu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism) god [Shiva](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva), celebrated on the 14th day of the dark half of the [lunar month](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-calendar#ref391917), especially in Magha and Phalguna (February–March according to the [Gregorian calendar](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Gregorian-calendar)).\n\n### What is the significance of Maha Shivaratri?\nDevotees believe worship on Maha Shivaratri provides extraordinary religious and worldly benefits, including spiritual rewards and getting closer to achieving *[moksha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion)* (liberation).\n\n### What are some legends associated with Maha Shivaratri?\nLegends associated with Maha Shivaratri include the divine marriage of [Shiva](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva) and [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati), the emergence of the Shiva lingam, Shiva consuming poison during [Samudra Manthana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk), and Shiva destroying the cities of Tripura.\n\n**Maha Shivaratri**, the most important sectarian [festival](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/feast-religion) of the year for devotees of the [Hindu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism) god [Shiva](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva). The 14th day of the dark half (waning moon) of each lunar month is specially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurs in the month of [Magha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Magha-Indian-Sanskrit-poet) (January–February) and especially in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it is an observance of particular rejoicing. The preceding day the participant observes a fast and at night a vigil during which a special worship of the [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam) (symbol of Shiva) is performed along with prayer and relating [myths](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/myths) about Shiva. The following day is celebrated with feasting, festival fairs, and, among the members of the South Indian [Lingayat](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Lingayat) sect, the giving of gifts to the [guru](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/guru-Hinduism) (personal spiritual guide). Devotees believe that worship on this night provides extraordinary religious and worldly benefits.\n\n## Mythology\n[![Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)\n\n[Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)Shiva and Parvati's wedding, with the Hindu god Brahma officiating, relief in the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India.\n\n(more)\n\nMaha Shivaratri originates from Hindu mythology, with multiple [legends](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/legends) explaining its cosmic and spiritual significance. Like many Hindu festivals, it is linked to a few different narratives, reflecting the tradition’s openness to multiple truths. The focus is on devotion and worship rather than a single definitive story.\n\n- **Marriage of Shiva and [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati):** According to the *Shiva [Purana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Purana)*, a sacred Hindu text, Maha Shivaratri [commemorates](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/commemorates) the divine [marriage](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/marriage) of Shiva, associated with [consciousness](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/consciousness), and Hindu goddess Parvati, representing Shakti (energy), a central concept in [Shaivism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism) (Shaivite tradition).\n- **Emergence of the Shiva lingam:** The *Linga Purana* links the festival to *lingodbhava* (the emergence of the lingam), symbolizing Shiva’s formless and [infinite](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/infinite) nature. This [manifestation](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/manifestation) is associated with the Jyotirlingas, sacred shrines dedicated to Shiva across India, symbolizing his infinite nature as a column of light. It is believed that those who worship the lingam on this night receive spiritual rewards and get closer to achieving [*moksha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion) (“liberation”).\n- **Samudra Manthana:** [Legend](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/Legend) says that during the [Samudra Manthana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) ([churning of the ocean of milk](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk)) the [*deva*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/deva-religious-being)s (gods) and the [*asura*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asura)s (demons) sought *amrita* (an elixir of immortality). The process also brought forth other objects, including the deadly poison *halahala*. To save creation, Shiva consumed the poison, holding it in his throat. Maha Shivaratri honors this deed, celebrating Shiva as the protector of the [universe](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/universe).\n- **Tripurantaka and Nataraja:** The festival celebrates Shiva as Tripurantaka, the destroyer of Tripura, three fortified cities ruled by the *asura* brothers Tarakaksha, Kamalaksha, and Vidyunmali. Granted a boon by Brahma, the moving cities could be destroyed only when aligned, once every thousand years. When the moment arrived, Shiva fired a single arrow, destroying them and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. The festival also honors Shiva as [Nataraja](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Nataraja), the cosmic dancer, performing a fierce dance called the *tandava* that drives the cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction.\n\nDid You Know?\n\nAccording to the Puranas (collections of [myth](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/myth) and legend), after Shiva consumed the deadly poison *halahala* during the Samudra Manthana, his throat turned blue, earning him the title Nilakantha (“Blue-Throat”).\n\n## Rituals and practices\nDevotees begin with a bath for [purification](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/purification-rite), followed by fasting, often eating only [fruits](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/fruit-plant-reproductive-body), [milk](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/milk), and nuts. Homes and temples are decorated with *bilva* (wood-apple tree) leaves, [flowers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/flower), and [lamps](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/lamp). The main ritual, *[abhishekam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/abhiseka)* (ceremonial bathing of the Shiva lingam), is performed with water, milk, [honey](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/honey), [yogurt](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/yogurt), and [ghee](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/ghee) (clarified [butter](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/butter)), along with offerings of *bilva* leaves and fruits. Devotees chant the [mantra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/mantra) *om namaḥ shivaya* (“Obeisance to Shiva”) and recite hymns from the *Shiva Purana*. A key observance is the *jagaran* (“night vigil”), during which the night is divided into *char prahar* (“four parts”), with prayers performed in each. Some devotees keep an [oil](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/oil-chemical-compound) lamp burning as a symbol of inner awareness, while others practice meditation. The fast is broken the next morning with a simple meal after prayers, marking the completion of the observance.\n\n[![A woman and her daughter smear color powder on one another's face on Holi, the Indian festival of colors.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/11\/232411-131-6E1C57A3\/woman-daughter-color-power-Holi-celebration.jpg) Britannica Quiz Hindu Holiday Quiz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/hindu-holiday-quiz)\n\n## Celebrations\n[![Maha Shivaratri fair](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/269166-050-513DAEA2\/Maha-Shivratri-parade-gods-on-palanquins-Mandi-Himachal-Pradesh-Shiva-Hindu-festival.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/269166-050-513DAEA2\/Maha-Shivratri-parade-gods-on-palanquins-Mandi-Himachal-Pradesh-Shiva-Hindu-festival.jpg)\n\n[Maha Shivaratri fair](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/269166-050-513DAEA2\/Maha-Shivratri-parade-gods-on-palanquins-Mandi-Himachal-Pradesh-Shiva-Hindu-festival.jpg)Maha Shivaratri fair in Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, featuring *murti*s (depictions of deities) in palanquins being taken on a procession.\n\n(more)\n\nMaha Shivaratri is celebrated across India with distinct rituals reflecting local traditions. The [Brahmin](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahman-social-class) [community](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/community) of Kashmiri Pandits (a Hindu Brahmin community from the [Kashmir](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent) region) observes it as Herath, with unique rituals such as soaking [walnuts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/plant\/walnut-tree-and-nut) in water to be shared as [*prasada*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/prasada) (food offered to and blessed by a [deity](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/deity)). In [Himachal Pradesh](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Himachal-Pradesh), the [Mandi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mandi) Shivaratri fair at Bhutnath Temple includes cultural performances and a traditional royal [procession](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/procession). The [Kashi Vishwanath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kashi-Vishwanath-Temple) in [Varanasi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Varanasi), [Uttar Pradesh](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Uttar-Pradesh), draws thousands of devotees on the day. They bathe in the [Ganges River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River), with chants of “Har har Mahadev” (“Hail Shiva”). In [Ujjain](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ujjain), [Madhya Pradesh](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Madhya-Pradesh), the Mahakaleshwar Temple performs the *bhasma* (“ashes”) [*aarti*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/arti), where the deity is anointed with sacred [ash](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/plant\/ash-tree) at [dawn](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dawn-United-States-satellite).\n\nAt Tarakeswar Temple in [West Bengal](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/West-Bengal), devotees offer Ganga *jal* (water from the Ganges) to the Shiva lingam with nightlong prayers. In [Odisha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Odisha), [Bhubaneswar](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Bhubaneshwar)’s Lingaraj Temple sees large gatherings for *abhishekam*. [Gujarat](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Gujarat)’s Bhavnath Mahadev Temple near [Girnar Hills](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Girnar-Hills) hosts a five-day fair, where Naga Sadhus (a group of Hindu ascetics) lead processions and perform sacred rites. The [Somnath](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Somnath) Temple, one of the Jyotirlingas, also holds grand ceremonies. At [Tamil Nadu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Tamil-Nadu)’s Arulmigu Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, devotees perform *girivalam*, a 9-mile (14-km) barefoot walk around Arunachala Hill. In [Karnataka](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Karnataka-state-India), prayers are offered at Murudeshwar Temple, home to a towering Shiva statue, while the Lingayat sect conducts a mass worship of Ishtalinga (miniature lingam). In [Kerala](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Kerala), Aluva Manappuram, a stretch of riverbank along the [Periyar River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Periyar-River), hosts cultural programs.\n\nSanskrit:\n\n“Great Night of Shiva”\n\n*(Show more)*\n\nAlso called:\n\nMahashivratri\n\n*(Show more)*\n\nRelated Topics:\n\n[Śivarātrī](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Sivaratri)\n\n*(Show more)*\n\n[See all related content](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/facts\/Maha-shivaratri)\n\n[![Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/269167-050-B4A8ED78\/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg?w=1000)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/269167-050-B4A8ED78\/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg)\n\n[Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/269167-050-B4A8ED78\/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg)Hindu priests performing *arti* during Maha Shivaratri, at Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal.\n\n(more)\n\nMaha Shivaratri is celebrated by Hindu [communities](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/communities) worldwide. Thousands gather at [Nepal](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Nepal)’s [Pashupatinath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pashupatinath-Temple), while [Bangladesh](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Bangladesh)’s Chandranath Dham, temples in [Sri Lanka](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Sri-Lanka), and Tamil communities in [Malaysia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Malaysia) and [Singapore](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Singapore) host vibrant rituals. In [Africa](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Africa), grand processions are held around Ganga Talao in [Mauritius](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mauritius). In [North America](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/North-America), major celebrations are held in cities including [New York](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/New-York-state), [Chicago](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Chicago), and [Toronto](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Toronto), while in [Australia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Australia) and [Fiji](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Fiji-republic-Pacific-Ocean), large gatherings are marked by prayers and cultural events.\n\n[Anoushka Pant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/anoushka-pant\/13086400) [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica\/4419)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-178\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5)Britannica AI\n\n*chevron\\_right*\n\nMaha Shivaratri\n\n*close*\n\n[AI-generated answers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.\n\n[Shiva](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva)\n\n- [Introduction & Top Questions](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva)\n- [Early history](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470307)\n- [Key myths](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470308)\n  - [Destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice and the death of Sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470309)\n  \n  - [Burning of Kama and marriage of Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470310)\n  \n  - [The submarine mare](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470311)\n  \n  - [Birth of Ganesha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470312)\n  \n  - [Bhairava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470313)\n  \n  - [Destruction of Tripura](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470314)\n  \n  - [Shiva’s blue throat](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470315)\n  \n  - [Descent of the Ganges](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470316)\n  \n  - [The crescent moon in his hair](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470317)\n  \n  - [Lingam myths and interpretations](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470318)\n- [Forms, iconography, and family](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470319)\n- [Worship, holidays, and temples](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470321)\n\n[References & Edit History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva\/additional-info)  [Related Topics](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/facts\/Shiva)\n\n[Images](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva\/images-videos)\n\n[![Shiva and his family](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/43179-004-5B1EBDF8\/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/43179-050-1DEB30D1\/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg)  [![Pashupati seal](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/272867-004-964B973F\/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/272867-050-08432234\/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg)  [![Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/263293-004-CF07C4CA\/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/263293-050-460FDFC4\/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg)  [![Goddess Sati carried by Shiva](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/264213-004-05C6C3D3\/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/264213-050-45717188\/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg)  [![Shiva burns Kama with his third eye](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/54\/283554-004-517C2A60\/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/54\/283554-050-5F551034\/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg)  [![Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-004-15EC94B0\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)  [![Ganesha](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/263279-004-29E42BD5\/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/263279-050-2A518EED\/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)  [![Bhairava](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/08\/264608-004-7691ABC7\/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/08\/264608-050-9F78A0CE\/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg)  [![Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/279744-004-DB6CCF91\/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/279744-050-C520BBFE\/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg)  [![Descent of the Ganges](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/74090-004-6627FE7B\/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/74090-050-8BC02ABA\/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)\n\nAt a Glance\n\n[![Shiva, bronze statue, Madras, c. ad 900.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/61\/9361-004-500A946C\/Shiva-statue-Madras-ad.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/Shiva)\n\n[Shiva summary](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/Shiva)\n\nQuizzes\n\n[![Omar Ali Saifuddin mosque, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/20\/102120-131-B5741CE4\/Sultan-Omar-Ali-Saifuddien-Mosque-Brunei-Bandar.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/world-religions-traditions)\n\n[World Religions & Traditions](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/world-religions-traditions)\n\n[![Ganesha. Hinduism. Ganesha, the elephant-headed Hindu god of beginnings, figure on external walls of a South Indian Temple in Kerala, India.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/60\/176060-131-624C5D0C\/Ganesha-beginnings-Hindu.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/hindu-religion-and-myth-quiz)\n\n[Hindu Religion and Myth Quiz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/hindu-religion-and-myth-quiz)\n\nRelated Questions\n\n- [What is Shiva the god of in Hinduism?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/What-is-Shiva-the-god-of-in-Hinduism)\n- [Why is Shiva called the destroyer?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/Why-is-Shiva-called-the-destroyer)\n- [What are some forms in which Shiva is represented?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/What-are-some-forms-in-which-Shiva-is-represented)\n- [Who are Shiva’s family members?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/Who-are-Shivas-family-members)\n- [What is the origin of Shiva?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/What-is-the-origin-of-Shiva)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-178\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5)\n\nContents\n\nAsk Anything\n\n[Philosophy & Religion](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Philosophy-Religion)    [Ancient Religions & Mythology](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Ancient-Religions-Mythology)\n\nCITE\n\nShare\n\nFeedback\n\nExternal Websites\n\n[![Shiva and his family](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/43179-050-1DEB30D1\/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/43179-050-1DEB30D1\/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg)\n\n[Shiva and his family](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/43179-050-1DEB30D1\/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg) *Shiva and Family at the Burning Ground*, opaque watercolor on paper, in the Kangra style, from northwestern India, c. 1810; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Parvati, Shiva's wife (right), holds their son Skanda while watching their son Ganesha (left) and Shiva string skulls. Dogs pick at bones while the bull Nandi rests behind the tree.\n\n(more)\n\n# Shiva\nHindu deity\n\nHomework Help\n\nAlso known as: Śiva, Śiwa\n\nWritten by\n\n[Wendy Doniger Wendy Doniger is the Mircea Eliade Distinguished Service Professor Emerita of the History of Religions in the Divinity School at the University of Chicago. Her research and teaching interests revolve around...](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/contributor\/Wendy-Doniger\/3420)\n\nWendy Doniger[All](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva\/additional-info#contributors)\n\nFact-checked by\n\n[Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica\/4419)\n\nBritannica Editors\n\nLast updated\n\nFeb. 11, 2026\n\n•[History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva\/additional-info#history)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-178\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5) Britannica AI\n\nAsk Anything\n\nTable of Contents\n\nTable of Contents\n\nAsk Anything\n\nTop Questions\n\n### What is Shiva the god of in Hinduism?\nShiva is one of the principal deities of [Hinduism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism). Within the Hindu [Trimurti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/trimurti-Hinduism), he functions as the destroyer who brings the world to dissolution, whereas [Brahma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahma-Hindu-god) is the creator and [Vishnu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Vishnu) is the preserver. For [Shaiva](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism) Hindus, however, Shiva is the supreme being, who performs the roles of creation, preservation, and dissolution. On a personal level, Shiva is invoked by devotees for help in daily life and for granting liberation ([*moksha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion)) from the cycle of rebirth. He is also the archetypal [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism), or yogi.\n\n### Why is Shiva called the destroyer?\nShiva is sometimes called the destroyer in [Hinduism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism) because, in the [Trimurti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/trimurti-Hinduism) cosmology, his function is to bring the world to dissolution so the cycle of creation and preservation can restart. Mythic episodes underline his destructive capacity. For example, Shiva fires the arrow that destroys the triple fortresses in the [Tripura story](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470314). His fierce manifestation, [Bhairava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Bhairava), cuts off one of the heads of the god [Brahma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahma-Hindu-god). In anger, he reduces to ashes [Kama](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kama), the god of love, and the gods have to find a way to hide that anger until the end of the universe. Shiva is also known to live in [cremation](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/cremation) grounds and cover his body in ash, as do some of his [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism) followers. However, for many [Shaiva](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism) Hindus, Shiva is not a fearsome god but rather a god who serves his devotees in a benevolent capacity.\n\n### What are some forms in which Shiva is represented?\nShiva appears in many different forms in devotional imagery. He is worshipped in the aniconic form of the [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam). In his [anthropomorphic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/anthropomorphism) form, he appears with matted hair that has a crescent moon in it, with the [Ganges River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River) falling through his locks, and with a blue throat from having contained poison during the [Churning of the Ocean](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) (Samudra Manthana). He also has a third eye. He carries a trident, a small drum, and sometimes a skull-club and wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his neck. He is often associated with images of [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism) practice, such as sitting in the [Himalayas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Himalayas) in a seated yogic pose. He also sometimes appears as [Nataraja](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Nataraja) (“Lord of the Dance”) and as the fierce [Bhairava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Bhairava).\n\n### Who are Shiva’s family members?\nShiva’s household is an important component of his mythology. His female partner appears under multiple names—[Sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Sati), [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati), Uma, [Durga](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Durga), and [Kali](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kali)—and he is often identified with [Shakti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/), divine feminine power. Together the couple are said to dwell on [Mount Kailash](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mount-Kailash) and to have two principal sons: [Skanda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Skanda) (also called Karttikeya), the six-headed war god born to slay the demon Taraka, and [Ganesha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ganesha), the elephant-headed remover of obstacles. Shiva’s vehicle (*[vahana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/vahana)*) is the bull [Nandi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Nandi-Hindu-mythology), who often appears in temples in his own pavilion, facing the main [temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-temple) sanctuary, where Shiva dwells.\n\n### What is the origin of Shiva?\nShiva’s origins are complex and debated. Some scholars contend that a seal from the [Indus valley civilization](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Indus-civilization)—often called the Pashupati seal—depicts a seated [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism) deity surrounded by animals, but this identification is disputed, because, as other scholars argue, the evidence is fragmentary and visual similarities are insufficient to make the connection. In the [Hindu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism) textual tradition, Shiva partially emerges from the [Vedic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Vedic-religion) deity [Rudra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Rudra), a marginal fearsome figure who appears in early [Vedic texts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Veda) and later develops greater prominence in the [Brahmanas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahmana) and the theistic [Upanishads](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Upanishad). By the time of the [epics and Puranas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism\/Sutras-shastras-and-smritis#ref59114), Shiva’s complex benign, yogic character is further elaborated, forming the basis for later worship.\n\n### What are some of the most important stories about Shiva?\nKey myths about Shiva include that of his destruction of [Daksha’s sacrifice](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470309) and the death of [Sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Sati), a foundational tale that explains Shiva’s move from the margins of Hindu orthodoxy. An important series of narrative scenes consists of [Shiva’s burning](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470310) of [Kama](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kama), his subsequent marriage to [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati), and the birth of [Skanda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Skanda). [Shiva’s beheading and re-heading (with an elephant head)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470312) of [Ganesha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ganesha) is a key tale. Shiva’s destruction of the [demon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asura)\\-run triple city of [Tripura](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470314) and his [swallowing of the poison](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470315) during the [Churning of the Ocean](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) show his capacity to prevent harm. Likewise, his protection of the earth from damage that would be caused by the [descent](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470316) of the [Ganges River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River) from heaven and his [protection of the Moon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva#ref470317) relate to his nature and his [iconography](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/iconography). Stories related to the origin of the aniconic [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam), a form in which he is often worshipped, reveal different perspectives on Shiva’s role and nature.\n\n### What festivals involve Shiva and how is he worshipped?\nShiva is worshipped both by lay devotees and by [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism) orders. Lay [Shaivas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism) attend [temples](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-temple), perform [*puja*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/puja) offerings, and may mark their foreheads with three horizontal ash stripes. [Ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism) Shaivas follow diverse traditions, some wearing cremation-ground [symbolism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/symbol) or emphasizing identity with the deity. The [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam) is a central object of worship in temples and private shrines. Important holidays or days of sacred significance for Shiva include [Maha Shivaratri](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri) (“Great Night of Shiva”), the month of Shravana (July–August), and Mondays (associated with the Moon). Some traditions associate [Holi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Holi), [Diwali](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Diwali-Hindu-festival), and [Guru Purnima](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Guru-Purnima) with Shiva’s mythology.\n\n## News •\n[Cambodia unveils ancient Shiva statue restored from 10,000 pieces](https:\/\/www.straitstimes.com\/asia\/se-asia\/cambodia-unveils-ancient-shiva-statue-restored-from-10000-pieces)  • Mar. 19, 2026, 8:25 AM ET (Straits Times)\n\nShow less\n\n**Shiva**, one of the main deities of [Hinduism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism), whom [Shaiva](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism) Hindus worship as the supreme god. Shiva is a complex figure, [encompassing](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/encompassing) [diverse](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/diverse) roles, abilities, personalities, paths of devotion, and stories. Within the Hindu [Trimurti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/trimurti-Hinduism), he is the destroyer of the universe who dances the world to dissolution, following the work of [Brahma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahma-Hindu-god) the creator and [Vishnu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Vishnu) the preserver. However, for Shaiva Hindus, Shiva is supreme and serves in all three cosmological roles. On a personal level, he can be counted on to assist devotees in daily life and to grant them liberation ([*moksha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion)) from the cycle of rebirth ([samsara](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/samsara)). Also known for his prowess as a yogi and an [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism), he is considered the first teacher of [yoga](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Yoga-philosophy) practice. In some instances, he dwells on [Mount Kailash](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mount-Kailash), and in others, he dwells and dances in [cremation](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/cremation) grounds and is covered in ash. [Myths](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/Myths) of Shiva’s exploits, drawn from multiple textual sources, are well known across Hinduism. Shiva is typically worshipped in the [aniconic form](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/murti#ref375321) of a [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam). Prominent [temples](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-temple) dedicated to this multifaceted deity can be found throughout [India](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/India) and the Hindu [diaspora](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/diaspora-social-science).\n\n## Early history\n[![Pashupati seal](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/272867-050-08432234\/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/272867-050-08432234\/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg)\n\n[Pashupati seal](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/272867-050-08432234\/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg)Seal depicting a figure that may be an early form of Shiva, from the Indus valley civilization; in the National Museum of India, New Delhi.\n\n(more)\n\nThe antiquity of Shiva is a contested subject. A seal from the [Indus valley civilization](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Indus-civilization) (c. 2600–1900 bce) bears an image of a seated figure surrounded by animals that some observers cite as evidence of a so-called “proto-Shiva.” The seal, recovered from [Mohenjo-daro](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mohenjo-daro), is popularly called the Pashupati seal, for Shiva’s [epithet](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/epithet) meaning “Lord of Cattle.” The main image consists of a figure wearing a large headdress who is surrounded by animals and seated cross-legged—possibly in meditation—thus [bearing](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/bearing) a resemblance to later depictions of [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism) Shiva. However, many scholars question whether this ancient seal, with markings in an [undeciphered script](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Harappan-script), can reliably be said to depict Shiva. They suggest that any perceived likeness to Shiva is insufficient proof and that knowledge of the Indus valley civilization is too incomplete for a definitive identification.