🕷️ Crawler Inspector

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Raw Queries and Responses

1. Shard Calculation

Query:

Response:

Calculated Shard: 62 (from laksa055)

2. Crawled Status Check

Query:

curl -X POST \
  'http://laksa062.int.ahrefs:8124/' \
  -H 'Content-Type: text/plain' \
  -H 'X-ClickHouse-Database: crawler3' \
  -H 'Authorization: Basic YXBpOg==' \
  -d 'SELECT getAhrefsURLFromUnparsed(src_unparsed) AS found_url, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(download_stamp), 0) AS crawl_time, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(props_url_first_seen), 0) AS first_indexed_time, download_http_code AS http_code, src_unparsed AS src_unparsed, src_root_hash AS src_root_hash, history_drop_reason AS history_drop_reason, meta_title AS meta_title, meta_descriptions AS meta_descriptions, attrs_boilerpipe_text AS attrs_boilerpipe_text, attrs_markdown AS attrs_markdown, attrs_readable_markdown AS attrs_readable_markdown, meta_canonical AS meta_canonical FROM crawler3.page_info_local FINAL PREWHERE (src_root_hash, src_unparsed) IN ((getAhrefsRootHashFromUnparsed(getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War\')), getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War\'))) FORMAT JSONEachRow'

Response:

{"found_url":"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War","crawl_time":1775737395,"first_indexed_time":1468197861,"http_code":200,"src_unparsed":"com,britannica!www,\/event\/American-Civil-War s443","src_root_hash":"5455945239613777662","history_drop_reason":null,"meta_title":"American Civil War | History, Summary, Dates, Causes, Map, Timeline, Battles, Significance, & Facts | Britannica","meta_descriptions":["American Civil War, four-year war (1861–65) fought between the United States and 11 Southern states that seceded to form the Confederate States of America. It arose out of disputes over slavery and states’ rights. When antislavery candidate Abraham Lincoln was elected president (1860), the Southern states seceded."],"attrs_boilerpipe_text":"Top Questions\nWhat caused the American Civil War?\nWho won the American Civil War?\nHow many people died during the Civil War?\nWho were the most important figures in the American Civil War?\nWhy are Confederate symbols controversial?\nNews\n•\nAmerican Civil War\n,  four-year\nwar\n(1861–65) between the\nUnited States\nand 11 Southern states that\nseceded\nfrom the Union and formed the\nConfederate States of America\n.\nPrelude to war\nHow a tax increase helped spark the American Civil War\nIn 1828 the U.S. Congress passed a tariff that increased the rates on imports into the United States to as much as 50%.\nSee all videos for this article\nThe\nsecession\nof the Southern states (in chronological order,\nSouth Carolina\n,\nMississippi\n,\nFlorida\n,\nAlabama\n,\nGeorgia\n,\nLouisiana\n,\nTexas\n,\nVirginia\n,\nArkansas\n,\nTennessee\n, and\nNorth Carolina\n) in 1860–61 and the ensuing outbreak of armed hostilities were the culmination of decades of growing sectional friction over\nslavery\n. Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states was rapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture—mostly smaller farms that relied on free labour—remained the dominant sector in the North, industrialization had taken root there. Moreover, Northerners had invested heavily in an expansive and varied transportation system that included canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads; in financial industries such as banking and insurance; and in a large communications network that featured inexpensive, widely available newspapers, magazines, and books, along with the telegraph.\nBy contrast, the Southern economy was based principally on large farms (plantations) that produced commercial crops such as\ncotton\nand that relied on slaves as the main\nlabour force\n. Rather than\ninvest\nin factories or railroads as Northerners had done, Southerners invested their money in slaves—even more than in land; by 1860, 84 percent of the capital invested in manufacturing was invested in the free (nonslaveholding) states. Yet, to Southerners, as late as 1860, this appeared to be a sound business decision. The price of cotton, the South’s defining crop, had skyrocketed in the 1850s, and the value of slaves—who were, after all, property—rose commensurately. By 1860 the per capita wealth of Southern whites was twice that of Northerners, and three-fifths of the wealthiest individuals in the country were Southerners.\n1860 presidential campaign\n“The Undecided Political Prize Fight,” a lithograph depicting the presidential campaign of 1860 and featuring Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas.\nThe\nextension\nof slavery into new territories and states had been an issue as far back as the\nNorthwest Ordinance\nof 1784. When the slave territory of\nMissouri\nsought statehood in 1818, Congress debated for two years before arriving upon the\nMissouri Compromise\nof 1820. This was the first of a series of political deals that resulted from arguments between pro-slavery and antislavery forces over the expansion of the “peculiar institution,” as it was known, into the West. The end of the\nMexican-American War\nin 1848 and the roughly 500,000 square miles (1.3 million square km) of new territory that the United States gained as a result of it added a new sense of urgency to the dispute. More and more Northerners, driven by a sense of\nmorality\nor an interest in protecting free labour, came to believe, in the 1850s, that bondage needed to be\neradicated\n. White Southerners feared that limiting the expansion of slavery would consign the institution to certain death. Over the course of the decade, the two sides became increasingly polarized and politicians less able to contain the dispute through compromise. When\nAbraham Lincoln\n, the candidate of the explicitly antislavery\nRepublican Party\n, won the\n1860 presidential election\n, seven Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) carried out their threat and seceded, organizing as the\nConfederate States of America\n.\nFort Sumter\nConfederate forces bombarding Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, in a lithograph by Currier & Ives.\nIn the early morning hours of April 12, 1861, rebels opened fire on\nFort Sumter,\nat the entrance to the harbour of\nCharleston\n, South Carolina. Curiously, this first\nencounter\nof what would be the bloodiest war in the history of the United States claimed no victims. After a 34-hour bombardment, Maj.\nRobert Anderson\nsurrendered his command of about 85 soldiers to some 5,500 besieging Confederate troops under\nP.G.T. Beauregard\n. Within weeks, four more Southern states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) left the Union to join the Confederacy.\nQuick Facts\nAlso called:\nWar Between the States\nDate:\nApril 12, 1861 - April 26, 1865\n(Anniversary in 4 days)\nBritannica Quiz\nReconstruction Era Quiz\nWith war upon the land, President Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to serve for three months. He proclaimed a\nnaval blockade\nof the Confederate states, although he insisted that they did not legally\nconstitute\na\nsovereign\ncountry but were instead states in rebellion. He also directed the secretary of the treasury to advance $2 million to assist in the raising of troops, and he suspended the\nwrit of habeas corpus\n, first along the East Coast and ultimately throughout the country. The Confederate government had previously authorized a call for 100,000 soldiers for at least six months’ service, and this figure was soon increased to 400,000.\nAI-generated answers\nfrom Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.","attrs_markdown":"[![Encyclopedia Britannica](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel\/eb-logo\/MendelNewThistleLogo.png)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/)\n\n[![Encyclopedia Britannica](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel\/eb-logo\/MendelNewThistleLogo.png)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/)\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=global-nav&utm_campaign=blue-evergreen)\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=global-nav-mobile&utm_campaign=blue-evergreen)\n\nLogin\n\nhttps:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm\\_source=premium\\&utm\\_medium=nav-login-box\\&utm\\_campaign=evergreen\n\n[SUBSCRIBE](https:\/\/premium.britannica.com\/premium-membership\/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=hamburger-menu&utm_campaign=blue)\n\n[Ask the Chatbot](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/chatbot)\n\n[Games & Quizzes](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/browse) [History & Society](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/History-Society) [Science & Tech](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Science-Tech) [Biographies](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Biographies) [Animals & Nature](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Animals-Nature) [Geography & Travel](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Geography-Travel) [Arts & Culture](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/Arts-Culture) [ProCon](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/procon) [Money](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money) [Videos](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/videos)\n\n[American Civil War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War)\n\n- [Introduction & Top Questions](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War)\n- [Prelude to war](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War#ref229867)\n- [The military background of the war](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-military-background-of-the-war)\n  - [Comparison of North and South](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-military-background-of-the-war#ref229868)\n  \n  - [The high commands](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-military-background-of-the-war#ref229869)\n  \n  - [Strategic plans](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-military-background-of-the-war#ref229870)\n- [The land war](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-land-war)\n  - [The war in 1861](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-land-war#ref229872)\n  \n  - [The war in 1862](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-1862)\n    - [The war in the East](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-1862#ref314380)\n      - [The Peninsular Campaign](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-1862#ref229924)\n      - [Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) and Antietam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-Manassas-and-Antietam)\n      - [Fredericksburg](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-Manassas-and-Antietam#ref229926)\n    - [The Emancipation Proclamation](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-Emancipation-Proclamation)\n    - [African American troops](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/African-American-troops)\n    - [The war in the west](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/African-American-troops#ref314383)\n      - [Trans-Mississippi theatre and Missouri](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/African-American-troops#ref229927)\n      - [Operations in Kentucky and Tennessee](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/African-American-troops#ref229928)\n  \n  - [The war in 1863](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-1863)\n    - [The Copperheads](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-1863#ref314384)\n    - [The Southern home front](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-Southern-home-front)\n    - [Photography](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-Southern-home-front#ref314386)\n    - [The war in the east](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-the-east)\n      - [Chancellorsville](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-the-east#ref229929)\n      - [Gettysburg](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-the-east#ref229930)\n    - [Conscription and the New York City draft riot](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/Conscription-and-the-New-York-City-draft-riot)\n    - [The war in the west](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-the-west)\n      - [Arkansas and Vicksburg](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-the-west#ref229931)\n      - [Chickamauga and Chattanooga](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-the-west#ref229932)\n  \n  - [The war in 1864–65](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-1864-65)\n    - [Grant’s Overland Campaign](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-war-in-1864-65#ref229933)\n    - [Sherman’s Georgia campaigns and total war](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/Shermans-Georgia-campaigns-and-total-war)\n    - [Western campaigns](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/Shermans-Georgia-campaigns-and-total-war#ref229935)\n    - [Sherman’s Carolina campaigns](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/Shermans-Georgia-campaigns-and-total-war#ref229936)\n    - [The final land operations](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/Shermans-Georgia-campaigns-and-total-war#ref229937)\n- [The naval war](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-naval-war)\n- [The cost and significance of the Civil War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/The-cost-and-significance-of-the-Civil-War)\n\n[References & Edit History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/additional-info)  [Quick Facts & Related Topics](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/facts\/American-Civil-War)\n\n[Images & Videos](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/images-videos)\n\n[![Battle of Gettysburg](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/149613-159-AAE1FE89\/Battle-of-Gettysburg-Currier-lithograph-Ives-July-3-1863.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/149613-050-C0B0B8D5\/Battle-of-Gettysburg-Currier-lithograph-Ives-July-3-1863.jpg)\n\n[![How a tax increase helped spark the American Civil War](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/51\/245851-138-947DC732\/Tariff-of-1828.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/Tariff-of-1828\/-284084)\n\n[![How the Whitney Plantation teaches the history of slavery](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/248813-138-14B8A4CE\/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States\/-286566)\n\n[![Inspection and Sale of a Negro](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/78418-004-70D86B6A\/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/78418-050-3265AF60\/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg)  [![1860 presidential campaign](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/149614-004-1C634444\/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/149614-050-FB2A42C9\/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg)  [![Fort Sumter](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/04\/149304-004-FE38C5F2\/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/04\/149304-050-F9903D6E\/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg)  [![American Civil War: Union army volunteer](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/34\/70734-004-0844D44A\/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/34\/70734-050-14E6268E\/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg)  [![Confederate States of America](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/64936-004-CBE4A1E1\/states-Confederate-States-of-America-fall-members-1863.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/64936-050-94C366C6\/states-Confederate-States-of-America-fall-members-1863.jpg)  [![Jefferson Davis](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/23\/7923-004-D5360C9B\/Jefferson-Davis.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/23\/7923-050-40B2AA43\/Jefferson-Davis.jpg)\n\n[![Learn about the personal and political life of Jefferson Davis from his great-great-grandson Bertram Hayes-Davis](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/86\/195086-138-6F4FFE22\/Overview-Jefferson-Davis-life-Confederate-States-of.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/Overview-Jefferson-Davis-life-Confederate-States-of\/-224316)\n\nAt a Glance\n\n[![\"The Fifteenth Amendment. Celebrated May 19th, 1870\" color lithograph created by Thomas Kelly, 1870. (Reconstruction) At center, a depiction of a parade in celebration of the passing of the 15th Amendment. Framing it are portraits and vignettes...](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/32\/218832-131-7D2208C0\/Fifteenth-Amendment-Celebrated-May-19-1879-color-lithograph.