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1. Shard Calculation

Query:

Response:

Calculated Shard: 53 (from laksa043)

2. Crawled Status Check

Query:

curl -X POST \
  'http://laksa053.int.ahrefs:8124/' \
  -H 'Content-Type: text/plain' \
  -H 'X-ClickHouse-Database: crawler3' \
  -H 'Authorization: Basic YXBpOg==' \
  -d 'SELECT getAhrefsURLFromUnparsed(src_unparsed) AS found_url, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(download_stamp), 0) AS crawl_time, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(props_url_first_seen), 0) AS first_indexed_time, download_http_code AS http_code, src_unparsed AS src_unparsed, src_root_hash AS src_root_hash, history_drop_reason AS history_drop_reason, meta_title AS meta_title, meta_descriptions AS meta_descriptions, attrs_boilerpipe_text AS attrs_boilerpipe_text, attrs_markdown AS attrs_markdown, attrs_readable_markdown AS attrs_readable_markdown, meta_canonical AS meta_canonical FROM crawler3.page_info_local FINAL PREWHERE (src_root_hash, src_unparsed) IN ((getAhrefsRootHashFromUnparsed(getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound\')), getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound\'))) FORMAT JSONEachRow'

Response:

{"found_url":"https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound","crawl_time":1776218518,"first_indexed_time":1629989701,"http_code":200,"src_unparsed":"nl,radiologyassistant!\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound s443","src_root_hash":"17414526498618798453","history_drop_reason":null,"meta_title":"The Radiology Assistant : Normal Values in Pediatric Ultrasound","meta_descriptions":[],"attrs_boilerpipe_text":"Simon Robben, Rick van Rijn and Robin Smithuis\nRadiology Departement of the Maastricht University Hospital, Academical Medical Centre in Amsterdam and the Alrijne hospital in Leiden, the Netherlands\nPublicationdate\n2018-02-09 update 2025-10-27\nThis document provides an overview of normal reference values for ultrasound examinations in neonates and children.\nThe items are in an alphabethic order.\nSelect one of the items listed on the left for details.\nAdrenal\nAppendix\nBladder\nBowel\nCommon Bile Duct\nGalbladder\nHip\nKidney\nLiver\nMesenteric lymph nodes\nOvary\nPancreas\nPortal vein\nSpleen\nSubarachnoid space\nTesticle\nThymus\nThyroid gland\nUterus\nVentricles\nAdrenal\nAdapted from reference 21\nMaterials and Methods\nAn ultrasonographic study was performed in 92 infants.\nMeasurements\nLength (L):\n Defined as the maximum cephalocaudal dimension of the adrenal gland, measured in either the coronal or sagittal plane.\nWidth (w):\n Defined as the maximum thickness of one of the limbs.\nCauses of Adrenal Enlargement\nCongenital adrenal hyperplasia\nAdrenal hemorrhage\nAdrenal neuroblastoma\nAppendix\nAdapted from reference 14\nMaterials and Methods\nAn ultrasonographic study was conducted in 146 consecutive patients (62 boys and 84 girls; mean age, 7 years; age range, 2–15 years).\nExclusion criteria\nCystic fibrosis\nAcute abdominal pain\nPrevious appendectomy\nAge <2 years (due to difficulty in performing the examination)\nThe appendix was successfully visualized in 120 children.\nCauses of Appendiceal Enlargement\nAcute appendicitis\nCystic fibrosis\nLymphoid hypertrophy (due to immune deficiency or viral enteritis)\nIntraluminal gas, mucus, or fecal material\nMucocele\nBladder\nAdapted from reference 17\nBladder volume\nMaterials and Methods\nA total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study.\nNote: The total number of patients listed in the results tables may differ, as not all age subgroups were represented.\nMeasurement Technique\nLength (L):\n Measured on a longitudinal scan from the bladder neck to the fundus.\nDepth (D):\n Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal plane at the level of maximum cross-sectional area, from the anterior to posterior mucosal surface in the midline.\nWidth (W):\n Measured perpendicular to D at its midpoint.\nBladder Volume Calculation\nBladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:\nVolume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523\nAdapted from reference 17\nBladder wall thickness\nMaterials and Methods\nA total of 3,376 children were included.\nBladder wall thickness was measured only when the residual bladder volume was <10% of the pre-voided volume.\nMeasurement Technique\nThe bladder wall was evaluated on a zoomed transverse image of the emptied bladder.\nMeasurements were taken at three sites:\nAnterolateral\nLateral\nPosterolateral\nThe mean of these three measurements was used for analysis.\nBladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWTI)\n \nBladder wall thickness depends on the degree of bladder filling and bladder capacity.\nTherefore, it is expressed as the Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWI).\nIt helps normalize bladder wall measurements across different degrees of bladder distension and improves diagnostic accuracy for lower urinary tract abnormalities, especially in children.\nCauses of Bladder Wall Thickening\nCystitis\nDysfunctional voiding\nPosterior urethral valves\nBowel\nAdapted from reference 13\nMaterials and Methods\nThe study population consisted of 128 patients (57 males and 71 females). Of these, 86 individuals were aged between 1 and 19 years (only data pertaining to this subgroup are presented).\nBowel wall thickness\nwas measured on transverse ultrasound sections and included the following histologic layers: mucosa, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, submucosa, and muscularis propria.\nUltrasonographic example\nMeasurement of the terminal ileum wall thickness in a 12-year-old male patient with cystic fibrosis.\nCommon causes of small bowel wall thickening include:\nHenoch–Schönlein purpura\nCrohn’s disease\nLymphoma\nAdapted from reference 13\nIn the same study, colonic wall thickness was also measured.\nCommon causes of colonic wall thickening include:\nInflammatory bowel disease (IBD)\nHemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS)\nPseudomembranous colitis\nCommon Bile Duct\nAdapted from reference 8\nMaterials and Methods\nA total of 173 consecutive pediatric patients (100 boys and 73 girls) referred for abdominal ultrasonography unrelated to hepatobiliary pathology were included. The age range was 1 day to 13 years (median 5.0 years).\nIn all subjects, the diameter of the common bile duct measured ≤ 3.3 mm.\nImage\nTransverse ultrasonographic image of the common bile duct and surrounding anatomy.\nGalbladder\nAdapted from reference 10\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic gallbladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:\nVolume = length × width × height × 0.52\nThe study included 50 preterm infants (mean gestational age 31.7 ± 2.5 weeks, mean birth weight 1556 ± 441 g) and 46 term infants (mean gestational age 38.3 ± 1.2 weeks, mean birth weight 3253 ± 440 g).\nMeasurements were obtained shortly after birth, following 6 hours of fasting, and again at 5–7 days of age after 3-hour and 6-hour fasting intervals following regular milk feeding.\nCommon causes of a small gallbladder include:\nBiliary atresia\nPostprandial (after fatty meal) contraction\nHip\nAdapted from reference 22\nAnterior recess\nMaterials and Methods\nAn ultrasonographic study was performed in 58 healthy children and 105 children with unilateral transient synovitis, aged 1.7–12.8 years. \nAdapted from reference 22\nAll examinations were performed with the patient in the supine position and the hips in a neutral position.\nThe anterior joint capsule was measured, including both its anterior and posterior layers. The anterior contour of the joint capsule was also evaluated.\nNo statistically significant correlation was found between age and anterior joint capsule thickness.\nA difference greater than 2 mm between sides or an effusion >2 mm was considered abnormal.\nShape of the border of the anterior joint capsule\nThe anterior contour of the joint capsule can be evaluated.\nUltrasonographic measurement of the anterior joint capsule.\nBoth anterior (a) and posterior (p) layer can be identified.\nCommon causes of hip joint effusion include:\nTransient synovitis\nSeptic arthritis\nJuvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA)\nAdapted from reference 23\nDevelopmental Dysplasia of the Hip (Graf’s Classification)\nType I:\n Mature, centered hip joint with a well-developed acetabular roof and an angular or slightly blunt bony rim.\nType II:\n Centered hip joint with a deficiently developed acetabular roof and a rounded bony rim.\nType III:\n Decentered hip joint with a poorly developed acetabular roof and a flattened bony rim.\nClick\nhere\nfor article on Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip.\nUltrasonographic parameters:\nCoronal plane view of the hip joint\nMeasurement of the \nα (alpha) angle\nKidney\nAdapted from reference 6\nPreterm and Term Babies\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic evaluation was performed in 261 healthy newborn infants.\nThe craniocaudal dimension of each kidney was measured using standard ultrasonography.\nUltrasonographic measurement of the length of a neonatal kidney.\nIn neonates, the renal parenchyma is typically more echogenic than the liver parenchyma, which is a normal finding at this age.\nAdapted from reference 16\nChildren\nMaterials and Methods\nThe study included 203 pediatric patients. Exclusion criteria included a history of malignancy, steroid use, upper urinary tract abnormalities, vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) greater than grade I, urologic surgery, or abnormal renal sonographic findings.\nOn average, the left kidney measured 1.9 mm longer than the right.\nCommon causes of renal enlargement include:\nDuplicated collecting system\nNephritis (infectious and non-infectious)\nLeukemia or lymphoma\nAutosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD)\nUltrasonographic measurement of the length of a kidney.\nAdapted from reference 17\nRenal volume\nMaterials and Methods\nA total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study.\nRenal volume\n was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:\nVolume = Length × Width × Depth × 0.523\nThe total renal volume was determined by summing the right and left kidney volumes.\nThe reported values represent the average of both kidneys.\nAdapted from reference 18\nThickness of the wall of the collecting system\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic examination of 48 renal collecting systems in 24 healthy children (aged 3 days–12.6 years) was performed.\nThe wall of the collecting system was identifiable in all kidneys, ranging from 0 (not visible) to 0.8 mm in thickness.\nA wall thickness ≥ 1 mm was considered abnormal.\nCommon causes of collecting system wall thickening include:\nUrinary tract infection (UTI)\nIntermittent dilatation (e.g., vesicoureteral reflux)\nRecent or resolved dilatation\nLiver\nThe craniocaudal dimension of the liver is measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography.\nCauses of hepatomegaly include:\nLeukemia\nStorage diseases (e.g., glycogen storage disorders)\nNeonatal hepatitis\nAdapted from reference 6\nNewborns\nMaterials and Methods\nIn newborns (n = 261), the craniocaudal dimension of the liver was measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography.\nAdapted from reference 7\nChildren\nMaterial and methods\nUS study in 307 healthy children.\nDoppler parameters\nMaterials and Method\nAn additional study of 100 healthy children (age range 0–17.9 years, median 7.8 years) established reference values for:\nPortal vein peak systolic velocity\nHepatic artery peak systolic velocity\nHepatic artery resistive index (RI)\n (\nreference\n).