\n\nOne of Shiva’s epithets is [Rudra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Rudra) (“Howler”), which is the name of an ancient Vedic deity from whom Shiva partially evolved. In the [Vedas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Veda) (1500–1200 bce), Rudra appears rarely in the form of a [marginal](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/marginal) and fearsome being who is excluded from taking a share in the Vedic sacrifices; he gets only the polluting remainder to avoid his wrath. Yet Rudra is also a healer in these early Hindu texts. One of his most prominent appearances is in the *Shatarudriya* (“Belonging to Hundred Rudras”), a text of the Taittiriya Samhita in the [Krishna](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Krishna-Hindu-deity) (Black) Yajur [Veda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Veda). By the time of the [Brahmanas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahmana) (900–700 bce), Rudra begins to emerge as a more significant divinity. He is honored as the supreme deity in the *Shvetashvatara Upanishad*, one of the first theistic [Upanishads](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Upanishad), which is dated to the last centuries before the Common Era. It is in that text that Rudra is first called Shiva.\n\n[![Omar Ali Saifuddin mosque, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/20\/102120-131-B5741CE4\/Sultan-Omar-Ali-Saifuddien-Mosque-Brunei-Bandar.jpg) Britannica Quiz World Religions & Traditions](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/world-religions-traditions)\n\n## Key myths\n[![Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/263293-050-460FDFC4\/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/263293-050-460FDFC4\/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg)\n\n[Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/263293-050-460FDFC4\/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg)Statues of the divine couple Shiva and Parvati, joined by their elephant-headed son, Ganesha, installed in a temple cave in Namchi, Sikkim, India.\n\n(more)\n\nShiva emerges as a supreme deity in the [Hindu epics and Puranas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism\/Sutras-shastras-and-smritis#ref59114). The key myths of his exploits and nature appear in these texts, often with slight variations in each telling. He is not central in the [*Ramayana*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ramayana-Indian-epic) and [*Mahabharata*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mahabharata) epics, but his role as a high divinity with a complex mythology is readily apparent. He is featured in numerous [Puranas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Purana); indeed, some Puranas are strictly Shaiva in orientation. Certain commonly known stories about Shiva, among the [myriad](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/myriad) that exist in Hindu literature, are part of the essential vocabulary of Hinduism.\n\n## Destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice and the death of Sati\nThe story of Shiva’s destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice narrates simultaneously the god’s journey from exclusion from Vedic [sacrifice](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/yajna) to inclusion in the Hindu pantheon. Daksha is a son of [Brahma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahma-Hindu-god), one of the creators (a [Prajapati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Prajapati-Hindu-deity)), and the father of [Sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Sati), who is Shiva’s wife. Daksha holds a great sacrifice in honor of the gods, but the gods, or Daksha independently (depending on the telling), neglect to invite Daksha’s son-in-law, Shiva. Enraged by the slight, Shiva destroys Daksha’s sacrifice, in essence sacrificing the sacrifice and making it complete. The result of this act, despite its destructive [treatment](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/treatment) of a Vedic sacrifice, is that Shiva is firmly incorporated as a major Hindu deity.\n\n[![Goddess Sati carried by Shiva](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/264213-050-45717188\/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/264213-050-45717188\/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg)\n\n[Goddess Sati carried by Shiva](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/264213-050-45717188\/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg)*Shiva Carrying the Dead Sati*, watercolor on paper from Calcutta (now Kolkata), 19th century; in the Philadelphia Art Museum.\n\n(more)\n\nSati, however, is deeply insulted by her father’s exclusion of her husband from the sacrifice—so much so that, according to some accounts, she self-immolates, an act that is often cited as the mythological origin of [sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/suttee), or widow burning (although, contrary to that practice, her husband Shiva remains very much alive). Dismayed by her death, Shiva weeps terribly as he carries her body. In some myths, Vishnu dismembers the corpse; in others, the gods in general do, and wherever the pieces of her body fall, they turn into places of [worship](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/worship), known as the Shakti Pithas, which are important sites for Shakti worship. Shiva, saddened by his consort Sati’s death, then goes into a long, deep [meditation](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/meditation-mental-exercise) (*[tapas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/tapas)*).\n\n## Burning of Kama and marriage of Parvati\n[![Shiva burns Kama with his third eye](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/54\/283554-050-5F551034\/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/54\/283554-050-5F551034\/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg)\n\n[Shiva burns Kama with his third eye](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/54\/283554-050-5F551034\/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg)*Madan-Bhasma* (“Kama \\[Madana\\] Turned to Ash”; listed as “Madan-Bhasma (Shiva Turns to Ashes”), lithograph from India, 1890; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.\n\n(more)\n\nWhile Shiva is deep in meditation, the goddess [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati)—the daughter of the mountain Himavat ([Himalaya](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Himalayas)) and considered to be a reincarnation of Sati—engages in intense meditation to acquire Shiva as her husband, only to be foiled because Shiva is no longer interested in worldly affairs or marriage. Meanwhile, the gods are afflicted by the demon Taraka, and they require the son of Shiva and Parvati, to be called [Skanda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Skanda), to kill the demon. [Indra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Indra), king of the gods, approaches [Kama](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kama), god of desire, for help in diverting Shiva’s attentions from [celibate](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/celibate) meditation to desire for Parvati. When Kama shoots his flowery arrow of [love](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/love-emotion) to break Shiva’s meditation and draw his attention to Parvati, an angered Shiva opens his third eye and burns Kama to ashes. A distressed Rati, Kama’s wife and the personification of passion, performs penance and pleads with Shiva to bring her husband back to life. Shiva obliges, although he revives Kama in disembodied (*ananga*) form.\n\nExplore Britannica Premium\\!\n\nGo beyond the basics with trusted, in-depth knowledge for professionals, students, and lifelong learners.\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=basics-2026)\n\n![Penguin, ship, mountain, atlas](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-left.webp)\n\n![shohei ohtani, plants, andy wharhol art](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-right.webp)\n\n![Mobile](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-mobile.webp?w=400)\n\n[![Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)\n\n[Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)Shiva and Parvati's wedding, with the Hindu god Brahma officiating, relief in the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India.\n\n(more)\n\nThe wedding of Shiva and Parvati is described as a grand affair attended by the gods. Afterward Shiva and Parvati engage in years of amorous play, as poetically described in 5th-century poet and playwright [Kalidasa](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Kalidasa)’s epic poem [*Kumarasambhava*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kumarasambhava) (“Birth of Kumara \\[Skanda\\]”). The gods, however, still needing to defeat the demon Taraka, interrupt the couple’s play. The six-headed Skanda is then born of Shiva’s [semen](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/semen), which is unbearable to all beings, and is taken up in the mouth of the god of fire, [Agni](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Agni), and transferred first to the river [Ganges](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River) and then to six of the stars in the [Pleiades](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pleiades-astronomy) cluster—the Krittikas—which are the wives of the [celestial](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/celestial) sages. In other variants, Skanda is born from Shiva’s semen, dropped into the Ganges, and then raised by the Krittikas—hence his alternate name Karttikeya.\n\n## The submarine mare\nJust as Shiva’s semen needs to be contained to avoid harm to other gods, his power to destroy the universe is evident early but requires containment until the right moment. The fire of anger with which Shiva burned Kama threatens to burn out of control and destroy the universe. So the sages of the world go to Brahma, seeking refuge. Brahma manages to contain the fire of Shiva’s anger, places that fire inside a mare with a flaming mouth (*vadavagni*), and takes it to the ocean. The ocean emerges in the form of a man to speak with Brahma. Brahma requests that the ocean contain the mare with Shiva’s anger until the final dissolution of the world (*pralaya*). Shiva’s capacity to destroy is thus contained until the proper time.\n\n## Birth of Ganesha\n[![Ganesha](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/263279-050-2A518EED\/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/263279-050-2A518EED\/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)\n\n[Ganesha](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/263279-050-2A518EED\/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)A Ganesha shrine with devotional objects, outside the Shiva Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India.\n\n(more)\n\nAs in many of the other stories, Shiva’s anger is a main [catalyst](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/catalyst) of the birth of the elephant-headed god [Ganesha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ganesha). One of the best-known myths of Ganesha’s birth begins with Parvati taking a bath and longing for someone to keep Shiva from barging in on her, as was his habit. As she bathes, she kneads the dirt that she rubs off her body into the shape of a child, who comes to life. But when Shiva sees the handsome young boy, he (or one of his attendants) cuts off the child’s head. Parvati is deeply saddened by this act, and the gods request that Shiva find a replacement. When Shiva cuts off an [elephant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/animal\/elephant-mammal)’s head to bestow it on the headless Ganesha, one of the tusks is shattered, and Ganesha is depicted holding the broken-off piece in one of his hands. According to this version of the [myth](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/myth), Ganesha is the child of Parvati alone—indeed, a child born despite Shiva’s negative intervention. Yet Ganesha is traditionally regarded as the child of both Shiva and Parvati. As the remover of obstacles, he is one of the most popular of Hindu deities, and he is traditionally worshipped prior to embarking on any endeavor or performing any ritual.\n\n## Bhairava\n[![Bhairava](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/08\/264608-050-9F78A0CE\/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/08\/264608-050-9F78A0CE\/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg)\n\n[Bhairava](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/08\/264608-050-9F78A0CE\/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg)A Nepali devotee performing rituals at the Kala Bhairava temple in Basantapur Durbar Square, Kathmandu, Nepal.\n\n(more)\n\nAs his fierce form, [Bhairava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Bhairava), Shiva’s affiliation with death, destruction, and cremation grounds comes to the fore. The most prominent Puranic myths of Bhairava associate him with the [Kapalika](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kapalikas) tradition of Shaiva [ascetics](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/ascetics). According to these myths, the god [Brahma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahma-Hindu-god), who is traditionally known to have four heads, originally had five. Stories then diverge in their details: In some, the fifth head makes insulting comments about Shiva; in others, Brahma’s fifth head is [arrogant](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/arrogant). In response, Shiva emanates Bhairava and commands him to remove Brahma’s insulting head. Bhairava removes Brahma’s fifth head with his thumbnail, but he is then guilty of killing a Brahmin—among the worst crimes a person can commit in Hinduism. The [skull](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/skull) sticks to Bhairava’s hand, and, as he seeks penance for his sin, it becomes his begging bowl until it falls off in [Varanasi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Varanasi) at a location that later became a center for Bhairava worship and an important site for Hindu cremation practices.\n\n## Destruction of Tripura\nYet in some myths, Shiva’s fiery nature is necessary for defeating demons. The myth of Shiva’s destruction of the triple city (Tripura) tells of three fortified cities ruled by the *[asura](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asura)* brothers Tarakaksha, Kamalaksha, and Vidyunmali. Granted a boon by Brahma, the moving cities are impenetrable and can be destroyed only when aligned, once every thousand years. The demons take over the universe and [morality](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/morality) erodes, necessitating divine action. When the moment arrives, Shiva fires a single arrow from the Pinaka bow (his special weapon), destroying the demons and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil.\n\n## Shiva’s blue throat\n[![Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/279744-050-C520BBFE\/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/279744-050-C520BBFE\/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg)\n\n[Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/279744-050-C520BBFE\/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg)*The Churning of the Ocean of Milk*, depicting demons (*asura*s) on the right and gods (*deva*s) on the left, ink and opaque watercolor on paper, from Mandi, Punjab Hills, India, c. 1780–90; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.\n\n(more)\n\nIn contrast to these myths of Shiva’s destructive forms, other stories depict Shiva as the great protector. This role is especially clear in the story behind his blue throat, which earned him the name Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”). During the myth of the [Samudra Manthana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) (“Churning of the Ocean”), as the gods and demons attempt to retrieve the *amrita* (elixir of immortality), using the [*naga*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/naga-Hindu-mythology) Vasuki as a [churning](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/churning) rope, Vasuki’s head vomits forth poison that threatens to fall into the ocean and contaminate the *amrita*. But Shiva takes the poison and holds it in his throat, a feat that saves the world but, as a side effect, turns his throat blue.\n\n## Descent of the Ganges\n[![Descent of the Ganges](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/74090-050-8BC02ABA\/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/74090-050-8BC02ABA\/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)\n\n[Descent of the Ganges](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/74090-050-8BC02ABA\/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)The descent of the Ganges, sometimes called “Arjuna's Penance,” rock-cut relief; in Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.\n\n(more)\n\nA similar myth illustrating Shiva’s protective role relates to his breaking the fall of the celestial [Ganges River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River) as it plummets from heaven to earth. The Ganges is the celestial river in heaven (sometimes identified with the [Milky Way](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Milky-Way-Galaxy)) but descends at the request of the sage Bhagiratha to redeem his ancestors. His ancestors were the 60,000 sons of Sagara (“Ocean”) who went in search of Sagara’s stolen sacrificial horse and dug deep into the subterranean region (creating the ocean) but annoyed the sage [Kapila](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Kapila). Kapila cursed them, turned them into ash, and declared that they could be redeemed only by the celestial river. Bhagiratha journeys to the Himalayas and performs penance for 10,000 years. Shiva respects his meditation and becomes gracious, allowing the Ganges to descend from the sky. But out of a concern that the celestial river would crush the earth, Shiva catches the Ganges in his matted locks. Bhagiratha then continues his penance for another 10,000 years, until Shiva permits it to descend to the earth. This story illustrates both Shiva’s [benevolence](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/benevolence) and his favorable treatment of those who engage in [ascetic](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/ascetic) practice.\n\n## The crescent moon in his hair\n[![Shiva](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/126036-050-BB7DE7E6\/Statue-Shiva-Bengaluru-Karnataka-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/126036-050-BB7DE7E6\/Statue-Shiva-Bengaluru-Karnataka-India.jpg)\n\n[Shiva](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/126036-050-BB7DE7E6\/Statue-Shiva-Bengaluru-Karnataka-India.jpg)A large statue of Shiva, outside the Shivoham Shiva Temple, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The mountainous background makes the god appear to be meditating in the Himalayas.\n\n(more)\n\nShiva’s hair hosts an image of the crescent moon, and the god is closely associated with the moon and Monday (Sanskrit: Somavara). According to a myth and [astrology](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-calendar#ref391918) recounted in the epic *Mahabharata*, there are 27 [*nakshatra*s](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/nakshatra) (lunar mansions), which are the daughters of Daksha. All the daughters are married to Chandra, the moon, but he favors only one of them, Rohini. When the other daughters complain to their father about the moon’s favoritism, Daksha curses the moon to wane and become emaciated. However, the moon’s dimmed status causes the herbs to dry up, which afflicts the animals, and they begin to waste away. In some versions of the myth, the gods ask Daksha to [withdraw](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/withdraw) the curse, but instead he modifies it to make the moon wax and wane each month, which explains the lunar phases, and to spend equal time with his 27 wives, which explains the monthly cycle. In some tellings, such as in the *Shiva Purana*, it is Shiva who intervenes on the moon’s behalf, devises this solution, and becomes the moon’s protector, Someshvara (“Lord of the Moon”).\n\n## Lingam myths and interpretations\n[![Sacred ice lingam](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/274442-050-B8619053\/An-Ice-Stalagmite-Stylised-Phallus-Worshiped-By-Hindus-Is-Seen-At-Amarnath-Shrine.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/274442-050-B8619053\/An-Ice-Stalagmite-Stylised-Phallus-Worshiped-By-Hindus-Is-Seen-At-Amarnath-Shrine.jpg)\n\n[Sacred ice lingam](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/274442-050-B8619053\/An-Ice-Stalagmite-Stylised-Phallus-Worshiped-By-Hindus-Is-Seen-At-Amarnath-Shrine.jpg)An ice stalagmite revered as a lingam, inside the Amarnath cave, in the Himalayas in the Anantnag district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Formed naturally from dripping water, the ice lingam draws thousands of devotees during the annual Amarnath *yatra*.\n\n(more)\n\nThe representation of Shiva in the form of a [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam) has multiple mythological roots with two distinct interpretations and many further variations. In some myths, the lingam is a pillar of fire and light and an abstract representation of the deity; in other myths, however, the lingam is Shiva’s phallus. The lingam is either abstract or physical. The tendency in modern Hinduism is to prefer the interpretation of the lingam as an abstract [symbol](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/symbol). Even in the myths where it is more explicitly a phallus, there is a certain [trepidation](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/trepidation) about this association that relates to the long-standing tension of Shiva as simultaneously erotic and ascetic, physical and divine, all too human and far beyond human.\n\n[![Shiva lingam and offerings](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/263277-050-883E0C8A\/Hinduism-Shiva-linga.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/263277-050-883E0C8A\/Hinduism-Shiva-linga.jpg)\n\n[Shiva lingam and offerings](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/263277-050-883E0C8A\/Hinduism-Shiva-linga.jpg)Flowers adorning a Shiva lingam placed in a yoni; at the Patan Museum, Kathmandu, Nepal.\n\n(more)\n\nShiva’s lingam is clearly a phallus in the story of his encounter with sages in the Pine Forest. As these sages, sons of Brahma, are practicing [asceticism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism), Shiva enters their encampment, meaning to show them grace, but he appears naked, covered in ash, with a frightening appearance while dancing and screaming in a terrifying manner. The wives of the sages, however, become enchanted by him. Angered by his behavior, the sages [curse](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/curse) his lingam (phallus) to fall off. In other versions, Shiva chooses to remove his lingam. In a story in the *Mahabharata*, Brahma instructs Shiva to create creatures, which he does, but he finds them imperfect, so he hides in water. Becoming impatient, Brahma asks another creator being (a Prajapati) to do the job. Shiva later emerges from the water, finds the creatures created and thriving, and, in a rage, he tears off his lingam and throws it on the ground, declaring it now useless.\n\n[![Lingodbhavamurti](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/89\/263289-050-E07EFF36\/Hinduism-Statue-of-Shiva-as-a-pillar-of-fire-Darasuram-12th-century-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/89\/263289-050-E07EFF36\/Hinduism-Statue-of-Shiva-as-a-pillar-of-fire-Darasuram-12th-century-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)\n\n[*Lingodbhavamurti*](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/89\/263289-050-E07EFF36\/Hinduism-Statue-of-Shiva-as-a-pillar-of-fire-Darasuram-12th-century-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)A lingam of Shiva depicting the story of his appearance as an endless pillar of fire, located in a temple from the 12th century, Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, India.\n\n(more)\n\nThe story of the lingam as a pillar of light, often depicted as a *lingodbhavamurti*, begins with the gods Vishnu and Brahma debating their respective importance, each claiming to be the superior god. Shiva appears in the form of a blazing pillar to [quell](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/quell) their pride. In response, Brahma takes the form of a swan and flies upward to see if he can find the top of the pillar, and Vishnu takes the form of a boar and dives below to find its source. Neither is successful, and both are compelled to recognize Shiva’s priority and superiority.\n\nFollowing these dual interpretations, images of the lingam can also be either phallic or abstract aniconic pillars. In temples and in private shrines, Shiva is also worshipped in the form of the [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam), a cylindrical votary object that is often embedded in a [yoni](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/yoni), or spouted dish. The yoni (also the Sanskrit word for “vulva”) represents Shakti, the female cosmic power. The union of lingam and yoni is said to symbolize the union of Shiva and Parvati and of the eternal process of creation and regeneration. Regardless of this sexual [resonance](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/resonance) in some texts and theologies, in modern Hinduism, lingams of Shiva are read as aniconic, representing Shiva’s divinity in an abstract way. That strand is centuries old, too; the images on *lingodbhavamurti*s portray Vishnu and Brahma seeking the farthest reaches of Shiva’s divine pillar of light.\n\n## Forms, iconography, and family\nEpithets of Shiva\n\nShiva is a god of many names, as are most [Hindu deities](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/list-of-Hindu-deities-2066639). Hindu sources often enumerate the 108 names of Shiva, or even the thousand names of Shiva. In many texts he referred to by various names within the course of merely a few sentences, which reflects the deity’s multitudinous powers, natures, and mythologies. The following [abridged](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/abridged) list of Shiva’s many epithets illustrates his range and can be useful for navigating the ways this polyonymous deity appears in texts, speech, and temples through history and across India.\n\n- **Shambhu** (“Benign”)\n- **Shankara** (“Beneficent”)\n- **Mahesha** (“Great Lord”)\n- **Mahadeva** (“Great God”)\n- **Parameshvara** (“Supreme God”)\n- **Vishvanatha** (“Lord of the Universe”)\n- **Bhava** (“Existence”)\n- **Mahakala** (“Great Time”)\n- **Sthanu** (“Standing Firm”)\n- **Pashupati** (“Lord of Cattle”)\n- **Nataraja** (“Lord of the Dance”)\n- **Bhole** (“Innocent”)\n- **Bholenath** (“Lord of the Innocent”)\n- **Rudra** (“Howler”)\n- **Hara** (“Destroyer” or “Seizer”)\n- **Ugra** (“Fierce”)\n- **Shmashanavasin** (“He Who Dwells in a Cremation Ground”)\n- **Kamari** (“Enemy of Kama”)\n- **Tripurari** (“Enemy of Tripura”)\n- **Vaidyanatha** (“Lord of Physicians”)\n- **Nilakantha** (“Blue Throat”)\n- **Gangadhara** (“Receiver of the [Ganges](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River)”)\n- **Chandrasekhara** (“Moon-Crested” Lord)\n- **Somnath** (“Lord of the Moon”)\n- **Trilochana** (“Three-Eyed” Lord)\n- **Tryambaka** (“Three-Eyed” Lord)\n- **Kapardin** (“He Who Has Matted Locks”)\n- **Dakshinamurti** (“Lord Who Faces South”)\n\nShiva is represented in a variety of forms: in a pacific mood with his consort [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati) and son [Skanda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Skanda), as the cosmic dancer ([Nataraja](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Nataraja)), as a naked ascetic, as a mendicant beggar, as a yogi, as a demonic [Tantric](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism\/Tantrism#ref9017) being ([Bhairava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Bhairava)) accompanied by a dog, and as the [androgynous](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/androgynous) union of Shiva and his consort in one body, half-male and half-female ([Ardhanarishvara](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ardhanarishvara)). He is both the great ascetic and the master of fertility, and he is the master of both poison and medicine, through his ambivalent power over snakes. As Lord of Cattle ([Pashupata](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pashupati-Nepal)), he is the [benevolent](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/benevolent) herdsman—or, at times, the merciless slaughterer of the “beasts” that are the human souls in his care. As Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”), he is the revered first teacher or [guru](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/guru-Hinduism), especially of [yogic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Yoga-philosophy) practice. Although some of the combinations of roles may be explained by Shiva’s identification with earlier mythological figures, they arise primarily from a tendency in Hinduism to see complementary qualities in a single [ambiguous](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/ambiguous) figure.\n\nShiva is usually depicted in painting and sculpture as white (from the ashes of cremated corpses that are smeared on his body) with a blue neck (from holding in his throat the *halahala* poison that emerged at the [Churning of the Ocean](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk), which threatened to destroy the world), his hair arranged in a coil of matted locks (*jatamakuta*) and adorned with the crescent moon and the Ganges. Shiva has three eyes, the third eye bestowing inward vision but capable of burning destruction (as [Kama](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kama) experienced) when focused outward. He wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his neck, and he carries in his two (sometimes four) hands a deerskin, a trident, a small hand drum, or a club with a skull at the end. Shiva’s weapon, the trident (*trishula*), was [forged](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/forged) by the god [Vishvakarma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Vishvakarman). Shiva is also often depicted wearing or sitting upon a tiger hide and often perched in meditation in his Himalayan home on [Mount Kailash](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mount-Kailash).\n\n[![Shiva Nataraja](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/68\/263968-050-D0B9107F\/Shiva-Nataraja-Chola-in-bronze-Shiva-as-Lord-of-the-Dance-Nataraja-bronze-sculpture-from-the-Chola-period-10th-11th-century-India-Tamil-Nadu-In-the-collection-of-the-Art-Institute-of-Chicago-Hinduism.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/68\/263968-050-D0B9107F\/Shiva-Nataraja-Chola-in-bronze-Shiva-as-Lord-of-the-Dance-Nataraja-bronze-sculpture-from-the-Chola-period-10th-11th-century-India-Tamil-Nadu-In-the-collection-of-the-Art-Institute-of-Chicago-Hinduism.jpg)\n\n[Shiva Nataraja](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/68\/263968-050-D0B9107F\/Shiva-Nataraja-Chola-in-bronze-Shiva-as-Lord-of-the-Dance-Nataraja-bronze-sculpture-from-the-Chola-period-10th-11th-century-India-Tamil-Nadu-In-the-collection-of-the-Art-Institute-of-Chicago-Hinduism.jpg) *Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja)*, bronze, from southern India, Chola period, 901–1100; in the Art Institute of Chicago.\n\n(more)\n\nIn images of Shiva as Nataraja, he is shown with four arms and flying locks dancing on a diminutive figure, who is sometimes identified as demon Apasmara (a symbol of human ignorance; *apasmara* means “forgetfulness” or “heedlessness”). Shiva’s back right hand holds the *damaru* (hourglass-shaped drum); the front right hand is in the *abhaya* [mudra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/mudra) (the “fear-not” gesture, made by holding the palm outward with fingers pointing up); the back left hand carries [Agni](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Agni) (fire) in a [vessel](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/vessel) or in the palm of the hand; and the front left hand is held across his chest in the *gajahasta* ([elephant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/animal\/elephant-mammal)\\-trunk) pose, with wrist limp and fingers pointed downward toward the uplifted left foot. Shiva is shown as the source of all movement within the cosmos and as the god whose doomsday dance (*tandava*), represented by the arch of flames, accompanies the dissolution of the universe at the end of an eon. The gestures of the dance represent Shiva’s five activities (*panchakritya*): creation (symbolized by the drum), protection (by the “fear-not” pose of the hand), destruction (by the fire), embodiment (by the foot planted on the ground), and [*moksha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion) (by the foot held aloft).\n\n[![Sculpture of Shiva, Parvati, and Skanda](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/280377-050-F8CF7274\/Sculpture-of-Shiva-Uma-and-Their-Son-Skanda.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/280377-050-F8CF7274\/Sculpture-of-Shiva-Uma-and-Their-Son-Skanda.jpg)\n\n[Sculpture of Shiva, Parvati, and Skanda](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/280377-050-F8CF7274\/Sculpture-of-Shiva-Uma-and-Their-Son-Skanda.jpg)*Shiva, Parvati, and Their Son Skanda (Somaskandamurti)*, copper alloy, from southern India, early 11th century; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. A Somaskandamurti is an iconographic depiction of Shiva with Uma (Parvati) and their son Skanda. It is a popular devotional image and a common subject of Chola bronzes.\n\n(more)\n\n[![Nandi](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/142626-050-01A227C8\/Statue-Nandi-bull-Chamundi-Hill-Karnataka-India.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/142626-050-01A227C8\/Statue-Nandi-bull-Chamundi-Hill-Karnataka-India.jpg)\n\n[Nandi](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/142626-050-01A227C8\/Statue-Nandi-bull-Chamundi-Hill-Karnataka-India.jpg)Sculpture of Nandi at Chamundi Hill, Mysuru (Mysore), Karnataka, India.\n\n(more)\n\nShiva is commonly depicted with his family. His female consort is known under various [manifestations](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/manifestations) as Uma, [Sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Sati), Parvati, [Durga](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Durga), and [Kali](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kali); Shiva is also sometimes paired with [Shakti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaktism), the embodiment of power. The divine couple, together with their sons—[Skanda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Skanda) and the elephant-headed [Ganesha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ganesha)—are said to dwell on [Mount Kailasa](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mount-Kailash) in the [Himalayas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Himalayas). Shiva’s vehicle in the world, his *[vahana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/vahana)*, is the [bull](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/animal\/bull) [Nandi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Nandi-Hindu-mythology); a sculpture of Nandi sits opposite the main sanctuary of many Shiva [temples](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-temple).\n\nShiva and Shakti: The divine couple\n\n[![Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/49\/135349-050-BA6A1396\/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg?w=1000)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/49\/135349-050-BA6A1396\/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg)\n\n[Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/49\/135349-050-BA6A1396\/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg)*The Marriage of Shiva and Parvati: The Wedding of the Charming One*, plaque of carved ivory with traces of tamarind juice, from Madurai, southern India, 1766; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.\n\n(more)\n\nThe deep connection between Shiva and his consort [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati) (also called Shakti) appears frequently in Hindu [poetry](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/kavya) and [Indian philosophy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Indian-philosophy). The first [*shloka*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/shloka) of 5th-century poet and playwright [Kalidasa](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Kalidasa)’s [*Raghuvamsha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Raghuvamsha) praises the pair at the [inception](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/inception) of his poetic production.\n\n> For mastery of word and meaning, I venerate the parents of the world,  \n>  Who are entwined together like word and meaning: Parvati and Parameshvara.\n> \n> —translated by Csaba Dezső, Dominic Goodall, and Harunaga Isaacson\n\nShiva’s reliance on Shakti is expressed in the opening line of *Saundarya Lahari* (“Flood of Beauty”), a poem to Shakti attributed to [Shankara](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Shankara), the revered 8th-century [Advaita Vedanta](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Advaita-school-of-Hindu-philosophy) philosopher.\n\n> If Śiva is united with Śakti, he is able to exert his powers as lord;  \n>  If not, the god is not able to stir.\n> \n> —translated by W. Norman Brown\n\n## Worship, holidays, and temples\n[![Apatsahayesvarar Shiva Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/263290-050-586A2DD8\/Hinduism-A-goat-stands-before-the-Apatsahayesvarar-Temple-also-called-Alangudi.