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/reconstruction-era-quiz)\n\n[Reconstruction Era Quiz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/reconstruction-era-quiz)\n\n[![Abraham Lincoln: inauguration](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/35\/70735-050-BA484B41\/inauguration-president-Abraham-Lincoln-Washington-DC-March-4-1861.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/American-Civil-War-Timeline)\n\n[American Civil War Timeline](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/American-Civil-War-Timeline)\n\n[![Abraham Lincoln](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/34\/78134-050-3AC7D4F8\/Abraham-Lincoln-photograph-Mathew-Brady.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/Key-Facts-of-the-American-Civil-War)\n\n[Key Facts of the American Civil War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/Key-Facts-of-the-American-Civil-War)\n\n[![secession: mass meeting](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/41\/70741-050-411F20D3\/meeting-call-secession-Charleston-South-Carolina.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/Causes-and-Effects-of-the-American-Civil-War)\n\n[Causes and Effects of the American Civil War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/Causes-and-Effects-of-the-American-Civil-War)\n\nQuizzes\n\n[![Civil War era cannon overlooks Kennesaw Mountain National Battle. (military, artillery, American history)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/27\/273327-131-76BD5EF0\/civil-war-cannon-overlooks-keneesaw-mountain-national-battle.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/pick-your-battles-quiz)\n\n[Pick Your Battles Quiz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/pick-your-battles-quiz)\n\n[![Washington Monument. Washington Monument and fireworks, Washington DC. The Monument was built as an obelisk near the west end of the National Mall to commemorate the first U.S. president, General George Washington.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/09\/153009-131-58881A36\/Washington-Monument-George-fireworks-obelisk-end-DC.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/all-american-history-quiz)\n\n[All-American History Quiz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/all-american-history-quiz)\n\n[![Louis IX of France (St. Louis), stained glass window of Louis IX during the Crusades. (Unknown location.)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/69\/159669-131-A73FA5E9\/Louis-IX-stained-glass-window-France-Crusades.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/world-wars)\n\n[World Wars](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/world-wars)\n\n[![D-Day. American soldiers fire rifles, throw grenades and wade ashore on Omaha Beach next to a German bunker during D Day landing. 1 of 5 Allied beachheads est. in Normandy, France. The Normandy Invasion of World War II launched June 6, 1944.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/45\/171645-131-FB9DD0D9\/D-Day-soldiers-American-rifles-grenades-beachheads-bunker-June-6-1944.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/a-history-of-war)\n\n[A History of War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/a-history-of-war)\n\n[![Abraham Lincoln, three quarter length portrait.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/38\/134038-131-49D126BA\/Abraham-Lincoln.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/abraham-lincoln)\n\n[Abraham Lincoln](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/abraham-lincoln)\n\nRelated Questions\n\n- [What caused the American Civil War?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/What-caused-the-American-Civil-War)\n- [Who won the American Civil War?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/Who-won-the-American-Civil-War)\n- [Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/Who-were-the-most-important-figures-in-the-American-Civil-War)\n- [Why are Confederate symbols controversial?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/Why-are-Confederate-symbols-controversial)\n- [What was James Buchanan’s occupation?](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/question\/What-was-James-Buchanans-occupation)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-178\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5)\n\nAsk Anything\n\nQuick Summary\n\n[World History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/World-History)    [Wars, Battles & Armed Conflicts](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/browse\/Wars-Battles-Conflicts)\n\nCITE\n\nShare\n\nFeedback\n\nExternal Websites\n\n[![Battle of Gettysburg](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/149613-050-C0B0B8D5\/Battle-of-Gettysburg-Currier-lithograph-Ives-July-3-1863.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/149613-050-C0B0B8D5\/Battle-of-Gettysburg-Currier-lithograph-Ives-July-3-1863.jpg)\n\n[Battle of Gettysburg](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/149613-050-C0B0B8D5\/Battle-of-Gettysburg-Currier-lithograph-Ives-July-3-1863.jpg) The Battle of Gettysburg (1863), lithograph by Currier & Ives.\n\n(more)\n\n# American Civil War\nUnited States history\n\nHomework Help\n\nAlso known as: War Between the States\n\nWritten by\n\n[Warren W. Hassler Emeritus Professor of American History, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. Author of *Commanders of the Army of the Potomac* and others.](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/contributor\/Warren-W-Hassler\/1256)\n\nWarren W. Hassler[All](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/additional-info#contributors)\n\nFact-checked by\n\n[Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/editor\/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica\/4419)\n\nBritannica Editors\n\nLast updated\n\nApr. 5, 2026\n\n•[History](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/additional-info#history)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-178\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5) Britannica AI\n\nAsk Anything\n\nQuick Summary\n\nTable of Contents\n\nTable of Contents\n\nQuick Summary\n\nAsk Anything\n\nTop Questions\n\n### What caused the American Civil War?\nThe American Civil War was the culmination of the struggle between the advocates and opponents of [slavery](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/slavery-sociology) that dated from the founding of the United States. This sectional conflict between Northern states and slaveholding Southern states had been tempered by a series of political compromises, but by the late 1850s the issue of the extension of slavery to the western states had reached a boiling point. The election of [Abraham Lincoln](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Abraham-Lincoln), a member of the antislavery [Republican Party](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Republican-Party), as president in [1860](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860) precipitated the secession of 11 Southern states, leading to a civil war.\n\n### Who won the American Civil War?\nThe Union won the American Civil War. The war effectively ended in April 1865 when Confederate General [Robert E. Lee](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Robert-E-Lee) surrendered his troops to Union General [Ulysses S. Grant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ulysses-S-Grant) at [Appomattox Court House](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Appomattox-Court-House) in Virginia. The final surrender of Confederate troops on the western periphery came in Galveston, Texas, on June 2.\n\n### How many people died during the Civil War?\nIt is estimated that from 752,000 to 851,000 soldiers died during the American Civil War. This figure represents approximately 2 percent of the American population in 1860. The [Battle of Gettysburg](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Gettysburg), one of the bloodiest engagements during the Civil War, resulted in about 7,000 deaths and 51,000 total casualties.\n\n### Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War?\nImportant people during the American Civil War included [Abraham Lincoln](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Abraham-Lincoln), the 16th president of the United States, whose election prompted the secession of Southern states; [Jefferson Davis](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Jefferson-Davis), the president of the [Confederacy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America); [Ulysses S. Grant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ulysses-S-Grant), the most successful and prominent general of the Union; and [Robert E. Lee](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Robert-E-Lee), Grant’s counterpart in the Confederacy.\n\n### Why are Confederate symbols controversial?\nThe modern usage of [Confederate](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America) symbols, especially the Confederate Battle Flag and statues of Confederate leaders, is considered controversial because many associate such symbols with [racism](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/racism), [slavery](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/slavery-sociology), and [white supremacy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/white-supremacy). The flag was revived as a popular symbol in the 1940s and ’50s by the [Dixiecrat](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dixiecrat) Democratic splinter group and others who opposed the [American civil rights movement](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-civil-rights-movement).\n\n## News •\n[Midnight train from Georgia: A view of America from the tracks as airports struggle in the shutdown](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/news\/19407\/e4d8ea591b3b036142c2bf2dee7dff5a)  • Mar. 29, 2026, 4:15 PM ET (AP)\n\nShow less\n\n**American Civil War**, four-year [war](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/war) (1861–65) between the [United States](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/United-States) and 11 Southern states that [seceded](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/seceded) from the Union and formed the [Confederate States of America](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America).\n\n## Prelude to war\n[![How a tax increase helped spark the American Civil War](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/51\/245851-138-947DC732\/Tariff-of-1828.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/Tariff-of-1828\/-284084)\n\nHow a tax increase helped spark the American Civil WarIn 1828 the U.S. Congress passed a tariff that increased the rates on imports into the United States to as much as 50%.\n\n(more)\n\n[See all videos for this article](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/images-videos)\n\nThe [secession](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/secession) of the Southern states (in chronological order, [South Carolina](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/South-Carolina\/Statehood-Civil-War-and-aftermath#ref78538), [Mississippi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mississippi-state\/History#ref78491), [Florida](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Florida\/Statehood#ref78369), [Alabama](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Alabama-state\/The-Civil-War-and-its-aftermath#ref78320), [Georgia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Georgia-state\/Slavery-the-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78396), [Louisiana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Louisiana-state\/The-19th-century#ref78466), [Texas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Texas-state\/Annexation-and-statehood#ref79046), [Virginia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Virginia-state\/Independence-and-statehood#ref78585), [Arkansas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Arkansas-state\/History#ref281011), [Tennessee](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Tennessee\/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78561), and [North Carolina](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/North-Carolina-state\/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78514)) in 1860–61 and the ensuing outbreak of armed hostilities were the culmination of decades of growing sectional friction over [slavery](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/slavery-sociology). Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states was rapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture—mostly smaller farms that relied on free labour—remained the dominant sector in the North, industrialization had taken root there. Moreover, Northerners had invested heavily in an expansive and varied transportation system that included canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads; in financial industries such as banking and insurance; and in a large communications network that featured inexpensive, widely available newspapers, magazines, and books, along with the telegraph.\n\n[![How the Whitney Plantation teaches the history of slavery](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/13\/248813-138-14B8A4CE\/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)1 of 2](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States\/-286566)\n\nHow the Whitney Plantation teaches the history of slaveryMuseum director Ashley Rogers explains how the Whitney Plantation became the only former plantation site in Louisiana with an exclusive focus on slavery.\n\n(more)\n\n[See all videos for this article](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/images-videos)\n\n[![Inspection and Sale of a Negro](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/78418-050-3265AF60\/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/78418-050-3265AF60\/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg)\n\n[*Inspection and Sale of a Negro*](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/78418-050-3265AF60\/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg)*Inspection and Sale of a Negro*, engraving from the book *Antislavery* (1961) by Dwight Lowell Dumond.\n\n(more)\n\nBy contrast, the Southern economy was based principally on large farms (plantations) that produced commercial crops such as [cotton](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/cotton-fibre-and-plant) and that relied on slaves as the main [labour force](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/labor-in-economics). Rather than [invest](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/invest) in factories or railroads as Northerners had done, Southerners invested their money in slaves—even more than in land; by 1860, 84 percent of the capital invested in manufacturing was invested in the free (nonslaveholding) states. Yet, to Southerners, as late as 1860, this appeared to be a sound business decision. The price of cotton, the South’s defining crop, had skyrocketed in the 1850s, and the value of slaves—who were, after all, property—rose commensurately. By 1860 the per capita wealth of Southern whites was twice that of Northerners, and three-fifths of the wealthiest individuals in the country were Southerners.\n\n[![1860 presidential campaign](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/149614-050-FB2A42C9\/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/149614-050-FB2A42C9\/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg)\n\n[1860 presidential campaign](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/149614-050-FB2A42C9\/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg)“The Undecided Political Prize Fight,” a lithograph depicting the presidential campaign of 1860 and featuring Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas.\n\n(more)\n\nThe [extension](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/extension) of slavery into new territories and states had been an issue as far back as the [Northwest Ordinance](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Northwest-Ordinances) of 1784. When the slave territory of [Missouri](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Missouri-state) sought statehood in 1818, Congress debated for two years before arriving upon the [Missouri Compromise](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Missouri-Compromise) of 1820. This was the first of a series of political deals that resulted from arguments between pro-slavery and antislavery forces over the expansion of the “peculiar institution,” as it was known, into the West. The end of the [Mexican-American War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Mexican-American-War) in 1848 and the roughly 500,000 square miles (1.3 million square km) of new territory that the United States gained as a result of it added a new sense of urgency to the dispute. More and more Northerners, driven by a sense of [morality](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/morality) or an interest in protecting free labour, came to believe, in the 1850s, that bondage needed to be [eradicated](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/eradicated). White Southerners feared that limiting the expansion of slavery would consign the institution to certain death. Over the course of the decade, the two sides became increasingly polarized and politicians less able to contain the dispute through compromise. When [Abraham Lincoln](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Abraham-Lincoln), the candidate of the explicitly antislavery [Republican Party](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Republican-Party), won the [1860 presidential election](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860), seven Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) carried out their threat and seceded, organizing as the [Confederate States of America](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America).\n\n[![Fort Sumter](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/04\/149304-050-F9903D6E\/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/04\/149304-050-F9903D6E\/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg)\n\n[Fort Sumter](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/04\/149304-050-F9903D6E\/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg)Confederate forces bombarding Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, in a lithograph by Currier & Ives.\n\n(more)\n\nIn the early morning hours of April 12, 1861, rebels opened fire on [Fort Sumter,](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Fort-Sumter-National-Monument) at the entrance to the harbour of [Charleston](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Charleston-South-Carolina), South Carolina. Curiously, this first [encounter](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/encounter) of what would be the bloodiest war in the history of the United States claimed no victims. After a 34-hour bombardment, Maj. [Robert Anderson](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Robert-Anderson-American-army-officer) surrendered his command of about 85 soldiers to some 5,500 besieging Confederate troops under [P.G.T. Beauregard](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/P-G-T-Beauregard). Within weeks, four more Southern states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) left the Union to join the Confederacy.\n\nQuick Facts\n\nAlso called:\n\nWar Between the States\n\n*(Show more)*\n\nDate:\n\nApril 12, 1861 - April 26, 1865 *(Anniversary in 4 days)*\n\n*(Show more)*\n\nLocation:\n\n[United States](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/United-States)\n\n*(Show more)*\n\nParticipants:\n\n[Confederate States of America](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America)\n\n[United States](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/United-States)\n\n*(Show more)*\n\nMajor Events:\n\n[Battle of Antietam](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Antietam)\n\n[Fort Pillow Massacre](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Fort-Pillow-Massacre)\n\n[Battle of Gettysburg](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Gettysburg)\n\n[Sherman’s March to the Sea](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shermans-March-to-the-Sea)\n\n[Second Battle of Bull Run](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-1862)\n\n*(Show more)*\n\nKey People:\n\n[James Buchanan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/James-Buchanan-president-of-United-States)\n\n[Ulysses S. Grant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ulysses-S-Grant)\n\n[Robert E. Lee](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Robert-E-Lee)\n\n[Abraham Lincoln](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Abraham-Lincoln)\n\n[Richard S. Ewell](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Richard-S-Ewell)\n\n*(Show more)*\n\n[See all related content](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/facts\/American-Civil-War)\n\nShow More\n\n[![\"The Fifteenth Amendment. Celebrated May 19th, 1870\" color lithograph created by Thomas Kelly, 1870. (Reconstruction) At center, a depiction of a parade in celebration of the passing of the 15th Amendment. Framing it are portraits and vignettes...](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/32\/218832-131-7D2208C0\/Fifteenth-Amendment-Celebrated-May-19-1879-color-lithograph.jpg) Britannica Quiz Reconstruction Era Quiz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/reconstruction-era-quiz)\n\n[![American Civil War: Union army volunteer](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/34\/70734-050-14E6268E\/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/34\/70734-050-14E6268E\/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg)\n\n[American Civil War: Union army volunteer](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/34\/70734-050-14E6268E\/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg)Union army volunteer, photograph by Mathew Brady, 1861.\n\n(more)\n\nWith war upon the land, President Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to serve for three months. He proclaimed a [naval blockade](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/blockade-warfare) of the Confederate states, although he insisted that they did not legally [constitute](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/constitute) a [sovereign](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/sovereign) country but were instead states in rebellion. He also directed the secretary of the treasury to advance \\$2 million to assist in the raising of troops, and he suspended the [writ of habeas corpus](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/habeas-corpus), first along the East Coast and ultimately throughout the country. The Confederate government had previously authorized a call for 100,000 soldiers for at least six months’ service, and this figure was soon increased to 400,000.\n\n[Jennifer L. Weber](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/contributor\/Jennifer-L-Weber\/9076043)\n\n![Britannica AI Icon](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/mendel-resources\/3-178\/images\/chatbot\/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5)Britannica AI\n\n*chevron\\_right*\n\nAmerican Civil War\n\n*close*\n\n[AI-generated answers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.\n\n# The military background of the war\n## Comparison of [North](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/the-North) and [South](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/the-South-region)\n[![Confederate States of America](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/64936-050-94C366C6\/states-Confederate-States-of-America-fall-members-1863.jpg)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/64936-050-94C366C6\/states-Confederate-States-of-America-fall-members-1863.jpg)\n\n[Confederate States of America](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/36\/64936-050-94C366C6\/states-Confederate-States-of-America-fall-members-1863.jpg)The Confederate States of America consisted of 11 states: 7 original members and 4 states that seceded from the United States after the fall of Fort Sumter. Four border states held enslaved people but remained in the Union. West Virginia became the 24th loyal U.S. state in 1863.\n\n(more)\n\nAt first glance it seemed that the 23 states that remained in the Union after [secession](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/secession) were more than a match for the 11 Southern states. Approximately 21 million people lived in the North, compared with some nine million in the South of whom about four million were slaves. In addition, the North was the site of more than 100,000 manufacturing plants, against 18,000 south of the [Potomac River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Potomac-River), and more than 70 percent of the railroads were in the Union. Furthermore, the Federals had at their command a 30-to-1 superiority in arms production, a 2-to-1 edge in available manpower, and a great [preponderance](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/preponderance) of commercial and financial resources. The Union also had a functioning government and a small but efficient regular army and navy.\n\nThe [Confederacy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America) was not predestined to defeat, however. The Southern armies had the advantage of fighting on interior lines, and their military tradition had bulked large in the history of the [United States](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/United-States) before 1860. Moreover, the long Confederate coastline of 3,500 miles (5,600 km) seemed to defy blockade, and the Confederate president, [Jefferson Davis](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Jefferson-Davis), hoped to receive decisive [foreign aid](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/foreign-aid) and intervention. [Confederate](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/Confederate) soldiers were fighting to achieve a separate and independent country based on what they called “Southern institutions,” the chief of which was the institution of [slavery](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/slavery-sociology). So the Southern cause was not a lost one; indeed, other countries—most notably the United States itself in the [American Revolution](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Revolution) against Britain—had won independence against equally heavy odds.\n\n## The high commands\nCommand problems plagued both sides. Of the two rival commanders in chief, most people in 1861 thought Davis to be abler than Lincoln. Davis was a graduate of the [U.S. Military Academy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/United-States-Military-Academy), a hero of the Mexican-American War, a capable secretary of [war](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/war) under Pres. [Franklin Pierce](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Franklin-Pierce), and a U.S. representative and senator from [Mississippi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mississippi-state). Lincoln—who had served in the Illinois state legislature and as an undistinguished one-term member of the U.S. House of Representatives—could boast of only a brief period of military service in the [Black Hawk War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Black-Hawk-War), in which he saw no action.\n\n[![Jefferson Davis](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/23\/7923-050-40B2AA43\/Jefferson-Davis.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/23\/7923-050-40B2AA43\/Jefferson-Davis.jpg)\n\n[Jefferson Davis](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/23\/7923-050-40B2AA43\/Jefferson-Davis.jpg)Confederacy president Jefferson Davis\n\n(more)\n\n[![Learn about the personal and political life of Jefferson Davis from his great-great-grandson Bertram Hayes-Davis](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/86\/195086-138-6F4FFE22\/Overview-Jefferson-Davis-life-Confederate-States-of.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)2 of 2](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/Overview-Jefferson-Davis-life-Confederate-States-of\/-224316)\n\nLearn about the personal and political life of Jefferson Davis from his great-great-grandson Bertram Hayes-DavisOverview of the life of Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederate States of America (1861–65) during the American Civil War.\n\n(more)\n\n[See all videos for this article](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/images-videos)\n\nAs president and commander in chief of the Confederate forces, Davis revealed many fine qualities, including dignity, firmness, determination, and honesty, but he was flawed by his excessive pride, hypersensitivity to [criticism](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/criticism), poor political skills, and tendency to micromanage. He engaged in extended petty quarrels with generals and cabinet members. He also suffered from ill health throughout the conflict. Davis’s effectiveness was further hampered by a [political system](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/political-system) that limited him to a single six-year term—thereby making him a lame duck immediately upon his election—and that frowned on organized political parties, which Southerners accused of having been at least partly responsible for the coming of the Civil War. The lack of political parties meant that Davis could command no loyalty from a broad group of people such as governors or political appointees when he came under heavy criticism.\n\nTo a large extent and by his own preference, Davis was his own secretary of war, although five different men served in that post during the lifetime of the [Confederacy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/Confederacy). Davis himself also filled the position of general in chief of the Confederate armies until he named [Robert E. Lee](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Robert-E-Lee) to that position on February 6, 1865, when the Confederacy was near collapse. In naval affairs—an area about which he knew little—the Confederate president seldom intervened directly, allowing the competent secretary of the navy, Stephen Mallory, to handle the Southern naval buildup and operations on the water. Although his position was onerous and quite likely could not have been filled as well by any other Southern political leader—most of them having come to prominence in a period of growing disinclination to compromise—Davis’s overall performance in office left something to be desired.\n\nAmerican Civil War events\n\nkeyboard\\_arrow\\_left\n\n[![Fort Sumter](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/04\/149304-050-F9903D6E\/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Fort Sumter April 12, 1861 - April 14, 1861](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Fort-Sumter \"Battle of Fort Sumter\")\n\n[![Winchester, Battle of](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/32\/70732-050-C148B71E\/Battle-of-Winchester-Virginia-Alfred-Waud-May-1862.jpg?w=500&h=500) Shenandoah Valley campaigns July 1861 - March 1865](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Shenandoah-Valley-campaigns \"Shenandoah Valley campaigns\")\n\n[![First Battle of Bull Run](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/38\/150938-050-8835728C\/First-Battle-of-Bull-Run-Kurz-and-1889.jpg?w=500&h=500) First Battle of Bull Run July 21, 1861](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/First-Battle-of-Bull-Run-1861 \"First Battle of Bull Run\")\n\n[![American Civil War: Vicksburg Campaign](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/08\/195108-138-C710801A\/Overview-Vicksburg-Campaign-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Vicksburg Campaign 1862 - 1863](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Vicksburg-Campaign \"Vicksburg Campaign\")\n\n[![See the animated map and learn about the Battle of Shiloh](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/04\/195104-138-85E2AC55\/Overview-Battle-of-Shiloh-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Mississippi Valley Campaign February 1862 - July 1863](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Mississippi-Valley-Campaign \"Mississippi Valley Campaign\")\n\n[![Fort Donelson, Battle of](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/28\/190528-050-FAEF5FFA\/Battle-of-Fort-Donelson-Kurz-Allison-1887.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Fort Donelson February 13, 1862 - February 16, 1862](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Fort-Donelson \"Battle of Fort Donelson\")\n\n[![Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/02\/189102-050-23B6D24A\/battle-warships-Confederate-Virginia-Union-Monitor.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack March 9, 1862](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-the-Monitor-and-Merrimack \"Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack\")\n\n[![Shiloh, Battle of](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/33\/4133-004-DFDDBE06\/troops-Union-encampment-General-Pittsburg-Landing-Tennessee.