\nFindings:\nPortal vein velocity was not age-independent\nHepatic artery velocity and RI decreased with increasing age\nMesenteric lymph nodes\nAdapted from reference 15\nMaterials and Methods\nThis retrospective study included 61 children (36 boys, 25 girls; mean age 10.7 years, range 1.1–17.3 years) who underwent non-contrast abdominal CT for evaluation of suspected or confirmed renal stones. Lymph node size was evaluated on these images, and findings were extrapolated to ultrasonographic reference values.\nFindings:\nEnlarged mesenteric lymph nodes (short-axis diameter > 5 mm) were observed in 33 of 61 children (54%), predominantly in the right lower quadrant (88%).\nBased on these results, a short-axis diameter > 8 mm may represent a more accurate threshold for pediatric mesenteric lymphadenopathy.\nFalse-positive rate for enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes with varying lymph node threshold size is seen in the table.\nCommon pathological causes of enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes include\nIntestinal lymphoma\nLymphogenic metastasis\nSpecific infectious enteritis (e.g., tuberculosis)\nOvary\nAdapted from reference 20\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls.\nCommon causes of ovarian enlargement include:\nPrecocious puberty\nOvarian torsion\nPolycystic ovarian disease\nTeratoma or dermoid cyst\nOvarian volume is calculated using the formula:\nLength x Width x Height x 0.523.\nPancreas\nAdapted from reference 12\nMaterials and Methods\nThis retrospective ultrasonographic study included 273 pediatric patients (sex distribution not specified).\nEchogenicity findings:\nLow echogenicity in 27 cases (10%)\nIsoechoic in 145 cases (53%)\nIncreased echogenicity in 101 cases (37%)\nThe maximum anteroposterior (AP) diameters of the head, body, and tail of the pancreas were measured on transverse or oblique ultrasound images.\nCommon causes of pancreatic enlargement include:\nTraumatic pancreatitis\nViral pancreatitis\nDrug-induced pancreatitis\nPortal vein\nAdapted from reference 9\nMaterials and Methods\nA study was conducted in 150 children aged 0–16 years without clinical evidence of hepatic or intestinal disease who underwent abdominal ultrasonography.\nMeasurement of portal vein diameter\nThe portal vein was visualized in the longitudinal plane from the splenomesenteric junction to the hepatic hilum.\nThe maximum anteroposterior diameter was measured at the point where the hepatic artery crosses the portal vein.\nSpleen\nAdapted from reference 6\nPreterm and term babies\nMaterial and methods\nUS study in 261 healthy newborn infants.\nCraniocaudal dimension of the spleen was determined with ultrasonography.\nAdapted from reference 11\nChildren\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic examination included 512 healthy children (238 boys, 274 girls; age range 1 day to 17 years) and 96 preterm infants (gestational age 25–35 weeks).\nNone of the subjects had medical conditions affecting spleen size.\nCommon causes of splenomegaly include:\nPortal hypertension\nLeukemia\nSystemic infections (e.g., Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus)\nHematologic disorders (e.g., spherocytosis, thalassemia)\nStorage diseases\nMeasurement\nSpleen length was defined as the maximal distance between the most superomedial and inferolateral points on a longitudinal coronal view, ideally through the splenic hilum.\nSubarachnoid space\nAdapted from reference 5\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic assessment of the subarachnoid space was performed in 278 full-term healthy Chinese infants.\nMeasurements were taken in the coronal plane at the level of the foramen of Monro.\nMean values were derived from regression equations, and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from the published data.\nUltrasonographic parameters\nSCW: Sinu-cortical width\nCCW: Cranio-cortical width\nIHW: Interhemispheric width\nCommon causes of subarachnoid space enlargement include\nBenign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces of infancy (BESSI)\nCerebral atrophy\nDural sinus thrombosis\nTesticle\nAdapted from reference 19\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic measurements were obtained from 344 boys of various ethnic backgrounds.\nNo significant differences were noted between ethnicities or between the right and left testes.\nCommon causes of testicular enlargement include\nLeukemia\nPrecocious puberty\nTesticular torsion\nEpididymo-orchitis\nTesticular volume\n was calculated using the formula:\nLength × Width × Height × 0.523\nThymus\nAdapted from reference 22\nMaterials and Methods\nMediastinal ultrasonography was performed in 151 healthy infants (79 boys and 72 girls) with no stress-related factorsaffecting thymic size.\nCommon causes of thymic enlargement include:\nRebound thymic hyperplasia\nT-cell lymphoma or leukemia\nThymoma\nLangerhans cell histiocytosis\nMeasurements included\nMaximum transverse diameter\nRight and left lobe anteroposterior diameters\nCraniocaudal (longitudinal) length\nThe \nthymic index\n was calculated as:\nTransverse diameter × largest sagittal area\nThyroid gland\nAdapted from reference 1-3\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic evaluation of thyroid volume was conducted in:\n100 English neonates (within the first week of life)\nA subset of iodine-sufficient European children (n = 5,709, aged 6–15 years)\nA group of German children (n = 252, aged 2–4 years)\nCommon causes of thyroid enlargement include\nHashimoto’s thyroiditis\nGraves’ disease\nMultinodular goiter\nThyroid volume was calculated as the sum of both lobes, excluding the isthmus.\nThe \nellipsoid formula\n was used:\nVolume = Length × Width × Height × 0.52\nUterus\nAdapted from reference 20\nMaterials and Methods\nUltrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls.\nCommon causes of uterine enlargement include\nPrecocious puberty\nHydro- or hematometrocolpos\nUterine volume\n was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:\nLength × Width × Height × 0.523\nVentricles\nAdapted from reference 4\nMaterials and Methods\nAn ultrasonographic study was performed in 1,483 neonates (gestational age 25–42 weeks) examined on day 3 of life.\nInfants with perinatal asphyxia, CNS infection, intracranial hemorrhage, or craniospinal malformations were excluded.\nCommon causes of ventriculomegaly include\nCongenital malformations (e.g., holoprosencephaly)\nObstructive hydrocephalus\nCommunicating hydrocephalus\nCerebral atrophy\nMeasurements\nAnterior horn width (AHW)\nVentriculohemispheric ratio (VHR)\nMeasured on coronal images at the level of the foramen of Monro.","attrs_markdown":"[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/logo.png)](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n\n- [Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen)\n  ### [Acute Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen)\n  - [Appendicitis and Mimics](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/appendicitis-and-mimics)\n  - [Appendicitis - US findings](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/appendicitis-us-findings)\n  - [Appendicitis - Pitfalls in US and CT diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/appendicitis-pitfalls-in-us-and-ct-diagnosis)\n  - [CT in Abdominal Trauma](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/ct-in-trauma)\n  - [Practical approach to Acute Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/practical-approach-to-acute-abdomen)\n  \n  ### [Anal cancer](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/anal-cancer-2)\n  - [Anal cancer staging](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/anal-cancer-2\/anal)\n  \n  ### [Abdominal wall](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/abdomen-1)\n  - [Abdominal wall hernias](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/abdomen-1\/abdominal-wall-hernias)\n  \n  ### [Adrenals](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/adrenals)\n  - [Characterization of Adrenal lesions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/adrenals\/lesion-characterization)\n  - [Characterization of Adrenal lesions 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/adrenals\/lesion-characterization-1)\n  \n  ### [Aorta](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/aorta)\n  - [Aortic Aneurysm Rupture](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/aorta\/aneurysm-rupture)\n  \n  ### [Biliary system](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/biliary-system)\n  - [Gallbladder obstruction](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/biliary-system\/lk-jg)\n  - [Biliary duct pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/biliary-system\/biliary-duct-pathology)\n  - [Gallbladder wall thickening](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/biliary-system\/gallbladder-wall-thickening)\n  \n  ### [Bladder](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bladder)\n  - [Bladder Cancer - VI-RADS](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bladder\/bladder-cancer-vi-rads)\n  \n  ### [Bowel](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel)\n  - [Bowel Ischemia - Video Lectures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/bowel-ischemia)\n  - [CT-pattern of Bowel wall thickening](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/bowel-wall-thickening-ct-pattern)\n  - [Closed Loop in Small bowel obstruction](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/closed-loop-in-small-bowel-obstruction)\n  - [Closed Loop Obstruction with video](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/closed-loop-obstruction-with-video)\n  - [Crohn's disease - role of MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/crohn-s-disease)\n  - [Crohn's disease - role of Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/ultrasound-in-crohns-disease)\n  - [Small Bowel Tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/small-bowel-tumors)\n  - [Sharp foreign bodies in GI tract](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/sharp-foreign-bodies-in-gi-tract)\n  \n  ### [Chest radiology for Abdominal radiologists](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/chest-radiology-for-abdominal-radiologists)\n  - [Thoracic Ultrasound in Acute Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/chest-radiology-for-abdominal-radiologists\/chest-radiology-for-abdominal-radiologists)\n  \n  ### [Gynaecology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted)\n  - [Acute Abdomen in Gynaecology - Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/us-of-acute-gynaecology)\n  - [Endometriosis - MRI detection](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/endometriosis-mri-detection)\n  - [Cervical Cancer - MR staging](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/mr-in-cervical-cancer-1)\n  - [Endometrial Cancer - MR staging](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/mr-in-endometrial-cancer)\n  - [Müllerian duct anomalies](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/mullerian-duct-anomalies)\n  - [Ovarian cystic lesions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/common-ovarian-cystic-lesions)\n  - [Roadmap to evaluate ovarian cysts](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/roadmap-to-evaluate-ovarian-cysts)\n  - [Ovarian cystic lesions.