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/263290-050-586A2DD8\/Hinduism-A-goat-stands-before-the-Apatsahayesvarar-Temple-also-called-Alangudi.jpg)\n\n[Apatsahayesvarar Shiva Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/263290-050-586A2DD8\/Hinduism-A-goat-stands-before-the-Apatsahayesvarar-Temple-also-called-Alangudi.jpg)A goat and bicycles standing outside the Apatsahayesvarar Shiva Temple, Alangudi, Tamil Nadu, India.\n\n(more)\n\nParalleling Shiva’s dual role as an ascetic and erotic figure, devotees of Shiva ([Shaivas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism)) generally fall into either lay worshippers or mendicants. The tension between [householders and renouncers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism\/Karma-samsara-and-moksha#ref261618) is long-standing in Hinduism, and Shiva [encompasses](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/encompasses) both. Lay worshippers generally approach and propitiate Shiva in a manner similar to Hindu devotional activities performed for other gods, although specific rites and regulations can vary widely across India. Shaivas visit temples, they pray, and they give offerings to the god. Worshippers of Shiva are also known for marking their foreheads with a [*tilaka*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/tilak), a mark of ash in three horizontal stripes (called *tripundra*).\n\nShiva is known in [bhakti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/bhakti) traditions for his capacity to grant liberation ([*moksha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion)) to devotees with his divine grace, often for even the most minimal signs of devotion and without regard to [caste](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/caste-social-differentiation) or to [ritual](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/ritual) formalities. An oft-cited example is that of Kannappa, a [Nayanar](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/Nayanar) saint who was born a member of an outcaste tribal group of hunters. He finds a Shiva lingam in the forest and is moved to worship it. Yet he does not offer it the typical [Brahmin](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahman-social-class) offerings; he kicks away offerings from a Brahmin (the touch of the foot is seen as polluting) and instead offers meat (also polluting) and even spits on the lingam (also a polluting act). The Brahmin returns and is angry. Then Shiva makes his own eye bleed, whereupon Kannappa plucks out his own eye and replaces Shiva’s with it. Shiva extends his blessing to Kannappa, and the hunter merges with the god. Love for the deity proves more significant than outward ritual purity.\n\nMonastic and ascetic followers of Shiva have a lengthy and varied history: Over nearly two millennia they have adhered to numerous different schools of thought and practice. Some of these schools have pursued comparatively extreme paths to spiritual liberation, having gone beyond what is typically considered Hindu orthodoxy. The earliest recorded Shaiva worshippers were the [Pashupatas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Pashupata), who likely emerged about the 2nd century ce. These Brahmin celibate ascetics acted in antisocial ways, including living in cremation grounds, in order to achieve eventual union with Shiva. Later, [Kapalika and Kalamukha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kapalikas) groups also pursued [esoteric](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/esoteric) rituals and contributed to the development of [Tantric](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Tantra-religious-texts) ritual practices. The [Shaiva Siddhanta](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaiva-siddhanta) school was an influential form of [Shaivism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism) in southern India that borrowed from bhakti traditions and emphasized the soul’s bondage in reality. For Shaiva Siddhantas, the goal of ascetic practice is to gain proximity to Shiva and a Shiva-like status. In [Kashmiri Shaivism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kashmiri-Shaivism) the goal is to attain recognition of one’s identity with Shiva.\n\nNot all subsets of Shaivas are ascetic, however. For example, the [Lingayats](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Lingayat) (or Virashaivas) in southern India, particularly in [Karnataka](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Karnataka-state-India), developed from the bhakti tradition. Their movement was founded by 12th-century reformer [Basava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Basava). They are noted for wearing small lingams on necklaces as well as for rejecting the [caste](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/caste-social-differentiation) system, the authority of the [Vedas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Veda), the [transmigration of souls](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/reincarnation), and various Hindu social norms. In the early 21st century some Lingayats began to call for a separate religious identity apart from Hinduism.\n\n[![Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/269167-050-B4A8ED78\/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/269167-050-B4A8ED78\/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg)\n\n[Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/269167-050-B4A8ED78\/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg)Hindu priests performing *arti* during Maha Shivaratri, at Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal.\n\n(more)\n\n[![Maha Shivaratri ritual](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/269165-050-B0FCD22F\/Shivling-with-bel-fruit-offerings-Maha-Shivratri-Hindu-festival-Shiva.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/269165-050-B0FCD22F\/Shivling-with-bel-fruit-offerings-Maha-Shivratri-Hindu-festival-Shiva.jpg)\n\n[Maha Shivaratri ritual](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/269165-050-B0FCD22F\/Shivling-with-bel-fruit-offerings-Maha-Shivratri-Hindu-festival-Shiva.jpg)Shiva lingam adorned with *bilva* fruit and other offerings during Maha Shivaratri.\n\n(more)\n\n[Maha Shivaratri](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri) is the most important holiday of the year for Shaiva Hindus. The 14th day of the dark half (waning moon) of each lunar month is especially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurs in the month of Magha (January–February) and especially in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it is an observance of particular rejoicing known as Maha Shivaratri (“Great Night of Shiva”), which is celebrated in different ways across India. The holiday [commemorates](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/commemorates) various events in Shiva’s mythology, including the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, the emergence of the lingam (*lingodbhava*), Shiva’s swallowing of poison during the Churning of the Ocean, or his destruction of Tripura. For some Hindus, [Holi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Holi) memorializes Shiva’s burning of Kama, and [Diwali](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Diwali-Hindu-festival) celebrates a game of dice between Shiva and Parvati. The month of Shravana (July–August) is also considered holy to Shiva, specifically Mondays during that month. Shiva’s role as the first teacher or [guru](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/guru-Hinduism) is cited as one of the origins of the holiday [Guru Purnima](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Guru-Purnima), a festival to honor spiritual and academic teachers and mentors.\n\n[![Kashi Vishwanath Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/251965-050-483D1D86\/vishwanath-holy-temple-vananasi-hindu-uttar-pradesh-india.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/251965-050-483D1D86\/vishwanath-holy-temple-vananasi-hindu-uttar-pradesh-india.jpg)\n\n[Kashi Vishwanath Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/65\/251965-050-483D1D86\/vishwanath-holy-temple-vananasi-hindu-uttar-pradesh-india.jpg)One of Shiva's 12 *jyotirlinga*s, or columns of light, at the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.\n\n(more)\n\n[![Somnath Temple, Gujarat, India](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/38944-004-9B4C84CA\/Temple-Somnath-Shiva-India-Gujarat.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/38944-004-9B4C84CA\/Temple-Somnath-Shiva-India-Gujarat.jpg)\n\n[Somnath Temple, Gujarat, India](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/38944-004-9B4C84CA\/Temple-Somnath-Shiva-India-Gujarat.jpg)Temple dedicated to Shiva at Somnath, Gujarat, India.\n\n(more)\n\n[Temples](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-temple) devoted to Shiva can be found throughout India, neighboring countries in [South Asia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/South-Asia), and across the Indian [diaspora](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/diaspora). Of particular importance are the 12 *jyotirlinga*s, or columns of light, which are sacred places where Shiva is said to have self-manifested as a column of light.\n\nSanskrit:\n\n“Auspicious One”\n\n*(Show more)*\n\nAlso spelled:\n\nŚiva, Shiv, or Śiwa\n\n*(Show more)*\n\n[See all related content](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/facts\/Shiva)\n\n12 *Jyotirlinga*s\n\n- [Somnath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Somnath) (Somnath, [Gujarat](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Gujarat), India)\n- Nageshwar Temple (near [Dwarka](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Dwarka), Gujarat)\n- Bhimashankar Temple (near [Pune](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pune), [Maharashtra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Maharashtra), India)\n- Ghrishneshwar Temple (near the [Ellora Caves](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ellora-Caves), Maharashtra)\n- Trimbakeshwar Temple (near the source of the [Godavari River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Godavari-River), India)\n- Mahakaleshwar Temple ([Ujjain](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ujjain), [Madhya Pradesh](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Madhya-Pradesh), India)\n- Omkareshwar Temple ([Narmada River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Narmada-River), Madhya Pradesh)\n- Ramanathaswamy Temple ([Rameswaram](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Rameswaram), [Tamil Nadu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Tamil-Nadu), India)\n- Mallikarjuna Temple (Srisailam, [Andhra Pradesh](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Andhra-Pradesh), India)\n- [Kedarnath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kedarnath-Temple) (Kedarnath, [Uttarakhand](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Uttarakhand), India)\n- [Kashi Vishvanath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kashi-Vishwanath-Temple) ([Varanasi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Varanasi), [Uttar Pradesh](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Uttar-Pradesh), India)\n- Vaidyanath Temple ([Deoghar](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Deoghar), [Jharkhand](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Jharkhand), India)\n\n[![Brihadishvara Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/250066-050-B34A9532\/Brihadishvara-Temple-Thanjavur-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/250066-050-B34A9532\/Brihadishvara-Temple-Thanjavur-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)\n\n[Brihadishvara Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/250066-050-B34A9532\/Brihadishvara-Temple-Thanjavur-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)The central *vimana* (spire) of Brihadishvara Temple towering over the temple's courtyard and the city of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India, as seen by looking to the northeast.\n\n(more)\n\nSome other notable temples devoted to Shiva are the [Brihadishvara Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Brihadishvara-temple) ([Thanjavur](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Thanjavur-India), Tamil Nadu), the Nataraja Temple ([Chidambaram](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Chidambaram), Tamil Nadu), the [Amarnath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Amarnath-Temple) ([Anantnag](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Anantnag) district, [Jammu and Kashmir](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Jammu-and-Kashmir)), the [Pashupatinath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pashupatinath-Temple) ([Kathmandu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Kathmandu), [Nepal](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Nepal)), and Lara Jonggrang ([Prambanan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Prambanan), [Indonesia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Indonesia)).\n\n[Wendy Doniger](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/contributor\/Wendy-Doniger\/3420) [Charles Preston](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/charles-preston\/13008388) [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica\/4419)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-178\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5)Britannica AI\n\n*chevron\\_right*\n\nShiva\n\n*close*\n\n[AI-generated answers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.\n\nLoad Next Page\n\nFeedback\n\nThank you for your feedback\n\nOur editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.\n\n*print* Print\n\nPlease select which sections you would like to print:\n\n*verified*Cite\n\nWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\n\nSelect Citation Style\n\nPant, Anoushka. \"Maha Shivaratri\". *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 30 Mar. 2026, https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri. Accessed 3 April 2026.\n\nCopy Citation\n\nShare\n\nShare to social media\n\n[Facebook](https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/BRITANNICA\/) [X](https:\/\/x.com\/britannica)\n\nURL\n\n<https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri>\n\nExternal Websites\n\n- [BBC Sounds - Patterns of Faith - Maha Shivaratri](https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/sounds\/play\/p033k430)\n- [IndiaNetzone - Maha Shivaratri Festival](https:\/\/www.indianetzone.com\/mahashivratri)\n- [Learn Religions - Maha Shivratri: The Night of Shiva](https:\/\/www.learnreligions.com\/maha-shivratri-the-night-of-shiva-1770220)\n- [Harvard University - The Pluralism Project - The Great Night of Shiva](https:\/\/pluralism.org\/the-great-night-of-shiva)\n\nFeedback\n\nThank you for your feedback\n\nOur editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.\n\n*print* Print\n\nPlease select which sections you would like to print:\n\n*verified*Cite\n\nWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\n\nSelect Citation Style\n\nDoniger, Wendy, Preston, Charles. \"Shiva\". *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 11 Feb. 2026, https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva. Accessed 3 April 2026.\n\nCopy Citation\n\nShare\n\nShare to social media\n\n[Facebook](https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/BRITANNICA\/) [X](https:\/\/x.com\/britannica)\n\nURL\n\n<https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shiva>\n\nExternal Websites\n\n- [Mythopedia - Shiva](https:\/\/mythopedia.com\/topics\/shiva\/)\n- [Learn Religions - An Introduction to Lord Shiva](https:\/\/www.learnreligions.com\/lord-shiva-basics-1770459)\n- [World History Encyclopedia - Shiva](https:\/\/www.worldhistory.org\/shiva\/)\n- [IndiaNetzone - Mahadeva](https:\/\/www.indianetzone.com\/mahadeva_lord_shiva)","attrs_readable_markdown":"Top Questions\n\n### What is Shiva the god of in Hinduism?\n### Why is Shiva called the destroyer?\n### What are some forms in which Shiva is represented?\n### Who are Shiva’s family members?\n### What is the origin of Shiva?\n### What are some of the most important stories about Shiva?\n### What festivals involve Shiva and how is he worshipped?\n## News •\n**Shiva**, one of the main deities of [Hinduism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism), whom [Shaiva](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism) Hindus worship as the supreme god. Shiva is a complex figure, [encompassing](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/encompassing) [diverse](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/diverse) roles, abilities, personalities, paths of devotion, and stories. Within the Hindu [Trimurti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/trimurti-Hinduism), he is the destroyer of the universe who dances the world to dissolution, following the work of [Brahma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahma-Hindu-god) the creator and [Vishnu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Vishnu) the preserver. However, for Shaiva Hindus, Shiva is supreme and serves in all three cosmological roles. On a personal level, he can be counted on to assist devotees in daily life and to grant them liberation ([*moksha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion)) from the cycle of rebirth ([samsara](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/samsara)). Also known for his prowess as a yogi and an [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism), he is considered the first teacher of [yoga](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Yoga-philosophy) practice. In some instances, he dwells on [Mount Kailash](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mount-Kailash), and in others, he dwells and dances in [cremation](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/cremation) grounds and is covered in ash. [Myths](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/Myths) of Shiva’s exploits, drawn from multiple textual sources, are well known across Hinduism. Shiva is typically worshipped in the [aniconic form](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/murti#ref375321) of a [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam). Prominent [temples](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-temple) dedicated to this multifaceted deity can be found throughout [India](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/India) and the Hindu [diaspora](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/diaspora-social-science).\n\n## Early history\n[Pashupati seal](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/272867-050-08432234\/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg)Seal depicting a figure that may be an early form of Shiva, from the Indus valley civilization; in the National Museum of India, New Delhi.\n\nThe antiquity of Shiva is a contested subject. A seal from the [Indus valley civilization](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Indus-civilization) (c. 2600–1900 bce) bears an image of a seated figure surrounded by animals that some observers cite as evidence of a so-called “proto-Shiva.” The seal, recovered from [Mohenjo-daro](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mohenjo-daro), is popularly called the Pashupati seal, for Shiva’s [epithet](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/epithet) meaning “Lord of Cattle.” The main image consists of a figure wearing a large headdress who is surrounded by animals and seated cross-legged—possibly in meditation—thus [bearing](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/bearing) a resemblance to later depictions of [ascetic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism) Shiva. However, many scholars question whether this ancient seal, with markings in an [undeciphered script](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Harappan-script), can reliably be said to depict Shiva. They suggest that any perceived likeness to Shiva is insufficient proof and that knowledge of the Indus valley civilization is too incomplete for a definitive identification.\n\nOne of Shiva’s epithets is [Rudra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Rudra) (“Howler”), which is the name of an ancient Vedic deity from whom Shiva partially evolved. In the [Vedas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Veda) (1500–1200 bce), Rudra appears rarely in the form of a [marginal](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/marginal) and fearsome being who is excluded from taking a share in the Vedic sacrifices; he gets only the polluting remainder to avoid his wrath. Yet Rudra is also a healer in these early Hindu texts. One of his most prominent appearances is in the *Shatarudriya* (“Belonging to Hundred Rudras”), a text of the Taittiriya Samhita in the [Krishna](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Krishna-Hindu-deity) (Black) Yajur [Veda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Veda). By the time of the [Brahmanas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahmana) (900–700 bce), Rudra begins to emerge as a more significant divinity. He is honored as the supreme deity in the *Shvetashvatara Upanishad*, one of the first theistic [Upanishads](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Upanishad), which is dated to the last centuries before the Common Era. It is in that text that Rudra is first called Shiva.\n\n[![Omar Ali Saifuddin mosque, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/20\/102120-131-B5741CE4\/Sultan-Omar-Ali-Saifuddien-Mosque-Brunei-Bandar.jpg) Britannica Quiz World Religions & Traditions](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/world-religions-traditions)\n\n## Key myths\n[Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/93\/263293-050-460FDFC4\/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg)Statues of the divine couple Shiva and Parvati, joined by their elephant-headed son, Ganesha, installed in a temple cave in Namchi, Sikkim, India.\n\nShiva emerges as a supreme deity in the [Hindu epics and Puranas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism\/Sutras-shastras-and-smritis#ref59114). The key myths of his exploits and nature appear in these texts, often with slight variations in each telling. He is not central in the [*Ramayana*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ramayana-Indian-epic) and [*Mahabharata*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Mahabharata) epics, but his role as a high divinity with a complex mythology is readily apparent. He is featured in numerous [Puranas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Purana); indeed, some Puranas are strictly Shaiva in orientation. Certain commonly known stories about Shiva, among the [myriad](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/myriad) that exist in Hindu literature, are part of the essential vocabulary of Hinduism.\n\n## Destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice and the death of Sati\nThe story of Shiva’s destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice narrates simultaneously the god’s journey from exclusion from Vedic [sacrifice](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/yajna) to inclusion in the Hindu pantheon. Daksha is a son of [Brahma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahma-Hindu-god), one of the creators (a [Prajapati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Prajapati-Hindu-deity)), and the father of [Sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Sati), who is Shiva’s wife. Daksha holds a great sacrifice in honor of the gods, but the gods, or Daksha independently (depending on the telling), neglect to invite Daksha’s son-in-law, Shiva. Enraged by the slight, Shiva destroys Daksha’s sacrifice, in essence sacrificing the sacrifice and making it complete. The result of this act, despite its destructive [treatment](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/treatment) of a Vedic sacrifice, is that Shiva is firmly incorporated as a major Hindu deity.\n\n[Goddess Sati carried by Shiva](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/264213-050-45717188\/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg)*Shiva Carrying the Dead Sati*, watercolor on paper from Calcutta (now Kolkata), 19th century; in the Philadelphia Art Museum.\n\nSati, however, is deeply insulted by her father’s exclusion of her husband from the sacrifice—so much so that, according to some accounts, she self-immolates, an act that is often cited as the mythological origin of [sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/suttee), or widow burning (although, contrary to that practice, her husband Shiva remains very much alive). Dismayed by her death, Shiva weeps terribly as he carries her body. In some myths, Vishnu dismembers the corpse; in others, the gods in general do, and wherever the pieces of her body fall, they turn into places of [worship](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/worship), known as the Shakti Pithas, which are important sites for Shakti worship. Shiva, saddened by his consort Sati’s death, then goes into a long, deep [meditation](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/meditation-mental-exercise) (*[tapas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/tapas)*).\n\n## Burning of Kama and marriage of Parvati\n[Shiva burns Kama with his third eye](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/54\/283554-050-5F551034\/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg)*Madan-Bhasma* (“Kama \\[Madana\\] Turned to Ash”; listed as “Madan-Bhasma (Shiva Turns to Ashes”), lithograph from India, 1890; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.\n\nWhile Shiva is deep in meditation, the goddess [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati)—the daughter of the mountain Himavat ([Himalaya](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Himalayas)) and considered to be a reincarnation of Sati—engages in intense meditation to acquire Shiva as her husband, only to be foiled because Shiva is no longer interested in worldly affairs or marriage. Meanwhile, the gods are afflicted by the demon Taraka, and they require the son of Shiva and Parvati, to be called [Skanda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Skanda), to kill the demon. [Indra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Indra), king of the gods, approaches [Kama](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kama), god of desire, for help in diverting Shiva’s attentions from [celibate](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/celibate) meditation to desire for Parvati. When Kama shoots his flowery arrow of [love](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/love-emotion) to break Shiva’s meditation and draw his attention to Parvati, an angered Shiva opens his third eye and burns Kama to ashes. A distressed Rati, Kama’s wife and the personification of passion, performs penance and pleads with Shiva to bring her husband back to life. Shiva obliges, although he revives Kama in disembodied (*ananga*) form.\n\nGo beyond the basics with trusted, in-depth knowledge for professionals, students, and lifelong learners.\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=basics-2026)\n\n![Penguin, ship, mountain, atlas](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-left.webp)\n\n![shohei ohtani, plants, andy wharhol art](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-right.webp)\n\n![Mobile](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/marketing\/inline-mobile.webp?w=400)\n\n[Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/26\/124426-050-43965500\/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)Shiva and Parvati's wedding, with the Hindu god Brahma officiating, relief in the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India.\n\nThe wedding of Shiva and Parvati is described as a grand affair attended by the gods. Afterward Shiva and Parvati engage in years of amorous play, as poetically described in 5th-century poet and playwright [Kalidasa](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Kalidasa)’s epic poem [*Kumarasambhava*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kumarasambhava) (“Birth of Kumara \\[Skanda\\]”). The gods, however, still needing to defeat the demon Taraka, interrupt the couple’s play. The six-headed Skanda is then born of Shiva’s [semen](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/semen), which is unbearable to all beings, and is taken up in the mouth of the god of fire, [Agni](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Agni), and transferred first to the river [Ganges](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River) and then to six of the stars in the [Pleiades](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pleiades-astronomy) cluster—the Krittikas—which are the wives of the [celestial](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/celestial) sages. In other variants, Skanda is born from Shiva’s semen, dropped into the Ganges, and then raised by the Krittikas—hence his alternate name Karttikeya.\n\n## The submarine mare\nJust as Shiva’s semen needs to be contained to avoid harm to other gods, his power to destroy the universe is evident early but requires containment until the right moment. The fire of anger with which Shiva burned Kama threatens to burn out of control and destroy the universe. So the sages of the world go to Brahma, seeking refuge. Brahma manages to contain the fire of Shiva’s anger, places that fire inside a mare with a flaming mouth (*vadavagni*), and takes it to the ocean. The ocean emerges in the form of a man to speak with Brahma. Brahma requests that the ocean contain the mare with Shiva’s anger until the final dissolution of the world (*pralaya*). Shiva’s capacity to destroy is thus contained until the proper time.\n\n## Birth of Ganesha\n[Ganesha](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/79\/263279-050-2A518EED\/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)A Ganesha shrine with devotional objects, outside the Shiva Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India.\n\nAs in many of the other stories, Shiva’s anger is a main [catalyst](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/catalyst) of the birth of the elephant-headed god [Ganesha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ganesha). One of the best-known myths of Ganesha’s birth begins with Parvati taking a bath and longing for someone to keep Shiva from barging in on her, as was his habit. As she bathes, she kneads the dirt that she rubs off her body into the shape of a child, who comes to life. But when Shiva sees the handsome young boy, he (or one of his attendants) cuts off the child’s head. Parvati is deeply saddened by this act, and the gods request that Shiva find a replacement. When Shiva cuts off an [elephant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/animal\/elephant-mammal)’s head to bestow it on the headless Ganesha, one of the tusks is shattered, and Ganesha is depicted holding the broken-off piece in one of his hands. According to this version of the [myth](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/myth), Ganesha is the child of Parvati alone—indeed, a child born despite Shiva’s negative intervention. Yet Ganesha is traditionally regarded as the child of both Shiva and Parvati. As the remover of obstacles, he is one of the most popular of Hindu deities, and he is traditionally worshipped prior to embarking on any endeavor or performing any ritual.\n\n## Bhairava\n[Bhairava](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/08\/264608-050-9F78A0CE\/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg)A Nepali devotee performing rituals at the Kala Bhairava temple in Basantapur Durbar Square, Kathmandu, Nepal.\n\nAs his fierce form, [Bhairava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Bhairava), Shiva’s affiliation with death, destruction, and cremation grounds comes to the fore. The most prominent Puranic myths of Bhairava associate him with the [Kapalika](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kapalikas) tradition of Shaiva [ascetics](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/ascetics). According to these myths, the god [Brahma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahma-Hindu-god), who is traditionally known to have four heads, originally had five. Stories then diverge in their details: In some, the fifth head makes insulting comments about Shiva; in others, Brahma’s fifth head is [arrogant](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/arrogant). In response, Shiva emanates Bhairava and commands him to remove Brahma’s insulting head. Bhairava removes Brahma’s fifth head with his thumbnail, but he is then guilty of killing a Brahmin—among the worst crimes a person can commit in Hinduism. The [skull](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/skull) sticks to Bhairava’s hand, and, as he seeks penance for his sin, it becomes his begging bowl until it falls off in [Varanasi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Varanasi) at a location that later became a center for Bhairava worship and an important site for Hindu cremation practices.\n\n## Destruction of Tripura\nYet in some myths, Shiva’s fiery nature is necessary for defeating demons. The myth of Shiva’s destruction of the triple city (Tripura) tells of three fortified cities ruled by the *[asura](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asura)* brothers Tarakaksha, Kamalaksha, and Vidyunmali. Granted a boon by Brahma, the moving cities are impenetrable and can be destroyed only when aligned, once every thousand years. The demons take over the universe and [morality](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/morality) erodes, necessitating divine action. When the moment arrives, Shiva fires a single arrow from the Pinaka bow (his special weapon), destroying the demons and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil.\n\n## Shiva’s blue throat\n[Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/279744-050-C520BBFE\/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg)*The Churning of the Ocean of Milk*, depicting demons (*asura*s) on the right and gods (*deva*s) on the left, ink and opaque watercolor on paper, from Mandi, Punjab Hills, India, c. 1780–90; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.\n\nIn contrast to these myths of Shiva’s destructive forms, other stories depict Shiva as the great protector. This role is especially clear in the story behind his blue throat, which earned him the name Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”). During the myth of the [Samudra Manthana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) (“Churning of the Ocean”), as the gods and demons attempt to retrieve the *amrita* (elixir of immortality), using the [*naga*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/naga-Hindu-mythology) Vasuki as a [churning](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/churning) rope, Vasuki’s head vomits forth poison that threatens to fall into the ocean and contaminate the *amrita*. But Shiva takes the poison and holds it in his throat, a feat that saves the world but, as a side effect, turns his throat blue.\n\n## Descent of the Ganges\n[Descent of the Ganges](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/90\/74090-050-8BC02ABA\/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)The descent of the Ganges, sometimes called “Arjuna's Penance,” rock-cut relief; in Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.\n\nA similar myth illustrating Shiva’s protective role relates to his breaking the fall of the celestial [Ganges River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River) as it plummets from heaven to earth. The Ganges is the celestial river in heaven (sometimes identified with the [Milky Way](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Milky-Way-Galaxy)) but descends at the request of the sage Bhagiratha to redeem his ancestors. His ancestors were the 60,000 sons of Sagara (“Ocean”) who went in search of Sagara’s stolen sacrificial horse and dug deep into the subterranean region (creating the ocean) but annoyed the sage [Kapila](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Kapila). Kapila cursed them, turned them into ash, and declared that they could be redeemed only by the celestial river. Bhagiratha journeys to the Himalayas and performs penance for 10,000 years. Shiva respects his meditation and becomes gracious, allowing the Ganges to descend from the sky. But out of a concern that the celestial river would crush the earth, Shiva catches the Ganges in his matted locks. Bhagiratha then continues his penance for another 10,000 years, until Shiva permits it to descend to the earth. This story illustrates both Shiva’s [benevolence](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/benevolence) and his favorable treatment of those who engage in [ascetic](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/ascetic) practice.\n\n## The crescent moon in his hair\n[Shiva](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/126036-050-BB7DE7E6\/Statue-Shiva-Bengaluru-Karnataka-India.jpg)A large statue of Shiva, outside the Shivoham Shiva Temple, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The mountainous background makes the god appear to be meditating in the Himalayas.