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Shiloh April 6, 1862 - April 7, 1862](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Shiloh \"Battle of Shiloh\")\n\n[![American Civil War: Second Battle of Bull Run](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/33\/64933-050-1B0BF38B\/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-Robert-E.jpg?w=500&h=500) Second Battle of Bull Run August 29, 1862 - August 30, 1862](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-1862 \"Second Battle of Bull Run\")\n\n[![Battle of Antietam: Confederate dead](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/5744-050-16A011D3\/fence-Confederate-road-photo-Hagerstown-Antietam-Alexander-September-1862.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Antietam September 17, 1862](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Antietam \"Battle of Antietam\")\n\n[![Battle of Fredericksburg](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/54\/184754-050-9BC8DADD\/Army-of-the-Potomac-lithograph-Rappahannock-River-Dec-13-1862.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Fredericksburg December 13, 1862](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Fredericksburg \"Battle of Fredericksburg\")\n\n[![Battle of Chancellorsville](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/66\/105366-050-9F44202D\/numbers-sites-Battle-of-Chancellorsville-body-detachment.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Chancellorsville April 30, 1863 - May 5, 1863](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Chancellorsville \"Battle of Chancellorsville\")\n\n[![American Civil War: Battle of Gettysburg](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/94\/195094-138-95ED4B74\/Battle-of-Gettysburg-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Gettysburg July 1, 1863 - July 3, 1863](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Gettysburg \"Battle of Gettysburg\")\n\n[![Storming Fort Wagner](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/72\/159972-050-7EEE3840\/Fort-Wagner-work-Kurz-fort-Allison-July-18-1863.jpg?w=500&h=500) Second Battle of Fort Wagner July 18, 1863](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Second-Battle-of-Fort-Wagner \"Second Battle of Fort Wagner\")\n\n[![Wood engraving depicting the Fort Pillow Massacre.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/16\/153116-050-864F2724\/Wood-engraving-Fort-Pillow-Massacre.jpg?w=500&h=500) Fort Pillow Massacre April 12, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Fort-Pillow-Massacre \"Fort Pillow Massacre\")\n\n[![American Civil War: Atlanta Campaign](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/77\/148677-050-4B9BF99B\/Atlanta-Campaign.jpg?w=500&h=500) Atlanta Campaign May 1864 - September 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Atlanta-Campaign \"Atlanta Campaign\")\n\n[![wounded soldiers at the Battle of the Wilderness](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/16\/153216-050-BF6F76D2\/James-Gardner-soldiers-field-photographers-Citizen-image-May-20-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of the Wilderness May 5, 1864 - May 7, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-the-Wilderness \"Battle of the Wilderness\")\n\n[![American Civil War: Spotsylvania Court House](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/97\/4397-004-CB24502D\/Soldiers-battle-Spotsylvania-Court-House-Virginia-May-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Spotsylvania Court House May 8, 1864 - May 19, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Spotsylvania-Court-House \"Battle of Spotsylvania Court House\")\n\n[![Grant at Cold Harbor](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/75\/70675-050-397011D2\/Ulysses-S-Grant-Cold-Harbor-Virginia-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Cold Harbor May 31, 1864 - June 12, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/battle-of-Cold-Harbor \"Battle of Cold Harbor\")\n\n[![Petersburg campaign: ruins of the Richmond & Petersburg Railroad bridge](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/56\/3456-050-B581A70F\/Ruins-Richmond-bridge-Petersburg-Railroad-Virginia.jpg?w=500&h=500) Petersburg Campaign June 1864 - April 9, 1865](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Petersburg-Campaign \"Petersburg Campaign\")\n\n[![Early, Jubal A.](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/64\/125364-004-1B51E464\/Confederate-Jubal-A-Early.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Monocacy July 9, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Monocacy \"Battle of Monocacy\")\n\n[![ruins of an Atlanta depot](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/68\/245768-050-CE0727C9\/Ruins-of-the-Atlanta-Ga-depot-July-1864-battle-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Atlanta July 22, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Atlanta \"Battle of Atlanta\")\n\n[![Battle of the Crater](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/48\/254348-050-DCA78194\/Battle-of-the-Crater-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of the Crater July 30, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-the-Crater-1864 \"Battle of the Crater\")\n\n[![Battle of Mobile Bay](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/27\/146027-050-D7397A9B\/Battle-of-Mobile-Bay.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Mobile Bay August 5, 1864 - August 23, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Mobile-Bay \"Battle of Mobile Bay\")\n\n[![William Tecumseh Sherman's March to the Sea during the American Civil War](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/44\/197944-050-AEC084AC\/William-Tecumseh-Sherman-troops-campaign-Union-Georgia-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Sherman’s March to the Sea November 15, 1864 - December 21, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Shermans-March-to-the-Sea \"Sherman’s March to the Sea\")\n\n[![Nashville, Tennessee](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/35\/2935-050-186D4923\/cannon-steps-capitol-photograph-Nashville-Tennessee-George-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Nashville December 15, 1864 - December 16, 1864](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Nashville \"Battle of Nashville\")\n\n[![Battle of Five Forks](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/18\/199518-050-5F298974\/Philip-Sheridan-charge-Battle-of-Five-Forks-1886.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Five Forks April 1, 1865](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Battle-of-Five-Forks \"Battle of Five Forks\")\n\n[![Appomattox Court House surrender](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/43\/182243-050-B990D120\/Robert-E-Lee-Confederate-illustration-Appomattox-Court-1887.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Appomattox Court House April 9, 1865](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Appomattox-Court-House \"Battle of Appomattox Court House\")\n\nkeyboard\\_arrow\\_right\n\n- 1\n- 2\n- 3\n- 4\n- 5\n- 6\n- 7\n- 8\n- 9\n- 10\n\n[![Did anyone in the U.S. government not support the Civil War?](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/01\/141201-138-BC6E80F9\/Copperhead-opposition-dissension-Pres-cabinet-rear-Abraham.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/video\/Copperhead-opposition-dissension-Pres-cabinet-rear-Abraham\/-155036)\n\nDid anyone in the U.S. government not support the Civil War?Confronted by Copperhead opposition and by dissension within his cabinet, U.S. Pres. Abraham Lincoln struggled to contain the “fire in the rear” during the Civil War.\n\n(more)\n\n[See all videos for this article](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/images-videos)\n\nTo the astonishment of many, Lincoln grew in stature with time and experience, and by 1864 he had become a [consummate](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/consummate) politician and war director. Lincoln matured into a remarkably effective president because of his great intelligence, communication skills, humility, sense of purpose, sense of humour, fundamentally moderate nature, and ability to remain focused on the big picture. But he had much to learn at first, especially in strategic and tactical matters and in his choices of army commanders. With an ineffective first secretary of war—[Simon Cameron](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Simon-Cameron)—Lincoln unhesitatingly insinuated himself directly into the planning of military movements. [Edwin M. Stanton](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Edwin-M-Stanton), a well-known lawyer appointed to the secretaryship on January 20, 1862, was equally untutored in military affairs, but he was fully as active a participant as his superior.\n\n[![George McClellan](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/70667-050-3492DFCE\/George-McClellan.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/70667-050-3492DFCE\/George-McClellan.jpg)\n\n[George McClellan](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/67\/70667-050-3492DFCE\/George-McClellan.jpg)Gen. George McClellan.\n\n(more)\n\n[Winfield Scott](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Winfield-Scott) was the Federal general in chief when Lincoln took office. The 75-year-old Scott—a hero of the [War of 1812](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/War-of-1812) and the [Mexican-American War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Mexican-American-War)—was a magnificent and distinguished soldier whose mind was still [keen](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/keen), but he was physically incapacitated and had to be retired from the service on November 1, 1861. Scott was replaced by young [George B. McClellan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/George-B-McClellan), who was an excellent organizer. McClellan, however, lacked tenacity, persistently overestimated the Confederates’ strength (and therefore stalled his attacks), and was openly disdainful of the president. Because he wanted McClellan to focus his attentions on the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln relieved McClellan as general in chief on March 11, 1862. [Henry W. Halleck](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Henry-W-Halleck), who proved to be a strong administrator but did little in the way of [strategic planning](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/strategic-planning-organization), succeeded McClellan on July 11 and held the position until he was replaced by [Ulysses S. Grant](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ulysses-S-Grant) on March 9, 1864. Halleck then became chief of staff under Grant in a long-needed [streamlining](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/streamlining) of the Federal high command. Grant served efficaciously as general in chief throughout the remainder of the war.\n\nAfter the initial call by Lincoln and Davis for troops, and as the war lengthened indeterminately, both sides turned to raising massive armies of volunteers. Local citizens of prominence and means would organize regiments that were uniformed and accoutred at first under the aegis of the states and then mustered into the service of the Union and Confederate governments. On each side, the presidents appointed so-called “political generals,” men who had little or no military training or experience but had important political connections (for example, Northern Democrats) or had ties to immigrant [communities](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/communities). Although successful politically, most of these appointments did not yield happy military results. As the war dragged on, the two governments had to resort to [conscription](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/conscription) to fill the ranks being so swiftly thinned by battle casualties.\n\n## Strategic plans\n[![Anaconda Plan](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/62\/135862-050-AA2CC9E6\/Winfield-Scott-cartoon-map-Anaconda-Plan-1861.jpg?w=300)](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/62\/135862-050-AA2CC9E6\/Winfield-Scott-cartoon-map-Anaconda-Plan-1861.jpg)\n\n[Anaconda Plan](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/62\/135862-050-AA2CC9E6\/Winfield-Scott-cartoon-map-Anaconda-Plan-1861.jpg)An 1861 cartoon map illustrating Gen. Winfield Scott's Anaconda Plan.\n\n(more)\n\nIn the area of [grand strategy](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/grand-strategy), Davis persistently adhered to the defensive, permitting only occasional “spoiling” forays into Northern territory. Perhaps the Confederates’ best chance of winning would have been an early grand offensive into the Union states before the Lincoln administration could find its ablest generals and bring the preponderant resources of the North to bear against the South. On the other hand, protecting the territory the Confederacy already controlled was of paramount importance, and a defensive position allowed the rebels to husband their resources somewhat better. To crush the rebellion and reestablish the authority of the Federal government, Lincoln had to direct his blue-clad armies to invade, capture, and hold most of the vital areas of the Confederacy. His grand strategy was based on [Scott](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Winfield-Scott)’s so-called [Anaconda Plan](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Anaconda-plan), a design that evolved from strategic ideas discussed in messages between Scott and McClellan on April 27, May 3, and May 21, 1861. It called for a Union blockade of the Confederacy’s coastline as well as a decisive thrust down the [Mississippi River](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mississippi-River) and an ensuing strangulation of the South by Federal land and naval forces. But it was to take four years of [grim](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/grim), unrelenting warfare and enormous casualties and devastation before the Confederates could be defeated and the Union preserved.\n\nLoad Next Page\n\nFeedback\n\nThank you for your feedback\n\nOur editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.\n\n*print* Print\n\nPlease select which sections you would like to print:\n\n*verified*Cite\n\nWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\n\nSelect Citation Style\n\nHassler, Warren W., Weber, Jennifer L.. \"American Civil War\". *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 5 Apr. 2026, https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War. Accessed 9 April 2026.\n\nCopy Citation\n\nShare\n\nShare to social media\n\n[Facebook](https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/BRITANNICA\/) [X](https:\/\/x.com\/britannica)\n\nURL\n\n<https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War>\n\nExternal Websites\n\n- [New Georgia Encyclopedia - Guerrilla Warfare during the Civil War](https:\/\/www.georgiaencyclopedia.org\/articles\/history-archaeology\/guerrilla-warfare-during-the-civil-war\/)\n- [HistoryNet - The American Civil War ï¿½ Facts, Events and Information](https:\/\/www.historynet.com\/civil-war\/)\n- [The Civil War - The American Civil War](http:\/\/www.sonofthesouth.net\/American-civil-war.htm)\n- [Social Studies for Kids - The American Civil War](http:\/\/www.socialstudiesforkids.com\/subjects\/civilwar.htm)\n- [American Battlefield Trust - American Civil War](https:\/\/www.battlefields.org\/learn\/civil-war)\n- [PBS LearningMedia - Sherman's March](https:\/\/www.pbslearningmedia.org\/resource\/e87c3309-6a33-4f31-9df3-909d1dd86f14\/shermans-march\/)\n- [Spartacus Educational - American Civil War](https:\/\/spartacus-educational.com\/USAcivilwar.htm)\n- [Social Sci LibreTexts - The Origins and Outbreak of the Civil War](https:\/\/socialsci.libretexts.org\/Courses\/Lumen_Learning\/Book%3A_United_States_History_I%3A_OpenStax_\$Lumen\$\/31%3A_Module_15-_The_Civil_War_\$18601865\$\/31.02%3A_The_Origins_and_Outbreak_of_the_Civil_War)\n- [Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History - The American Civil War](https:\/\/www.gilderlehrman.org\/history-resources\/essays\/american-civil-war)\n\nBritannica Websites\n\nArticles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.\n\n- [American Civil War - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)](https:\/\/kids.britannica.com\/kids\/article\/American-Civil-War\/352967)\n- [American Civil War - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)](https:\/\/kids.britannica.com\/students\/article\/American-Civil-War\/273689)","attrs_readable_markdown":"Top Questions\n\n### What caused the American Civil War?