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/common-ovarian-cystic-lesions-1)\n  \n  ### [Kidney](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/kidney)\n  - [Bosniak Classification 2019](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/kidney\/bozniak-2019)\n  - [Solid Renal Masses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/kidney\/solid-masses)\n  \n  ### [Liver](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver)\n  - [Characterisation of liver masses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/characterisation-of-liver-masses)\n  - [Common Liver Tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/common-liver-tumors)\n  - [Incidentalomas in the liver](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/incidentalomas)\n  - [Liver - Segmental Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/segmental-anatomy)\n  - [LI-RADS](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/li-rads)\n  \n  ### [Ovarium](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ovarium)\n  - [Roadmap to evaluate ovarian cysts.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ovarium\/roadmap-to-evaluate-ovarian-cysts-1)\n  \n  ### [Pancreas](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/pancreas)\n  - [Acute Pancreatitis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/pancreas\/acute-pancreatitis)\n  - [Pancreatic Cancer - CT staging 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/pancreas\/pancreas-carcinoma-1)\n  - [Pancreatic cystic Lesions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/pancreas\/pancreas-cystic-lesions)\n  \n  ### [Peritoneum](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/peritoneum)\n  - [Anatomy of Peritoneum and Mesentery](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/peritoneum\/anatomy-of-peritoneum-and-mesentery)\n  - [Peritoneal Carcinomatosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/peritoneum\/peritoneal-carcinomatosis)\n  - [Peritoneal Pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/peritoneum\/peritoneal-pathology)\n  \n  ### [Prostate](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/prostate)\n  - [Prostate Cancer - PI-RADS v2.1](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/prostate\/prostate-cancer-pi-rads-v2-1)\n  - [Prostate Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/prostate\/prostate-cancer-pi-rads-v2-1-1)\n  \n  ### [Rectum](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/rectum)\n  - [Rectal Cancer MR staging and restaging- update 2026](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/rectum\/rectal-cancer-mr-staging-1-1)\n  - [Perianal Fistulas](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/rectum\/perianal-fistulas)\n  - [Dynamic Rectal examination](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/rectum\/dynamic-rectal-examination)\n  \n  ### [Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound)\n  - [Transvaginal Ultrasound for Non-Gynaecological Conditions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound\/transvaginal-ultrasound-for-non-gynaecological-conditions)\n  - [Ultrasound in Acute Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound\/role-of-ultrasound-in-acute-abdomen)\n  - [US of the GI tract - Technique](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound\/lk-jg-1-1-1)\n  - [US of the GI tract - Normal Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound\/lk-jg-1-1)\n- [Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast)\n  ### [BI-RADS](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/bi-rads)\n  - [Bi-RADS for Mammography and Ultrasound 2013](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/bi-rads\/bi-rads-for-mammography-and-ultrasound-2013)\n  \n  ### [Calcifications](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/calcifications)\n  - [Differential of Breast Calcifications](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/calcifications\/differential-of-breast-calcifications)\n  \n  ### [Breast Cancer](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/breast-cancer)\n  - [Staging and Treatment of Breast Cancer](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/breast-cancer\/staging-and-treatment-of-breast-cancer)\n  \n  ### [Breast Prosthesis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/breast-prosthesis)\n  - [Breast Implants](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/breast-prosthesis\/breast-prosthesis-imaging)\n  \n  ### [Male Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/male-breast)\n  - [Pathology of the Male Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/male-breast\/pathology-of-the-male-breast)\n  \n  ### [MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/mri)\n  - [MRI of the Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/mri\/mri-of-the-breast)\n  \n  ### [Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/ultrasound)\n  - [Ultrasound of the Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/ultrasound\/ultrasound-of-the-breast)\n- [Cardiovascular](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular)\n  ### [Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/anatomy)\n  - [Cardiac Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/anatomy\/cardiac-anatomy)\n  - [Coronary anatomy and anomalies](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/anatomy\/coronary-anatomy-and-anomalies)\n  \n  ### [CAD-RADS](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/cad-rads)\n  - [Coronary Artery Disease-Reporting and Data System 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/cad-rads\/coronary-artery-disease-reporting-and-data-system)\n  \n  ### [Cardiomyopathy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/cardiomyopathy)\n  - [Ischemic and non-ischemic cardiomyopathy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/cardiomyopathy\/ischemic-and-non-ischemic-cardiomyopathy)\n  \n  ### [Devices](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/devices)\n  - [Cardiovascular devices](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/devices\/cardiovascular-devices)\n  \n  ### [Peripheral MRA](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/peripheral-mra)\n  - [Contrast-enhanced MRA of peripheral vessels](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/peripheral-mra\/contrast-enhanced-mra-of-peripheral-vessels)\n  \n  ### [Pearls...](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/pearls)\n  - [Cardiovascular Pearls on Chest CT...](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/pearls\/cardiovascular-pearls-on-chest-ct)\n  \n  ### [Pulmonary Hypertension](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/thoracic-aorta-1)\n  - [Pulmonary Hypertension and Thromboembolic disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/thoracic-aorta-1\/acute-aortic-syndrome-1)\n  \n  ### [Thoracic Aorta](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/thoracic-aorta)\n  - [Acute Aortic Syndrome](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/thoracic-aorta\/acute-aortic-syndrome)\n  - [Vascular Anomalies of Aorta, Pulmonary and Systemic vessels](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/thoracic-aorta\/vascular-anomalies-of-aorta-pulmonary-and-systemic-vessels)\n- [Chest](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest)\n  ### [Airways](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/airways)\n  - [Large airway disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/airways\/large-airway-disease)\n  \n  ### [Chest X-Ray](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/chest-x-ray)\n  - [Chest X-Ray - Basic Interpretation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/chest-x-ray\/basic-interpretation)\n  - [Chest X-Ray - Heart Failure](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/chest-x-ray\/heart-failure)\n  - [Chest X-Ray - Lung disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/chest-x-ray\/lung-disease)\n  \n  ### [COVID-19](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19)\n  - [COVID-19 Imaging findings](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19\/covid19-imaging-findings)\n  - [COVID-19 Differential Diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19\/covid-19-differential-diagnosis)\n  - [COVID-19 CO-RADS classification](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19\/corads-classification)\n  - [32 cases of suspected COVID-19](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19\/ct-findings-in-patients)\n  \n  ### [Cystic Lung Disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/cystic-lung-disease)\n  - [Cystic Lung Disease - Differential diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/cystic-lung-disease\/analysis-of-cystic-lung-disease-1-1-1)\n  \n  ### [Esophagus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/esophagus)\n  - [Esophagus I: anatomy, rings, inflammation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/esophagus\/esophagus-i-anatomy-rings-inflammation)\n  - [Esophagus II: Strictures, Acute syndromes, Neoplasms and Vascular impressions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/esophagus\/esophagus-ii-strictures-acute-syndromes-neoplasms-and-vascular-impressions)\n  \n  ### [HRCT](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/hrct)\n  - [HRCT - Basic Interpretation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/hrct\/basic-interpretation)\n  - [HRCT - Common diagnoses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/hrct\/common-diseases)\n  - [HRCT – Patterns of pulmonary fibrosis in ILD](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/hrct\/fibrosis-of-the-lung-on-hrct-imaging)\n  \n  ### [Lung anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/lung-anatomy)\n  - [Lung Segments and Bronchi](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/lung-anatomy\/lung-segments)\n  \n  ### [Lung Cancer](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/lung-cancer)\n  - [TNM classification 9ᵗʰ edition](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/lung-cancer\/tnm-classification-8th-edition-1)\n  - [Cystic Lung Cancer](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/lung-cancer\/cystic-lung-cancer)\n  \n  ### [Mediastinum](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/mediastinum)\n  - [Mediastinal Lymph Node Map](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/mediastinum\/mediastinum-lymph-node-map)\n  - [Mediastinal Masses - differential diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/mediastinum\/masses-differential-diagnosis)\n  \n  ### [Pearls](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/pearls)\n  - [Cardiovascular Pearls on Chest CT.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/pearls\/cardiovascular-pearls-on-chest-ct-2)\n  \n  ### [Pulmonary nodules](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/plumonary-nodules)\n  - [BTS guideline of pulmonary nodules](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/plumonary-nodules\/bts-guideline)\n  - [Fleischner 2017 guideline](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/plumonary-nodules\/fleischner-2017-guideline)\n  \n  ### [Solitary Pulmonary Nodule](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/solitary-pulmonary-nodule)\n  - [Pulmonary nodule - Benign versus Malignant](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/solitary-pulmonary-nodule\/benign-versus-malignant)\n  \n  ### [Tuberculosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/tb)\n  - [Imaging findings in TB](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/tb\/tuberculosis)\n  \n  ### [Thymus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/thymus)\n  - [Thymic masses and mimics](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/thymus\/thymus)\n- [Head\/Neck](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck)\n  ### [Cervical Nodes](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/cervical-node-mapping)\n  - [Cervical Lymph Node Map](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/cervical-node-mapping\/cervical-node-map)\n  \n  ### [Esophagus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/esophagus-1)\n  - [Esophagus I: anatomy, rings, inflammation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/esophagus-1\/esophagus-i-anatomy-rings-inflammation-1)\n  - [Esophagus II: Strictures, Acute syndromes, Neoplasms and Vascular impressions.