\n\nShiva’s hair hosts an image of the crescent moon, and the god is closely associated with the moon and Monday (Sanskrit: Somavara). According to a myth and [astrology](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-calendar#ref391918) recounted in the epic *Mahabharata*, there are 27 [*nakshatra*s](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/nakshatra) (lunar mansions), which are the daughters of Daksha. All the daughters are married to Chandra, the moon, but he favors only one of them, Rohini. When the other daughters complain to their father about the moon’s favoritism, Daksha curses the moon to wane and become emaciated. However, the moon’s dimmed status causes the herbs to dry up, which afflicts the animals, and they begin to waste away. In some versions of the myth, the gods ask Daksha to [withdraw](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/withdraw) the curse, but instead he modifies it to make the moon wax and wane each month, which explains the lunar phases, and to spend equal time with his 27 wives, which explains the monthly cycle. In some tellings, such as in the *Shiva Purana*, it is Shiva who intervenes on the moon’s behalf, devises this solution, and becomes the moon’s protector, Someshvara (“Lord of the Moon”).\n\n## Lingam myths and interpretations\n[Sacred ice lingam](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/42\/274442-050-B8619053\/An-Ice-Stalagmite-Stylised-Phallus-Worshiped-By-Hindus-Is-Seen-At-Amarnath-Shrine.jpg)An ice stalagmite revered as a lingam, inside the Amarnath cave, in the Himalayas in the Anantnag district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Formed naturally from dripping water, the ice lingam draws thousands of devotees during the annual Amarnath *yatra*.\n\nThe representation of Shiva in the form of a [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam) has multiple mythological roots with two distinct interpretations and many further variations. In some myths, the lingam is a pillar of fire and light and an abstract representation of the deity; in other myths, however, the lingam is Shiva’s phallus. The lingam is either abstract or physical. The tendency in modern Hinduism is to prefer the interpretation of the lingam as an abstract [symbol](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/symbol). Even in the myths where it is more explicitly a phallus, there is a certain [trepidation](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/trepidation) about this association that relates to the long-standing tension of Shiva as simultaneously erotic and ascetic, physical and divine, all too human and far beyond human.\n\nShiva’s lingam is clearly a phallus in the story of his encounter with sages in the Pine Forest. As these sages, sons of Brahma, are practicing [asceticism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/asceticism), Shiva enters their encampment, meaning to show them grace, but he appears naked, covered in ash, with a frightening appearance while dancing and screaming in a terrifying manner. The wives of the sages, however, become enchanted by him. Angered by his behavior, the sages [curse](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/curse) his lingam (phallus) to fall off. In other versions, Shiva chooses to remove his lingam. In a story in the *Mahabharata*, Brahma instructs Shiva to create creatures, which he does, but he finds them imperfect, so he hides in water. Becoming impatient, Brahma asks another creator being (a Prajapati) to do the job. Shiva later emerges from the water, finds the creatures created and thriving, and, in a rage, he tears off his lingam and throws it on the ground, declaring it now useless.\n\n[*Lingodbhavamurti*](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/89\/263289-050-E07EFF36\/Hinduism-Statue-of-Shiva-as-a-pillar-of-fire-Darasuram-12th-century-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)A lingam of Shiva depicting the story of his appearance as an endless pillar of fire, located in a temple from the 12th century, Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, India.\n\nThe story of the lingam as a pillar of light, often depicted as a *lingodbhavamurti*, begins with the gods Vishnu and Brahma debating their respective importance, each claiming to be the superior god. Shiva appears in the form of a blazing pillar to [quell](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/quell) their pride. In response, Brahma takes the form of a swan and flies upward to see if he can find the top of the pillar, and Vishnu takes the form of a boar and dives below to find its source. Neither is successful, and both are compelled to recognize Shiva’s priority and superiority.\n\nFollowing these dual interpretations, images of the lingam can also be either phallic or abstract aniconic pillars. In temples and in private shrines, Shiva is also worshipped in the form of the [lingam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/lingam), a cylindrical votary object that is often embedded in a [yoni](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/yoni), or spouted dish. The yoni (also the Sanskrit word for “vulva”) represents Shakti, the female cosmic power. The union of lingam and yoni is said to symbolize the union of Shiva and Parvati and of the eternal process of creation and regeneration. Regardless of this sexual [resonance](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/resonance) in some texts and theologies, in modern Hinduism, lingams of Shiva are read as aniconic, representing Shiva’s divinity in an abstract way. That strand is centuries old, too; the images on *lingodbhavamurti*s portray Vishnu and Brahma seeking the farthest reaches of Shiva’s divine pillar of light.\n\n## Forms, iconography, and family\nEpithets of Shiva\n\nShiva is a god of many names, as are most [Hindu deities](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/list-of-Hindu-deities-2066639). Hindu sources often enumerate the 108 names of Shiva, or even the thousand names of Shiva. In many texts he referred to by various names within the course of merely a few sentences, which reflects the deity’s multitudinous powers, natures, and mythologies. The following [abridged](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/abridged) list of Shiva’s many epithets illustrates his range and can be useful for navigating the ways this polyonymous deity appears in texts, speech, and temples through history and across India.\n\n- **Shambhu** (“Benign”)\n- **Shankara** (“Beneficent”)\n- **Mahesha** (“Great Lord”)\n- **Mahadeva** (“Great God”)\n- **Parameshvara** (“Supreme God”)\n- **Vishvanatha** (“Lord of the Universe”)\n- **Bhava** (“Existence”)\n- **Mahakala** (“Great Time”)\n- **Sthanu** (“Standing Firm”)\n- **Pashupati** (“Lord of Cattle”)\n- **Nataraja** (“Lord of the Dance”)\n- **Bhole** (“Innocent”)\n- **Bholenath** (“Lord of the Innocent”)\n- **Rudra** (“Howler”)\n- **Hara** (“Destroyer” or “Seizer”)\n- **Ugra** (“Fierce”)\n- **Shmashanavasin** (“He Who Dwells in a Cremation Ground”)\n- **Kamari** (“Enemy of Kama”)\n- **Tripurari** (“Enemy of Tripura”)\n- **Vaidyanatha** (“Lord of Physicians”)\n- **Nilakantha** (“Blue Throat”)\n- **Gangadhara** (“Receiver of the [Ganges](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ganges-River)”)\n- **Chandrasekhara** (“Moon-Crested” Lord)\n- **Somnath** (“Lord of the Moon”)\n- **Trilochana** (“Three-Eyed” Lord)\n- **Tryambaka** (“Three-Eyed” Lord)\n- **Kapardin** (“He Who Has Matted Locks”)\n- **Dakshinamurti** (“Lord Who Faces South”)\n\nShiva is represented in a variety of forms: in a pacific mood with his consort [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati) and son [Skanda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Skanda), as the cosmic dancer ([Nataraja](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Nataraja)), as a naked ascetic, as a mendicant beggar, as a yogi, as a demonic [Tantric](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism\/Tantrism#ref9017) being ([Bhairava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Bhairava)) accompanied by a dog, and as the [androgynous](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/androgynous) union of Shiva and his consort in one body, half-male and half-female ([Ardhanarishvara](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ardhanarishvara)). He is both the great ascetic and the master of fertility, and he is the master of both poison and medicine, through his ambivalent power over snakes. As Lord of Cattle ([Pashupata](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pashupati-Nepal)), he is the [benevolent](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/benevolent) herdsman—or, at times, the merciless slaughterer of the “beasts” that are the human souls in his care. As Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”), he is the revered first teacher or [guru](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/guru-Hinduism), especially of [yogic](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Yoga-philosophy) practice. Although some of the combinations of roles may be explained by Shiva’s identification with earlier mythological figures, they arise primarily from a tendency in Hinduism to see complementary qualities in a single [ambiguous](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/ambiguous) figure.\n\nShiva is usually depicted in painting and sculpture as white (from the ashes of cremated corpses that are smeared on his body) with a blue neck (from holding in his throat the *halahala* poison that emerged at the [Churning of the Ocean](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk), which threatened to destroy the world), his hair arranged in a coil of matted locks (*jatamakuta*) and adorned with the crescent moon and the Ganges. Shiva has three eyes, the third eye bestowing inward vision but capable of burning destruction (as [Kama](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kama) experienced) when focused outward. He wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his neck, and he carries in his two (sometimes four) hands a deerskin, a trident, a small hand drum, or a club with a skull at the end. Shiva’s weapon, the trident (*trishula*), was [forged](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/forged) by the god [Vishvakarma](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Vishvakarman). Shiva is also often depicted wearing or sitting upon a tiger hide and often perched in meditation in his Himalayan home on [Mount Kailash](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mount-Kailash).\n\n[Shiva Nataraja](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/68\/263968-050-D0B9107F\/Shiva-Nataraja-Chola-in-bronze-Shiva-as-Lord-of-the-Dance-Nataraja-bronze-sculpture-from-the-Chola-period-10th-11th-century-India-Tamil-Nadu-In-the-collection-of-the-Art-Institute-of-Chicago-Hinduism.jpg) *Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja)*, bronze, from southern India, Chola period, 901–1100; in the Art Institute of Chicago.\n\nIn images of Shiva as Nataraja, he is shown with four arms and flying locks dancing on a diminutive figure, who is sometimes identified as demon Apasmara (a symbol of human ignorance; *apasmara* means “forgetfulness” or “heedlessness”). Shiva’s back right hand holds the *damaru* (hourglass-shaped drum); the front right hand is in the *abhaya* [mudra](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/mudra) (the “fear-not” gesture, made by holding the palm outward with fingers pointing up); the back left hand carries [Agni](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Agni) (fire) in a [vessel](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/vessel) or in the palm of the hand; and the front left hand is held across his chest in the *gajahasta* ([elephant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/animal\/elephant-mammal)\\-trunk) pose, with wrist limp and fingers pointed downward toward the uplifted left foot. Shiva is shown as the source of all movement within the cosmos and as the god whose doomsday dance (*tandava*), represented by the arch of flames, accompanies the dissolution of the universe at the end of an eon. The gestures of the dance represent Shiva’s five activities (*panchakritya*): creation (symbolized by the drum), protection (by the “fear-not” pose of the hand), destruction (by the fire), embodiment (by the foot planted on the ground), and [*moksha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion) (by the foot held aloft).\n\nShiva is commonly depicted with his family. His female consort is known under various [manifestations](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/manifestations) as Uma, [Sati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Sati), Parvati, [Durga](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Durga), and [Kali](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kali); Shiva is also sometimes paired with [Shakti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaktism), the embodiment of power. The divine couple, together with their sons—[Skanda](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Skanda) and the elephant-headed [Ganesha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Ganesha)—are said to dwell on [Mount Kailasa](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mount-Kailash) in the [Himalayas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Himalayas). Shiva’s vehicle in the world, his *[vahana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/vahana)*, is the [bull](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/animal\/bull) [Nandi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Nandi-Hindu-mythology); a sculpture of Nandi sits opposite the main sanctuary of many Shiva [temples](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-temple).\n\nShiva and Shakti: The divine couple\n\n[![Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/49\/135349-050-BA6A1396\/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg?w=1000)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/49\/135349-050-BA6A1396\/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg)\n\n[Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/49\/135349-050-BA6A1396\/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg)*The Marriage of Shiva and Parvati: The Wedding of the Charming One*, plaque of carved ivory with traces of tamarind juice, from Madurai, southern India, 1766; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.\n\nThe deep connection between Shiva and his consort [Parvati](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Parvati) (also called Shakti) appears frequently in Hindu [poetry](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/kavya) and [Indian philosophy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Indian-philosophy). The first [*shloka*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/shloka) of 5th-century poet and playwright [Kalidasa](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Kalidasa)’s [*Raghuvamsha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Raghuvamsha) praises the pair at the [inception](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/inception) of his poetic production.\n\n> For mastery of word and meaning, I venerate the parents of the world,  \n>  Who are entwined together like word and meaning: Parvati and Parameshvara.\n\nShiva’s reliance on Shakti is expressed in the opening line of *Saundarya Lahari* (“Flood of Beauty”), a poem to Shakti attributed to [Shankara](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Shankara), the revered 8th-century [Advaita Vedanta](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Advaita-school-of-Hindu-philosophy) philosopher.\n\n> If Śiva is united with Śakti, he is able to exert his powers as lord;  \n>  If not, the god is not able to stir.\n\n## Worship, holidays, and temples\nParalleling Shiva’s dual role as an ascetic and erotic figure, devotees of Shiva ([Shaivas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism)) generally fall into either lay worshippers or mendicants. The tension between [householders and renouncers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hinduism\/Karma-samsara-and-moksha#ref261618) is long-standing in Hinduism, and Shiva [encompasses](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/encompasses) both. Lay worshippers generally approach and propitiate Shiva in a manner similar to Hindu devotional activities performed for other gods, although specific rites and regulations can vary widely across India. Shaivas visit temples, they pray, and they give offerings to the god. Worshippers of Shiva are also known for marking their foreheads with a [*tilaka*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/tilak), a mark of ash in three horizontal stripes (called *tripundra*).\n\nShiva is known in [bhakti](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/bhakti) traditions for his capacity to grant liberation ([*moksha*](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/moksha-Indian-religion)) to devotees with his divine grace, often for even the most minimal signs of devotion and without regard to [caste](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/caste-social-differentiation) or to [ritual](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/ritual) formalities. An oft-cited example is that of Kannappa, a [Nayanar](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/Nayanar) saint who was born a member of an outcaste tribal group of hunters. He finds a Shiva lingam in the forest and is moved to worship it. Yet he does not offer it the typical [Brahmin](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Brahman-social-class) offerings; he kicks away offerings from a Brahmin (the touch of the foot is seen as polluting) and instead offers meat (also polluting) and even spits on the lingam (also a polluting act). The Brahmin returns and is angry. Then Shiva makes his own eye bleed, whereupon Kannappa plucks out his own eye and replaces Shiva’s with it. Shiva extends his blessing to Kannappa, and the hunter merges with the god. Love for the deity proves more significant than outward ritual purity.\n\nMonastic and ascetic followers of Shiva have a lengthy and varied history: Over nearly two millennia they have adhered to numerous different schools of thought and practice. Some of these schools have pursued comparatively extreme paths to spiritual liberation, having gone beyond what is typically considered Hindu orthodoxy. The earliest recorded Shaiva worshippers were the [Pashupatas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Pashupata), who likely emerged about the 2nd century ce. These Brahmin celibate ascetics acted in antisocial ways, including living in cremation grounds, in order to achieve eventual union with Shiva. Later, [Kapalika and Kalamukha](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kapalikas) groups also pursued [esoteric](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/esoteric) rituals and contributed to the development of [Tantric](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Tantra-religious-texts) ritual practices. The [Shaiva Siddhanta](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaiva-siddhanta) school was an influential form of [Shaivism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shaivism) in southern India that borrowed from bhakti traditions and emphasized the soul’s bondage in reality. For Shaiva Siddhantas, the goal of ascetic practice is to gain proximity to Shiva and a Shiva-like status. In [Kashmiri Shaivism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Kashmiri-Shaivism) the goal is to attain recognition of one’s identity with Shiva.\n\nNot all subsets of Shaivas are ascetic, however. For example, the [Lingayats](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Lingayat) (or Virashaivas) in southern India, particularly in [Karnataka](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Karnataka-state-India), developed from the bhakti tradition. Their movement was founded by 12th-century reformer [Basava](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Basava). They are noted for wearing small lingams on necklaces as well as for rejecting the [caste](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/caste-social-differentiation) system, the authority of the [Vedas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Veda), the [transmigration of souls](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/reincarnation), and various Hindu social norms. In the early 21st century some Lingayats began to call for a separate religious identity apart from Hinduism.\n\n[Maha Shivaratri](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Maha-shivaratri) is the most important holiday of the year for Shaiva Hindus. The 14th day of the dark half (waning moon) of each lunar month is especially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurs in the month of Magha (January–February) and especially in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it is an observance of particular rejoicing known as Maha Shivaratri (“Great Night of Shiva”), which is celebrated in different ways across India. The holiday [commemorates](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/commemorates) various events in Shiva’s mythology, including the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, the emergence of the lingam (*lingodbhava*), Shiva’s swallowing of poison during the Churning of the Ocean, or his destruction of Tripura. For some Hindus, [Holi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Holi) memorializes Shiva’s burning of Kama, and [Diwali](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Diwali-Hindu-festival) celebrates a game of dice between Shiva and Parvati. The month of Shravana (July–August) is also considered holy to Shiva, specifically Mondays during that month. Shiva’s role as the first teacher or [guru](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/guru-Hinduism) is cited as one of the origins of the holiday [Guru Purnima](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Guru-Purnima), a festival to honor spiritual and academic teachers and mentors.\n\n[Temples](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Hindu-temple) devoted to Shiva can be found throughout India, neighboring countries in [South Asia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/South-Asia), and across the Indian [diaspora](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/diaspora). Of particular importance are the 12 *jyotirlinga*s, or columns of light, which are sacred places where Shiva is said to have self-manifested as a column of light.\n\nSanskrit:\n\n“Auspicious One”\n\nAlso spelled:\n\nŚiva, Shiv, or Śiwa\n\n- Nageshwar Temple (near [Dwarka](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Dwarka), Gujarat)\n- Ghrishneshwar Temple (near the [Ellora Caves](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Ellora-Caves), Maharashtra)\n- Trimbakeshwar Temple (near the source of the [Godavari River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Godavari-River), India)\n\n[Brihadishvara Temple](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/250066-050-B34A9532\/Brihadishvara-Temple-Thanjavur-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)The central *vimana* (spire) of Brihadishvara Temple towering over the temple's courtyard and the city of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India, as seen by looking to the northeast.\n\nSome other notable temples devoted to Shiva are the [Brihadishvara Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Brihadishvara-temple) ([Thanjavur](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Thanjavur-India), Tamil Nadu), the Nataraja Temple ([Chidambaram](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Chidambaram), Tamil Nadu), the [Amarnath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Amarnath-Temple) ([Anantnag](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Anantnag) district, [Jammu and Kashmir](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Jammu-and-Kashmir)), the [Pashupatinath Temple](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Pashupatinath-Temple) ([Kathmandu](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Kathmandu), [Nepal](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Nepal)), and Lara Jonggrang ([Prambanan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Prambanan), [Indonesia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Indonesia)).","meta_canonical":null}

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Boilerpipe Text	Top Questions What is Shiva the god of in Hinduism? Why is Shiva called the destroyer? What are some forms in which Shiva is represented? Who are Shiva’s family members? What is the origin of Shiva? What are some of the most important stories about Shiva? What festivals involve Shiva and how is he worshipped? News • Shiva , one of the main deities of Hinduism , whom Shaiva Hindus worship as the supreme god. Shiva is a complex figure, encompassing diverse roles, abilities, personalities, paths of devotion, and stories. Within the Hindu Trimurti , he is the destroyer of the universe who dances the world to dissolution, following the work of Brahma the creator and Vishnu the preserver. However, for Shaiva Hindus, Shiva is supreme and serves in all three cosmological roles. On a personal level, he can be counted on to assist devotees in daily life and to grant them liberation ( moksha ) from the cycle of rebirth ( samsara ). Also known for his prowess as a yogi and an ascetic , he is considered the first teacher of yoga practice. In some instances, he dwells on Mount Kailash , and in others, he dwells and dances in cremation grounds and is covered in ash. Myths of Shiva’s exploits, drawn from multiple textual sources, are well known across Hinduism. Shiva is typically worshipped in the aniconic form of a lingam . Prominent temples dedicated to this multifaceted deity can be found throughout India and the Hindu diaspora . Early history Pashupati seal Seal depicting a figure that may be an early form of Shiva, from the Indus valley civilization; in the National Museum of India, New Delhi. The antiquity of Shiva is a contested subject. A seal from the Indus valley civilization (c. 2600–1900 bce ) bears an image of a seated figure surrounded by animals that some observers cite as evidence of a so-called “proto-Shiva.” The seal, recovered from Mohenjo-daro , is popularly called the Pashupati seal, for Shiva’s epithet meaning “Lord of Cattle.” The main image consists of a figure wearing a large headdress who is surrounded by animals and seated cross-legged—possibly in meditation—thus bearing a resemblance to later depictions of ascetic Shiva. However, many scholars question whether this ancient seal, with markings in an undeciphered script , can reliably be said to depict Shiva. They suggest that any perceived likeness to Shiva is insufficient proof and that knowledge of the Indus valley civilization is too incomplete for a definitive identification. One of Shiva’s epithets is Rudra (“Howler”), which is the name of an ancient Vedic deity from whom Shiva partially evolved. In the Vedas (1500–1200 bce ), Rudra appears rarely in the form of a marginal and fearsome being who is excluded from taking a share in the Vedic sacrifices; he gets only the polluting remainder to avoid his wrath. Yet Rudra is also a healer in these early Hindu texts. One of his most prominent appearances is in the Shatarudriya (“Belonging to Hundred Rudras”), a text of the Taittiriya Samhita in the Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda . By the time of the Brahmanas (900–700 bce ), Rudra begins to emerge as a more significant divinity. He is honored as the supreme deity in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad , one of the first theistic Upanishads , which is dated to the last centuries before the Common Era. It is in that text that Rudra is first called Shiva. Britannica Quiz World Religions & Traditions Key myths Shiva and Parvati Statues of the divine couple Shiva and Parvati, joined by their elephant-headed son, Ganesha, installed in a temple cave in Namchi, Sikkim, India. Shiva emerges as a supreme deity in the Hindu epics and Puranas . The key myths of his exploits and nature appear in these texts, often with slight variations in each telling. He is not central in the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, but his role as a high divinity with a complex mythology is readily apparent. He is featured in numerous Puranas ; indeed, some Puranas are strictly Shaiva in orientation. Certain commonly known stories about Shiva, among the myriad that exist in Hindu literature, are part of the essential vocabulary of Hinduism. Destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice and the death of Sati The story of Shiva’s destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice narrates simultaneously the god’s journey from exclusion from Vedic sacrifice to inclusion in the Hindu pantheon. Daksha is a son of Brahma , one of the creators (a Prajapati ), and the father of Sati , who is Shiva’s wife. Daksha holds a great sacrifice in honor of the gods, but the gods, or Daksha independently (depending on the telling), neglect to invite Daksha’s son-in-law, Shiva. Enraged by the slight, Shiva destroys Daksha’s sacrifice, in essence sacrificing the sacrifice and making it complete. The result of this act, despite its destructive treatment of a Vedic sacrifice, is that Shiva is firmly incorporated as a major Hindu deity. Goddess Sati carried by Shiva Shiva Carrying the Dead Sati , watercolor on paper from Calcutta (now Kolkata), 19th century; in the Philadelphia Art Museum. Sati, however, is deeply insulted by her father’s exclusion of her husband from the sacrifice—so much so that, according to some accounts, she self-immolates, an act that is often cited as the mythological origin of sati , or widow burning (although, contrary to that practice, her husband Shiva remains very much alive). Dismayed by her death, Shiva weeps terribly as he carries her body. In some myths, Vishnu dismembers the corpse; in others, the gods in general do, and wherever the pieces of her body fall, they turn into places of worship , known as the Shakti Pithas, which are important sites for Shakti worship. Shiva, saddened by his consort Sati’s death, then goes into a long, deep meditation ( tapas ). Burning of Kama and marriage of Parvati Shiva burns Kama with his third eye Madan-Bhasma (“Kama [Madana] Turned to Ash”; listed as “Madan-Bhasma (Shiva Turns to Ashes”), lithograph from India, 1890; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. While Shiva is deep in meditation, the goddess Parvati —the daughter of the mountain Himavat ( Himalaya ) and considered to be a reincarnation of Sati—engages in intense meditation to acquire Shiva as her husband, only to be foiled because Shiva is no longer interested in worldly affairs or marriage. Meanwhile, the gods are afflicted by the demon Taraka, and they require the son of Shiva and Parvati, to be called Skanda , to kill the demon. Indra , king of the gods, approaches Kama , god of desire, for help in diverting Shiva’s attentions from celibate meditation to desire for Parvati. When Kama shoots his flowery arrow of love to break Shiva’s meditation and draw his attention to Parvati, an angered Shiva opens his third eye and burns Kama to ashes. A distressed Rati, Kama’s wife and the personification of passion, performs penance and pleads with Shiva to bring her husband back to life. Shiva obliges, although he revives Kama in disembodied ( ananga ) form. Go beyond the basics with trusted, in-depth knowledge for professionals, students, and lifelong learners. SUBSCRIBE Wedding of Shiva and Parvati Shiva and Parvati's wedding, with the Hindu god Brahma officiating, relief in the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India. The wedding of Shiva and Parvati is described as a grand affair attended by the gods. Afterward Shiva and Parvati engage in years of amorous play, as poetically described in 5th-century poet and playwright Kalidasa ’s epic poem Kumarasambhava (“Birth of Kumara [Skanda]”). The gods, however, still needing to defeat the demon Taraka, interrupt the couple’s play. The six-headed Skanda is then born of Shiva’s semen , which is unbearable to all beings, and is taken up in the mouth of the god of fire, Agni , and transferred first to the river Ganges and then to six of the stars in the Pleiades cluster—the Krittikas—which are the wives of the celestial sages. In other variants, Skanda is born from Shiva’s semen, dropped into the Ganges, and then raised by the Krittikas—hence his alternate name Karttikeya. The submarine mare Just as Shiva’s semen needs to be contained to avoid harm to other gods, his power to destroy the universe is evident early but requires containment until the right moment. The fire of anger with which Shiva burned Kama threatens to burn out of control and destroy the universe. So the sages of the world go to Brahma, seeking refuge. Brahma manages to contain the fire of Shiva’s anger, places that fire inside a mare with a flaming mouth ( vadavagni ), and takes it to the ocean. The ocean emerges in the form of a man to speak with Brahma. Brahma requests that the ocean contain the mare with Shiva’s anger until the final dissolution of the world ( pralaya ). Shiva’s capacity to destroy is thus contained until the proper time. Birth of Ganesha Ganesha A Ganesha shrine with devotional objects, outside the Shiva Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. As in many of the other stories, Shiva’s anger is a main catalyst of the birth of the elephant-headed god Ganesha . One of the best-known myths of Ganesha’s birth begins with Parvati taking a bath and longing for someone to keep Shiva from barging in on her, as was his habit. As she bathes, she kneads the dirt that she rubs off her body into the shape of a child, who comes to life. But when Shiva sees the handsome young boy, he (or one of his attendants) cuts off the child’s head. Parvati is deeply saddened by this act, and the gods request that Shiva find a replacement. When Shiva cuts off an elephant ’s head to bestow it on the headless Ganesha, one of the tusks is shattered, and Ganesha is depicted holding the broken-off piece in one of his hands. According to this version of the myth , Ganesha is the child of Parvati alone—indeed, a child born despite Shiva’s negative intervention. Yet Ganesha is traditionally regarded as the child of both Shiva and Parvati. As the remover of obstacles, he is one of the most popular of Hindu deities, and he is traditionally worshipped prior to embarking on any endeavor or performing any ritual. Bhairava Bhairava A Nepali devotee performing rituals at the Kala Bhairava temple in Basantapur Durbar Square, Kathmandu, Nepal. As his fierce form, Bhairava , Shiva’s affiliation with death, destruction, and cremation grounds comes to the fore. The most prominent Puranic myths of Bhairava associate him with the Kapalika tradition of Shaiva ascetics . According to these myths, the god Brahma , who is traditionally known to have four heads, originally had five. Stories then diverge in their details: In some, the fifth head makes insulting comments about Shiva; in others, Brahma’s fifth head is arrogant . In response, Shiva emanates Bhairava and commands him to remove Brahma’s insulting head. Bhairava removes Brahma’s fifth head with his thumbnail, but he is then guilty of killing a Brahmin—among the worst crimes a person can commit in Hinduism. The skull sticks to Bhairava’s hand, and, as he seeks penance for his sin, it becomes his begging bowl until it falls off in Varanasi at a location that later became a center for Bhairava worship and an important site for Hindu cremation practices. Destruction of Tripura Yet in some myths, Shiva’s fiery nature is necessary for defeating demons. The myth of Shiva’s destruction of the triple city (Tripura) tells of three fortified cities ruled by the asura brothers Tarakaksha, Kamalaksha, and Vidyunmali. Granted a boon by Brahma, the moving cities are impenetrable and can be destroyed only when aligned, once every thousand years. The demons take over the universe and morality erodes, necessitating divine action. When the moment arrives, Shiva fires a single arrow from the Pinaka bow (his special weapon), destroying the demons and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. Shiva’s blue throat Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean The Churning of the Ocean of Milk , depicting demons ( asura s) on the right and gods ( deva s) on the left, ink and opaque watercolor on paper, from Mandi, Punjab Hills, India, c. 1780–90; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. In contrast to these myths of Shiva’s destructive forms, other stories depict Shiva as the great protector. This role is especially clear in the story behind his blue throat, which earned him the name Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”). During the myth of the Samudra Manthana (“Churning of the Ocean”), as the gods and demons attempt to retrieve the amrita (elixir of immortality), using the naga Vasuki as a churning rope, Vasuki’s head vomits forth poison that threatens to fall into the ocean and contaminate the amrita . But Shiva takes the poison and holds it in his throat, a feat that saves the world but, as a side effect, turns his throat blue. Descent of the Ganges Descent of the Ganges The descent of the Ganges, sometimes called “Arjuna's Penance,” rock-cut relief; in Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. A similar myth illustrating Shiva’s protective role relates to his breaking the fall of the celestial Ganges River