\n### Who won the American Civil War?\n### How many people died during the Civil War?\n### Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War?\n### Why are Confederate symbols controversial?\n## News •\n**American Civil War**, four-year [war](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/war) (1861–65) between the [United States](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/United-States) and 11 Southern states that [seceded](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/seceded) from the Union and formed the [Confederate States of America](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America).\n\n## Prelude to war\nHow a tax increase helped spark the American Civil WarIn 1828 the U.S. Congress passed a tariff that increased the rates on imports into the United States to as much as 50%.\n\n[See all videos for this article](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-Civil-War\/images-videos)\n\nThe [secession](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/secession) of the Southern states (in chronological order, [South Carolina](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/South-Carolina\/Statehood-Civil-War-and-aftermath#ref78538), [Mississippi](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Mississippi-state\/History#ref78491), [Florida](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Florida\/Statehood#ref78369), [Alabama](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Alabama-state\/The-Civil-War-and-its-aftermath#ref78320), [Georgia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Georgia-state\/Slavery-the-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78396), [Louisiana](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Louisiana-state\/The-19th-century#ref78466), [Texas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Texas-state\/Annexation-and-statehood#ref79046), [Virginia](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Virginia-state\/Independence-and-statehood#ref78585), [Arkansas](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Arkansas-state\/History#ref281011), [Tennessee](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Tennessee\/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78561), and [North Carolina](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/North-Carolina-state\/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78514)) in 1860–61 and the ensuing outbreak of armed hostilities were the culmination of decades of growing sectional friction over [slavery](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/slavery-sociology). Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states was rapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture—mostly smaller farms that relied on free labour—remained the dominant sector in the North, industrialization had taken root there. Moreover, Northerners had invested heavily in an expansive and varied transportation system that included canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads; in financial industries such as banking and insurance; and in a large communications network that featured inexpensive, widely available newspapers, magazines, and books, along with the telegraph.\n\nBy contrast, the Southern economy was based principally on large farms (plantations) that produced commercial crops such as [cotton](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/cotton-fibre-and-plant) and that relied on slaves as the main [labour force](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/money\/labor-in-economics). Rather than [invest](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/invest) in factories or railroads as Northerners had done, Southerners invested their money in slaves—even more than in land; by 1860, 84 percent of the capital invested in manufacturing was invested in the free (nonslaveholding) states. Yet, to Southerners, as late as 1860, this appeared to be a sound business decision. The price of cotton, the South’s defining crop, had skyrocketed in the 1850s, and the value of slaves—who were, after all, property—rose commensurately. By 1860 the per capita wealth of Southern whites was twice that of Northerners, and three-fifths of the wealthiest individuals in the country were Southerners.\n\n[1860 presidential campaign](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/14\/149614-050-FB2A42C9\/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg)“The Undecided Political Prize Fight,” a lithograph depicting the presidential campaign of 1860 and featuring Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas.\n\nThe [extension](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/extension) of slavery into new territories and states had been an issue as far back as the [Northwest Ordinance](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Northwest-Ordinances) of 1784. When the slave territory of [Missouri](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Missouri-state) sought statehood in 1818, Congress debated for two years before arriving upon the [Missouri Compromise](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Missouri-Compromise) of 1820. This was the first of a series of political deals that resulted from arguments between pro-slavery and antislavery forces over the expansion of the “peculiar institution,” as it was known, into the West. The end of the [Mexican-American War](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Mexican-American-War) in 1848 and the roughly 500,000 square miles (1.3 million square km) of new territory that the United States gained as a result of it added a new sense of urgency to the dispute. More and more Northerners, driven by a sense of [morality](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/morality) or an interest in protecting free labour, came to believe, in the 1850s, that bondage needed to be [eradicated](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/eradicated). White Southerners feared that limiting the expansion of slavery would consign the institution to certain death. Over the course of the decade, the two sides became increasingly polarized and politicians less able to contain the dispute through compromise. When [Abraham Lincoln](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Abraham-Lincoln), the candidate of the explicitly antislavery [Republican Party](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Republican-Party), won the [1860 presidential election](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860), seven Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) carried out their threat and seceded, organizing as the [Confederate States of America](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America).\n\n[Fort Sumter](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/04\/149304-050-F9903D6E\/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg)Confederate forces bombarding Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, in a lithograph by Currier & Ives.\n\nIn the early morning hours of April 12, 1861, rebels opened fire on [Fort Sumter,](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Fort-Sumter-National-Monument) at the entrance to the harbour of [Charleston](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Charleston-South-Carolina), South Carolina. Curiously, this first [encounter](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/dictionary\/encounter) of what would be the bloodiest war in the history of the United States claimed no victims. After a 34-hour bombardment, Maj. [Robert Anderson](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Robert-Anderson-American-army-officer) surrendered his command of about 85 soldiers to some 5,500 besieging Confederate troops under [P.G.T. Beauregard](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/P-G-T-Beauregard). Within weeks, four more Southern states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) left the Union to join the Confederacy.\n\nQuick Facts\n\nAlso called:\n\nWar Between the States\n\nDate:\n\nApril 12, 1861 - April 26, 1865 *(Anniversary in 4 days)*\n\n[![\"The Fifteenth Amendment. Celebrated May 19th, 1870\" color lithograph created by Thomas Kelly, 1870. (Reconstruction) At center, a depiction of a parade in celebration of the passing of the 15th Amendment. Framing it are portraits and vignettes...](https:\/\/cdn.britannica.com\/32\/218832-131-7D2208C0\/Fifteenth-Amendment-Celebrated-May-19-1879-color-lithograph.jpg) Britannica Quiz Reconstruction Era Quiz](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/quiz\/reconstruction-era-quiz)\n\nWith war upon the land, President Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to serve for three months. He proclaimed a [naval blockade](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/blockade-warfare) of the Confederate states, although he insisted that they did not legally [constitute](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/constitute) a [sovereign](https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/sovereign) country but were instead states in rebellion. He also directed the secretary of the treasury to advance \\$2 million to assist in the raising of troops, and he suspended the [writ of habeas corpus](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/habeas-corpus), first along the East Coast and ultimately throughout the country. The Confederate government had previously authorized a call for 100,000 soldiers for at least six months’ service, and this figure was soon increased to 400,000.\n\n[AI-generated answers](https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.","meta_canonical":null}

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Meta Title	American Civil War \| History, Summary, Dates, Causes, Map, Timeline, Battles, Significance, & Facts \| Britannica
Meta Description	American Civil War, four-year war (1861–65) fought between the United States and 11 Southern states that seceded to form the Confederate States of America. It arose out of disputes over slavery and states’ rights. When antislavery candidate Abraham Lincoln was elected president (1860), the Southern states seceded.
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Boilerpipe Text	Top Questions What caused the American Civil War? Who won the American Civil War? How many people died during the Civil War? Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War? Why are Confederate symbols controversial? News • American Civil War , four-year war (1861–65) between the United States and 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America . Prelude to war How a tax increase helped spark the American Civil War In 1828 the U.S. Congress passed a tariff that increased the rates on imports into the United States to as much as 50%. See all videos for this article The secession of the Southern states (in chronological order, South Carolina , Mississippi , Florida , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , Texas , Virginia , Arkansas , Tennessee , and North Carolina ) in 1860–61 and the ensuing outbreak of armed hostilities were the culmination of decades of growing sectional friction over slavery . Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states was rapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture—mostly smaller farms that relied on free labour—remained the dominant sector in the North, industrialization had taken root there. Moreover, Northerners had invested heavily in an expansive and varied transportation system that included canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads; in financial industries such as banking and insurance; and in a large communications network that featured inexpensive, widely available newspapers, magazines, and books, along with the telegraph. By contrast, the Southern economy was based principally on large farms (plantations) that produced commercial crops such as cotton and that relied on slaves as the main labour force . Rather than invest in factories or railroads as Northerners had done, Southerners invested their money in slaves—even more than in land; by 1860, 84 percent of the capital invested in manufacturing was invested in the free (nonslaveholding) states. Yet, to Southerners, as late as 1860, this appeared to be a sound business decision. The price of cotton, the South’s defining crop, had skyrocketed in the 1850s, and the value of slaves—who were, after all, property—rose commensurately. By 1860 the per capita wealth of Southern whites was twice that of Northerners, and three-fifths of the wealthiest individuals in the country were Southerners. 1860 presidential campaign “The Undecided Political Prize Fight,” a lithograph depicting the presidential campaign of 1860 and featuring Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas. The extension of slavery into new territories and states had been an issue as far back as the Northwest Ordinance of 1784. When the slave territory of Missouri sought statehood in 1818, Congress debated for two years before arriving upon the Missouri Compromise of 1820. This was the first of a series of political deals that resulted from arguments between pro-slavery and antislavery forces over the expansion of the “peculiar institution,” as it was known, into the West. The end of the Mexican-American War in 1848 and the roughly 500,000 square miles (1.3 million square km) of new territory that the United States gained as a result of it added a new sense of urgency to the dispute. More and more Northerners, driven by a sense of morality or an interest in protecting free labour, came to believe, in the 1850s, that bondage needed to be eradicated . White Southerners feared that limiting the expansion of slavery would consign the institution to certain death. Over the course of the decade, the two sides became increasingly polarized and politicians less able to contain the dispute through compromise. When Abraham Lincoln , the candidate of the explicitly antislavery Republican Party , won the 1860 presidential election , seven Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) carried out their threat and seceded, organizing as the Confederate States of America . Fort Sumter Confederate forces bombarding Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, in a lithograph by Currier & Ives. In the early morning hours of April 12, 1861, rebels opened fire on Fort Sumter, at the entrance to the harbour of Charleston , South Carolina. Curiously, this first encounter of what would be the bloodiest war in the history of the United States claimed no victims. After a 34-hour bombardment, Maj. Robert Anderson surrendered his command of about 85 soldiers to some 5,500 besieging Confederate troops under P.G.T. Beauregard . Within weeks, four more Southern states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) left the Union to join the Confederacy. Quick Facts Also called: War Between the States Date: April 12, 1861 - April 26, 1865 (Anniversary in 4 days) Britannica Quiz Reconstruction Era Quiz With war upon the land, President Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to serve for three months. He proclaimed a naval blockade of the Confederate states, although he insisted that they did not legally constitute a sovereign country but were instead states in rebellion. He also directed the secretary of the treasury to advance $2 million to assist in the raising of troops, and he suspended the writ of habeas corpus , first along the East Coast and ultimately throughout the country. The Confederate government had previously authorized a call for 100,000 soldiers for at least six months’ service, and this figure was soon increased to 400,000. AI-generated answers from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