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/esophagus-1\/esophagus-ii-strictures-acute-syndromes-neoplasms-and-vascular-impressions-1)\n  \n  ### [Infra- and suprahyoid neck](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/infrahyoid-neck)\n  - [Anatomy and Pathology of the Infrahyoid Neck](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/infrahyoid-neck\/anatomy-and-pathology)\n  \n  ### [Tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/neck-masses)\n  - [Neck Masses in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/neck-masses\/neck-masses-in-children)\n  - [Head Neck tumors - When to think of malignancy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/neck-masses\/head-neck-tumors)\n  \n  ### [Orbita](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/orbita)\n  - [CT and MRI of the Eye](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/orbita\/pathology)\n  \n  ### [Paranasal Sinuses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/paranasal-sinuses)\n  - [MRI of the Paranasal Sinuses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/paranasal-sinuses\/mri-examination)\n  \n  ### [Swallowing](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/swallowing)\n  - [Swallowing disorders update](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/swallowing\/swallowing-disorders-update)\n  \n  ### [Temporal Bone](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/temporal-bone)\n  - [Temporal Bone Anatomy 1.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/temporal-bone\/anatomy)\n  - [Temporal Bone Anatomy 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/temporal-bone\/anatomy-2-0)\n  - [Temporal Bone Pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/temporal-bone\/pathology)\n  \n  ### [Tinnitus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/tinnitus)\n  - [Pulsatile and non-pulsatile tinnitus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/tinnitus\/pulsatile-and-non-pulsatile-tinnitus)\n  \n  ### [TI-RADS](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/ti-rads)\n  - [TI-RADS - Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/ti-rads\/ti-rads)\n  \n  ### [Trigeminus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/trigeminus)\n  - [Trigeminal neuralgia](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/trigeminus\/trigeminal-neuralgia-and-neuropathy)\n- [Musculoskeletal](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal)\n  ### [Ankle](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle)\n  - [Ankle Fracture Mechanism and Radiography](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/fracture-mechanism-and-radiography)\n  - [Algoritm for Ankle Fractures 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/fractures-video-lesson-1)\n  - [Ankle fractures - Weber and Lauge-Hansen Classification](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/weber-and-lauge-hansen-classification)\n  - [Special Ankle Fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/special-fracture-cases)\n  - [MRI examination of the ankle](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/mri-examination)\n  \n  ### [Arthritis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/arthritis)\n  - [Arthritis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/arthritis\/fractures-video-lesson)\n  \n  ### [Bone Tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors)\n  - [Bone tumors in alphabetical order](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/alphabetical-order)\n  - [Bone tumors - Differential diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/differential-diagnosis)\n  - [Osteolytic - ill defined bone tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/osteolytic-ill-defined)\n  - [Osteolytic - well defined bone tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/osteolytic-well-defined)\n  - [Sclerotic bone tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/sclerotic-tumors)\n  - [Cartilage tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/chondrotumors-1)\n  \n  ### [Cases - pearls in radiology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist-1)\n  - [Foot and Ankle cases](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist-1\/foot)\n  \n  ### [Diabetic foot](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/diabetic-foot)\n  - [MRI examination](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/diabetic-foot\/mri-examination)\n  \n  ### [Elbow](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/elbow)\n  - [MRI examination of the Elbow](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/elbow\/mri-examination)\n  - [Elbow fractures in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/elbow\/fractures-in-children)\n  \n  ### [Hip](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/hip)\n  - [Arthroplasty of the Hip](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/hip\/arthroplasty)\n  - [Femoroacetabular impingement syndrome](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/hip\/femoroacetabular-impingement-syndrome)\n  \n  ### [Knee](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/knee)\n  - [Meniscal pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/knee\/meniscal-pathology)\n  - [Non-Meniscal pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/knee\/non-meniscal-pathology)\n  - [Meniscus special cases](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/knee\/meniscus-special-cases)\n  \n  ### [Muscle](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/muscle)\n  - [MRI traumatic changes](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/muscle\/mri-traumatic-changes)\n  - [Non-traumatic changes](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/muscle\/non-traumatic-changes)\n  - [Hamstring injury](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/muscle\/hamstring-injury)\n  \n  ### [Shoulder](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder)\n  - [Shoulder Anatomy and Variants on MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder\/mri-anatomy)\n  - [Shoulder instability - MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder\/instability)\n  - [Shoulder Rotator cuff injury](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder\/rotator-cuff-injury)\n  - [Shoulder Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder\/shoulder-ultrasound)\n  \n  ### [Spine](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/spine)\n  - [Spine fractures - TLICS Classification](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/spine\/tlics-classification-1)\n  - [AO Spine Classification of Thoracolumbar Fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/spine\/ao-classification)\n  \n  ### [Stress fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/unsorted)\n  - [Stress fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/unsorted\/stress-fractures)\n  \n  ### [Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ultrasound)\n  - [US-guided injection of joints](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ultrasound\/us-guided-injection-of-joints)\n  \n  ### [Wrist](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist)\n  - [Carpal instability](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist\/carpal-instability)\n  - [Fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist\/fractures)\n  - [...](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist\/foot-1)\n- [Neuroradiology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology)\n  ### [Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain)\n  - [Brain Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain\/anatomy)\n  \n  ### [Brain Ischemia](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain-ischemia)\n  - [Imaging in Acute Stroke](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain-ischemia\/imaging-in-acute-stroke)\n  - [Vascular territories of the Brain](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain-ischemia\/vascular-territories)\n  \n  ### [Brain Tumor](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain-tumor)\n  - [Systematic Approach to Brain Tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain-tumor\/systematic-approach)\n  \n  ### [Carotid Pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/carotid-pathology)\n  - [How to Differentiate Carotid Obstructions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/carotid-pathology\/differentiating-carotid-pathology)\n  \n  ### [Dementia](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/dementia)\n  - [Dementia - Role of MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/dementia\/role-of-mri)\n  \n  ### [Enhancement Patterns](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/enhancement-patterns)\n  - [Enhancement Patterns in CNS disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/enhancement-patterns\/enhancement-patterns-in-cns-diseases)\n  \n  ### [Epilepsy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/epilepsy)\n  - [Epilepsy - Role of MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/epilepsy\/role-of-mri)\n  \n  ### [Hemorrhage](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/hemorrhage)\n  - [Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/hemorrhage\/traumatic-intracranial-haemorrhage)\n  - [Non-traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/hemorrhage\/non-traumatic-intracranial-hemorrhage)\n  \n  ### [Multiple Sclerosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/multiple-sclerosis)\n  - [Multiple Sclerosis 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/multiple-sclerosis\/diagnosis-and-differential-diagnosis-3)\n  \n  ### [Sella Turcica](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/sella-turcica)\n  - [Sella Turcica and Parasellar Region](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/sella-turcica\/sella-turcica-and-parasellar-region)\n  \n  ### [Sinus Thrombosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/sinus-thrombosis)\n  - [Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/sinus-thrombosis\/cerebral-venous-thrombosis)\n  \n  ### [Spine](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine)\n  - [Cervical injury](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/cervical-injury)\n  - [Lumbar Disc Herniation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/lumbar-disc-herniation)\n  - [Lumbar Disc Nomenclature 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/lumbar-disc-nomenclature-2-0)\n  - [Myelopathy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/myelopathy)\n  - [Thoracolumbar injury](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/thoracolumbar-injury)\n  - [TLICS Classification of fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/tlics-classification)\n  \n  ### [Intracranial Hypotension](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/white-matter-disease-1)\n  - [Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/white-matter-disease-1\/spontaneous-intracranial-hypotension)\n- [Pediatrics](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics)\n  ### [Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses)\n  - [Acute Abdomen in Neonates](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/acute-abdomen-in-neonates)\n  - [Cystic Abdominal Masses in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/cystic-abdominal-masses-in-children)\n  - [Solid Abdominal Masses in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/malignant-abdominal-tumors-in-children)\n  - [Renal Tumors in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/renal-tumors-in-children)\n  - [Acute Scrotum in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/acute-scrotum-in-children)\n  - [Lines and tubes in Neonates](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/lines-and-tubes-in-neonates)\n  - [Necrotizing Enterocolitis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/necrotizing-enterocolitis)\n  \n  ### [Chest](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/pediatric-chest-ct)\n  - [Nonvascular Mediastinal Masses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/pediatric-chest-ct\/nonvascular-mediastinal-masses)\n  - [Neonatal Chest X-Ray](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/pediatric-chest-ct\/neonatal-chest)\n  - [Pediatric Chest CT 2](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/pediatric-chest-ct\/pediatric-chest-ct-2)\n  \n  ### [Child Abuse](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/child-abuse)\n  - [Child abuse - Diagnostic Imaging 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/child-abuse\/diagnostic-imaging-in-child-abuse)\n  \n  ### [Head\/neck](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/head-neck)\n  - [Neck Masses in Children.