as it plummets from heaven to earth. The Ganges is the celestial river in heaven (sometimes identified with the Milky Way ) but descends at the request of the sage Bhagiratha to redeem his ancestors. His ancestors were the 60,000 sons of Sagara (“Ocean”) who went in search of Sagara’s stolen sacrificial horse and dug deep into the subterranean region (creating the ocean) but annoyed the sage Kapila . Kapila cursed them, turned them into ash, and declared that they could be redeemed only by the celestial river. Bhagiratha journeys to the Himalayas and performs penance for 10,000 years. Shiva respects his meditation and becomes gracious, allowing the Ganges to descend from the sky. But out of a concern that the celestial river would crush the earth, Shiva catches the Ganges in his matted locks. Bhagiratha then continues his penance for another 10,000 years, until Shiva permits it to descend to the earth. This story illustrates both Shiva’s benevolence and his favorable treatment of those who engage in ascetic practice. The crescent moon in his hair Shiva A large statue of Shiva, outside the Shivoham Shiva Temple, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The mountainous background makes the god appear to be meditating in the Himalayas. Shiva’s hair hosts an image of the crescent moon, and the god is closely associated with the moon and Monday (Sanskrit: Somavara). According to a myth and astrology recounted in the epic Mahabharata , there are 27 nakshatra s (lunar mansions), which are the daughters of Daksha. All the daughters are married to Chandra, the moon, but he favors only one of them, Rohini. When the other daughters complain to their father about the moon’s favoritism, Daksha curses the moon to wane and become emaciated. However, the moon’s dimmed status causes the herbs to dry up, which afflicts the animals, and they begin to waste away. In some versions of the myth, the gods ask Daksha to withdraw the curse, but instead he modifies it to make the moon wax and wane each month, which explains the lunar phases, and to spend equal time with his 27 wives, which explains the monthly cycle. In some tellings, such as in the Shiva Purana , it is Shiva who intervenes on the moon’s behalf, devises this solution, and becomes the moon’s protector, Someshvara (“Lord of the Moon”). Lingam myths and interpretations Sacred ice lingam An ice stalagmite revered as a lingam, inside the Amarnath cave, in the Himalayas in the Anantnag district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Formed naturally from dripping water, the ice lingam draws thousands of devotees during the annual Amarnath yatra . The representation of Shiva in the form of a lingam has multiple mythological roots with two distinct interpretations and many further variations. In some myths, the lingam is a pillar of fire and light and an abstract representation of the deity; in other myths, however, the lingam is Shiva’s phallus. The lingam is either abstract or physical. The tendency in modern Hinduism is to prefer the interpretation of the lingam as an abstract symbol . Even in the myths where it is more explicitly a phallus, there is a certain trepidation about this association that relates to the long-standing tension of Shiva as simultaneously erotic and ascetic, physical and divine, all too human and far beyond human. Shiva’s lingam is clearly a phallus in the story of his encounter with sages in the Pine Forest. As these sages, sons of Brahma, are practicing asceticism , Shiva enters their encampment, meaning to show them grace, but he appears naked, covered in ash, with a frightening appearance while dancing and screaming in a terrifying manner. The wives of the sages, however, become enchanted by him. Angered by his behavior, the sages curse his lingam (phallus) to fall off. In other versions, Shiva chooses to remove his lingam. In a story in the Mahabharata , Brahma instructs Shiva to create creatures, which he does, but he finds them imperfect, so he hides in water. Becoming impatient, Brahma asks another creator being (a Prajapati) to do the job. Shiva later emerges from the water, finds the creatures created and thriving, and, in a rage, he tears off his lingam and throws it on the ground, declaring it now useless. Lingodbhavamurti A lingam of Shiva depicting the story of his appearance as an endless pillar of fire, located in a temple from the 12th century, Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, India. The story of the lingam as a pillar of light, often depicted as a lingodbhavamurti , begins with the gods Vishnu and Brahma debating their respective importance, each claiming to be the superior god. Shiva appears in the form of a blazing pillar to quell their pride. In response, Brahma takes the form of a swan and flies upward to see if he can find the top of the pillar, and Vishnu takes the form of a boar and dives below to find its source. Neither is successful, and both are compelled to recognize Shiva’s priority and superiority. Following these dual interpretations, images of the lingam can also be either phallic or abstract aniconic pillars. In temples and in private shrines, Shiva is also worshipped in the form of the lingam , a cylindrical votary object that is often embedded in a yoni , or spouted dish. The yoni (also the Sanskrit word for “vulva”) represents Shakti, the female cosmic power. The union of lingam and yoni is said to symbolize the union of Shiva and Parvati and of the eternal process of creation and regeneration. Regardless of this sexual resonance in some texts and theologies, in modern Hinduism, lingams of Shiva are read as aniconic, representing Shiva’s divinity in an abstract way. That strand is centuries old, too; the images on lingodbhavamurti s portray Vishnu and Brahma seeking the farthest reaches of Shiva’s divine pillar of light. Forms, iconography, and family Epithets of Shiva Shiva is a god of many names, as are most Hindu deities . Hindu sources often enumerate the 108 names of Shiva, or even the thousand names of Shiva. In many texts he referred to by various names within the course of merely a few sentences, which reflects the deity’s multitudinous powers, natures, and mythologies. The following abridged list of Shiva’s many epithets illustrates his range and can be useful for navigating the ways this polyonymous deity appears in texts, speech, and temples through history and across India. Shambhu (“Benign”) Shankara (“Beneficent”) Mahesha (“Great Lord”) Mahadeva (“Great God”) Parameshvara (“Supreme God”) Vishvanatha (“Lord of the Universe”) Bhava (“Existence”) Mahakala (“Great Time”) Sthanu (“Standing Firm”) Pashupati (“Lord of Cattle”) Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) Bhole (“Innocent”) Bholenath (“Lord of the Innocent”) Rudra (“Howler”) Hara (“Destroyer” or “Seizer”) Ugra (“Fierce”) Shmashanavasin (“He Who Dwells in a Cremation Ground”) Kamari (“Enemy of Kama”) Tripurari (“Enemy of Tripura”) Vaidyanatha (“Lord of Physicians”) Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”) Gangadhara (“Receiver of the Ganges ”) Chandrasekhara (“Moon-Crested” Lord) Somnath (“Lord of the Moon”) Trilochana (“Three-Eyed” Lord) Tryambaka (“Three-Eyed” Lord) Kapardin (“He Who Has Matted Locks”) Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”) Shiva is represented in a variety of forms: in a pacific mood with his consort Parvati and son Skanda , as the cosmic dancer ( Nataraja ), as a naked ascetic, as a mendicant beggar, as a yogi, as a demonic Tantric being ( Bhairava ) accompanied by a dog, and as the androgynous union of Shiva and his consort in one body, half-male and half-female ( Ardhanarishvara ). He is both the great ascetic and the master of fertility, and he is the master of both poison and medicine, through his ambivalent power over snakes. As Lord of Cattle ( Pashupata ), he is the benevolent herdsman—or, at times, the merciless slaughterer of the “beasts” that are the human souls in his care. As Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”), he is the revered first teacher or guru , especially of yogic practice. Although some of the combinations of roles may be explained by Shiva’s identification with earlier mythological figures, they arise primarily from a tendency in Hinduism to see complementary qualities in a single ambiguous figure. Shiva is usually depicted in painting and sculpture as white (from the ashes of cremated corpses that are smeared on his body) with a blue neck (from holding in his throat the halahala poison that emerged at the Churning of the Ocean , which threatened to destroy the world), his hair arranged in a coil of matted locks ( jatamakuta ) and adorned with the crescent moon and the Ganges. Shiva has three eyes, the third eye bestowing inward vision but capable of burning destruction (as Kama experienced) when focused outward. He wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his neck, and he carries in his two (sometimes four) hands a deerskin, a trident, a small hand drum, or a club with a skull at the end. Shiva’s weapon, the trident ( trishula ), was forged by the god Vishvakarma . Shiva is also often depicted wearing or sitting upon a tiger hide and often perched in meditation in his Himalayan home on Mount Kailash . Shiva Nataraja Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja) , bronze, from southern India, Chola period, 901–1100; in the Art Institute of Chicago. In images of Shiva as Nataraja, he is shown with four arms and flying locks dancing on a diminutive figure, who is sometimes identified as demon Apasmara (a symbol of human ignorance; apasmara means “forgetfulness” or “heedlessness”). Shiva’s back right hand holds the damaru (hourglass-shaped drum); the front right hand is in the abhaya mudra (the “fear-not” gesture, made by holding the palm outward with fingers pointing up); the back left hand carries Agni (fire) in a vessel or in the palm of the hand; and the front left hand is held across his chest in the gajahasta ( elephant -trunk) pose, with wrist limp and fingers pointed downward toward the uplifted left foot. Shiva is shown as the source of all movement within the cosmos and as the god whose doomsday dance ( tandava ), represented by the arch of flames, accompanies the dissolution of the universe at the end of an eon. The gestures of the dance represent Shiva’s five activities ( panchakritya ): creation (symbolized by the drum), protection (by the “fear-not” pose of the hand), destruction (by the fire), embodiment (by the foot planted on the ground), and moksha (by the foot held aloft). Shiva is commonly depicted with his family. His female consort is known under various manifestations as Uma, Sati , Parvati, Durga , and Kali ; Shiva is also sometimes paired with Shakti , the embodiment of power. The divine couple, together with their sons— Skanda and the elephant-headed Ganesha —are said to dwell on Mount Kailasa in the Himalayas . Shiva’s vehicle in the world, his vahana , is the bull Nandi ; a sculpture of Nandi sits opposite the main sanctuary of many Shiva temples . Shiva and Shakti: The divine couple Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage The Marriage of Shiva and Parvati: The Wedding of the Charming One , plaque of carved ivory with traces of tamarind juice, from Madurai, southern India, 1766; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The deep connection between Shiva and his consort Parvati (also called Shakti) appears frequently in Hindu poetry and Indian philosophy . The first shloka of 5th-century poet and playwright Kalidasa ’s Raghuvamsha praises the pair at the inception of his poetic production. For mastery of word and meaning, I venerate the parents of the world, Who are entwined together like word and meaning: Parvati and Parameshvara. Shiva’s reliance on Shakti is expressed in the opening line of Saundarya Lahari (“Flood of Beauty”), a poem to Shakti attributed to Shankara , the revered 8th-century Advaita Vedanta philosopher. If Śiva is united with Śakti, he is able to exert his powers as lord; If not, the god is not able to stir. Worship, holidays, and temples Paralleling Shiva’s dual role as an ascetic and erotic figure, devotees of Shiva ( Shaivas ) generally fall into either lay worshippers or mendicants. The tension between householders and renouncers is long-standing in Hinduism, and Shiva encompasses both. Lay worshippers generally approach and propitiate Shiva in a manner similar to Hindu devotional activities performed for other gods, although specific rites and regulations can vary widely across India. Shaivas visit temples, they pray, and they give offerings to the god. Worshippers of Shiva are also known for marking their foreheads with a tilaka , a mark of ash in three horizontal stripes (called tripundra ). Shiva is known in bhakti traditions for his capacity to grant liberation ( moksha ) to devotees with his divine grace, often for even the most minimal signs of devotion and without regard to caste or to ritual formalities. An oft-cited example is that of Kannappa, a Nayanar saint who was born a member of an outcaste tribal group of hunters. He finds a Shiva lingam in the forest and is moved to worship it. Yet he does not offer it the typical Brahmin offerings; he kicks away offerings from a Brahmin (the touch of the foot is seen as polluting) and instead offers meat (also polluting) and even spits on the lingam (also a polluting act). The Brahmin returns and is angry. Then Shiva makes his own eye bleed, whereupon Kannappa plucks out his own eye and replaces Shiva’s with it. Shiva extends his blessing to Kannappa, and the hunter merges with the god. Love for the deity proves more significant than outward ritual purity. Monastic and ascetic followers of Shiva have a lengthy and varied history: Over nearly two millennia they have adhered to numerous different schools of thought and practice. Some of these schools have pursued comparatively extreme paths to spiritual liberation, having gone beyond what is typically considered Hindu orthodoxy. The earliest recorded Shaiva worshippers were the Pashupatas , who likely emerged about the 2nd century ce . These Brahmin celibate ascetics acted in antisocial ways, including living in cremation grounds, in order to achieve eventual union with Shiva. Later, Kapalika and Kalamukha groups also pursued esoteric rituals and contributed to the development of Tantric ritual practices. The Shaiva Siddhanta school was an influential form of Shaivism in southern India that borrowed from bhakti traditions and emphasized the soul’s bondage in reality. For Shaiva Siddhantas, the goal of ascetic practice is to gain proximity to Shiva and a Shiva-like status. In Kashmiri Shaivism the goal is to attain recognition of one’s identity with Shiva. Not all subsets of Shaivas are ascetic, however. For example, the Lingayats (or Virashaivas) in southern India, particularly in Karnataka , developed from the bhakti tradition. Their movement was founded by 12th-century reformer Basava . They are noted for wearing small lingams on necklaces as well as for rejecting the caste system, the authority of the Vedas , the transmigration of souls , and various Hindu social norms. In the early 21st century some Lingayats began to call for a separate religious identity apart from Hinduism. Maha Shivaratri is the most important holiday of the year for Shaiva Hindus. The 14th day of the dark half (waning moon) of each lunar month is especially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurs in the month of Magha (January–February) and especially in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it is an observance of particular rejoicing known as Maha Shivaratri (“Great Night of Shiva”), which is celebrated in different ways across India. The holiday commemorates various events in Shiva’s mythology, including the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, the emergence of the lingam ( lingodbhava ), Shiva’s swallowing of poison during the Churning of the Ocean, or his destruction of Tripura. For some Hindus, Holi memorializes Shiva’s burning of Kama, and Diwali celebrates a game of dice between Shiva and Parvati. The month of Shravana (July–August) is also considered holy to Shiva, specifically Mondays during that month. Shiva’s role as the first teacher or guru is cited as one of the origins of the holiday Guru Purnima , a festival to honor spiritual and academic teachers and mentors. Temples devoted to Shiva can be found throughout India, neighboring countries in South Asia , and across the Indian diaspora . Of particular importance are the 12 jyotirlinga s, or columns of light, which are sacred places where Shiva is said to have self-manifested as a column of light. Sanskrit: “Auspicious One” Also spelled: Śiva, Shiv, or Śiwa Nageshwar Temple (near Dwarka , Gujarat) Ghrishneshwar Temple (near the Ellora Caves , Maharashtra) Trimbakeshwar Temple (near the source of the Godavari River , India) Brihadishvara Temple The central vimana (spire) of Brihadishvara Temple towering over the temple's courtyard and the city of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India, as seen by looking to the northeast. Some other notable temples devoted to Shiva are the Brihadishvara Temple ( Thanjavur , Tamil Nadu), the Nataraja Temple ( Chidambaram , Tamil Nadu), the Amarnath Temple ( Anantnag district, Jammu and Kashmir ), the Pashupatinath Temple ( Kathmandu , Nepal ), and Lara Jonggrang ( Prambanan , Indonesia ).
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(more) # Maha Shivaratri Hindu festival Homework Help Written by [Anoushka Pant Anoushka Pant holds a degree in elementary education, with a focus on mathematics, education, and psychology, from Miranda House, University of Delhi.](https://www.britannica.com/editor/anoushka-pant/13086400) Anoushka Pant Fact-checked by [Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419) Britannica Editors Last updated Mar. 30, 2026 •[History](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri/additional-info#history) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-178/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5) Britannica AI Ask Anything Table of Contents Table of Contents Ask Anything Top Questions ### What is Maha Shivaratri? Maha Shivaratri is the most important sectarian festival for devotees of the [Hindu](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism) god [Shiva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva), celebrated on the 14th day of the dark half of the [lunar month](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-calendar#ref391917), especially in Magha and Phalguna (February–March according to the [Gregorian calendar](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gregorian-calendar)). ### What is the significance of Maha Shivaratri? Devotees believe worship on Maha Shivaratri provides extraordinary religious and worldly benefits, including spiritual rewards and getting closer to achieving [moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion) (liberation). ### What are some legends associated with Maha Shivaratri? Legends associated with Maha Shivaratri include the divine marriage of [Shiva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva) and [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati), the emergence of the Shiva lingam, Shiva consuming poison during [Samudra Manthana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk), and Shiva destroying the cities of Tripura. Maha Shivaratri, the most important sectarian [festival](https://www.britannica.com/topic/feast-religion) of the year for devotees of the [Hindu](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism) god [Shiva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva). The 14th day of the dark half (waning moon) of each lunar month is specially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurs in the month of [Magha](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Magha-Indian-Sanskrit-poet) (January–February) and especially in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it is an observance of particular rejoicing. The preceding day the participant observes a fast and at night a vigil during which a special worship of the [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam) (symbol of Shiva) is performed along with prayer and relating [myths](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/myths) about Shiva. The following day is celebrated with feasting, festival fairs, and, among the members of the South Indian [Lingayat](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lingayat) sect, the giving of gifts to the [guru](https://www.britannica.com/topic/guru-Hinduism) (personal spiritual guide). Devotees believe that worship on this night provides extraordinary religious and worldly benefits. ## Mythology [![Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-050-43965500/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-050-43965500/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg) [Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-050-43965500/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)Shiva and Parvati's wedding, with the Hindu god Brahma officiating, relief in the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India. (more) Maha Shivaratri originates from Hindu mythology, with multiple [legends](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legends) explaining its cosmic and spiritual significance. Like many Hindu festivals, it is linked to a few different narratives, reflecting the tradition’s openness to multiple truths. The focus is on devotion and worship rather than a single definitive story. - Marriage of Shiva and [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati): According to the Shiva [Purana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Purana), a sacred Hindu text, Maha Shivaratri [commemorates](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/commemorates) the divine [marriage](https://www.britannica.com/topic/marriage) of Shiva, associated with [consciousness](https://www.britannica.com/topic/consciousness), and Hindu goddess Parvati, representing Shakti (energy), a central concept in [Shaivism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) (Shaivite tradition). - Emergence of the Shiva lingam: The Linga Purana links the festival to lingodbhava (the emergence of the lingam), symbolizing Shiva’s formless and [infinite](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/infinite) nature. This [manifestation](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manifestation) is associated with the Jyotirlingas, sacred shrines dedicated to Shiva across India, symbolizing his infinite nature as a column of light. It is believed that those who worship the lingam on this night receive spiritual rewards and get closer to achieving [moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion) (“liberation”). - Samudra Manthana: [Legend](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Legend) says that during the [Samudra Manthana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) ([churning of the ocean of milk](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk)) the [deva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/deva-religious-being)s (gods) and the [asura](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asura)s (demons) sought amrita (an elixir of immortality). The process also brought forth other objects, including the deadly poison halahala. To save creation, Shiva consumed the poison, holding it in his throat. Maha Shivaratri honors this deed, celebrating Shiva as the protector of the [universe](https://www.britannica.com/science/universe). - Tripurantaka and Nataraja: The festival celebrates Shiva as Tripurantaka, the destroyer of Tripura, three fortified cities ruled by the asura brothers Tarakaksha, Kamalaksha, and Vidyunmali. Granted a boon by Brahma, the moving cities could be destroyed only when aligned, once every thousand years. When the moment arrived, Shiva fired a single arrow, destroying them and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. The festival also honors Shiva as [Nataraja](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nataraja), the cosmic dancer, performing a fierce dance called the tandava that drives the cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction. Did You Know? According to the Puranas (collections of [myth](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/myth) and legend), after Shiva consumed the deadly poison halahala during the Samudra Manthana, his throat turned blue, earning him the title Nilakantha (“Blue-Throat”). ## Rituals and practices Devotees begin with a bath for [purification](https://www.britannica.com/topic/purification-rite), followed by fasting, often eating only [fruits](https://www.britannica.com/science/fruit-plant-reproductive-body), [milk](https://www.britannica.com/topic/milk), and nuts. Homes and temples are decorated with bilva (wood-apple tree) leaves, [flowers](https://www.britannica.com/science/flower), and [lamps](https://www.britannica.com/technology/lamp). The main ritual, [abhishekam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/abhiseka) (ceremonial bathing of the Shiva lingam), is performed with water, milk, [honey](https://www.britannica.com/topic/honey), [yogurt](https://www.britannica.com/topic/yogurt), and [ghee](https://www.britannica.com/topic/ghee) (clarified [butter](https://www.britannica.com/topic/butter)), along with offerings of bilva leaves and fruits. Devotees chant the [mantra](https://www.britannica.com/topic/mantra) om namaḥ shivaya (“Obeisance to Shiva”) and recite hymns from the Shiva Purana. A key observance is the jagaran (“night vigil”), during which the night is divided into char prahar (“four parts”), with prayers performed in each. Some devotees keep an [oil](https://www.britannica.com/science/oil-chemical-compound) lamp burning as a symbol of inner awareness, while others practice meditation. The fast is broken the next morning with a simple meal after prayers, marking the completion of the observance. [![A woman and her daughter smear color powder on one another's face on Holi, the Indian festival of colors.](https://cdn.britannica.com/11/232411-131-6E1C57A3/woman-daughter-color-power-Holi-celebration.jpg) Britannica Quiz Hindu Holiday Quiz](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/hindu-holiday-quiz) ## Celebrations [![Maha Shivaratri fair](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/269166-050-513DAEA2/Maha-Shivratri-parade-gods-on-palanquins-Mandi-Himachal-Pradesh-Shiva-Hindu-festival.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/269166-050-513DAEA2/Maha-Shivratri-parade-gods-on-palanquins-Mandi-Himachal-Pradesh-Shiva-Hindu-festival.jpg) [Maha Shivaratri fair](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/269166-050-513DAEA2/Maha-Shivratri-parade-gods-on-palanquins-Mandi-Himachal-Pradesh-Shiva-Hindu-festival.jpg)Maha Shivaratri fair in Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, featuring murtis (depictions of deities) in palanquins being taken on a procession. (more) Maha Shivaratri is celebrated across India with distinct rituals reflecting local traditions. The [Brahmin](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahman-social-class) [community](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community) of Kashmiri Pandits (a Hindu Brahmin community from the [Kashmir](https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent) region) observes it as Herath, with unique rituals such as soaking [walnuts](https://www.britannica.com/plant/walnut-tree-and-nut) in water to be shared as [prasada](https://www.britannica.com/topic/prasada) (food offered to and blessed by a [deity](https://www.britannica.com/topic/deity)). In [Himachal Pradesh](https://www.britannica.com/place/Himachal-Pradesh), the [Mandi](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mandi) Shivaratri fair at Bhutnath Temple includes cultural performances and a traditional royal [procession](https://www.britannica.com/topic/procession). The [Kashi Vishwanath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kashi-Vishwanath-Temple) in [Varanasi](https://www.britannica.com/place/Varanasi), [Uttar Pradesh](https://www.britannica.com/place/Uttar-Pradesh), draws thousands of devotees on the day. They bathe in the [Ganges River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River), with chants of “Har har Mahadev” (“Hail Shiva”). In [Ujjain](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ujjain), [Madhya Pradesh](https://www.britannica.com/place/Madhya-Pradesh), the Mahakaleshwar Temple performs the bhasma (“ashes”) [aarti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/arti), where the deity is anointed with sacred [ash](https://www.britannica.com/plant/ash-tree) at [dawn](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dawn-United-States-satellite). At Tarakeswar Temple in [West Bengal](https://www.britannica.com/place/West-Bengal), devotees offer Ganga jal (water from the Ganges) to the Shiva lingam with nightlong prayers. In [Odisha](https://www.britannica.com/place/Odisha), [Bhubaneswar](https://www.britannica.com/place/Bhubaneshwar)’s Lingaraj Temple sees large gatherings for abhishekam. [Gujarat](https://www.britannica.com/place/Gujarat)’s Bhavnath Mahadev Temple near [Girnar Hills](https://www.britannica.com/place/Girnar-Hills) hosts a five-day fair, where Naga Sadhus (a group of Hindu ascetics) lead processions and perform sacred rites. The [Somnath](https://www.britannica.com/place/Somnath) Temple, one of the Jyotirlingas, also holds grand ceremonies. At [Tamil Nadu](https://www.britannica.com/place/Tamil-Nadu)’s Arulmigu Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, devotees perform girivalam, a 9-mile (14-km) barefoot walk around Arunachala Hill. In [Karnataka](https://www.britannica.com/place/Karnataka-state-India), prayers are offered at Murudeshwar Temple, home to a towering Shiva statue, while the Lingayat sect conducts a mass worship of Ishtalinga (miniature lingam). In [Kerala](https://www.britannica.com/place/Kerala), Aluva Manappuram, a stretch of riverbank along the [Periyar River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Periyar-River), hosts cultural programs. Sanskrit: “Great Night of Shiva” (Show more) Also called: Mahashivratri (Show more) Related Topics: [Śivarātrī](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sivaratri) (Show more) [See all related content](https://www.britannica.com/facts/Maha-shivaratri) [![Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/269167-050-B4A8ED78/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg?w=1000)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/269167-050-B4A8ED78/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg) [Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/269167-050-B4A8ED78/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg)Hindu priests performing arti during Maha Shivaratri, at Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal. (more) Maha Shivaratri is celebrated by Hindu [communities](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communities) worldwide. Thousands gather at [Nepal](https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal)’s [Pashupatinath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pashupatinath-Temple), while [Bangladesh](https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh)’s Chandranath Dham, temples in [Sri Lanka](https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Lanka), and Tamil communities in [Malaysia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Malaysia) and [Singapore](https://www.britannica.com/place/Singapore) host vibrant rituals. In [Africa](https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa), grand processions are held around Ganga Talao in [Mauritius](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mauritius). In [North America](https://www.britannica.com/place/North-America), major celebrations are held in cities including [New York](https://www.britannica.com/place/New-York-state), [Chicago](https://www.britannica.com/place/Chicago), and [Toronto](https://www.britannica.com/place/Toronto), while in [Australia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia) and [Fiji](https://www.britannica.com/place/Fiji-republic-Pacific-Ocean), large gatherings are marked by prayers and cultural events. [Anoushka Pant](https://www.britannica.com/editor/anoushka-pant/13086400) [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-178/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5)Britannica AI chevron\_right Maha Shivaratri close [AI-generated answers](https://www.britannica.com/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles. [Shiva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva) - [Introduction & Top Questions](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva) - [Early history](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470307) - [Key myths](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470308) - [Destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice and the death of Sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470309) - [Burning of Kama and marriage of Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470310) - [The submarine mare](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470311) - [Birth of Ganesha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470312) - [Bhairava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470313) - [Destruction of Tripura](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470314) - [Shiva’s blue throat](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470315) - [Descent of the Ganges](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470316) - [The crescent moon in his hair](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470317) - [Lingam myths and interpretations](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470318) - [Forms, iconography, and family](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470319) - [Worship, holidays, and temples](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470321) [References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva/additional-info) [Related Topics](https://www.britannica.com/facts/Shiva) [Images](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva/images-videos) [![Shiva and his family](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/43179-004-5B1EBDF8/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/43179-050-1DEB30D1/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg) [![Pashupati seal](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/272867-004-964B973F/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/272867-050-08432234/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg) [![Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/263293-004-CF07C4CA/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/263293-050-460FDFC4/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg) [![Goddess Sati carried by Shiva](https://cdn.britannica.com/13/264213-004-05C6C3D3/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/13/264213-050-45717188/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg) [![Shiva burns Kama with his third eye](https://cdn.britannica.com/54/283554-004-517C2A60/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/54/283554-050-5F551034/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg) [![Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-004-15EC94B0/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-050-43965500/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg) [![Ganesha](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/263279-004-29E42BD5/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/263279-050-2A518EED/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg) [![Bhairava](https://cdn.britannica.com/08/264608-004-7691ABC7/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/08/264608-050-9F78A0CE/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg) [![Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/279744-004-DB6CCF91/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/279744-050-C520BBFE/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg) [![Descent of the Ganges](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/74090-004-6627FE7B/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/74090-050-8BC02ABA/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg) At a Glance [![Shiva, bronze statue, Madras, c. ad 900.](https://cdn.britannica.com/61/9361-004-500A946C/Shiva-statue-Madras-ad.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https://www.britannica.com/summary/Shiva) [Shiva summary](https://www.britannica.com/summary/Shiva) Quizzes [![Omar Ali Saifuddin mosque, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei.](https://cdn.britannica.com/20/102120-131-B5741CE4/Sultan-Omar-Ali-Saifuddien-Mosque-Brunei-Bandar.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/world-religions-traditions) [World Religions & Traditions](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/world-religions-traditions) [![Ganesha. Hinduism. Ganesha, the elephant-headed Hindu god of beginnings, figure on external walls of a South Indian Temple in Kerala, India.](https://cdn.britannica.com/60/176060-131-624C5D0C/Ganesha-beginnings-Hindu.