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Celebrated May 19th, 1870" color lithograph created by Thomas Kelly, 1870. (Reconstruction) At center, a depiction of a parade in celebration of the passing of the 15th Amendment. 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(more) # American Civil War United States history Homework Help Also known as: War Between the States Written by [Warren W. Hassler Emeritus Professor of American History, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. Author of Commanders of the Army of the Potomac and others.](https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Warren-W-Hassler/1256) Warren W. Hassler[All](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/additional-info#contributors) Fact-checked by [Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....](https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419) Britannica Editors Last updated Apr. 5, 2026 •[History](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/additional-info#history) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-178/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5) Britannica AI Ask Anything Quick Summary Table of Contents Table of Contents Quick Summary Ask Anything Top Questions ### What caused the American Civil War? The American Civil War was the culmination of the struggle between the advocates and opponents of [slavery](https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology) that dated from the founding of the United States. This sectional conflict between Northern states and slaveholding Southern states had been tempered by a series of political compromises, but by the late 1850s the issue of the extension of slavery to the western states had reached a boiling point. The election of [Abraham Lincoln](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln), a member of the antislavery [Republican Party](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party), as president in [1860](https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860) precipitated the secession of 11 Southern states, leading to a civil war. ### Who won the American Civil War? The Union won the American Civil War. The war effectively ended in April 1865 when Confederate General [Robert E. Lee](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-E-Lee) surrendered his troops to Union General [Ulysses S. Grant](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ulysses-S-Grant) at [Appomattox Court House](https://www.britannica.com/place/Appomattox-Court-House) in Virginia. The final surrender of Confederate troops on the western periphery came in Galveston, Texas, on June 2. ### How many people died during the Civil War? It is estimated that from 752,000 to 851,000 soldiers died during the American Civil War. This figure represents approximately 2 percent of the American population in 1860. The [Battle of Gettysburg](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Gettysburg), one of the bloodiest engagements during the Civil War, resulted in about 7,000 deaths and 51,000 total casualties. ### Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War? Important people during the American Civil War included [Abraham Lincoln](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln), the 16th president of the United States, whose election prompted the secession of Southern states; [Jefferson Davis](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jefferson-Davis), the president of the [Confederacy](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America); [Ulysses S. Grant](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ulysses-S-Grant), the most successful and prominent general of the Union; and [Robert E. Lee](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-E-Lee), Grant’s counterpart in the Confederacy. ### Why are Confederate symbols controversial? The modern usage of [Confederate](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America) symbols, especially the Confederate Battle Flag and statues of Confederate leaders, is considered controversial because many associate such symbols with [racism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/racism), [slavery](https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology), and [white supremacy](https://www.britannica.com/topic/white-supremacy). The flag was revived as a popular symbol in the 1940s and ’50s by the [Dixiecrat](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dixiecrat) Democratic splinter group and others who opposed the [American civil rights movement](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-civil-rights-movement). ## News • [Midnight train from Georgia: A view of America from the tracks as airports struggle in the shutdown](https://www.britannica.com/news/19407/e4d8ea591b3b036142c2bf2dee7dff5a) • Mar. 29, 2026, 4:15 PM ET (AP) Show less American Civil War, four-year [war](https://www.britannica.com/topic/war) (1861–65) between the [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States) and 11 Southern states that [seceded](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/seceded) from the Union and formed the [Confederate States of America](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America). ## Prelude to war [![How a tax increase helped spark the American Civil War](https://cdn.britannica.com/51/245851-138-947DC732/Tariff-of-1828.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)](https://www.britannica.com/video/Tariff-of-1828/-284084) How a tax increase helped spark the American Civil WarIn 1828 the U.S. Congress passed a tariff that increased the rates on imports into the United States to as much as 50%. (more) [See all videos for this article](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/images-videos) The [secession](https://www.britannica.com/topic/secession) of the Southern states (in chronological order, [South Carolina](https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Carolina/Statehood-Civil-War-and-aftermath#ref78538), [Mississippi](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mississippi-state/History#ref78491), [Florida](https://www.britannica.com/place/Florida/Statehood#ref78369), [Alabama](https://www.britannica.com/place/Alabama-state/The-Civil-War-and-its-aftermath#ref78320), [Georgia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Georgia-state/Slavery-the-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78396), [Louisiana](https://www.britannica.com/place/Louisiana-state/The-19th-century#ref78466), [Texas](https://www.britannica.com/place/Texas-state/Annexation-and-statehood#ref79046), [Virginia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Virginia-state/Independence-and-statehood#ref78585), [Arkansas](https://www.britannica.com/place/Arkansas-state/History#ref281011), [Tennessee](https://www.britannica.com/place/Tennessee/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78561), and [North Carolina](https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Carolina-state/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78514)) in 1860–61 and the ensuing outbreak of armed hostilities were the culmination of decades of growing sectional friction over [slavery](https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology). Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states was rapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture—mostly smaller farms that relied on free labour—remained the dominant sector in the North, industrialization had taken root there. Moreover, Northerners had invested heavily in an expansive and varied transportation system that included canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads; in financial industries such as banking and insurance; and in a large communications network that featured inexpensive, widely available newspapers, magazines, and books, along with the telegraph. [![How the Whitney Plantation teaches the history of slavery](https://cdn.britannica.com/13/248813-138-14B8A4CE/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)1 of 2](https://www.britannica.com/video/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States/-286566) How the Whitney Plantation teaches the history of slaveryMuseum director Ashley Rogers explains how the Whitney Plantation became the only former plantation site in Louisiana with an exclusive focus on slavery. (more) [See all videos for this article](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/images-videos) [![Inspection and Sale of a Negro](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/78418-050-3265AF60/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg?w=300)2 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/78418-050-3265AF60/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg) [Inspection and Sale of a Negro](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/78418-050-3265AF60/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg)Inspection and Sale of a Negro, engraving from the book Antislavery (1961) by Dwight Lowell Dumond. (more) By contrast, the Southern economy was based principally on large farms (plantations) that produced commercial crops such as [cotton](https://www.britannica.com/topic/cotton-fibre-and-plant) and that relied on slaves as the main [labour force](https://www.britannica.com/money/labor-in-economics). Rather than [invest](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/invest) in factories or railroads as Northerners had done, Southerners invested their money in slaves—even more than in land; by 1860, 84 percent of the capital invested in manufacturing was invested in the free (nonslaveholding) states. Yet, to Southerners, as late as 1860, this appeared to be a sound business decision. The price of cotton, the South’s defining crop, had skyrocketed in the 1850s, and the value of slaves—who were, after all, property—rose commensurately. By 1860 the per capita wealth of Southern whites was twice that of Northerners, and three-fifths of the wealthiest individuals in the country were Southerners. [![1860 presidential campaign](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/149614-050-FB2A42C9/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/149614-050-FB2A42C9/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg) [1860 presidential campaign](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/149614-050-FB2A42C9/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg)“The Undecided Political Prize Fight,” a lithograph depicting the presidential campaign of 1860 and featuring Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas. (more) The [extension](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/extension) of slavery into new territories and states had been an issue as far back as the [Northwest Ordinance](https://www.britannica.com/event/Northwest-Ordinances) of 1784. When the slave territory of [Missouri](https://www.britannica.com/place/Missouri-state) sought statehood in 1818, Congress debated for two years before arriving upon the [Missouri Compromise](https://www.britannica.com/event/Missouri-Compromise) of 1820. This was the first of a series of political deals that resulted from arguments between pro-slavery and antislavery forces over the expansion of the “peculiar institution,” as it was known, into the West. The end of the [Mexican-American War](https://www.britannica.com/event/Mexican-American-War) in 1848 and the roughly 500,000 square miles (1.3 million square km) of new territory that the United States gained as a result of it added a new sense of urgency to the dispute. More and more Northerners, driven by a sense of [morality](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morality) or an interest in protecting free labour, came to believe, in the 1850s, that bondage needed to be [eradicated](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eradicated). White Southerners feared that limiting the expansion of slavery would consign the institution to certain death. Over the course of the decade, the two sides became increasingly polarized and politicians less able to contain the dispute through compromise. When [Abraham Lincoln](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln), the candidate of the explicitly antislavery [Republican Party](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party), won the [1860 presidential election](https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860), seven Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) carried out their threat and seceded, organizing as the [Confederate States of America](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America). [![Fort Sumter](https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg) [Fort Sumter](https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg)Confederate forces bombarding Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, in a lithograph by Currier & Ives. (more) In the early morning hours of April 12, 1861, rebels opened fire on [Fort Sumter,](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fort-Sumter-National-Monument) at the entrance to the harbour of [Charleston](https://www.britannica.com/place/Charleston-South-Carolina), South Carolina. Curiously, this first [encounter](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/encounter) of what would be the bloodiest war in the history of the United States claimed no victims. After a 34-hour bombardment, Maj. [Robert Anderson](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Anderson-American-army-officer) surrendered his command of about 85 soldiers to some 5,500 besieging Confederate troops under [P.G.T. Beauregard](https://www.britannica.com/biography/P-G-T-Beauregard). Within weeks, four more Southern states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) left the Union to join the Confederacy. Quick Facts Also called: War Between the States (Show more) Date: April 12, 1861 - April 26, 1865 (Anniversary in 4 days) (Show more) Location: [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States) (Show more) Participants: [Confederate States of America](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America) [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States) (Show more) Major Events: [Battle of Antietam](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Antietam) [Fort Pillow Massacre](https://www.britannica.com/event/Fort-Pillow-Massacre) [Battle of Gettysburg](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Gettysburg) [Sherman’s March to the Sea](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shermans-March-to-the-Sea) [Second Battle of Bull Run](https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-1862) (Show more) Key People: [James Buchanan](https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Buchanan-president-of-United-States) [Ulysses S. Grant](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ulysses-S-Grant) [Robert E. Lee](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-E-Lee) [Abraham Lincoln](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln) [Richard S. Ewell](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-S-Ewell) (Show more) [See all related content](https://www.britannica.com/facts/American-Civil-War) Show More [!["The Fifteenth Amendment. Celebrated May 19th, 1870" color lithograph created by Thomas Kelly, 1870. (Reconstruction) At center, a depiction of a parade in celebration of the passing of the 15th Amendment. Framing it are portraits and vignettes...](https://cdn.britannica.com/32/218832-131-7D2208C0/Fifteenth-Amendment-Celebrated-May-19-1879-color-lithograph.jpg) Britannica Quiz Reconstruction Era Quiz](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/reconstruction-era-quiz) [![American Civil War: Union army volunteer](https://cdn.britannica.com/34/70734-050-14E6268E/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/34/70734-050-14E6268E/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg) [American Civil War: Union army volunteer](https://cdn.britannica.com/34/70734-050-14E6268E/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg)Union army volunteer, photograph by Mathew Brady, 1861. (more) With war upon the land, President Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to serve for three months. He proclaimed a [naval blockade](https://www.britannica.com/topic/blockade-warfare) of the Confederate states, although he insisted that they did not legally [constitute](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitute) a [sovereign](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereign) country but were instead states in rebellion. He also directed the secretary of the treasury to advance \$2 million to assist in the raising of troops, and he suspended the [writ of habeas corpus](https://www.britannica.com/topic/habeas-corpus), first along the East Coast and ultimately throughout the country. The Confederate government had previously authorized a call for 100,000 soldiers for at least six months’ service, and this figure was soon increased to 400,000. [Jennifer L. Weber](https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Jennifer-L-Weber/9076043) ![Britannica AI Icon](https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-178/images/chatbot/star-ai.svg?v=3.178.5)Britannica AI chevron\_right American Civil War close [AI-generated answers](https://www.britannica.com/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles. # The military background of the war ## Comparison of [North](https://www.britannica.com/place/the-North) and [South](https://www.britannica.com/place/the-South-region) [![Confederate States of America](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/64936-050-94C366C6/states-Confederate-States-of-America-fall-members-1863.jpg)](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/64936-050-94C366C6/states-Confederate-States-of-America-fall-members-1863.jpg) [Confederate