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/head-neck\/neck-masses-in-children-1)\n  - [Craniosynostosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/head-neck\/craniosynosthosis)\n  \n  ### [Musculoskeletal](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/hip)\n  - [Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/hip\/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip-ultrasound)\n  - [Elbow fractures in Children.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/hip\/fractures-in-children-1)\n  - [Hip pathology in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/hip\/hip-pathology-in-children)\n  \n  ### [Neuro](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/spine)\n  - [Neonatal Brain US](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/spine\/neonatal-brain-us)\n  - [Ultrasound of the Neonatal spine](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/spine\/ultrasound-of-the-neonatal-spine)\n  \n  ### [Normal values](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values)\n  - [Normal Values in Pediatric Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound)\n- [More](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more)\n  ### [ANBI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/radioloy-assistant)\n  - [Jaarverslagen en financiële rapporten](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/radioloy-assistant\/anbi)\n  \n  ### [Radiology Assistant](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/radiology-assistant)\n  - [Information](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/radiology-assistant\/information)\n  \n  ### [Apps](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/apps)\n  - [Radiology Assistant 2.0 app](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/apps\/radiology-assistant-2-0-app)\n  - [Radiology.expert](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/apps\/startradiology)\n  \n  ### [How to make videos and illustrations](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/how-to-make-videos-illustrations)\n  - [How to make illustrations in Keynote](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/how-to-make-videos-illustrations\/how-to-make-illustrations-in-keynote)\n  - [How to make videos in Quicktime Player](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/how-to-make-videos-illustrations\/how-to-make-videos-in-quicktime-player)\n  \n  ### [CT Protocols](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/ct-protocols)\n  - [CT contrast injection and protocols](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/ct-protocols\/ct-contrast-injection-and-protocols)\n  \n  ### [RECIST 1.1](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/recist-1-1)\n  - [RECIST 1.1 - examples](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/recist-1-1\/recist-1-1-examples)\n  - [RECIST 1.1 - and more](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/recist-1-1\/recist-1-1)\n  - [RECIST 1.1 - the basics](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/recist-1-1\/recist-1-1-1)\n\n- [Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### Acute Abdomen\n    - [Appendicitis and Mimics](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/appendicitis-and-mimics)\n    - [Appendicitis - US findings](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/appendicitis-us-findings)\n    - [Appendicitis - Pitfalls in US and CT diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/appendicitis-pitfalls-in-us-and-ct-diagnosis)\n    - [CT in Abdominal Trauma](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/ct-in-trauma)\n    - [Practical approach to Acute Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/acute-abdomen\/practical-approach-to-acute-abdomen)\n  - ### Anal cancer\n    - [Anal cancer staging](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/anal-cancer-2\/anal)\n  - ### Abdominal wall\n    - [Abdominal wall hernias](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/abdomen-1\/abdominal-wall-hernias)\n  - ### Adrenals\n    - [Characterization of Adrenal lesions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/adrenals\/lesion-characterization)\n    - [Characterization of Adrenal lesions 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/adrenals\/lesion-characterization-1)\n  - ### Aorta\n    - [Aortic Aneurysm Rupture](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/aorta\/aneurysm-rupture)\n  - ### Biliary system\n    - [Gallbladder obstruction](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/biliary-system\/lk-jg)\n    - [Biliary duct pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/biliary-system\/biliary-duct-pathology)\n    - [Gallbladder wall thickening](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/biliary-system\/gallbladder-wall-thickening)\n  - ### Bladder\n    - [Bladder Cancer - VI-RADS](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bladder\/bladder-cancer-vi-rads)\n  - ### Bowel\n    - [Bowel Ischemia - Video Lectures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/bowel-ischemia)\n    - [CT-pattern of Bowel wall thickening](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/bowel-wall-thickening-ct-pattern)\n    - [Closed Loop in Small bowel obstruction](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/closed-loop-in-small-bowel-obstruction)\n    - [Closed Loop Obstruction with video](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/closed-loop-obstruction-with-video)\n    - [Crohn's disease - role of MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/crohn-s-disease)\n    - [Crohn's disease - role of Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/ultrasound-in-crohns-disease)\n    - [Small Bowel Tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/small-bowel-tumors)\n    - [Sharp foreign bodies in GI tract](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/bowel\/sharp-foreign-bodies-in-gi-tract)\n  - ### Chest radiology for Abdominal radiologists\n    - [Thoracic Ultrasound in Acute Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/chest-radiology-for-abdominal-radiologists\/chest-radiology-for-abdominal-radiologists)\n  - ### Gynaecology\n    - [Acute Abdomen in Gynaecology - Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/us-of-acute-gynaecology)\n    - [Endometriosis - MRI detection](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/endometriosis-mri-detection)\n    - [Cervical Cancer - MR staging](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/mr-in-cervical-cancer-1)\n    - [Endometrial Cancer - MR staging](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/mr-in-endometrial-cancer)\n    - [Müllerian duct anomalies](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/mullerian-duct-anomalies)\n    - [Ovarian cystic lesions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/common-ovarian-cystic-lesions)\n    - [Roadmap to evaluate ovarian cysts](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/roadmap-to-evaluate-ovarian-cysts)\n    - [Ovarian cystic lesions.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/unsorted\/common-ovarian-cystic-lesions-1)\n  - ### Kidney\n    - [Bosniak Classification 2019](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/kidney\/bozniak-2019)\n    - [Solid Renal Masses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/kidney\/solid-masses)\n  - ### Liver\n    - [Characterisation of liver masses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/characterisation-of-liver-masses)\n    - [Common Liver Tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/common-liver-tumors)\n    - [Incidentalomas in the liver](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/incidentalomas)\n    - [Liver - Segmental Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/segmental-anatomy)\n    - [LI-RADS](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/liver\/li-rads)\n  - ### Ovarium\n    - [Roadmap to evaluate ovarian cysts.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ovarium\/roadmap-to-evaluate-ovarian-cysts-1)\n  - ### Pancreas\n    - [Acute Pancreatitis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/pancreas\/acute-pancreatitis)\n    - [Pancreatic Cancer - CT staging 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/pancreas\/pancreas-carcinoma-1)\n    - [Pancreatic cystic Lesions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/pancreas\/pancreas-cystic-lesions)\n  - ### Peritoneum\n    - [Anatomy of Peritoneum and Mesentery](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/peritoneum\/anatomy-of-peritoneum-and-mesentery)\n    - [Peritoneal Carcinomatosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/peritoneum\/peritoneal-carcinomatosis)\n    - [Peritoneal Pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/peritoneum\/peritoneal-pathology)\n  - ### Prostate\n    - [Prostate Cancer - PI-RADS v2.1](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/prostate\/prostate-cancer-pi-rads-v2-1)\n    - [Prostate Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/prostate\/prostate-cancer-pi-rads-v2-1-1)\n  - ### Rectum\n    - [Rectal Cancer MR staging and restaging- update 2026](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/rectum\/rectal-cancer-mr-staging-1-1)\n    - [Perianal Fistulas](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/rectum\/perianal-fistulas)\n    - [Dynamic Rectal examination](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/rectum\/dynamic-rectal-examination)\n  - ### Ultrasound\n    - [Transvaginal Ultrasound for Non-Gynaecological Conditions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound\/transvaginal-ultrasound-for-non-gynaecological-conditions)\n    - [Ultrasound in Acute Abdomen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound\/role-of-ultrasound-in-acute-abdomen)\n    - [US of the GI tract - Technique](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound\/lk-jg-1-1-1)\n    - [US of the GI tract - Normal Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/abdomen\/ultrasound\/lk-jg-1-1)\n- [Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### BI-RADS\n    - [Bi-RADS for Mammography and Ultrasound 2013](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/bi-rads\/bi-rads-for-mammography-and-ultrasound-2013)\n  - ### Calcifications\n    - [Differential of Breast Calcifications](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/calcifications\/differential-of-breast-calcifications)\n  - ### Breast Cancer\n    - [Staging and Treatment of Breast Cancer](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/breast-cancer\/staging-and-treatment-of-breast-cancer)\n  - ### Breast Prosthesis\n    - [Breast Implants](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/breast-prosthesis\/breast-prosthesis-imaging)\n  - ### Male Breast\n    - [Pathology of the Male Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/male-breast\/pathology-of-the-male-breast)\n  - ### MRI\n    - [MRI of the Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/mri\/mri-of-the-breast)\n  - ### Ultrasound\n    - [Ultrasound of the Breast](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/breast\/ultrasound\/ultrasound-of-the-breast)\n- [Cardiovascular](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### Anatomy\n    - [Cardiac Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/anatomy\/cardiac-anatomy)\n    - [Coronary anatomy and anomalies](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/anatomy\/coronary-anatomy-and-anomalies)\n  - ### CAD-RADS\n    - [Coronary Artery Disease-Reporting and Data System 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/cad-rads\/coronary-artery-disease-reporting-and-data-system)\n  - ### Cardiomyopathy\n    - [Ischemic and non-ischemic cardiomyopathy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/cardiomyopathy\/ischemic-and-non-ischemic-cardiomyopathy)\n  - ### Devices\n    - [Cardiovascular devices](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/devices\/cardiovascular-devices)\n  - ### Peripheral MRA\n    - [Contrast-enhanced MRA of peripheral vessels](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/peripheral-mra\/contrast-enhanced-mra-of-peripheral-vessels)\n  - ### Pearls...