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/hindu-religion-and-myth-quiz) [Hindu Religion and Myth Quiz](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/hindu-religion-and-myth-quiz) Related Questions - [What is Shiva the god of in Hinduism?](https://www.britannica.com/question/What-is-Shiva-the-god-of-in-Hinduism) - [Why is Shiva called the destroyer?](https://www.britannica.com/question/Why-is-Shiva-called-the-destroyer) - [What are some forms in which Shiva is represented?](https://www.britannica.com/question/What-are-some-forms-in-which-Shiva-is-represented) - [Who are Shiva’s family members?](https://www.britannica.com/question/Who-are-Shivas-family-members) - [What is the origin of Shiva?](https://www.britannica.com/question/What-is-the-origin-of-Shiva) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-178/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5) Contents Ask Anything [Philosophy & Religion](https://www.britannica.com/browse/Philosophy-Religion) [Ancient Religions & Mythology](https://www.britannica.com/browse/Ancient-Religions-Mythology) CITE Share Feedback External Websites [![Shiva and his family](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/43179-050-1DEB30D1/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop)](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/43179-050-1DEB30D1/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg) [Shiva and his family](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/43179-050-1DEB30D1/Shiva-family-ground-watercolour-gold-paper-Parvati-1810.jpg) Shiva and Family at the Burning Ground, opaque watercolor on paper, in the Kangra style, from northwestern India, c. 1810; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Parvati, Shiva's wife (right), holds their son Skanda while watching their son Ganesha (left) and Shiva string skulls. Dogs pick at bones while the bull Nandi rests behind the tree. (more) # Shiva Hindu deity Homework Help Also known as: Śiva, Śiwa Written by [Wendy Doniger Wendy Doniger is the Mircea Eliade Distinguished Service Professor Emerita of the History of Religions in the Divinity School at the University of Chicago. Her research and teaching interests revolve around...](https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Wendy-Doniger/3420) Wendy Doniger[All](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva/additional-info#contributors) Fact-checked by [Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419) Britannica Editors Last updated Feb. 11, 2026 •[History](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva/additional-info#history) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-178/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5) Britannica AI Ask Anything Table of Contents Table of Contents Ask Anything Top Questions ### What is Shiva the god of in Hinduism? Shiva is one of the principal deities of [Hinduism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism). Within the Hindu [Trimurti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/trimurti-Hinduism), he functions as the destroyer who brings the world to dissolution, whereas [Brahma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god) is the creator and [Vishnu](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vishnu) is the preserver. For [Shaiva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) Hindus, however, Shiva is the supreme being, who performs the roles of creation, preservation, and dissolution. On a personal level, Shiva is invoked by devotees for help in daily life and for granting liberation ([moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion)) from the cycle of rebirth. He is also the archetypal [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism), or yogi. ### Why is Shiva called the destroyer? Shiva is sometimes called the destroyer in [Hinduism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism) because, in the [Trimurti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/trimurti-Hinduism) cosmology, his function is to bring the world to dissolution so the cycle of creation and preservation can restart. Mythic episodes underline his destructive capacity. For example, Shiva fires the arrow that destroys the triple fortresses in the [Tripura story](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470314). His fierce manifestation, [Bhairava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhairava), cuts off one of the heads of the god [Brahma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god). In anger, he reduces to ashes [Kama](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kama), the god of love, and the gods have to find a way to hide that anger until the end of the universe. Shiva is also known to live in [cremation](https://www.britannica.com/topic/cremation) grounds and cover his body in ash, as do some of his [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism) followers. However, for many [Shaiva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) Hindus, Shiva is not a fearsome god but rather a god who serves his devotees in a benevolent capacity. ### What are some forms in which Shiva is represented? Shiva appears in many different forms in devotional imagery. He is worshipped in the aniconic form of the [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam). In his [anthropomorphic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/anthropomorphism) form, he appears with matted hair that has a crescent moon in it, with the [Ganges River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River) falling through his locks, and with a blue throat from having contained poison during the [Churning of the Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) (Samudra Manthana). He also has a third eye. He carries a trident, a small drum, and sometimes a skull-club and wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his neck. He is often associated with images of [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism) practice, such as sitting in the [Himalayas](https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas) in a seated yogic pose. He also sometimes appears as [Nataraja](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nataraja) (“Lord of the Dance”) and as the fierce [Bhairava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhairava). ### Who are Shiva’s family members? Shiva’s household is an important component of his mythology. His female partner appears under multiple names—[Sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sati), [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati), Uma, [Durga](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga), and [Kali](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kali)—and he is often identified with [Shakti](https://www.britannica.com/), divine feminine power. Together the couple are said to dwell on [Mount Kailash](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Kailash) and to have two principal sons: [Skanda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda) (also called Karttikeya), the six-headed war god born to slay the demon Taraka, and [Ganesha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ganesha), the elephant-headed remover of obstacles. Shiva’s vehicle ([vahana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/vahana)) is the bull [Nandi](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nandi-Hindu-mythology), who often appears in temples in his own pavilion, facing the main [temple](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-temple) sanctuary, where Shiva dwells. ### What is the origin of Shiva? Shiva’s origins are complex and debated. Some scholars contend that a seal from the [Indus valley civilization](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization)—often called the Pashupati seal—depicts a seated [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism) deity surrounded by animals, but this identification is disputed, because, as other scholars argue, the evidence is fragmentary and visual similarities are insufficient to make the connection. In the [Hindu](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism) textual tradition, Shiva partially emerges from the [Vedic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedic-religion) deity [Rudra](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rudra), a marginal fearsome figure who appears in early [Vedic texts](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda) and later develops greater prominence in the [Brahmanas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmana) and the theistic [Upanishads](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Upanishad). By the time of the [epics and Puranas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Sutras-shastras-and-smritis#ref59114), Shiva’s complex benign, yogic character is further elaborated, forming the basis for later worship. ### What are some of the most important stories about Shiva? Key myths about Shiva include that of his destruction of [Daksha’s sacrifice](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470309) and the death of [Sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sati), a foundational tale that explains Shiva’s move from the margins of Hindu orthodoxy. An important series of narrative scenes consists of [Shiva’s burning](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470310) of [Kama](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kama), his subsequent marriage to [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati), and the birth of [Skanda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda). [Shiva’s beheading and re-heading (with an elephant head)](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470312) of [Ganesha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ganesha) is a key tale. Shiva’s destruction of the [demon](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asura)\-run triple city of [Tripura](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470314) and his [swallowing of the poison](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470315) during the [Churning of the Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) show his capacity to prevent harm. Likewise, his protection of the earth from damage that would be caused by the [descent](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470316) of the [Ganges River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River) from heaven and his [protection of the Moon](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva#ref470317) relate to his nature and his [iconography](https://www.britannica.com/art/iconography). Stories related to the origin of the aniconic [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam), a form in which he is often worshipped, reveal different perspectives on Shiva’s role and nature. ### What festivals involve Shiva and how is he worshipped? Shiva is worshipped both by lay devotees and by [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism) orders. Lay [Shaivas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) attend [temples](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-temple), perform [puja](https://www.britannica.com/topic/puja) offerings, and may mark their foreheads with three horizontal ash stripes. [Ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism) Shaivas follow diverse traditions, some wearing cremation-ground [symbolism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/symbol) or emphasizing identity with the deity. The [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam) is a central object of worship in temples and private shrines. Important holidays or days of sacred significance for Shiva include [Maha Shivaratri](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri) (“Great Night of Shiva”), the month of Shravana (July–August), and Mondays (associated with the Moon). Some traditions associate [Holi](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Holi), [Diwali](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Diwali-Hindu-festival), and [Guru Purnima](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Guru-Purnima) with Shiva’s mythology. ## News • [Cambodia unveils ancient Shiva statue restored from 10,000 pieces](https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/cambodia-unveils-ancient-shiva-statue-restored-from-10000-pieces) • Mar. 19, 2026, 8:25 AM ET (Straits Times) Show less Shiva, one of the main deities of [Hinduism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism), whom [Shaiva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) Hindus worship as the supreme god. Shiva is a complex figure, [encompassing](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encompassing) [diverse](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diverse) roles, abilities, personalities, paths of devotion, and stories. Within the Hindu [Trimurti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/trimurti-Hinduism), he is the destroyer of the universe who dances the world to dissolution, following the work of [Brahma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god) the creator and [Vishnu](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vishnu) the preserver. However, for Shaiva Hindus, Shiva is supreme and serves in all three cosmological roles. On a personal level, he can be counted on to assist devotees in daily life and to grant them liberation ([moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion)) from the cycle of rebirth ([samsara](https://www.britannica.com/topic/samsara)). Also known for his prowess as a yogi and an [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism), he is considered the first teacher of [yoga](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoga-philosophy) practice. In some instances, he dwells on [Mount Kailash](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Kailash), and in others, he dwells and dances in [cremation](https://www.britannica.com/topic/cremation) grounds and is covered in ash. [Myths](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Myths) of Shiva’s exploits, drawn from multiple textual sources, are well known across Hinduism. Shiva is typically worshipped in the [aniconic form](https://www.britannica.com/topic/murti#ref375321) of a [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam). Prominent [temples](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-temple) dedicated to this multifaceted deity can be found throughout [India](https://www.britannica.com/place/India) and the Hindu [diaspora](https://www.britannica.com/topic/diaspora-social-science). ## Early history [![Pashupati seal](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/272867-050-08432234/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/272867-050-08432234/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg) [Pashupati seal](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/272867-050-08432234/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg)Seal depicting a figure that may be an early form of Shiva, from the Indus valley civilization; in the National Museum of India, New Delhi. (more) The antiquity of Shiva is a contested subject. A seal from the [Indus valley civilization](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization) (c. 2600–1900 bce) bears an image of a seated figure surrounded by animals that some observers cite as evidence of a so-called “proto-Shiva.” The seal, recovered from [Mohenjo-daro](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mohenjo-daro), is popularly called the Pashupati seal, for Shiva’s [epithet](https://www.britannica.com/art/epithet) meaning “Lord of Cattle.” The main image consists of a figure wearing a large headdress who is surrounded by animals and seated cross-legged—possibly in meditation—thus [bearing](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/bearing) a resemblance to later depictions of [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism) Shiva. However, many scholars question whether this ancient seal, with markings in an [undeciphered script](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harappan-script), can reliably be said to depict Shiva. They suggest that any perceived likeness to Shiva is insufficient proof and that knowledge of the Indus valley civilization is too incomplete for a definitive identification. One of Shiva’s epithets is [Rudra](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rudra) (“Howler”), which is the name of an ancient Vedic deity from whom Shiva partially evolved. In the [Vedas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda) (1500–1200 bce), Rudra appears rarely in the form of a [marginal](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/marginal) and fearsome being who is excluded from taking a share in the Vedic sacrifices; he gets only the polluting remainder to avoid his wrath. Yet Rudra is also a healer in these early Hindu texts. One of his most prominent appearances is in the Shatarudriya (“Belonging to Hundred Rudras”), a text of the Taittiriya Samhita in the [Krishna](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Krishna-Hindu-deity) (Black) Yajur [Veda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda). By the time of the [Brahmanas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmana) (900–700 bce), Rudra begins to emerge as a more significant divinity. He is honored as the supreme deity in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, one of the first theistic [Upanishads](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Upanishad), which is dated to the last centuries before the Common Era. It is in that text that Rudra is first called Shiva. [![Omar Ali Saifuddin mosque, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei.](https://cdn.britannica.com/20/102120-131-B5741CE4/Sultan-Omar-Ali-Saifuddien-Mosque-Brunei-Bandar.jpg) Britannica Quiz World Religions & Traditions](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/world-religions-traditions) ## Key myths [![Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/263293-050-460FDFC4/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/263293-050-460FDFC4/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg) [Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/263293-050-460FDFC4/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg)Statues of the divine couple Shiva and Parvati, joined by their elephant-headed son, Ganesha, installed in a temple cave in Namchi, Sikkim, India. (more) Shiva emerges as a supreme deity in the [Hindu epics and Puranas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Sutras-shastras-and-smritis#ref59114). The key myths of his exploits and nature appear in these texts, often with slight variations in each telling. He is not central in the [Ramayana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramayana-Indian-epic) and [Mahabharata](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mahabharata) epics, but his role as a high divinity with a complex mythology is readily apparent. He is featured in numerous [Puranas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Purana); indeed, some Puranas are strictly Shaiva in orientation. Certain commonly known stories about Shiva, among the [myriad](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/myriad) that exist in Hindu literature, are part of the essential vocabulary of Hinduism. ## Destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice and the death of Sati The story of Shiva’s destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice narrates simultaneously the god’s journey from exclusion from Vedic [sacrifice](https://www.britannica.com/topic/yajna) to inclusion in the Hindu pantheon. Daksha is a son of [Brahma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god), one of the creators (a [Prajapati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Prajapati-Hindu-deity)), and the father of [Sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sati), who is Shiva’s wife. Daksha holds a great sacrifice in honor of the gods, but the gods, or Daksha independently (depending on the telling), neglect to invite Daksha’s son-in-law, Shiva. Enraged by the slight, Shiva destroys Daksha’s sacrifice, in essence sacrificing the sacrifice and making it complete. The result of this act, despite its destructive [treatment](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/treatment) of a Vedic sacrifice, is that Shiva is firmly incorporated as a major Hindu deity. [![Goddess Sati carried by Shiva](https://cdn.britannica.com/13/264213-050-45717188/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/13/264213-050-45717188/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg) [Goddess Sati carried by Shiva](https://cdn.britannica.com/13/264213-050-45717188/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg)Shiva Carrying the Dead Sati, watercolor on paper from Calcutta (now Kolkata), 19th century; in the Philadelphia Art Museum. (more) Sati, however, is deeply insulted by her father’s exclusion of her husband from the sacrifice—so much so that, according to some accounts, she self-immolates, an act that is often cited as the mythological origin of [sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/suttee), or widow burning (although, contrary to that practice, her husband Shiva remains very much alive). Dismayed by her death, Shiva weeps terribly as he carries her body. In some myths, Vishnu dismembers the corpse; in others, the gods in general do, and wherever the pieces of her body fall, they turn into places of [worship](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/worship), known as the Shakti Pithas, which are important sites for Shakti worship. Shiva, saddened by his consort Sati’s death, then goes into a long, deep [meditation](https://www.britannica.com/topic/meditation-mental-exercise) ([tapas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/tapas)). ## Burning of Kama and marriage of Parvati [![Shiva burns Kama with his third eye](https://cdn.britannica.com/54/283554-050-5F551034/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/54/283554-050-5F551034/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg) [Shiva burns Kama with his third eye](https://cdn.britannica.com/54/283554-050-5F551034/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg)Madan-Bhasma (“Kama \[Madana\] Turned to Ash”; listed as “Madan-Bhasma (Shiva Turns to Ashes”), lithograph from India, 1890; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. (more) While Shiva is deep in meditation, the goddess [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati)—the daughter of the mountain Himavat ([Himalaya](https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas)) and considered to be a reincarnation of Sati—engages in intense meditation to acquire Shiva as her husband, only to be foiled because Shiva is no longer interested in worldly affairs or marriage. Meanwhile, the gods are afflicted by the demon Taraka, and they require the son of Shiva and Parvati, to be called [Skanda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda), to kill the demon. [Indra](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indra), king of the gods, approaches [Kama](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kama), god of desire, for help in diverting Shiva’s attentions from [celibate](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/celibate) meditation to desire for Parvati. When Kama shoots his flowery arrow of [love](https://www.britannica.com/topic/love-emotion) to break Shiva’s meditation and draw his attention to Parvati, an angered Shiva opens his third eye and burns Kama to ashes. A distressed Rati, Kama’s wife and the personification of passion, performs penance and pleads with Shiva to bring her husband back to life. Shiva obliges, although he revives Kama in disembodied (ananga) form. Explore Britannica Premium\! Go beyond the basics with trusted, in-depth knowledge for professionals, students, and lifelong learners. [SUBSCRIBE](https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=basics-2026) ![Penguin, ship, mountain, atlas](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-left.webp) ![shohei ohtani, plants, andy wharhol art](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-right.webp) ![Mobile](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-mobile.webp?w=400) [![Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-050-43965500/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-050-43965500/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg) [Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-050-43965500/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)Shiva and Parvati's wedding, with the Hindu god Brahma officiating, relief in the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India. (more) The wedding of Shiva and Parvati is described as a grand affair attended by the gods. Afterward Shiva and Parvati engage in years of amorous play, as poetically described in 5th-century poet and playwright [Kalidasa](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kalidasa)’s epic poem [Kumarasambhava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kumarasambhava) (“Birth of Kumara \[Skanda\]”). The gods, however, still needing to defeat the demon Taraka, interrupt the couple’s play. The six-headed Skanda is then born of Shiva’s [semen](https://www.britannica.com/science/semen), which is unbearable to all beings, and is taken up in the mouth of the god of fire, [Agni](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Agni), and transferred first to the river [Ganges](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River) and then to six of the stars in the [Pleiades](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pleiades-astronomy) cluster—the Krittikas—which are the wives of the [celestial](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/celestial) sages. In other variants, Skanda is born from Shiva’s semen, dropped into the Ganges, and then raised by the Krittikas—hence his alternate name Karttikeya. ## The submarine mare Just as Shiva’s semen needs to be contained to avoid harm to other gods, his power to destroy the universe is evident early but requires containment until the right moment. The fire of anger with which Shiva burned Kama threatens to burn out of control and destroy the universe. So the sages of the world go to Brahma, seeking refuge. Brahma manages to contain the fire of Shiva’s anger, places that fire inside a mare with a flaming mouth (vadavagni), and takes it to the ocean. The ocean emerges in the form of a man to speak with Brahma. Brahma requests that the ocean contain the mare with Shiva’s anger until the final dissolution of the world (pralaya). Shiva’s capacity to destroy is thus contained until the proper time. ## Birth of Ganesha [![Ganesha](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/263279-050-2A518EED/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/263279-050-2A518EED/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg) [Ganesha](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/263279-050-2A518EED/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)A Ganesha shrine with devotional objects, outside the Shiva Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. (more) As in many of the other stories, Shiva’s anger is a main [catalyst](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/catalyst) of the birth of the elephant-headed god [Ganesha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ganesha). One of the best-known myths of Ganesha’s birth begins with Parvati taking a bath and longing for someone to keep Shiva from barging in on her, as was his habit. As she bathes, she kneads the dirt that she rubs off her body into the shape of a child, who comes to life. But when Shiva sees the handsome young boy, he (or one of his attendants) cuts off the child’s head. Parvati is deeply saddened by this act, and the gods request that Shiva find a replacement. When Shiva cuts off an [elephant](https://www.britannica.com/animal/elephant-mammal)’s head to bestow it on the headless Ganesha, one of the tusks is shattered, and Ganesha is depicted holding the broken-off piece in one of his hands. According to this version of the [myth](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/myth), Ganesha is the child of Parvati alone—indeed, a child born despite Shiva’s negative intervention. Yet Ganesha is traditionally regarded as the child of both Shiva and Parvati. As the remover of obstacles, he is one of the most popular of Hindu deities, and he is traditionally worshipped prior to embarking on any endeavor or performing any ritual. ## Bhairava [![Bhairava](https://cdn.britannica.com/08/264608-050-9F78A0CE/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/08/264608-050-9F78A0CE/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg) [Bhairava](https://cdn.britannica.com/08/264608-050-9F78A0CE/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg)A Nepali devotee performing rituals at the Kala Bhairava temple in Basantapur Durbar Square, Kathmandu, Nepal. (more) As his fierce form, [Bhairava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhairava), Shiva’s affiliation with death, destruction, and cremation grounds comes to the fore. The most prominent Puranic myths of Bhairava associate him with the [Kapalika](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kapalikas) tradition of Shaiva [ascetics](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ascetics). According to these myths, the god [Brahma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god), who is traditionally known to have four heads, originally had five. Stories then diverge in their details: In some, the fifth head makes insulting comments about Shiva; in others, Brahma’s fifth head is [arrogant](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/arrogant). In response, Shiva emanates Bhairava and commands him to remove Brahma’s insulting head. Bhairava removes Brahma’s fifth head with his thumbnail, but he is then guilty of killing a Brahmin—among the worst crimes a person can commit in Hinduism. The [skull](https://www.britannica.com/science/skull) sticks to Bhairava’s hand, and, as he seeks penance for his sin, it becomes his begging bowl until it falls off in [Varanasi](https://www.britannica.com/place/Varanasi) at a location that later became a center for Bhairava worship and an important site for Hindu cremation practices. ## Destruction of Tripura Yet in some myths, Shiva’s fiery nature is necessary for defeating demons. The myth of Shiva’s destruction of the triple city (Tripura) tells of three fortified cities ruled by the [asura](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asura) brothers Tarakaksha, Kamalaksha, and Vidyunmali. Granted a boon by Brahma, the moving cities are impenetrable and can be destroyed only when aligned, once every thousand years. The demons take over the universe and [morality](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morality) erodes, necessitating divine action. When the moment arrives, Shiva fires a single arrow from the Pinaka bow (his special weapon), destroying the demons and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. ## Shiva’s blue throat [![Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/279744-050-C520BBFE/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/279744-050-C520BBFE/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg) [Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/279744-050-C520BBFE/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg)The Churning of the Ocean of Milk, depicting demons (asuras) on the right and gods (devas) on the left, ink and opaque watercolor on paper, from Mandi, Punjab Hills, India, c. 1780–90; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. (more) In contrast to these myths of Shiva’s destructive forms, other stories depict Shiva as the great protector. This role is especially clear in the story behind his blue throat, which earned him the name Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”). During the myth of the [Samudra Manthana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) (“Churning of the Ocean”), as the gods and demons attempt to retrieve the amrita (elixir of immortality), using the [naga](https://www.britannica.com/topic/naga-Hindu-mythology) Vasuki as a [churning](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/churning) rope, Vasuki’s head vomits forth poison that threatens to fall into the ocean and contaminate the amrita. But Shiva takes the poison and holds it in his throat, a feat that saves the world but, as a side effect, turns his throat blue. ## Descent of the Ganges [![Descent of the Ganges](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/74090-050-8BC02ABA/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/74090-050-8BC02ABA/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg) [Descent of the Ganges](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/74090-050-8BC02ABA/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)The descent of the Ganges, sometimes called “Arjuna's Penance,” rock-cut relief; in Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. (more) A similar myth illustrating Shiva’s protective role relates to his breaking the fall of the celestial [Ganges River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River) as it plummets from heaven to earth. The Ganges is the celestial river in heaven (sometimes identified with the [Milky Way](https://www.britannica.com/place/Milky-Way-Galaxy)) but descends at the request of the sage Bhagiratha to redeem his ancestors. His ancestors were the 60,000 sons of Sagara (“Ocean”) who went in search of Sagara’s stolen sacrificial horse and dug deep into the subterranean region (creating the ocean) but annoyed the sage [Kapila](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kapila). Kapila cursed them, turned them into ash, and declared that they could be redeemed only by the celestial river. Bhagiratha journeys to the Himalayas and performs penance for 10,000 years. Shiva respects his meditation and becomes gracious, allowing the Ganges to descend from the sky. But out of a concern that the celestial river would crush the earth, Shiva catches the Ganges in his matted locks. Bhagiratha then continues his penance for another 10,000 years, until Shiva permits it to descend to the earth. This story illustrates both Shiva’s [benevolence](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/benevolence) and his favorable treatment of those who engage in [ascetic](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ascetic) practice. ## The crescent moon in his hair [![Shiva](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/126036-050-BB7DE7E6/Statue-Shiva-Bengaluru-Karnataka-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/126036-050-BB7DE7E6/Statue-Shiva-Bengaluru-Karnataka-India.jpg) [Shiva](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/126036-050-BB7DE7E6/Statue-Shiva-Bengaluru-Karnataka-India.jpg)A large statue of Shiva, outside the Shivoham Shiva Temple, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The mountainous background makes the god appear to be meditating in the Himalayas. (more) Shiva’s hair hosts an image of the crescent moon, and the god is closely associated with the moon and Monday (Sanskrit: Somavara). According to a myth and [astrology](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-calendar#ref391918) recounted in the epic Mahabharata, there are 27 [nakshatras](https://www.britannica.com/topic/nakshatra) (lunar mansions), which are the daughters of Daksha. All the daughters are married to Chandra, the moon, but he favors only one of them, Rohini. When the other daughters complain to their father about the moon’s favoritism, Daksha curses the moon to wane and become emaciated. However, the moon’s dimmed status causes the herbs to dry up, which afflicts the animals, and they begin to waste away. In some versions of the myth, the gods ask Daksha to [withdraw](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/withdraw) the curse, but instead he modifies it to make the moon wax and wane each month, which explains the lunar phases, and to spend equal time with his 27 wives, which explains the monthly cycle. In some tellings, such as in the Shiva Purana, it is Shiva who intervenes on the moon’s behalf, devises this solution, and becomes the moon’s protector, Someshvara (“Lord of the Moon”). ## Lingam myths and interpretations [![Sacred ice lingam](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/274442-050-B8619053/An-Ice-Stalagmite-Stylised-Phallus-Worshiped-By-Hindus-Is-Seen-At-Amarnath-Shrine.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/274442-050-B8619053/An-Ice-Stalagmite-Stylised-Phallus-Worshiped-By-Hindus-Is-Seen-At-Amarnath-Shrine.jpg) [Sacred ice lingam](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/274442-050-B8619053/An-Ice-Stalagmite-Stylised-Phallus-Worshiped-By-Hindus-Is-Seen-At-Amarnath-Shrine.jpg)An ice stalagmite revered as a lingam, inside the Amarnath cave, in the Himalayas in the Anantnag district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Formed naturally from dripping water, the ice lingam draws thousands of devotees during the annual Amarnath yatra. (more) The representation of Shiva in the form of a [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam) has multiple mythological roots with two distinct interpretations and many further variations. In some myths, the lingam is a pillar of fire and light and an abstract representation of the deity; in other myths, however, the lingam is Shiva’s phallus. The lingam is either abstract or physical. The tendency in modern Hinduism is to prefer the interpretation of the lingam as an abstract [symbol](https://www.britannica.com/topic/symbol). Even in the myths where it is more explicitly a phallus, there is a certain [trepidation](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/trepidation) about this association that relates to the long-standing tension of Shiva as simultaneously erotic and ascetic, physical and divine, all too human and far beyond human. [![Shiva lingam and offerings](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/263277-050-883E0C8A/Hinduism-Shiva-linga.