States of America](https://cdn.britannica.com/36/64936-050-94C366C6/states-Confederate-States-of-America-fall-members-1863.jpg)The Confederate States of America consisted of 11 states: 7 original members and 4 states that seceded from the United States after the fall of Fort Sumter. Four border states held enslaved people but remained in the Union. West Virginia became the 24th loyal U.S. state in 1863. (more) At first glance it seemed that the 23 states that remained in the Union after [secession](https://www.britannica.com/topic/secession) were more than a match for the 11 Southern states. Approximately 21 million people lived in the North, compared with some nine million in the South of whom about four million were slaves. In addition, the North was the site of more than 100,000 manufacturing plants, against 18,000 south of the [Potomac River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Potomac-River), and more than 70 percent of the railroads were in the Union. Furthermore, the Federals had at their command a 30-to-1 superiority in arms production, a 2-to-1 edge in available manpower, and a great [preponderance](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/preponderance) of commercial and financial resources. The Union also had a functioning government and a small but efficient regular army and navy. The [Confederacy](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America) was not predestined to defeat, however. The Southern armies had the advantage of fighting on interior lines, and their military tradition had bulked large in the history of the [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States) before 1860. Moreover, the long Confederate coastline of 3,500 miles (5,600 km) seemed to defy blockade, and the Confederate president, [Jefferson Davis](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jefferson-Davis), hoped to receive decisive [foreign aid](https://www.britannica.com/money/foreign-aid) and intervention. [Confederate](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Confederate) soldiers were fighting to achieve a separate and independent country based on what they called “Southern institutions,” the chief of which was the institution of [slavery](https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology). So the Southern cause was not a lost one; indeed, other countries—most notably the United States itself in the [American Revolution](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution) against Britain—had won independence against equally heavy odds. ## The high commands Command problems plagued both sides. Of the two rival commanders in chief, most people in 1861 thought Davis to be abler than Lincoln. Davis was a graduate of the [U.S. Military Academy](https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-States-Military-Academy), a hero of the Mexican-American War, a capable secretary of [war](https://www.britannica.com/topic/war) under Pres. [Franklin Pierce](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Franklin-Pierce), and a U.S. representative and senator from [Mississippi](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mississippi-state). Lincoln—who had served in the Illinois state legislature and as an undistinguished one-term member of the U.S. House of Representatives—could boast of only a brief period of military service in the [Black Hawk War](https://www.britannica.com/event/Black-Hawk-War), in which he saw no action. [![Jefferson Davis](https://cdn.britannica.com/23/7923-050-40B2AA43/Jefferson-Davis.jpg?w=300)1 of 2](https://cdn.britannica.com/23/7923-050-40B2AA43/Jefferson-Davis.jpg) [Jefferson Davis](https://cdn.britannica.com/23/7923-050-40B2AA43/Jefferson-Davis.jpg)Confederacy president Jefferson Davis (more) [![Learn about the personal and political life of Jefferson Davis from his great-great-grandson Bertram Hayes-Davis](https://cdn.britannica.com/86/195086-138-6F4FFE22/Overview-Jefferson-Davis-life-Confederate-States-of.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)2 of 2](https://www.britannica.com/video/Overview-Jefferson-Davis-life-Confederate-States-of/-224316) Learn about the personal and political life of Jefferson Davis from his great-great-grandson Bertram Hayes-DavisOverview of the life of Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederate States of America (1861–65) during the American Civil War. (more) [See all videos for this article](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/images-videos) As president and commander in chief of the Confederate forces, Davis revealed many fine qualities, including dignity, firmness, determination, and honesty, but he was flawed by his excessive pride, hypersensitivity to [criticism](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/criticism), poor political skills, and tendency to micromanage. He engaged in extended petty quarrels with generals and cabinet members. He also suffered from ill health throughout the conflict. Davis’s effectiveness was further hampered by a [political system](https://www.britannica.com/topic/political-system) that limited him to a single six-year term—thereby making him a lame duck immediately upon his election—and that frowned on organized political parties, which Southerners accused of having been at least partly responsible for the coming of the Civil War. The lack of political parties meant that Davis could command no loyalty from a broad group of people such as governors or political appointees when he came under heavy criticism. To a large extent and by his own preference, Davis was his own secretary of war, although five different men served in that post during the lifetime of the [Confederacy](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Confederacy). Davis himself also filled the position of general in chief of the Confederate armies until he named [Robert E. Lee](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-E-Lee) to that position on February 6, 1865, when the Confederacy was near collapse. In naval affairs—an area about which he knew little—the Confederate president seldom intervened directly, allowing the competent secretary of the navy, Stephen Mallory, to handle the Southern naval buildup and operations on the water. Although his position was onerous and quite likely could not have been filled as well by any other Southern political leader—most of them having come to prominence in a period of growing disinclination to compromise—Davis’s overall performance in office left something to be desired. American Civil War events keyboard\_arrow\_left [![Fort Sumter](https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Fort Sumter April 12, 1861 - April 14, 1861](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Fort-Sumter "Battle of Fort Sumter") [![Winchester, Battle of](https://cdn.britannica.com/32/70732-050-C148B71E/Battle-of-Winchester-Virginia-Alfred-Waud-May-1862.jpg?w=500&h=500) Shenandoah Valley campaigns July 1861 - March 1865](https://www.britannica.com/event/Shenandoah-Valley-campaigns "Shenandoah Valley campaigns") [![First Battle of Bull Run](https://cdn.britannica.com/38/150938-050-8835728C/First-Battle-of-Bull-Run-Kurz-and-1889.jpg?w=500&h=500) First Battle of Bull Run July 21, 1861](https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Battle-of-Bull-Run-1861 "First Battle of Bull Run") [![American Civil War: Vicksburg Campaign](https://cdn.britannica.com/08/195108-138-C710801A/Overview-Vicksburg-Campaign-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Vicksburg Campaign 1862 - 1863](https://www.britannica.com/event/Vicksburg-Campaign "Vicksburg Campaign") [![See the animated map and learn about the Battle of Shiloh](https://cdn.britannica.com/04/195104-138-85E2AC55/Overview-Battle-of-Shiloh-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Mississippi Valley Campaign February 1862 - July 1863](https://www.britannica.com/event/Mississippi-Valley-Campaign "Mississippi Valley Campaign") [![Fort Donelson, Battle of](https://cdn.britannica.com/28/190528-050-FAEF5FFA/Battle-of-Fort-Donelson-Kurz-Allison-1887.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Fort Donelson February 13, 1862 - February 16, 1862](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Fort-Donelson "Battle of Fort Donelson") [![Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack](https://cdn.britannica.com/02/189102-050-23B6D24A/battle-warships-Confederate-Virginia-Union-Monitor.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack March 9, 1862](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Monitor-and-Merrimack "Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack") [![Shiloh, Battle of](https://cdn.britannica.com/33/4133-004-DFDDBE06/troops-Union-encampment-General-Pittsburg-Landing-Tennessee.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Shiloh April 6, 1862 - April 7, 1862](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Shiloh "Battle of Shiloh") [![American Civil War: Second Battle of Bull Run](https://cdn.britannica.com/33/64933-050-1B0BF38B/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-Robert-E.jpg?w=500&h=500) Second Battle of Bull Run August 29, 1862 - August 30, 1862](https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-1862 "Second Battle of Bull Run") [![Battle of Antietam: Confederate dead](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/5744-050-16A011D3/fence-Confederate-road-photo-Hagerstown-Antietam-Alexander-September-1862.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Antietam September 17, 1862](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Antietam "Battle of Antietam") [![Battle of Fredericksburg](https://cdn.britannica.com/54/184754-050-9BC8DADD/Army-of-the-Potomac-lithograph-Rappahannock-River-Dec-13-1862.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Fredericksburg December 13, 1862](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Fredericksburg "Battle of Fredericksburg") [![Battle of Chancellorsville](https://cdn.britannica.com/66/105366-050-9F44202D/numbers-sites-Battle-of-Chancellorsville-body-detachment.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Chancellorsville April 30, 1863 - May 5, 1863](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Chancellorsville "Battle of Chancellorsville") [![American Civil War: Battle of Gettysburg](https://cdn.britannica.com/94/195094-138-95ED4B74/Battle-of-Gettysburg-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Gettysburg July 1, 1863 - July 3, 1863](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Gettysburg "Battle of Gettysburg") [![Storming Fort Wagner](https://cdn.britannica.com/72/159972-050-7EEE3840/Fort-Wagner-work-Kurz-fort-Allison-July-18-1863.jpg?w=500&h=500) Second Battle of Fort Wagner July 18, 1863](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Second-Battle-of-Fort-Wagner "Second Battle of Fort Wagner") [![Wood engraving depicting the Fort Pillow Massacre.](https://cdn.britannica.com/16/153116-050-864F2724/Wood-engraving-Fort-Pillow-Massacre.jpg?w=500&h=500) Fort Pillow Massacre April 12, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Fort-Pillow-Massacre "Fort Pillow Massacre") [![American Civil War: Atlanta Campaign](https://cdn.britannica.com/77/148677-050-4B9BF99B/Atlanta-Campaign.jpg?w=500&h=500) Atlanta Campaign May 1864 - September 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Atlanta-Campaign "Atlanta Campaign") [![wounded soldiers at the Battle of the Wilderness](https://cdn.britannica.com/16/153216-050-BF6F76D2/James-Gardner-soldiers-field-photographers-Citizen-image-May-20-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of the Wilderness May 5, 1864 - May 7, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Wilderness "Battle of the Wilderness") [![American Civil War: Spotsylvania Court House](https://cdn.britannica.com/97/4397-004-CB24502D/Soldiers-battle-Spotsylvania-Court-House-Virginia-May-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Spotsylvania Court House May 8, 1864 - May 19, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Spotsylvania-Court-House "Battle of Spotsylvania Court House") [![Grant at Cold Harbor](https://cdn.britannica.com/75/70675-050-397011D2/Ulysses-S-Grant-Cold-Harbor-Virginia-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Cold Harbor May 31, 1864 - June 12, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/battle-of-Cold-Harbor "Battle of Cold Harbor") [![Petersburg campaign: ruins of the Richmond & Petersburg Railroad bridge](https://cdn.britannica.com/56/3456-050-B581A70F/Ruins-Richmond-bridge-Petersburg-Railroad-Virginia.jpg?w=500&h=500) Petersburg Campaign June 1864 - April 9, 1865](https://www.britannica.com/event/Petersburg-Campaign "Petersburg Campaign") [![Early, Jubal A.](https://cdn.britannica.com/64/125364-004-1B51E464/Confederate-Jubal-A-Early.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Monocacy July 9, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Monocacy "Battle of Monocacy") [![ruins of an Atlanta depot](https://cdn.britannica.com/68/245768-050-CE0727C9/Ruins-of-the-Atlanta-Ga-depot-July-1864-battle-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Atlanta July 22, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Atlanta "Battle of Atlanta") [![Battle of the Crater](https://cdn.britannica.com/48/254348-050-DCA78194/Battle-of-the-Crater-American-Civil-War.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of the Crater July 30, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Crater-1864 "Battle of the Crater") [![Battle of Mobile Bay](https://cdn.britannica.com/27/146027-050-D7397A9B/Battle-of-Mobile-Bay.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Mobile Bay August 5, 1864 - August 23, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Mobile-Bay "Battle of Mobile Bay") [![William Tecumseh Sherman's March to the Sea during the American Civil War](https://cdn.britannica.com/44/197944-050-AEC084AC/William-Tecumseh-Sherman-troops-campaign-Union-Georgia-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Sherman’s March to the Sea November 15, 1864 - December 21, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shermans-March-to-the-Sea "Sherman’s March to the Sea") [![Nashville, Tennessee](https://cdn.britannica.com/35/2935-050-186D4923/cannon-steps-capitol-photograph-Nashville-Tennessee-George-1864.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Nashville December 15, 1864 - December 16, 1864](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Nashville "Battle of Nashville") [![Battle of Five Forks](https://cdn.britannica.com/18/199518-050-5F298974/Philip-Sheridan-charge-Battle-of-Five-Forks-1886.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Five Forks April 1, 1865](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Five-Forks "Battle of Five Forks") [![Appomattox Court House surrender](https://cdn.britannica.com/43/182243-050-B990D120/Robert-E-Lee-Confederate-illustration-Appomattox-Court-1887.jpg?w=500&h=500) Battle of Appomattox Court House April 9, 1865](https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Appomattox-Court-House "Battle of Appomattox Court House") keyboard\_arrow\_right - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 [![Did anyone in the U.S. government not support the Civil War?](https://cdn.britannica.com/01/141201-138-BC6E80F9/Copperhead-opposition-dissension-Pres-cabinet-rear-Abraham.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop)](https://www.britannica.com/video/Copperhead-opposition-dissension-Pres-cabinet-rear-Abraham/-155036) Did anyone in the U.S. government not support the Civil War?Confronted by Copperhead opposition and by dissension within his cabinet, U.S. Pres. Abraham Lincoln struggled to contain the “fire in the rear” during the Civil War. (more) [See all videos for this article](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/images-videos) To the astonishment of many, Lincoln grew in stature with time and experience, and by 1864 he had become a [consummate](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consummate) politician and war director. Lincoln matured into a remarkably effective president because of his great intelligence, communication skills, humility, sense of purpose, sense of humour, fundamentally moderate nature, and ability to remain focused on the big picture. But he had much to learn at first, especially in strategic and tactical matters and in his choices of army commanders. With an ineffective first secretary of war—[Simon Cameron](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Simon-Cameron)—Lincoln unhesitatingly insinuated himself directly into the planning of military movements. [Edwin M. Stanton](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edwin-M-Stanton), a well-known lawyer appointed to the secretaryship on January 20, 1862, was equally untutored in military affairs, but he was fully as active a participant as his superior. [![George McClellan](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/70667-050-3492DFCE/George-McClellan.