\n    - [Cardiovascular Pearls on Chest CT...](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/pearls\/cardiovascular-pearls-on-chest-ct)\n  - ### Pulmonary Hypertension\n    - [Pulmonary Hypertension and Thromboembolic disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/thoracic-aorta-1\/acute-aortic-syndrome-1)\n  - ### Thoracic Aorta\n    - [Acute Aortic Syndrome](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/thoracic-aorta\/acute-aortic-syndrome)\n    - [Vascular Anomalies of Aorta, Pulmonary and Systemic vessels](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/cardiovascular\/thoracic-aorta\/vascular-anomalies-of-aorta-pulmonary-and-systemic-vessels)\n- [Chest](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### Airways\n    - [Large airway disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/airways\/large-airway-disease)\n  - ### Chest X-Ray\n    - [Chest X-Ray - Basic Interpretation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/chest-x-ray\/basic-interpretation)\n    - [Chest X-Ray - Heart Failure](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/chest-x-ray\/heart-failure)\n    - [Chest X-Ray - Lung disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/chest-x-ray\/lung-disease)\n  - ### COVID-19\n    - [COVID-19 Imaging findings](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19\/covid19-imaging-findings)\n    - [COVID-19 Differential Diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19\/covid-19-differential-diagnosis)\n    - [COVID-19 CO-RADS classification](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19\/corads-classification)\n    - [32 cases of suspected COVID-19](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/covid-19\/ct-findings-in-patients)\n  - ### Cystic Lung Disease\n    - [Cystic Lung Disease - Differential diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/cystic-lung-disease\/analysis-of-cystic-lung-disease-1-1-1)\n  - ### Esophagus\n    - [Esophagus I: anatomy, rings, inflammation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/esophagus\/esophagus-i-anatomy-rings-inflammation)\n    - [Esophagus II: Strictures, Acute syndromes, Neoplasms and Vascular impressions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/esophagus\/esophagus-ii-strictures-acute-syndromes-neoplasms-and-vascular-impressions)\n  - ### HRCT\n    - [HRCT - Basic Interpretation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/hrct\/basic-interpretation)\n    - [HRCT - Common diagnoses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/hrct\/common-diseases)\n    - [HRCT – Patterns of pulmonary fibrosis in ILD](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/hrct\/fibrosis-of-the-lung-on-hrct-imaging)\n  - ### Lung anatomy\n    - [Lung Segments and Bronchi](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/lung-anatomy\/lung-segments)\n  - ### Lung Cancer\n    - [TNM classification 9ᵗʰ edition](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/lung-cancer\/tnm-classification-8th-edition-1)\n    - [Cystic Lung Cancer](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/lung-cancer\/cystic-lung-cancer)\n  - ### Mediastinum\n    - [Mediastinal Lymph Node Map](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/mediastinum\/mediastinum-lymph-node-map)\n    - [Mediastinal Masses - differential diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/mediastinum\/masses-differential-diagnosis)\n  - ### Pearls\n    - [Cardiovascular Pearls on Chest CT.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/pearls\/cardiovascular-pearls-on-chest-ct-2)\n  - ### Pulmonary nodules\n    - [BTS guideline of pulmonary nodules](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/plumonary-nodules\/bts-guideline)\n    - [Fleischner 2017 guideline](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/plumonary-nodules\/fleischner-2017-guideline)\n  - ### Solitary Pulmonary Nodule\n    - [Pulmonary nodule - Benign versus Malignant](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/solitary-pulmonary-nodule\/benign-versus-malignant)\n  - ### Tuberculosis\n    - [Imaging findings in TB](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/tb\/tuberculosis)\n  - ### Thymus\n    - [Thymic masses and mimics](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/chest\/thymus\/thymus)\n- [Head\/Neck](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### Cervical Nodes\n    - [Cervical Lymph Node Map](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/cervical-node-mapping\/cervical-node-map)\n  - ### Esophagus\n    - [Esophagus I: anatomy, rings, inflammation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/esophagus-1\/esophagus-i-anatomy-rings-inflammation-1)\n    - [Esophagus II: Strictures, Acute syndromes, Neoplasms and Vascular impressions.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/esophagus-1\/esophagus-ii-strictures-acute-syndromes-neoplasms-and-vascular-impressions-1)\n  - ### Horner syndrome\n  - ### Infra- and suprahyoid neck\n    - [Anatomy and Pathology of the Infrahyoid Neck](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/infrahyoid-neck\/anatomy-and-pathology)\n  - ### Tumors\n    - [Neck Masses in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/neck-masses\/neck-masses-in-children)\n    - [Head Neck tumors - When to think of malignancy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/neck-masses\/head-neck-tumors)\n  - ### Orbita\n    - [CT and MRI of the Eye](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/orbita\/pathology)\n  - ### Paranasal Sinuses\n    - [MRI of the Paranasal Sinuses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/paranasal-sinuses\/mri-examination)\n  - ### Swallowing\n    - [Swallowing disorders update](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/swallowing\/swallowing-disorders-update)\n  - ### Temporal Bone\n    - [Temporal Bone Anatomy 1.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/temporal-bone\/anatomy)\n    - [Temporal Bone Anatomy 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/temporal-bone\/anatomy-2-0)\n    - [Temporal Bone Pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/temporal-bone\/pathology)\n  - ### Tinnitus\n    - [Pulsatile and non-pulsatile tinnitus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/tinnitus\/pulsatile-and-non-pulsatile-tinnitus)\n  - ### TI-RADS\n    - [TI-RADS - Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/ti-rads\/ti-rads)\n  - ### Trigeminus\n    - [Trigeminal neuralgia](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/head-neck\/trigeminus\/trigeminal-neuralgia-and-neuropathy)\n- [Musculoskeletal](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### Ankle\n    - [Ankle Fracture Mechanism and Radiography](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/fracture-mechanism-and-radiography)\n    - [Algoritm for Ankle Fractures 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/fractures-video-lesson-1)\n    - [Ankle fractures - Weber and Lauge-Hansen Classification](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/weber-and-lauge-hansen-classification)\n    - [Special Ankle Fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/special-fracture-cases)\n    - [MRI examination of the ankle](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ankle\/mri-examination)\n  - ### Arthritis\n    - [Arthritis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/arthritis\/fractures-video-lesson)\n  - ### Bone Tumors\n    - [Bone tumors in alphabetical order](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/alphabetical-order)\n    - [Bone tumors - Differential diagnosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/differential-diagnosis)\n    - [Osteolytic - ill defined bone tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/osteolytic-ill-defined)\n    - [Osteolytic - well defined bone tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/osteolytic-well-defined)\n    - [Sclerotic bone tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/sclerotic-tumors)\n    - [Cartilage tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/bone-tumors\/chondrotumors-1)\n  - ### Cases - pearls in radiology\n    - [Foot and Ankle cases](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist-1\/foot)\n  - ### Diabetic foot\n    - [MRI examination](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/diabetic-foot\/mri-examination)\n  - ### Elbow\n    - [MRI examination of the Elbow](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/elbow\/mri-examination)\n    - [Elbow fractures in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/elbow\/fractures-in-children)\n  - ### Hip\n    - [Arthroplasty of the Hip](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/hip\/arthroplasty)\n    - [Femoroacetabular impingement syndrome](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/hip\/femoroacetabular-impingement-syndrome)\n  - ### Knee\n    - [Meniscal pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/knee\/meniscal-pathology)\n    - [Non-Meniscal pathology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/knee\/non-meniscal-pathology)\n    - [Meniscus special cases](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/knee\/meniscus-special-cases)\n  - ### Muscle\n    - [MRI traumatic changes](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/muscle\/mri-traumatic-changes)\n    - [Non-traumatic changes](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/muscle\/non-traumatic-changes)\n    - [Hamstring injury](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/muscle\/hamstring-injury)\n  - ### Shoulder\n    - [Shoulder Anatomy and Variants on MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder\/mri-anatomy)\n    - [Shoulder instability - MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder\/instability)\n    - [Shoulder Rotator cuff injury](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder\/rotator-cuff-injury)\n    - [Shoulder Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/shoulder\/shoulder-ultrasound)\n  - ### Spine\n    - [Spine fractures - TLICS Classification](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/spine\/tlics-classification-1)\n    - [AO Spine Classification of Thoracolumbar Fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/spine\/ao-classification)\n  - ### Stress fractures\n    - [Stress fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/unsorted\/stress-fractures)\n  - ### Ultrasound\n    - [US-guided injection of joints](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/ultrasound\/us-guided-injection-of-joints)\n  - ### Wrist\n    - [Carpal instability](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist\/carpal-instability)\n    - [Fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist\/fractures)\n    - [...](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/musculoskeletal\/wrist\/foot-1)\n- [Neuroradiology](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### Anatomy\n    - [Brain Anatomy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain\/anatomy)\n  - ### Brain Ischemia\n    - [Imaging in Acute Stroke](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain-ischemia\/imaging-in-acute-stroke)\n    - [Vascular territories of the Brain](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain-ischemia\/vascular-territories)\n  - ### Brain Tumor\n    - [Systematic Approach to Brain Tumors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/brain-tumor\/systematic-approach)\n  - ### Carotid Pathology\n    - [How to Differentiate Carotid Obstructions](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/carotid-pathology\/differentiating-carotid-pathology)\n  - ### Dementia\n    - [Dementia - Role of MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/dementia\/role-of-mri)\n  - ### Enhancement Patterns\n    - [Enhancement Patterns in CNS disease](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/enhancement-patterns\/enhancement-patterns-in-cns-diseases)\n  - ### Epilepsy\n    - [Epilepsy - Role of MRI](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/epilepsy\/role-of-mri)\n  - ### Hemorrhage\n    - [Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/hemorrhage\/traumatic-intracranial-haemorrhage)\n    - [Non-traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/hemorrhage\/non-traumatic-intracranial-hemorrhage)\n  - ### Horner syndrome.\n  - ### Multiple Sclerosis\n    - [Multiple Sclerosis 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/multiple-sclerosis\/diagnosis-and-differential-diagnosis-3)\n  - ### Sella Turcica\n    - [Sella Turcica and Parasellar Region](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/sella-turcica\/sella-turcica-and-parasellar-region)\n  - ### Sinus Thrombosis\n    - [Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/sinus-thrombosis\/cerebral-venous-thrombosis)\n  - ### Spine\n    - [Cervical injury](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/cervical-injury)\n    - [Lumbar Disc Herniation](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/lumbar-disc-herniation)\n    - [Lumbar Disc Nomenclature 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/lumbar-disc-nomenclature-2-0)\n    - [Myelopathy](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/myelopathy)\n    - [Thoracolumbar injury](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/thoracolumbar-injury)\n    - [TLICS Classification of fractures](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/spine\/tlics-classification)\n  - ### Intracranial Hypotension\n    - [Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/neuroradiology\/white-matter-disease-1\/spontaneous-intracranial-hypotension)\n- [Pediatrics](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### Abdomen\n    - [Acute Abdomen in Neonates](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/acute-abdomen-in-neonates)\n    - [Cystic Abdominal Masses in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/cystic-abdominal-masses-in-children)\n    - [Solid Abdominal Masses in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/malignant-abdominal-tumors-in-children)\n    - [Renal Tumors in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/renal-tumors-in-children)\n    - [Acute Scrotum in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/acute-scrotum-in-children)\n    - [Lines and tubes in Neonates](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/lines-and-tubes-in-neonates)\n    - [Necrotizing Enterocolitis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/abdominal-masses\/necrotizing-enterocolitis)\n  - ### Chest\n    - [Nonvascular Mediastinal Masses](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/pediatric-chest-ct\/nonvascular-mediastinal-masses)\n    - [Neonatal Chest X-Ray](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/pediatric-chest-ct\/neonatal-chest)\n    - [Pediatric Chest CT 2](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/pediatric-chest-ct\/pediatric-chest-ct-2)\n  - ### Child Abuse\n    - [Child abuse - Diagnostic Imaging 2.0](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/child-abuse\/diagnostic-imaging-in-child-abuse)\n  - ### Head\/neck\n    - [Neck Masses in Children.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/head-neck\/neck-masses-in-children-1)\n    - [Craniosynostosis](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/head-neck\/craniosynosthosis)\n  - ### Musculoskeletal\n    - [Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/hip\/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip-ultrasound)\n    - [Elbow fractures in Children.](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/hip\/fractures-in-children-1)\n    - [Hip pathology in Children](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/hip\/hip-pathology-in-children)\n  - ### Neuro\n    - [Neonatal Brain US](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/spine\/neonatal-brain-us)\n    - [Ultrasound of the Neonatal spine](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/spine\/ultrasound-of-the-neonatal-spine)\n  - ### Normal values\n    - [Normal Values in Pediatric Ultrasound](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound)\n- [More](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/)\n  - ### ANBI\n    - [Jaarverslagen en financiële rapporten](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/radioloy-assistant\/anbi)\n  - ### Radiology Assistant\n    - [Information](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/radiology-assistant\/information)\n  - ### Video-Lectures\n  - ### Apps\n    - [Radiology Assistant 2.0 app](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/apps\/radiology-assistant-2-0-app)\n    - [Radiology.expert](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/apps\/startradiology)\n  - ### How to make videos and illustrations\n    - [How to make illustrations in Keynote](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/how-to-make-videos-illustrations\/how-to-make-illustrations-in-keynote)\n    - [How to make videos in Quicktime Player](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/how-to-make-videos-illustrations\/how-to-make-videos-in-quicktime-player)\n  - ### CT Protocols\n    - [CT contrast injection and protocols](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/ct-protocols\/ct-contrast-injection-and-protocols)\n  - ### RECIST 1.1\n    - [RECIST 1.1 - examples](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/recist-1-1\/recist-1-1-examples)\n    - [RECIST 1.1 - and more](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/recist-1-1\/recist-1-1)\n    - [RECIST 1.1 - the basics](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/more\/recist-1-1\/recist-1-1-1)\n\n# Normal Values in Pediatric Ultrasound\n##\n### Simon Robben, Rick van Rijn and Robin Smithuis\n#### Radiology Departement of the Maastricht University Hospital, Academical Medical Centre in Amsterdam and the Alrijne hospital in Leiden, the Netherlands\n\nPublicationdate 2018-02-09 update 2025-10-27\n\nThis document provides an overview of normal reference values for ultrasound examinations in neonates and children.  \nThe items are in an alphabethic order.  \nSelect one of the items listed on the left for details.\n\n- [Adrenal](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#adrenal)\n- [Appendix](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#appendix)\n- [Bladder](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#bladder)\n- [Bowel](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#bowel)\n- [Common Bile Duct](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#common-bile-duct)\n- [Galbladder](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#galbladder)\n- [Hip](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#hip)\n- [Kidney](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#kidney)\n- [Liver](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#liver)\n- [Mesenteric lymph nodes](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#mesenteric-lymph-nodes)\n- [Ovary](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#ovary)\n- [Pancreas](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#pancreas)\n- [Portal vein](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#portal-vein)\n- [Spleen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#spleen)\n- [Subarachnoid space](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#subarachnoid-space)\n- [Testicle](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#testicle)\n- [Thymus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#thymus)\n- [Thyroid gland](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#thyroid-gland)\n- [Uterus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#uterus)\n- [Ventricles](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#ventricles)\n\n## Adrenal\n[![Adapted from reference 21](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310eacb87a7_5-adrenal.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 21*\n\n**Materials and Methods** An ultrasonographic study was performed in 92 infants.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a311158ab94b_adrenal-tek.png)]()\n\n**Measurements**\n\n- **Length (L):** Defined as the maximum cephalocaudal dimension of the adrenal gland, measured in either the coronal or sagittal plane.\n- **Width (w):** Defined as the maximum thickness of one of the limbs.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310e76cdbce_adrenal-figure.jpg\/c7dc86912a080718aa395a874a95a203.jpg)]()\n\n**Causes of Adrenal Enlargement**\n\n- Congenital adrenal hyperplasia\n- Adrenal hemorrhage\n- Adrenal neuroblastoma\n\n## Appendix\n[![Adapted from reference 14](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30fef5087db_15appendix.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 14*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nAn ultrasonographic study was conducted in 146 consecutive patients (62 boys and 84 girls; mean age, 7 years; age range, 2–15 years).  \n  \n**Exclusion criteria**\n\n- Cystic fibrosis\n- Acute abdominal pain\n- Previous appendectomy\n- Age \\<2 years (due to difficulty in performing the examination)\n\nThe appendix was successfully visualized in 120 children.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30ff86c51fc_appendix-figure.jpg\/7b087530fafd945d9eb21a4c48c2ecf3.jpg)]()\n\n**Causes of Appendiceal Enlargement**\n\n- Acute appendicitis\n- Cystic fibrosis\n- Lymphoid hypertrophy (due to immune deficiency or viral enteritis)\n- Intraluminal gas, mucus, or fecal material\n- Mucocele\n\n## Bladder\n[![Adapted from reference 17](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3104d2285e7_10-bladder-capacity.