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/263277-050-883E0C8A/Hinduism-Shiva-linga.jpg) [Shiva lingam and offerings](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/263277-050-883E0C8A/Hinduism-Shiva-linga.jpg)Flowers adorning a Shiva lingam placed in a yoni; at the Patan Museum, Kathmandu, Nepal. (more) Shiva’s lingam is clearly a phallus in the story of his encounter with sages in the Pine Forest. As these sages, sons of Brahma, are practicing [asceticism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism), Shiva enters their encampment, meaning to show them grace, but he appears naked, covered in ash, with a frightening appearance while dancing and screaming in a terrifying manner. The wives of the sages, however, become enchanted by him. Angered by his behavior, the sages [curse](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/curse) his lingam (phallus) to fall off. In other versions, Shiva chooses to remove his lingam. In a story in the Mahabharata, Brahma instructs Shiva to create creatures, which he does, but he finds them imperfect, so he hides in water. Becoming impatient, Brahma asks another creator being (a Prajapati) to do the job. Shiva later emerges from the water, finds the creatures created and thriving, and, in a rage, he tears off his lingam and throws it on the ground, declaring it now useless. [![Lingodbhavamurti](https://cdn.britannica.com/89/263289-050-E07EFF36/Hinduism-Statue-of-Shiva-as-a-pillar-of-fire-Darasuram-12th-century-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/89/263289-050-E07EFF36/Hinduism-Statue-of-Shiva-as-a-pillar-of-fire-Darasuram-12th-century-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg) [Lingodbhavamurti](https://cdn.britannica.com/89/263289-050-E07EFF36/Hinduism-Statue-of-Shiva-as-a-pillar-of-fire-Darasuram-12th-century-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)A lingam of Shiva depicting the story of his appearance as an endless pillar of fire, located in a temple from the 12th century, Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, India. (more) The story of the lingam as a pillar of light, often depicted as a lingodbhavamurti, begins with the gods Vishnu and Brahma debating their respective importance, each claiming to be the superior god. Shiva appears in the form of a blazing pillar to [quell](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/quell) their pride. In response, Brahma takes the form of a swan and flies upward to see if he can find the top of the pillar, and Vishnu takes the form of a boar and dives below to find its source. Neither is successful, and both are compelled to recognize Shiva’s priority and superiority. Following these dual interpretations, images of the lingam can also be either phallic or abstract aniconic pillars. In temples and in private shrines, Shiva is also worshipped in the form of the [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam), a cylindrical votary object that is often embedded in a [yoni](https://www.britannica.com/topic/yoni), or spouted dish. The yoni (also the Sanskrit word for “vulva”) represents Shakti, the female cosmic power. The union of lingam and yoni is said to symbolize the union of Shiva and Parvati and of the eternal process of creation and regeneration. Regardless of this sexual [resonance](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/resonance) in some texts and theologies, in modern Hinduism, lingams of Shiva are read as aniconic, representing Shiva’s divinity in an abstract way. That strand is centuries old, too; the images on lingodbhavamurtis portray Vishnu and Brahma seeking the farthest reaches of Shiva’s divine pillar of light. ## Forms, iconography, and family Epithets of Shiva Shiva is a god of many names, as are most [Hindu deities](https://www.britannica.com/topic/list-of-Hindu-deities-2066639). Hindu sources often enumerate the 108 names of Shiva, or even the thousand names of Shiva. In many texts he referred to by various names within the course of merely a few sentences, which reflects the deity’s multitudinous powers, natures, and mythologies. The following [abridged](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/abridged) list of Shiva’s many epithets illustrates his range and can be useful for navigating the ways this polyonymous deity appears in texts, speech, and temples through history and across India. - Shambhu (“Benign”) - Shankara (“Beneficent”) - Mahesha (“Great Lord”) - Mahadeva (“Great God”) - Parameshvara (“Supreme God”) - Vishvanatha (“Lord of the Universe”) - Bhava (“Existence”) - Mahakala (“Great Time”) - Sthanu (“Standing Firm”) - Pashupati (“Lord of Cattle”) - Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) - Bhole (“Innocent”) - Bholenath (“Lord of the Innocent”) - Rudra (“Howler”) - Hara (“Destroyer” or “Seizer”) - Ugra (“Fierce”) - Shmashanavasin (“He Who Dwells in a Cremation Ground”) - Kamari (“Enemy of Kama”) - Tripurari (“Enemy of Tripura”) - Vaidyanatha (“Lord of Physicians”) - Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”) - Gangadhara (“Receiver of the [Ganges](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River)”) - Chandrasekhara (“Moon-Crested” Lord) - Somnath (“Lord of the Moon”) - Trilochana (“Three-Eyed” Lord) - Tryambaka (“Three-Eyed” Lord) - Kapardin (“He Who Has Matted Locks”) - Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”) Shiva is represented in a variety of forms: in a pacific mood with his consort [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati) and son [Skanda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda), as the cosmic dancer ([Nataraja](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nataraja)), as a naked ascetic, as a mendicant beggar, as a yogi, as a demonic [Tantric](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Tantrism#ref9017) being ([Bhairava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhairava)) accompanied by a dog, and as the [androgynous](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/androgynous) union of Shiva and his consort in one body, half-male and half-female ([Ardhanarishvara](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ardhanarishvara)). He is both the great ascetic and the master of fertility, and he is the master of both poison and medicine, through his ambivalent power over snakes. As Lord of Cattle ([Pashupata](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pashupati-Nepal)), he is the [benevolent](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/benevolent) herdsman—or, at times, the merciless slaughterer of the “beasts” that are the human souls in his care. As Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”), he is the revered first teacher or [guru](https://www.britannica.com/topic/guru-Hinduism), especially of [yogic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoga-philosophy) practice. Although some of the combinations of roles may be explained by Shiva’s identification with earlier mythological figures, they arise primarily from a tendency in Hinduism to see complementary qualities in a single [ambiguous](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ambiguous) figure. Shiva is usually depicted in painting and sculpture as white (from the ashes of cremated corpses that are smeared on his body) with a blue neck (from holding in his throat the halahala poison that emerged at the [Churning of the Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk), which threatened to destroy the world), his hair arranged in a coil of matted locks (jatamakuta) and adorned with the crescent moon and the Ganges. Shiva has three eyes, the third eye bestowing inward vision but capable of burning destruction (as [Kama](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kama) experienced) when focused outward. He wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his neck, and he carries in his two (sometimes four) hands a deerskin, a trident, a small hand drum, or a club with a skull at the end. Shiva’s weapon, the trident (trishula), was [forged](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/forged) by the god [Vishvakarma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vishvakarman). Shiva is also often depicted wearing or sitting upon a tiger hide and often perched in meditation in his Himalayan home on [Mount Kailash](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Kailash). [![Shiva Nataraja](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/263968-050-D0B9107F/Shiva-Nataraja-Chola-in-bronze-Shiva-as-Lord-of-the-Dance-Nataraja-bronze-sculpture-from-the-Chola-period-10th-11th-century-India-Tamil-Nadu-In-the-collection-of-the-Art-Institute-of-Chicago-Hinduism.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/263968-050-D0B9107F/Shiva-Nataraja-Chola-in-bronze-Shiva-as-Lord-of-the-Dance-Nataraja-bronze-sculpture-from-the-Chola-period-10th-11th-century-India-Tamil-Nadu-In-the-collection-of-the-Art-Institute-of-Chicago-Hinduism.jpg) [Shiva Nataraja](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/263968-050-D0B9107F/Shiva-Nataraja-Chola-in-bronze-Shiva-as-Lord-of-the-Dance-Nataraja-bronze-sculpture-from-the-Chola-period-10th-11th-century-India-Tamil-Nadu-In-the-collection-of-the-Art-Institute-of-Chicago-Hinduism.jpg) Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), bronze, from southern India, Chola period, 901–1100; in the Art Institute of Chicago. (more) In images of Shiva as Nataraja, he is shown with four arms and flying locks dancing on a diminutive figure, who is sometimes identified as demon Apasmara (a symbol of human ignorance; apasmara means “forgetfulness” or “heedlessness”). Shiva’s back right hand holds the damaru (hourglass-shaped drum); the front right hand is in the abhaya [mudra](https://www.britannica.com/topic/mudra) (the “fear-not” gesture, made by holding the palm outward with fingers pointing up); the back left hand carries [Agni](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Agni) (fire) in a [vessel](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/vessel) or in the palm of the hand; and the front left hand is held across his chest in the gajahasta ([elephant](https://www.britannica.com/animal/elephant-mammal)\-trunk) pose, with wrist limp and fingers pointed downward toward the uplifted left foot. Shiva is shown as the source of all movement within the cosmos and as the god whose doomsday dance (tandava), represented by the arch of flames, accompanies the dissolution of the universe at the end of an eon. The gestures of the dance represent Shiva’s five activities (panchakritya): creation (symbolized by the drum), protection (by the “fear-not” pose of the hand), destruction (by the fire), embodiment (by the foot planted on the ground), and [moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion) (by the foot held aloft). [![Sculpture of Shiva, Parvati, and Skanda](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/280377-050-F8CF7274/Sculpture-of-Shiva-Uma-and-Their-Son-Skanda.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/280377-050-F8CF7274/Sculpture-of-Shiva-Uma-and-Their-Son-Skanda.jpg) [Sculpture of Shiva, Parvati, and Skanda](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/280377-050-F8CF7274/Sculpture-of-Shiva-Uma-and-Their-Son-Skanda.jpg)Shiva, Parvati, and Their Son Skanda (Somaskandamurti), copper alloy, from southern India, early 11th century; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. A Somaskandamurti is an iconographic depiction of Shiva with Uma (Parvati) and their son Skanda. It is a popular devotional image and a common subject of Chola bronzes. (more) [![Nandi](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/142626-050-01A227C8/Statue-Nandi-bull-Chamundi-Hill-Karnataka-India.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/142626-050-01A227C8/Statue-Nandi-bull-Chamundi-Hill-Karnataka-India.jpg) [Nandi](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/142626-050-01A227C8/Statue-Nandi-bull-Chamundi-Hill-Karnataka-India.jpg)Sculpture of Nandi at Chamundi Hill, Mysuru (Mysore), Karnataka, India. (more) Shiva is commonly depicted with his family. His female consort is known under various [manifestations](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manifestations) as Uma, [Sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sati), Parvati, [Durga](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga), and [Kali](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kali); Shiva is also sometimes paired with [Shakti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaktism), the embodiment of power. The divine couple, together with their sons—[Skanda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda) and the elephant-headed [Ganesha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ganesha)—are said to dwell on [Mount Kailasa](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Kailash) in the [Himalayas](https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas). Shiva’s vehicle in the world, his [vahana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/vahana), is the [bull](https://www.britannica.com/animal/bull) [Nandi](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nandi-Hindu-mythology); a sculpture of Nandi sits opposite the main sanctuary of many Shiva [temples](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-temple). Shiva and Shakti: The divine couple [![Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage](https://cdn.britannica.com/49/135349-050-BA6A1396/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg?w=1000)](https://cdn.britannica.com/49/135349-050-BA6A1396/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg) [Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage](https://cdn.britannica.com/49/135349-050-BA6A1396/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg)The Marriage of Shiva and Parvati: The Wedding of the Charming One, plaque of carved ivory with traces of tamarind juice, from Madurai, southern India, 1766; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. (more) The deep connection between Shiva and his consort [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati) (also called Shakti) appears frequently in Hindu [poetry](https://www.britannica.com/art/kavya) and [Indian philosophy](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-philosophy). The first [shloka](https://www.britannica.com/art/shloka) of 5th-century poet and playwright [Kalidasa](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kalidasa)’s [Raghuvamsha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Raghuvamsha) praises the pair at the [inception](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/inception) of his poetic production. > For mastery of word and meaning, I venerate the parents of the world, > Who are entwined together like word and meaning: Parvati and Parameshvara. > > —translated by Csaba Dezső, Dominic Goodall, and Harunaga Isaacson Shiva’s reliance on Shakti is expressed in the opening line of Saundarya Lahari (“Flood of Beauty”), a poem to Shakti attributed to [Shankara](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shankara), the revered 8th-century [Advaita Vedanta](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Advaita-school-of-Hindu-philosophy) philosopher. > If Śiva is united with Śakti, he is able to exert his powers as lord; > If not, the god is not able to stir. > > —translated by W. Norman Brown ## Worship, holidays, and temples [![Apatsahayesvarar Shiva Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/263290-050-586A2DD8/Hinduism-A-goat-stands-before-the-Apatsahayesvarar-Temple-also-called-Alangudi.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/263290-050-586A2DD8/Hinduism-A-goat-stands-before-the-Apatsahayesvarar-Temple-also-called-Alangudi.jpg) [Apatsahayesvarar Shiva Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/263290-050-586A2DD8/Hinduism-A-goat-stands-before-the-Apatsahayesvarar-Temple-also-called-Alangudi.jpg)A goat and bicycles standing outside the Apatsahayesvarar Shiva Temple, Alangudi, Tamil Nadu, India. (more) Paralleling Shiva’s dual role as an ascetic and erotic figure, devotees of Shiva ([Shaivas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism)) generally fall into either lay worshippers or mendicants. The tension between [householders and renouncers](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Karma-samsara-and-moksha#ref261618) is long-standing in Hinduism, and Shiva [encompasses](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encompasses) both. Lay worshippers generally approach and propitiate Shiva in a manner similar to Hindu devotional activities performed for other gods, although specific rites and regulations can vary widely across India. Shaivas visit temples, they pray, and they give offerings to the god. Worshippers of Shiva are also known for marking their foreheads with a [tilaka](https://www.britannica.com/topic/tilak), a mark of ash in three horizontal stripes (called tripundra). Shiva is known in [bhakti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/bhakti) traditions for his capacity to grant liberation ([moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion)) to devotees with his divine grace, often for even the most minimal signs of devotion and without regard to [caste](https://www.britannica.com/topic/caste-social-differentiation) or to [ritual](https://www.britannica.com/topic/ritual) formalities. An oft-cited example is that of Kannappa, a [Nayanar](https://www.britannica.com/art/Nayanar) saint who was born a member of an outcaste tribal group of hunters. He finds a Shiva lingam in the forest and is moved to worship it. Yet he does not offer it the typical [Brahmin](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahman-social-class) offerings; he kicks away offerings from a Brahmin (the touch of the foot is seen as polluting) and instead offers meat (also polluting) and even spits on the lingam (also a polluting act). The Brahmin returns and is angry. Then Shiva makes his own eye bleed, whereupon Kannappa plucks out his own eye and replaces Shiva’s with it. Shiva extends his blessing to Kannappa, and the hunter merges with the god. Love for the deity proves more significant than outward ritual purity. Monastic and ascetic followers of Shiva have a lengthy and varied history: Over nearly two millennia they have adhered to numerous different schools of thought and practice. Some of these schools have pursued comparatively extreme paths to spiritual liberation, having gone beyond what is typically considered Hindu orthodoxy. The earliest recorded Shaiva worshippers were the [Pashupatas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pashupata), who likely emerged about the 2nd century ce. These Brahmin celibate ascetics acted in antisocial ways, including living in cremation grounds, in order to achieve eventual union with Shiva. Later, [Kapalika and Kalamukha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kapalikas) groups also pursued [esoteric](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/esoteric) rituals and contributed to the development of [Tantric](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tantra-religious-texts) ritual practices. The [Shaiva Siddhanta](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaiva-siddhanta) school was an influential form of [Shaivism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) in southern India that borrowed from bhakti traditions and emphasized the soul’s bondage in reality. For Shaiva Siddhantas, the goal of ascetic practice is to gain proximity to Shiva and a Shiva-like status. In [Kashmiri Shaivism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kashmiri-Shaivism) the goal is to attain recognition of one’s identity with Shiva. Not all subsets of Shaivas are ascetic, however. For example, the [Lingayats](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lingayat) (or Virashaivas) in southern India, particularly in [Karnataka](https://www.britannica.com/place/Karnataka-state-India), developed from the bhakti tradition. Their movement was founded by 12th-century reformer [Basava](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Basava). They are noted for wearing small lingams on necklaces as well as for rejecting the [caste](https://www.britannica.com/topic/caste-social-differentiation) system, the authority of the [Vedas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda), the [transmigration of souls](https://www.britannica.com/topic/reincarnation), and various Hindu social norms. In the early 21st century some Lingayats began to call for a separate religious identity apart from Hinduism. [![Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/269167-050-B4A8ED78/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/269167-050-B4A8ED78/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg) [Maha Shivaratri at Pashupatinath Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/269167-050-B4A8ED78/Hindu-priests-perform-Aarati-Maha-Shivratri-festival-shiva-Pashupatinath-Temple-Kathmandu-Nepal.jpg)Hindu priests performing arti during Maha Shivaratri, at Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal. (more) [![Maha Shivaratri ritual](https://cdn.britannica.com/65/269165-050-B0FCD22F/Shivling-with-bel-fruit-offerings-Maha-Shivratri-Hindu-festival-Shiva.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/65/269165-050-B0FCD22F/Shivling-with-bel-fruit-offerings-Maha-Shivratri-Hindu-festival-Shiva.jpg) [Maha Shivaratri ritual](https://cdn.britannica.com/65/269165-050-B0FCD22F/Shivling-with-bel-fruit-offerings-Maha-Shivratri-Hindu-festival-Shiva.jpg)Shiva lingam adorned with bilva fruit and other offerings during Maha Shivaratri. (more) [Maha Shivaratri](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri) is the most important holiday of the year for Shaiva Hindus. The 14th day of the dark half (waning moon) of each lunar month is especially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurs in the month of Magha (January–February) and especially in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it is an observance of particular rejoicing known as Maha Shivaratri (“Great Night of Shiva”), which is celebrated in different ways across India. The holiday [commemorates](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/commemorates) various events in Shiva’s mythology, including the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, the emergence of the lingam (lingodbhava), Shiva’s swallowing of poison during the Churning of the Ocean, or his destruction of Tripura. For some Hindus, [Holi](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Holi) memorializes Shiva’s burning of Kama, and [Diwali](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Diwali-Hindu-festival) celebrates a game of dice between Shiva and Parvati. The month of Shravana (July–August) is also considered holy to Shiva, specifically Mondays during that month. Shiva’s role as the first teacher or [guru](https://www.britannica.com/topic/guru-Hinduism) is cited as one of the origins of the holiday [Guru Purnima](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Guru-Purnima), a festival to honor spiritual and academic teachers and mentors. [![Kashi Vishwanath Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/65/251965-050-483D1D86/vishwanath-holy-temple-vananasi-hindu-uttar-pradesh-india.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/65/251965-050-483D1D86/vishwanath-holy-temple-vananasi-hindu-uttar-pradesh-india.jpg) [Kashi Vishwanath Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/65/251965-050-483D1D86/vishwanath-holy-temple-vananasi-hindu-uttar-pradesh-india.jpg)One of Shiva's 12 jyotirlingas, or columns of light, at the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. (more) [![Somnath Temple, Gujarat, India](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/38944-004-9B4C84CA/Temple-Somnath-Shiva-India-Gujarat.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/38944-004-9B4C84CA/Temple-Somnath-Shiva-India-Gujarat.jpg) [Somnath Temple, Gujarat, India](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/38944-004-9B4C84CA/Temple-Somnath-Shiva-India-Gujarat.jpg)Temple dedicated to Shiva at Somnath, Gujarat, India. (more) [Temples](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-temple) devoted to Shiva can be found throughout India, neighboring countries in [South Asia](https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Asia), and across the Indian [diaspora](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diaspora). Of particular importance are the 12 jyotirlingas, or columns of light, which are sacred places where Shiva is said to have self-manifested as a column of light. Sanskrit: “Auspicious One” (Show more) Also spelled: Śiva, Shiv, or Śiwa (Show more) [See all related content](https://www.britannica.com/facts/Shiva) 12 Jyotirlingas - [Somnath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/place/Somnath) (Somnath, [Gujarat](https://www.britannica.com/place/Gujarat), India) - Nageshwar Temple (near [Dwarka](https://www.britannica.com/place/Dwarka), Gujarat) - Bhimashankar Temple (near [Pune](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pune), [Maharashtra](https://www.britannica.com/place/Maharashtra), India) - Ghrishneshwar Temple (near the [Ellora Caves](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ellora-Caves), Maharashtra) - Trimbakeshwar Temple (near the source of the [Godavari River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Godavari-River), India) - Mahakaleshwar Temple ([Ujjain](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ujjain), [Madhya Pradesh](https://www.britannica.com/place/Madhya-Pradesh), India) - Omkareshwar Temple ([Narmada River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Narmada-River), Madhya Pradesh) - Ramanathaswamy Temple ([Rameswaram](https://www.britannica.com/place/Rameswaram), [Tamil Nadu](https://www.britannica.com/place/Tamil-Nadu), India) - Mallikarjuna Temple (Srisailam, [Andhra Pradesh](https://www.britannica.com/place/Andhra-Pradesh), India) - [Kedarnath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kedarnath-Temple) (Kedarnath, [Uttarakhand](https://www.britannica.com/place/Uttarakhand), India) - [Kashi Vishvanath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kashi-Vishwanath-Temple) ([Varanasi](https://www.britannica.com/place/Varanasi), [Uttar Pradesh](https://www.britannica.com/place/Uttar-Pradesh), India) - Vaidyanath Temple ([Deoghar](https://www.britannica.com/place/Deoghar), [Jharkhand](https://www.britannica.com/place/Jharkhand), India) [![Brihadishvara Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/250066-050-B34A9532/Brihadishvara-Temple-Thanjavur-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/250066-050-B34A9532/Brihadishvara-Temple-Thanjavur-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg) [Brihadishvara Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/250066-050-B34A9532/Brihadishvara-Temple-Thanjavur-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)The central vimana (spire) of Brihadishvara Temple towering over the temple's courtyard and the city of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India, as seen by looking to the northeast. (more) Some other notable temples devoted to Shiva are the [Brihadishvara Temple](https://www.britannica.com/place/Brihadishvara-temple) ([Thanjavur](https://www.britannica.com/place/Thanjavur-India), Tamil Nadu), the Nataraja Temple ([Chidambaram](https://www.britannica.com/place/Chidambaram), Tamil Nadu), the [Amarnath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Amarnath-Temple) ([Anantnag](https://www.britannica.com/place/Anantnag) district, [Jammu and Kashmir](https://www.britannica.com/place/Jammu-and-Kashmir)), the [Pashupatinath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pashupatinath-Temple) ([Kathmandu](https://www.britannica.com/place/Kathmandu), [Nepal](https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal)), and Lara Jonggrang ([Prambanan](https://www.britannica.com/place/Prambanan), [Indonesia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia)). [Wendy Doniger](https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Wendy-Doniger/3420) [Charles Preston](https://www.britannica.com/editor/charles-preston/13008388) [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-178/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5)Britannica AI chevron\_right Shiva close [AI-generated answers](https://www.britannica.com/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles. Load Next Page Feedback Thank you for your feedback Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. print Print Please select which sections you would like to print: verifiedCite While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Select Citation Style Pant, Anoushka. "Maha Shivaratri". Encyclopedia Britannica, 30 Mar. 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri. Accessed 3 April 2026. Copy Citation Share Share to social media [Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/) [X](https://x.com/britannica) URL <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri> External Websites - [BBC Sounds - Patterns of Faith - Maha Shivaratri](https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p033k430) - [IndiaNetzone - Maha Shivaratri Festival](https://www.indianetzone.com/mahashivratri) - [Learn Religions - Maha Shivratri: The Night of Shiva](https://www.learnreligions.com/maha-shivratri-the-night-of-shiva-1770220) - [Harvard University - The Pluralism Project - The Great Night of Shiva](https://pluralism.org/the-great-night-of-shiva) Feedback Thank you for your feedback Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. print Print Please select which sections you would like to print: verifiedCite While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Select Citation Style Doniger, Wendy, Preston, Charles. "Shiva". Encyclopedia Britannica, 11 Feb. 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva. Accessed 3 April 2026. Copy Citation Share Share to social media [Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/) [X](https://x.com/britannica) URL <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva> External Websites - [Mythopedia - Shiva](https://mythopedia.com/topics/shiva/) - [Learn Religions - An Introduction to Lord Shiva](https://www.learnreligions.com/lord-shiva-basics-1770459) - [World History Encyclopedia - Shiva](https://www.worldhistory.org/shiva/) - [IndiaNetzone - Mahadeva](https://www.indianetzone.com/mahadeva_lord_shiva)
Readable Markdown	Top Questions ### What is Shiva the god of in Hinduism? ### Why is Shiva called the destroyer? ### What are some forms in which Shiva is represented? ### Who are Shiva’s family members? ### What is the origin of Shiva? ### What are some of the most important stories about Shiva? ### What festivals involve Shiva and how is he worshipped? ## News • Shiva, one of the main deities of [Hinduism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism), whom [Shaiva](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) Hindus worship as the supreme god. Shiva is a complex figure, [encompassing](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encompassing) [diverse](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diverse) roles, abilities, personalities, paths of devotion, and stories. Within the Hindu [Trimurti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/trimurti-Hinduism), he is the destroyer of the universe who dances the world to dissolution, following the work of [Brahma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god) the creator and [Vishnu](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vishnu) the preserver. However, for Shaiva Hindus, Shiva is supreme and serves in all three cosmological roles. On a personal level, he can be counted on to assist devotees in daily life and to grant them liberation ([moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion)) from the cycle of rebirth ([samsara](https://www.britannica.com/topic/samsara)). Also known for his prowess as a yogi and an [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism), he is considered the first teacher of [yoga](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoga-philosophy) practice. In some instances, he dwells on [Mount Kailash](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Kailash), and in others, he dwells and dances in [cremation](https://www.britannica.com/topic/cremation) grounds and is covered in ash. [Myths](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Myths) of Shiva’s exploits, drawn from multiple textual sources, are well known across Hinduism. Shiva is typically worshipped in the [aniconic form](https://www.britannica.com/topic/murti#ref375321) of a [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam). Prominent [temples](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-temple) dedicated to this multifaceted deity can be found throughout [India](https://www.britannica.com/place/India) and the Hindu [diaspora](https://www.britannica.com/topic/diaspora-social-science). ## Early history [Pashupati seal](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/272867-050-08432234/Pashupati-Seal-From-The-Indus-Valley-Civilization-At-National-Museum-In-New-Delhi-India.jpg)Seal depicting a figure that may be an early form of Shiva, from the Indus valley civilization; in the National Museum of India, New Delhi. The antiquity of Shiva is a contested subject. A seal from the [Indus valley civilization](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization) (c. 2600–1900 bce) bears an image of a seated figure surrounded by animals that some observers cite as evidence of a so-called “proto-Shiva.” The seal, recovered from [Mohenjo-daro](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mohenjo-daro), is popularly called the Pashupati seal, for Shiva’s [epithet](https://www.britannica.com/art/epithet) meaning “Lord of Cattle.” The main image consists of a figure wearing a large headdress who is surrounded by animals and seated cross-legged—possibly in meditation—thus [bearing](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/bearing) a resemblance to later depictions of [ascetic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism) Shiva. However, many scholars question whether this ancient seal, with markings in an [undeciphered script](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harappan-script), can reliably be said to depict Shiva. They suggest that any perceived likeness to Shiva is insufficient proof and that knowledge of the Indus valley civilization is too incomplete for a definitive identification. One of Shiva’s epithets is [Rudra](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rudra) (“Howler”), which is the name of an ancient Vedic deity from whom Shiva partially evolved. In the [Vedas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda) (1500–1200 bce), Rudra appears rarely in the form of a [marginal](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/marginal) and fearsome being who is excluded from taking a share in the Vedic sacrifices; he gets only the polluting remainder to avoid his wrath. Yet Rudra is also a healer in these early Hindu texts. One of his most prominent appearances is in the Shatarudriya (“Belonging to Hundred Rudras”), a text of the Taittiriya Samhita in the [Krishna](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Krishna-Hindu-deity) (Black) Yajur [Veda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda). By the time of the [Brahmanas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmana) (900–700 bce), Rudra begins to emerge as a more significant divinity. He is honored as the supreme deity in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, one of the first theistic [Upanishads](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Upanishad), which is dated to the last centuries before the Common Era. It is in that text that Rudra is first called Shiva. [![Omar Ali Saifuddin mosque, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei.](https://cdn.britannica.com/20/102120-131-B5741CE4/Sultan-Omar-Ali-Saifuddien-Mosque-Brunei-Bandar.jpg) Britannica Quiz World Religions & Traditions](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/world-religions-traditions) ## Key myths [Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/93/263293-050-460FDFC4/Hinduism-Statues-of-Shiva-and-Parvati-at-a-Hindu-temple-in-Namchi-Sikkim-India.jpg)Statues of the divine couple Shiva and Parvati, joined by their elephant-headed son, Ganesha, installed in a temple cave in Namchi, Sikkim, India. Shiva emerges as a supreme deity in the [Hindu epics and Puranas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Sutras-shastras-and-smritis#ref59114). The key myths of his exploits and nature appear in these texts, often with slight variations in each telling. He is not central in the [Ramayana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramayana-Indian-epic) and [Mahabharata](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mahabharata) epics, but his role as a high divinity with a complex mythology is readily apparent. He is featured in numerous [Puranas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Purana); indeed, some Puranas are strictly Shaiva in orientation. Certain commonly known stories about Shiva, among the [myriad](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/myriad) that exist in Hindu literature, are part of the essential vocabulary of Hinduism. ## Destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice and the death of Sati The