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/70667-050-3492DFCE/George-McClellan.jpg) [George McClellan](https://cdn.britannica.com/67/70667-050-3492DFCE/George-McClellan.jpg)Gen. George McClellan. (more) [Winfield Scott](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Winfield-Scott) was the Federal general in chief when Lincoln took office. The 75-year-old Scott—a hero of the [War of 1812](https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-1812) and the [Mexican-American War](https://www.britannica.com/event/Mexican-American-War)—was a magnificent and distinguished soldier whose mind was still [keen](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/keen), but he was physically incapacitated and had to be retired from the service on November 1, 1861. Scott was replaced by young [George B. McClellan](https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-B-McClellan), who was an excellent organizer. McClellan, however, lacked tenacity, persistently overestimated the Confederates’ strength (and therefore stalled his attacks), and was openly disdainful of the president. Because he wanted McClellan to focus his attentions on the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln relieved McClellan as general in chief on March 11, 1862. [Henry W. Halleck](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-W-Halleck), who proved to be a strong administrator but did little in the way of [strategic planning](https://www.britannica.com/money/strategic-planning-organization), succeeded McClellan on July 11 and held the position until he was replaced by [Ulysses S. Grant](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ulysses-S-Grant) on March 9, 1864. Halleck then became chief of staff under Grant in a long-needed [streamlining](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/streamlining) of the Federal high command. Grant served efficaciously as general in chief throughout the remainder of the war. After the initial call by Lincoln and Davis for troops, and as the war lengthened indeterminately, both sides turned to raising massive armies of volunteers. Local citizens of prominence and means would organize regiments that were uniformed and accoutred at first under the aegis of the states and then mustered into the service of the Union and Confederate governments. On each side, the presidents appointed so-called “political generals,” men who had little or no military training or experience but had important political connections (for example, Northern Democrats) or had ties to immigrant [communities](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communities). Although successful politically, most of these appointments did not yield happy military results. As the war dragged on, the two governments had to resort to [conscription](https://www.britannica.com/topic/conscription) to fill the ranks being so swiftly thinned by battle casualties. ## Strategic plans [![Anaconda Plan](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/135862-050-AA2CC9E6/Winfield-Scott-cartoon-map-Anaconda-Plan-1861.jpg?w=300)](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/135862-050-AA2CC9E6/Winfield-Scott-cartoon-map-Anaconda-Plan-1861.jpg) [Anaconda Plan](https://cdn.britannica.com/62/135862-050-AA2CC9E6/Winfield-Scott-cartoon-map-Anaconda-Plan-1861.jpg)An 1861 cartoon map illustrating Gen. Winfield Scott's Anaconda Plan. (more) In the area of [grand strategy](https://www.britannica.com/topic/grand-strategy), Davis persistently adhered to the defensive, permitting only occasional “spoiling” forays into Northern territory. Perhaps the Confederates’ best chance of winning would have been an early grand offensive into the Union states before the Lincoln administration could find its ablest generals and bring the preponderant resources of the North to bear against the South. On the other hand, protecting the territory the Confederacy already controlled was of paramount importance, and a defensive position allowed the rebels to husband their resources somewhat better. To crush the rebellion and reestablish the authority of the Federal government, Lincoln had to direct his blue-clad armies to invade, capture, and hold most of the vital areas of the Confederacy. His grand strategy was based on [Scott](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Winfield-Scott)’s so-called [Anaconda Plan](https://www.britannica.com/event/Anaconda-plan), a design that evolved from strategic ideas discussed in messages between Scott and McClellan on April 27, May 3, and May 21, 1861. It called for a Union blockade of the Confederacy’s coastline as well as a decisive thrust down the [Mississippi River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mississippi-River) and an ensuing strangulation of the South by Federal land and naval forces. But it was to take four years of [grim](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/grim), unrelenting warfare and enormous casualties and devastation before the Confederates could be defeated and the Union preserved. Load Next Page Feedback Thank you for your feedback Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. print Print Please select which sections you would like to print: verifiedCite While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Select Citation Style Hassler, Warren W., Weber, Jennifer L.. "American Civil War". Encyclopedia Britannica, 5 Apr. 2026, https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War. Accessed 9 April 2026. Copy Citation Share Share to social media [Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/) [X](https://x.com/britannica) URL <https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War> External Websites - [New Georgia Encyclopedia - Guerrilla Warfare during the Civil War](https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/guerrilla-warfare-during-the-civil-war/) - [HistoryNet - The American Civil War ï¿½ Facts, Events and Information](https://www.historynet.com/civil-war/) - [The Civil War - The American Civil War](http://www.sonofthesouth.net/American-civil-war.htm) - [Social Studies for Kids - The American Civil War](http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/subjects/civilwar.htm) - [American Battlefield Trust - American Civil War](https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war) - [PBS LearningMedia - Sherman's March](https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/e87c3309-6a33-4f31-9df3-909d1dd86f14/shermans-march/) - [Spartacus Educational - American Civil War](https://spartacus-educational.com/USAcivilwar.htm) - [Social Sci LibreTexts - The Origins and Outbreak of the Civil War](https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_United_States_History_I%3A_OpenStax_$Lumen$/31%3A_Module_15-_The_Civil_War_$18601865$/31.02%3A_The_Origins_and_Outbreak_of_the_Civil_War) - [Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History - The American Civil War](https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/american-civil-war) Britannica Websites Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. - [American Civil War - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)](https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/American-Civil-War/352967) - [American Civil War - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)](https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/American-Civil-War/273689)
Readable Markdown	Top Questions ### What caused the American Civil War? ### Who won the American Civil War? ### How many people died during the Civil War? ### Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War? ### Why are Confederate symbols controversial? ## News • American Civil War, four-year [war](https://www.britannica.com/topic/war) (1861–65) between the [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States) and 11 Southern states that [seceded](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/seceded) from the Union and formed the [Confederate States of America](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America). ## Prelude to war How a tax increase helped spark the American Civil WarIn 1828 the U.S. Congress passed a tariff that increased the rates on imports into the United States to as much as 50%. [See all videos for this article](https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/images-videos) The [secession](https://www.britannica.com/topic/secession) of the Southern states (in chronological order, [South Carolina](https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Carolina/Statehood-Civil-War-and-aftermath#ref78538), [Mississippi](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mississippi-state/History#ref78491), [Florida](https://www.britannica.com/place/Florida/Statehood#ref78369), [Alabama](https://www.britannica.com/place/Alabama-state/The-Civil-War-and-its-aftermath#ref78320), [Georgia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Georgia-state/Slavery-the-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78396), [Louisiana](https://www.britannica.com/place/Louisiana-state/The-19th-century#ref78466), [Texas](https://www.britannica.com/place/Texas-state/Annexation-and-statehood#ref79046), [Virginia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Virginia-state/Independence-and-statehood#ref78585), [Arkansas](https://www.britannica.com/place/Arkansas-state/History#ref281011), [Tennessee](https://www.britannica.com/place/Tennessee/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78561), and [North Carolina](https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Carolina-state/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78514)) in 1860–61 and the ensuing outbreak of armed hostilities were the culmination of decades of growing sectional friction over [slavery](https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology). Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states was rapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture—mostly smaller farms that relied on free labour—remained the dominant sector in the North, industrialization had taken root there. Moreover, Northerners had invested heavily in an expansive and varied transportation system that included canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads; in financial industries such as banking and insurance; and in a large communications network that featured inexpensive, widely available newspapers, magazines, and books, along with the telegraph. By contrast, the Southern economy was based principally on large farms (plantations) that produced commercial crops such as [cotton](https://www.britannica.com/topic/cotton-fibre-and-plant) and that relied on slaves as the main [labour force](https://www.britannica.com/money/labor-in-economics). Rather than [invest](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/invest) in factories or railroads as Northerners had done, Southerners invested their money in slaves—even more than in land; by 1860, 84 percent of the capital invested in manufacturing was invested in the free (nonslaveholding) states. Yet, to Southerners, as late as 1860, this appeared to be a sound business decision. The price of cotton, the South’s defining crop, had skyrocketed in the 1850s, and the value of slaves—who were, after all, property—rose commensurately. By 1860 the per capita wealth of Southern whites was twice that of Northerners, and three-fifths of the wealthiest individuals in the country were Southerners. [1860 presidential campaign](https://cdn.britannica.com/14/149614-050-FB2A42C9/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg)“The Undecided Political Prize Fight,” a lithograph depicting the presidential campaign of 1860 and featuring Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas. The [extension](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/extension) of slavery into new territories and states had been an issue as far back as the [Northwest Ordinance](https://www.britannica.com/event/Northwest-Ordinances) of 1784. When the slave territory of [Missouri](https://www.britannica.com/place/Missouri-state) sought statehood in 1818, Congress debated for two years before arriving upon the [Missouri Compromise](https://www.britannica.com/event/Missouri-Compromise) of 1820. This was the first of a series of political deals that resulted from arguments between pro-slavery and antislavery forces over the expansion of the “peculiar institution,” as it was known, into the West. The end of the [Mexican-American War](https://www.britannica.com/event/Mexican-American-War) in 1848 and the roughly 500,000 square miles (1.3 million square km) of new territory that the United States gained as a result of it added a new sense of urgency to the dispute. More and more Northerners, driven by a sense of [morality](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morality) or an interest in protecting free labour, came to believe, in the 1850s, that bondage needed to be [eradicated](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eradicated). White Southerners feared that limiting the expansion of slavery would consign the institution to certain death. Over the course of the decade, the two sides became increasingly polarized and politicians less able to contain the dispute through compromise. When [Abraham Lincoln](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln), the candidate of the explicitly antislavery [Republican Party](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party), won the [1860 presidential election](https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860), seven Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) carried out their threat and seceded, organizing as the [Confederate States of America](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America). [Fort Sumter](https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg)Confederate forces bombarding Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, in a lithograph by Currier & Ives. In the early morning hours of April 12, 1861, rebels opened fire on [Fort Sumter,](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fort-Sumter-National-Monument) at the entrance to the harbour of [Charleston](https://www.britannica.com/place/Charleston-South-Carolina), South Carolina. Curiously, this first [encounter](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/encounter) of what would be the bloodiest war in the history of the United States claimed no victims. After a 34-hour bombardment, Maj. [Robert Anderson](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Anderson-American-army-officer) surrendered his command of about 85 soldiers to some 5,500 besieging Confederate troops under [P.G.T. Beauregard](https://www.britannica.com/biography/P-G-T-Beauregard). Within weeks, four more Southern states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) left the Union to join the Confederacy. Quick Facts Also called: War Between the States Date: April 12, 1861 - April 26, 1865 (Anniversary in 4 days) [!["The Fifteenth Amendment. Celebrated May 19th, 1870" color lithograph created by Thomas Kelly, 1870. (Reconstruction) At center, a depiction of a parade in celebration of the passing of the 15th Amendment. Framing it are portraits and vignettes...](https://cdn.britannica.com/32/218832-131-7D2208C0/Fifteenth-Amendment-Celebrated-May-19-1879-color-lithograph.jpg) Britannica Quiz Reconstruction Era Quiz](https://www.britannica.com/quiz/reconstruction-era-quiz) With war upon the land, President Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to serve for three months. He proclaimed a [naval blockade](https://www.britannica.com/topic/blockade-warfare) of the Confederate states, although he insisted that they did not legally [constitute](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitute) a [sovereign](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereign) country but were instead states in rebellion. He also directed the secretary of the treasury to advance \$2 million to assist in the raising of troops, and he suspended the [writ of habeas corpus](https://www.britannica.com/topic/habeas-corpus), first along the East Coast and ultimately throughout the country. The Confederate government had previously authorized a call for 100,000 soldiers for at least six months’ service, and this figure was soon increased to 400,000. [AI-generated answers](https://www.britannica.com/about-britannica-ai) from Britannica articles. AI makes mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
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