story of Shiva’s destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice narrates simultaneously the god’s journey from exclusion from Vedic [sacrifice](https://www.britannica.com/topic/yajna) to inclusion in the Hindu pantheon. Daksha is a son of [Brahma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god), one of the creators (a [Prajapati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Prajapati-Hindu-deity)), and the father of [Sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sati), who is Shiva’s wife. Daksha holds a great sacrifice in honor of the gods, but the gods, or Daksha independently (depending on the telling), neglect to invite Daksha’s son-in-law, Shiva. Enraged by the slight, Shiva destroys Daksha’s sacrifice, in essence sacrificing the sacrifice and making it complete. The result of this act, despite its destructive [treatment](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/treatment) of a Vedic sacrifice, is that Shiva is firmly incorporated as a major Hindu deity. [Goddess Sati carried by Shiva](https://cdn.britannica.com/13/264213-050-45717188/shiva-carrying-the-dead-sati-watercolor-on-paper-india-kolkata-west-bengal.jpg)Shiva Carrying the Dead Sati, watercolor on paper from Calcutta (now Kolkata), 19th century; in the Philadelphia Art Museum. Sati, however, is deeply insulted by her father’s exclusion of her husband from the sacrifice—so much so that, according to some accounts, she self-immolates, an act that is often cited as the mythological origin of [sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/suttee), or widow burning (although, contrary to that practice, her husband Shiva remains very much alive). Dismayed by her death, Shiva weeps terribly as he carries her body. In some myths, Vishnu dismembers the corpse; in others, the gods in general do, and wherever the pieces of her body fall, they turn into places of [worship](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/worship), known as the Shakti Pithas, which are important sites for Shakti worship. Shiva, saddened by his consort Sati’s death, then goes into a long, deep [meditation](https://www.britannica.com/topic/meditation-mental-exercise) ([tapas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/tapas)). ## Burning of Kama and marriage of Parvati [Shiva burns Kama with his third eye](https://cdn.britannica.com/54/283554-050-5F551034/Shiva-burns-Kama-to-Ash-India-Hinduism-lithograph-1890s.jpg)Madan-Bhasma (“Kama \[Madana\] Turned to Ash”; listed as “Madan-Bhasma (Shiva Turns to Ashes”), lithograph from India, 1890; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. While Shiva is deep in meditation, the goddess [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati)—the daughter of the mountain Himavat ([Himalaya](https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas)) and considered to be a reincarnation of Sati—engages in intense meditation to acquire Shiva as her husband, only to be foiled because Shiva is no longer interested in worldly affairs or marriage. Meanwhile, the gods are afflicted by the demon Taraka, and they require the son of Shiva and Parvati, to be called [Skanda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda), to kill the demon. [Indra](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indra), king of the gods, approaches [Kama](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kama), god of desire, for help in diverting Shiva’s attentions from [celibate](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/celibate) meditation to desire for Parvati. When Kama shoots his flowery arrow of [love](https://www.britannica.com/topic/love-emotion) to break Shiva’s meditation and draw his attention to Parvati, an angered Shiva opens his third eye and burns Kama to ashes. A distressed Rati, Kama’s wife and the personification of passion, performs penance and pleads with Shiva to bring her husband back to life. Shiva obliges, although he revives Kama in disembodied (ananga) form. Go beyond the basics with trusted, in-depth knowledge for professionals, students, and lifelong learners. [SUBSCRIBE](https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=basics-2026) ![Penguin, ship, mountain, atlas](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-left.webp) ![shohei ohtani, plants, andy wharhol art](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-right.webp) ![Mobile](https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/inline-mobile.webp?w=400) [Wedding of Shiva and Parvati](https://cdn.britannica.com/26/124426-050-43965500/Wedding-Shiva-relief-Parvati-Ellora-Caves-India.jpg)Shiva and Parvati's wedding, with the Hindu god Brahma officiating, relief in the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India. The wedding of Shiva and Parvati is described as a grand affair attended by the gods. Afterward Shiva and Parvati engage in years of amorous play, as poetically described in 5th-century poet and playwright [Kalidasa](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kalidasa)’s epic poem [Kumarasambhava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kumarasambhava) (“Birth of Kumara \[Skanda\]”). The gods, however, still needing to defeat the demon Taraka, interrupt the couple’s play. The six-headed Skanda is then born of Shiva’s [semen](https://www.britannica.com/science/semen), which is unbearable to all beings, and is taken up in the mouth of the god of fire, [Agni](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Agni), and transferred first to the river [Ganges](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River) and then to six of the stars in the [Pleiades](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pleiades-astronomy) cluster—the Krittikas—which are the wives of the [celestial](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/celestial) sages. In other variants, Skanda is born from Shiva’s semen, dropped into the Ganges, and then raised by the Krittikas—hence his alternate name Karttikeya. ## The submarine mare Just as Shiva’s semen needs to be contained to avoid harm to other gods, his power to destroy the universe is evident early but requires containment until the right moment. The fire of anger with which Shiva burned Kama threatens to burn out of control and destroy the universe. So the sages of the world go to Brahma, seeking refuge. Brahma manages to contain the fire of Shiva’s anger, places that fire inside a mare with a flaming mouth (vadavagni), and takes it to the ocean. The ocean emerges in the form of a man to speak with Brahma. Brahma requests that the ocean contain the mare with Shiva’s anger until the final dissolution of the world (pralaya). Shiva’s capacity to destroy is thus contained until the proper time. ## Birth of Ganesha [Ganesha](https://cdn.britannica.com/79/263279-050-2A518EED/Hinduism-Ganesha-shrine-with-offerings-of-flowers-at-the-Shiva-Nataraja-Temple-Chidambaram-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)A Ganesha shrine with devotional objects, outside the Shiva Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. As in many of the other stories, Shiva’s anger is a main [catalyst](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/catalyst) of the birth of the elephant-headed god [Ganesha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ganesha). One of the best-known myths of Ganesha’s birth begins with Parvati taking a bath and longing for someone to keep Shiva from barging in on her, as was his habit. As she bathes, she kneads the dirt that she rubs off her body into the shape of a child, who comes to life. But when Shiva sees the handsome young boy, he (or one of his attendants) cuts off the child’s head. Parvati is deeply saddened by this act, and the gods request that Shiva find a replacement. When Shiva cuts off an [elephant](https://www.britannica.com/animal/elephant-mammal)’s head to bestow it on the headless Ganesha, one of the tusks is shattered, and Ganesha is depicted holding the broken-off piece in one of his hands. According to this version of the [myth](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/myth), Ganesha is the child of Parvati alone—indeed, a child born despite Shiva’s negative intervention. Yet Ganesha is traditionally regarded as the child of both Shiva and Parvati. As the remover of obstacles, he is one of the most popular of Hindu deities, and he is traditionally worshipped prior to embarking on any endeavor or performing any ritual. ## Bhairava [Bhairava](https://cdn.britannica.com/08/264608-050-9F78A0CE/nepali-devotee-performs-rituals-at-kala-bhairava-temple-kathmandu-nepal.jpg)A Nepali devotee performing rituals at the Kala Bhairava temple in Basantapur Durbar Square, Kathmandu, Nepal. As his fierce form, [Bhairava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhairava), Shiva’s affiliation with death, destruction, and cremation grounds comes to the fore. The most prominent Puranic myths of Bhairava associate him with the [Kapalika](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kapalikas) tradition of Shaiva [ascetics](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ascetics). According to these myths, the god [Brahma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god), who is traditionally known to have four heads, originally had five. Stories then diverge in their details: In some, the fifth head makes insulting comments about Shiva; in others, Brahma’s fifth head is [arrogant](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/arrogant). In response, Shiva emanates Bhairava and commands him to remove Brahma’s insulting head. Bhairava removes Brahma’s fifth head with his thumbnail, but he is then guilty of killing a Brahmin—among the worst crimes a person can commit in Hinduism. The [skull](https://www.britannica.com/science/skull) sticks to Bhairava’s hand, and, as he seeks penance for his sin, it becomes his begging bowl until it falls off in [Varanasi](https://www.britannica.com/place/Varanasi) at a location that later became a center for Bhairava worship and an important site for Hindu cremation practices. ## Destruction of Tripura Yet in some myths, Shiva’s fiery nature is necessary for defeating demons. The myth of Shiva’s destruction of the triple city (Tripura) tells of three fortified cities ruled by the [asura](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asura) brothers Tarakaksha, Kamalaksha, and Vidyunmali. Granted a boon by Brahma, the moving cities are impenetrable and can be destroyed only when aligned, once every thousand years. The demons take over the universe and [morality](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morality) erodes, necessitating divine action. When the moment arrives, Shiva fires a single arrow from the Pinaka bow (his special weapon), destroying the demons and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. ## Shiva’s blue throat [Gods and demons churning the cosmic ocean](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/279744-050-C520BBFE/The-Churning-of-the-Ocean-of-Milk-India-Punjab-Hill-Mand.jpg)The Churning of the Ocean of Milk, depicting demons (asuras) on the right and gods (devas) on the left, ink and opaque watercolor on paper, from Mandi, Punjab Hills, India, c. 1780–90; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. In contrast to these myths of Shiva’s destructive forms, other stories depict Shiva as the great protector. This role is especially clear in the story behind his blue throat, which earned him the name Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”). During the myth of the [Samudra Manthana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk) (“Churning of the Ocean”), as the gods and demons attempt to retrieve the amrita (elixir of immortality), using the [naga](https://www.britannica.com/topic/naga-Hindu-mythology) Vasuki as a [churning](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/churning) rope, Vasuki’s head vomits forth poison that threatens to fall into the ocean and contaminate the amrita. But Shiva takes the poison and holds it in his throat, a feat that saves the world but, as a side effect, turns his throat blue. ## Descent of the Ganges [Descent of the Ganges](https://cdn.britannica.com/90/74090-050-8BC02ABA/Arjunas-Penance-rock-relief-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)The descent of the Ganges, sometimes called “Arjuna's Penance,” rock-cut relief; in Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. A similar myth illustrating Shiva’s protective role relates to his breaking the fall of the celestial [Ganges River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River) as it plummets from heaven to earth. The Ganges is the celestial river in heaven (sometimes identified with the [Milky Way](https://www.britannica.com/place/Milky-Way-Galaxy)) but descends at the request of the sage Bhagiratha to redeem his ancestors. His ancestors were the 60,000 sons of Sagara (“Ocean”) who went in search of Sagara’s stolen sacrificial horse and dug deep into the subterranean region (creating the ocean) but annoyed the sage [Kapila](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kapila). Kapila cursed them, turned them into ash, and declared that they could be redeemed only by the celestial river. Bhagiratha journeys to the Himalayas and performs penance for 10,000 years. Shiva respects his meditation and becomes gracious, allowing the Ganges to descend from the sky. But out of a concern that the celestial river would crush the earth, Shiva catches the Ganges in his matted locks. Bhagiratha then continues his penance for another 10,000 years, until Shiva permits it to descend to the earth. This story illustrates both Shiva’s [benevolence](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/benevolence) and his favorable treatment of those who engage in [ascetic](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ascetic) practice. ## The crescent moon in his hair [Shiva](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/126036-050-BB7DE7E6/Statue-Shiva-Bengaluru-Karnataka-India.jpg)A large statue of Shiva, outside the Shivoham Shiva Temple, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The mountainous background makes the god appear to be meditating in the Himalayas. Shiva’s hair hosts an image of the crescent moon, and the god is closely associated with the moon and Monday (Sanskrit: Somavara). According to a myth and [astrology](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-calendar#ref391918) recounted in the epic Mahabharata, there are 27 [nakshatras](https://www.britannica.com/topic/nakshatra) (lunar mansions), which are the daughters of Daksha. All the daughters are married to Chandra, the moon, but he favors only one of them, Rohini. When the other daughters complain to their father about the moon’s favoritism, Daksha curses the moon to wane and become emaciated. However, the moon’s dimmed status causes the herbs to dry up, which afflicts the animals, and they begin to waste away. In some versions of the myth, the gods ask Daksha to [withdraw](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/withdraw) the curse, but instead he modifies it to make the moon wax and wane each month, which explains the lunar phases, and to spend equal time with his 27 wives, which explains the monthly cycle. In some tellings, such as in the Shiva Purana, it is Shiva who intervenes on the moon’s behalf, devises this solution, and becomes the moon’s protector, Someshvara (“Lord of the Moon”). ## Lingam myths and interpretations [Sacred ice lingam](https://cdn.britannica.com/42/274442-050-B8619053/An-Ice-Stalagmite-Stylised-Phallus-Worshiped-By-Hindus-Is-Seen-At-Amarnath-Shrine.jpg)An ice stalagmite revered as a lingam, inside the Amarnath cave, in the Himalayas in the Anantnag district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Formed naturally from dripping water, the ice lingam draws thousands of devotees during the annual Amarnath yatra. The representation of Shiva in the form of a [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam) has multiple mythological roots with two distinct interpretations and many further variations. In some myths, the lingam is a pillar of fire and light and an abstract representation of the deity; in other myths, however, the lingam is Shiva’s phallus. The lingam is either abstract or physical. The tendency in modern Hinduism is to prefer the interpretation of the lingam as an abstract [symbol](https://www.britannica.com/topic/symbol). Even in the myths where it is more explicitly a phallus, there is a certain [trepidation](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/trepidation) about this association that relates to the long-standing tension of Shiva as simultaneously erotic and ascetic, physical and divine, all too human and far beyond human. Shiva’s lingam is clearly a phallus in the story of his encounter with sages in the Pine Forest. As these sages, sons of Brahma, are practicing [asceticism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism), Shiva enters their encampment, meaning to show them grace, but he appears naked, covered in ash, with a frightening appearance while dancing and screaming in a terrifying manner. The wives of the sages, however, become enchanted by him. Angered by his behavior, the sages [curse](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/curse) his lingam (phallus) to fall off. In other versions, Shiva chooses to remove his lingam. In a story in the Mahabharata, Brahma instructs Shiva to create creatures, which he does, but he finds them imperfect, so he hides in water. Becoming impatient, Brahma asks another creator being (a Prajapati) to do the job. Shiva later emerges from the water, finds the creatures created and thriving, and, in a rage, he tears off his lingam and throws it on the ground, declaring it now useless. [Lingodbhavamurti](https://cdn.britannica.com/89/263289-050-E07EFF36/Hinduism-Statue-of-Shiva-as-a-pillar-of-fire-Darasuram-12th-century-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)A lingam of Shiva depicting the story of his appearance as an endless pillar of fire, located in a temple from the 12th century, Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, India. The story of the lingam as a pillar of light, often depicted as a lingodbhavamurti, begins with the gods Vishnu and Brahma debating their respective importance, each claiming to be the superior god. Shiva appears in the form of a blazing pillar to [quell](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/quell) their pride. In response, Brahma takes the form of a swan and flies upward to see if he can find the top of the pillar, and Vishnu takes the form of a boar and dives below to find its source. Neither is successful, and both are compelled to recognize Shiva’s priority and superiority. Following these dual interpretations, images of the lingam can also be either phallic or abstract aniconic pillars. In temples and in private shrines, Shiva is also worshipped in the form of the [lingam](https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam), a cylindrical votary object that is often embedded in a [yoni](https://www.britannica.com/topic/yoni), or spouted dish. The yoni (also the Sanskrit word for “vulva”) represents Shakti, the female cosmic power. The union of lingam and yoni is said to symbolize the union of Shiva and Parvati and of the eternal process of creation and regeneration. Regardless of this sexual [resonance](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/resonance) in some texts and theologies, in modern Hinduism, lingams of Shiva are read as aniconic, representing Shiva’s divinity in an abstract way. That strand is centuries old, too; the images on lingodbhavamurtis portray Vishnu and Brahma seeking the farthest reaches of Shiva’s divine pillar of light. ## Forms, iconography, and family Epithets of Shiva Shiva is a god of many names, as are most [Hindu deities](https://www.britannica.com/topic/list-of-Hindu-deities-2066639). Hindu sources often enumerate the 108 names of Shiva, or even the thousand names of Shiva. In many texts he referred to by various names within the course of merely a few sentences, which reflects the deity’s multitudinous powers, natures, and mythologies. The following [abridged](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/abridged) list of Shiva’s many epithets illustrates his range and can be useful for navigating the ways this polyonymous deity appears in texts, speech, and temples through history and across India. - Shambhu (“Benign”) - Shankara (“Beneficent”) - Mahesha (“Great Lord”) - Mahadeva (“Great God”) - Parameshvara (“Supreme God”) - Vishvanatha (“Lord of the Universe”) - Bhava (“Existence”) - Mahakala (“Great Time”) - Sthanu (“Standing Firm”) - Pashupati (“Lord of Cattle”) - Nataraja (“Lord of the Dance”) - Bhole (“Innocent”) - Bholenath (“Lord of the Innocent”) - Rudra (“Howler”) - Hara (“Destroyer” or “Seizer”) - Ugra (“Fierce”) - Shmashanavasin (“He Who Dwells in a Cremation Ground”) - Kamari (“Enemy of Kama”) - Tripurari (“Enemy of Tripura”) - Vaidyanatha (“Lord of Physicians”) - Nilakantha (“Blue Throat”) - Gangadhara (“Receiver of the [Ganges](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River)”) - Chandrasekhara (“Moon-Crested” Lord) - Somnath (“Lord of the Moon”) - Trilochana (“Three-Eyed” Lord) - Tryambaka (“Three-Eyed” Lord) - Kapardin (“He Who Has Matted Locks”) - Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”) Shiva is represented in a variety of forms: in a pacific mood with his consort [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati) and son [Skanda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda), as the cosmic dancer ([Nataraja](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nataraja)), as a naked ascetic, as a mendicant beggar, as a yogi, as a demonic [Tantric](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Tantrism#ref9017) being ([Bhairava](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhairava)) accompanied by a dog, and as the [androgynous](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/androgynous) union of Shiva and his consort in one body, half-male and half-female ([Ardhanarishvara](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ardhanarishvara)). He is both the great ascetic and the master of fertility, and he is the master of both poison and medicine, through his ambivalent power over snakes. As Lord of Cattle ([Pashupata](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pashupati-Nepal)), he is the [benevolent](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/benevolent) herdsman—or, at times, the merciless slaughterer of the “beasts” that are the human souls in his care. As Dakshinamurti (“Lord Who Faces South”), he is the revered first teacher or [guru](https://www.britannica.com/topic/guru-Hinduism), especially of [yogic](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoga-philosophy) practice. Although some of the combinations of roles may be explained by Shiva’s identification with earlier mythological figures, they arise primarily from a tendency in Hinduism to see complementary qualities in a single [ambiguous](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ambiguous) figure. Shiva is usually depicted in painting and sculpture as white (from the ashes of cremated corpses that are smeared on his body) with a blue neck (from holding in his throat the halahala poison that emerged at the [Churning of the Ocean](https://www.britannica.com/topic/churning-of-the-ocean-of-milk), which threatened to destroy the world), his hair arranged in a coil of matted locks (jatamakuta) and adorned with the crescent moon and the Ganges. Shiva has three eyes, the third eye bestowing inward vision but capable of burning destruction (as [Kama](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kama) experienced) when focused outward. He wears a garland of skulls and a serpent around his neck, and he carries in his two (sometimes four) hands a deerskin, a trident, a small hand drum, or a club with a skull at the end. Shiva’s weapon, the trident (trishula), was [forged](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/forged) by the god [Vishvakarma](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vishvakarman). Shiva is also often depicted wearing or sitting upon a tiger hide and often perched in meditation in his Himalayan home on [Mount Kailash](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Kailash). [Shiva Nataraja](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/263968-050-D0B9107F/Shiva-Nataraja-Chola-in-bronze-Shiva-as-Lord-of-the-Dance-Nataraja-bronze-sculpture-from-the-Chola-period-10th-11th-century-India-Tamil-Nadu-In-the-collection-of-the-Art-Institute-of-Chicago-Hinduism.jpg) Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), bronze, from southern India, Chola period, 901–1100; in the Art Institute of Chicago. In images of Shiva as Nataraja, he is shown with four arms and flying locks dancing on a diminutive figure, who is sometimes identified as demon Apasmara (a symbol of human ignorance; apasmara means “forgetfulness” or “heedlessness”). Shiva’s back right hand holds the damaru (hourglass-shaped drum); the front right hand is in the abhaya [mudra](https://www.britannica.com/topic/mudra) (the “fear-not” gesture, made by holding the palm outward with fingers pointing up); the back left hand carries [Agni](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Agni) (fire) in a [vessel](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/vessel) or in the palm of the hand; and the front left hand is held across his chest in the gajahasta ([elephant](https://www.britannica.com/animal/elephant-mammal)\-trunk) pose, with wrist limp and fingers pointed downward toward the uplifted left foot. Shiva is shown as the source of all movement within the cosmos and as the god whose doomsday dance (tandava), represented by the arch of flames, accompanies the dissolution of the universe at the end of an eon. The gestures of the dance represent Shiva’s five activities (panchakritya): creation (symbolized by the drum), protection (by the “fear-not” pose of the hand), destruction (by the fire), embodiment (by the foot planted on the ground), and [moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion) (by the foot held aloft). Shiva is commonly depicted with his family. His female consort is known under various [manifestations](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manifestations) as Uma, [Sati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sati), Parvati, [Durga](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga), and [Kali](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kali); Shiva is also sometimes paired with [Shakti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaktism), the embodiment of power. The divine couple, together with their sons—[Skanda](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda) and the elephant-headed [Ganesha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ganesha)—are said to dwell on [Mount Kailasa](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Kailash) in the [Himalayas](https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas). Shiva’s vehicle in the world, his [vahana](https://www.britannica.com/topic/vahana), is the [bull](https://www.britannica.com/animal/bull) [Nandi](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nandi-Hindu-mythology); a sculpture of Nandi sits opposite the main sanctuary of many Shiva [temples](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-temple). Shiva and Shakti: The divine couple [![Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage](https://cdn.britannica.com/49/135349-050-BA6A1396/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg?w=1000)](https://cdn.britannica.com/49/135349-050-BA6A1396/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg) [Carving of Shiva and Parvati's marriage](https://cdn.britannica.com/49/135349-050-BA6A1396/Parvati-The-Wedding-Shiva-Charming-One-1766.jpg)The Marriage of Shiva and Parvati: The Wedding of the Charming One, plaque of carved ivory with traces of tamarind juice, from Madurai, southern India, 1766; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The deep connection between Shiva and his consort [Parvati](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parvati) (also called Shakti) appears frequently in Hindu [poetry](https://www.britannica.com/art/kavya) and [Indian philosophy](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-philosophy). The first [shloka](https://www.britannica.com/art/shloka) of 5th-century poet and playwright [Kalidasa](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kalidasa)’s [Raghuvamsha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Raghuvamsha) praises the pair at the [inception](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/inception) of his poetic production. > For mastery of word and meaning, I venerate the parents of the world, > Who are entwined together like word and meaning: Parvati and Parameshvara. Shiva’s reliance on Shakti is expressed in the opening line of Saundarya Lahari (“Flood of Beauty”), a poem to Shakti attributed to [Shankara](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shankara), the revered 8th-century [Advaita Vedanta](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Advaita-school-of-Hindu-philosophy) philosopher. > If Śiva is united with Śakti, he is able to exert his powers as lord; > If not, the god is not able to stir. ## Worship, holidays, and temples Paralleling Shiva’s dual role as an ascetic and erotic figure, devotees of Shiva ([Shaivas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism)) generally fall into either lay worshippers or mendicants. The tension between [householders and renouncers](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Karma-samsara-and-moksha#ref261618) is long-standing in Hinduism, and Shiva [encompasses](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encompasses) both. Lay worshippers generally approach and propitiate Shiva in a manner similar to Hindu devotional activities performed for other gods, although specific rites and regulations can vary widely across India. Shaivas visit temples, they pray, and they give offerings to the god. Worshippers of Shiva are also known for marking their foreheads with a [tilaka](https://www.britannica.com/topic/tilak), a mark of ash in three horizontal stripes (called tripundra). Shiva is known in [bhakti](https://www.britannica.com/topic/bhakti) traditions for his capacity to grant liberation ([moksha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/moksha-Indian-religion)) to devotees with his divine grace, often for even the most minimal signs of devotion and without regard to [caste](https://www.britannica.com/topic/caste-social-differentiation) or to [ritual](https://www.britannica.com/topic/ritual) formalities. An oft-cited example is that of Kannappa, a [Nayanar](https://www.britannica.com/art/Nayanar) saint who was born a member of an outcaste tribal group of hunters. He finds a Shiva lingam in the forest and is moved to worship it. Yet he does not offer it the typical [Brahmin](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahman-social-class) offerings; he kicks away offerings from a Brahmin (the touch of the foot is seen as polluting) and instead offers meat (also polluting) and even spits on the lingam (also a polluting act). The Brahmin returns and is angry. Then Shiva makes his own eye bleed, whereupon Kannappa plucks out his own eye and replaces Shiva’s with it. Shiva extends his blessing to Kannappa, and the hunter merges with the god. Love for the deity proves more significant than outward ritual purity. Monastic and ascetic followers of Shiva have a lengthy and varied history: Over nearly two millennia they have adhered to numerous different schools of thought and practice. Some of these schools have pursued comparatively extreme paths to spiritual liberation, having gone beyond what is typically considered Hindu orthodoxy. The earliest recorded Shaiva worshippers were the [Pashupatas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pashupata), who likely emerged about the 2nd century ce. These Brahmin celibate ascetics acted in antisocial ways, including living in cremation grounds, in order to achieve eventual union with Shiva. Later, [Kapalika and Kalamukha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kapalikas) groups also pursued [esoteric](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/esoteric) rituals and contributed to the development of [Tantric](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tantra-religious-texts) ritual practices. The [Shaiva Siddhanta](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaiva-siddhanta) school was an influential form of [Shaivism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) in southern India that borrowed from bhakti traditions and emphasized the soul’s bondage in reality. For Shaiva Siddhantas, the goal of ascetic practice is to gain proximity to Shiva and a Shiva-like status. In [Kashmiri Shaivism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kashmiri-Shaivism) the goal is to attain recognition of one’s identity with Shiva. Not all subsets of Shaivas are ascetic, however. For example, the [Lingayats](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lingayat) (or Virashaivas) in southern India, particularly in [Karnataka](https://www.britannica.com/place/Karnataka-state-India), developed from the bhakti tradition. Their movement was founded by 12th-century reformer [Basava](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Basava). They are noted for wearing small lingams on necklaces as well as for rejecting the [caste](https://www.britannica.com/topic/caste-social-differentiation) system, the authority of the [Vedas](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Veda), the [transmigration of souls](https://www.britannica.com/topic/reincarnation), and various Hindu social norms. In the early 21st century some Lingayats began to call for a separate religious identity apart from Hinduism. [Maha Shivaratri](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri) is the most important holiday of the year for Shaiva Hindus. The 14th day of the dark half (waning moon) of each lunar month is especially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurs in the month of Magha (January–February) and especially in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it is an observance of particular rejoicing known as Maha Shivaratri (“Great Night of Shiva”), which is celebrated in different ways across India. The holiday [commemorates](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/commemorates) various events in Shiva’s mythology, including the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, the emergence of the lingam (lingodbhava), Shiva’s swallowing of poison during the Churning of the Ocean, or his destruction of Tripura. For some Hindus, [Holi](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Holi) memorializes Shiva’s burning of Kama, and [Diwali](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Diwali-Hindu-festival) celebrates a game of dice between Shiva and Parvati. The month of Shravana (July–August) is also considered holy to Shiva, specifically Mondays during that month. Shiva’s role as the first teacher or [guru](https://www.britannica.com/topic/guru-Hinduism) is cited as one of the origins of the holiday [Guru Purnima](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Guru-Purnima), a festival to honor spiritual and academic teachers and mentors. [Temples](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-temple) devoted to Shiva can be found throughout India, neighboring countries in [South Asia](https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Asia), and across the Indian [diaspora](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diaspora). Of particular importance are the 12 jyotirlingas, or columns of light, which are sacred places where Shiva is said to have self-manifested as a column of light. Sanskrit: “Auspicious One” Also spelled: Śiva, Shiv, or Śiwa - Nageshwar Temple (near [Dwarka](https://www.britannica.com/place/Dwarka), Gujarat) - Ghrishneshwar Temple (near the [Ellora Caves](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ellora-Caves), Maharashtra) - Trimbakeshwar Temple (near the source of the [Godavari River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Godavari-River), India) [Brihadishvara Temple](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/250066-050-B34A9532/Brihadishvara-Temple-Thanjavur-Tamil-Nadu-India.jpg)The central vimana (spire) of Brihadishvara Temple towering over the temple's courtyard and the city of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India, as seen by looking to the northeast. Some other notable temples devoted to Shiva are the [Brihadishvara Temple](https://www.britannica.com/place/Brihadishvara-temple) ([Thanjavur](https://www.britannica.com/place/Thanjavur-India), Tamil Nadu), the Nataraja Temple ([Chidambaram](https://www.britannica.com/place/Chidambaram), Tamil Nadu), the [Amarnath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Amarnath-Temple) ([Anantnag](https://www.britannica.com/place/Anantnag) district, [Jammu and Kashmir](https://www.britannica.com/place/Jammu-and-Kashmir)), the [Pashupatinath Temple](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pashupatinath-Temple) ([Kathmandu](https://www.britannica.com/place/Kathmandu), [Nepal](https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal)), and Lara Jonggrang ([Prambanan](https://www.britannica.com/place/Prambanan), [Indonesia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia)).
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