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 17*\n\n**Bladder volume**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nA total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study.  \nNote: The total number of patients listed in the results tables may differ, as not all age subgroups were represented.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31051b2b3f4_Bladder-volume-figure.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurement Technique**\n\n1. **Length (L):** Measured on a longitudinal scan from the bladder neck to the fundus.\n2. **Depth (D):** Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal plane at the level of maximum cross-sectional area, from the anterior to posterior mucosal surface in the midline.\n3. **Width (W):** Measured perpendicular to D at its midpoint.\n\n**Bladder Volume Calculation**  \nBladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:\n\n*Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523*\n\n[![Adapted from reference 17](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a7d9883989f5_BVWI-figure2.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 17*\n\n**Bladder wall thickness**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nA total of 3,376 children were included.  \nBladder wall thickness was measured only when the residual bladder volume was \\<10% of the pre-voided volume.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31092f3f745_Bladder-wall-figure.jpg\/1cebdcdd36771496d038b34cc2f897d7.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurement Technique**  \nThe bladder wall was evaluated on a zoomed transverse image of the emptied bladder.  \nMeasurements were taken at three sites:\n\n- Anterolateral\n- Lateral\n- Posterolateral\n\nThe mean of these three measurements was used for analysis.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31082700e0f_BVWI-figure.png)]()\n\n**Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWTI)**   \nBladder wall thickness depends on the degree of bladder filling and bladder capacity.  \nTherefore, it is expressed as the Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWI).\n\nIt helps normalize bladder wall measurements across different degrees of bladder distension and improves diagnostic accuracy for lower urinary tract abnormalities, especially in children.\n\n**Causes of Bladder Wall Thickening**\n\n- Cystitis\n- Dysfunctional voiding\n- Posterior urethral valves\n\n## Bowel\n[![Adapted from reference 13](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30fe3d9932e_16small-bowel.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 13*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \n The study population consisted of 128 patients (57 males and 71 females). Of these, 86 individuals were aged between 1 and 19 years (only data pertaining to this subgroup are presented).\n\n**Bowel wall thickness** was measured on transverse ultrasound sections and included the following histologic layers: mucosa, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, submucosa, and muscularis propria.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30fe142ad72_bowel-wall-figure.jpg\/240ef50fae229c4cd7aeff0792c8f97e.jpg)]()\n\n**Ultrasonographic example** Measurement of the terminal ileum wall thickness in a 12-year-old male patient with cystic fibrosis.\n\n**Common causes of small bowel wall thickening include:**\n\n- Henoch–Schönlein purpura\n- Crohn’s disease\n- Lymphoma\n\n[![Adapted from reference 13](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30fe7b008a5_17colon.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 13*\n\nIn the same study, colonic wall thickness was also measured.\n\n**Common causes of colonic wall thickening include:**\n\n- Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)\n- Hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS)\n- Pseudomembranous colitis\n\n## Common Bile Duct\n[![Adapted from reference 8](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b7f8b46d4_CBD.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 8*\n\n**Materials and Methods**\n\nA total of 173 consecutive pediatric patients (100 boys and 73 girls) referred for abdominal ultrasonography unrelated to hepatobiliary pathology were included. The age range was 1 day to 13 years (median 5.0 years).\n\nIn all subjects, the diameter of the common bile duct measured ≤ 3.3 mm.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30ef2bb1780_Common-bile-duct.png\/b8258ce3c9a024309b74734cec1db6fe.png)]()\n\n**Image** Transverse ultrasonographic image of the common bile duct and surrounding anatomy.\n\n## Galbladder\n[![Adapted from reference 10](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b814ec168_Galbladder.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 10*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic gallbladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:  \nVolume = length × width × height × 0.52\n\nThe study included 50 preterm infants (mean gestational age 31.7 ± 2.5 weeks, mean birth weight 1556 ± 441 g) and 46 term infants (mean gestational age 38.3 ± 1.2 weeks, mean birth weight 3253 ± 440 g).\n\nMeasurements were obtained shortly after birth, following 6 hours of fasting, and again at 5–7 days of age after 3-hour and 6-hour fasting intervals following regular milk feeding.\n\n**Common causes of a small gallbladder include:**\n\n- Biliary atresia\n- Postprandial (after fatty meal) contraction\n\n## Hip\n[![Adapted from reference 22](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3112ffd0110_4-capsule-normal.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 22*\n\n**Anterior recess**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nAn ultrasonographic study was performed in 58 healthy children and 105 children with unilateral transient synovitis, aged 1.7–12.8 years.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 22](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a312de254b6d_border-capsule.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 22*\n\nAll examinations were performed with the patient in the supine position and the hips in a neutral position.\n\nThe anterior joint capsule was measured, including both its anterior and posterior layers. The anterior contour of the joint capsule was also evaluated.  \nNo statistically significant correlation was found between age and anterior joint capsule thickness.\n\nA difference greater than 2 mm between sides or an effusion \\>2 mm was considered abnormal.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3114bbb3e20_Hip-capsule-figure.jpg\/447ad6206929b39299e8b35897538dbe.jpg)]()\n\n**Shape of the border of the anterior joint capsule**\n\nThe anterior contour of the joint capsule can be evaluated.  \n Ultrasonographic measurement of the anterior joint capsule.   \nBoth anterior (a) and posterior (p) layer can be identified.\n\n**Common causes of hip joint effusion include:**\n\n- Transient synovitis\n- Septic arthritis\n- Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA)\n\n[![Adapted from reference 23](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a1fee003a3e1_3D-TAB-Graf.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 23*\n\n**Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip (Graf’s Classification)**\n\n- **Type I:** Mature, centered hip joint with a well-developed acetabular roof and an angular or slightly blunt bony rim.\n- **Type II:** Centered hip joint with a deficiently developed acetabular roof and a rounded bony rim.\n- **Type III:** Decentered hip joint with a poorly developed acetabular roof and a flattened bony rim.\n\nClick [here](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/en\/p54ba2c50995c5\/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip-ultrasound.html) for article on Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3130224514b_Graf-figure.jpg\/a5944f1beaacbc5359471b5dd69f62c7.jpg)]()\n\n**Ultrasonographic parameters:**\n\n- Coronal plane view of the hip joint\n- Measurement of the **α (alpha) angle**\n\n## Kidney\n[![Adapted from reference 6](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3100be277e0_13kidney-neonates.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 6*\n\n**Preterm and Term Babies**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic evaluation was performed in 261 healthy newborn infants.  \nThe craniocaudal dimension of each kidney was measured using standard ultrasonography.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31016b20dd6_kidney-preterm.jpg\/1e9a81adcc62887a52f0f1bc45840266.jpg)]()\n\nUltrasonographic measurement of the length of a neonatal kidney.\n\nIn neonates, the renal parenchyma is typically more echogenic than the liver parenchyma, which is a normal finding at this age.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 16](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310245c4caf_12kidney-length.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 16*\n\n**Children**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nThe study included 203 pediatric patients. Exclusion criteria included a history of malignancy, steroid use, upper urinary tract abnormalities, vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) greater than grade I, urologic surgery, or abnormal renal sonographic findings.\n\nOn average, the left kidney measured 1.9 mm longer than the right.\n\n**Common causes of renal enlargement include:**\n\n- Duplicated collecting system\n- Nephritis (infectious and non-infectious)\n- Leukemia or lymphoma\n- Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD)\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31025845ec9_kindney-figure.jpg\/f60d6a13cca590051660627be906c4d1.jpg)]()\n\nUltrasonographic measurement of the length of a kidney.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 17](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a7d9d0710617_11-kidney-volume.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 17*\n\n**Renal volume**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nA total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31039903734_Kidney-volume.jpg)]()\n\n**Renal volume** was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:  \nVolume = Length × Width × Depth × 0.523\n\nThe total renal volume was determined by summing the right and left kidney volumes.   \nThe reported values represent the average of both kidneys.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 18](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310a3f64ca9_Collecting-system-figure.jpg\/e23cecb7d2b934bfbfce9b2f6d94baae.jpg)]()  *Adapted from reference 18*\n\n**Thickness of the wall of the collecting system**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic examination of 48 renal collecting systems in 24 healthy children (aged 3 days–12.6 years) was performed.  \nThe wall of the collecting system was identifiable in all kidneys, ranging from 0 (not visible) to 0.8 mm in thickness.  \nA wall thickness ≥ 1 mm was considered abnormal.\n\n**Common causes of collecting system wall thickening include:**\n\n- Urinary tract infection (UTI)\n- Intermittent dilatation (e.g., vesicoureteral reflux)\n- Recent or resolved dilatation\n\n## Liver\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30ee1fb0199_liver.jpg)]()\n\nThe craniocaudal dimension of the liver is measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography.\n\n**Causes of hepatomegaly include:**\n\n- Leukemia\n- Storage diseases (e.g., glycogen storage disorders)\n- Neonatal hepatitis\n\n[![Adapted from reference 6](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3128ce7fd61_Liver-neonate-figure.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 6*\n\n**Newborns**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nIn newborns (n = 261), the craniocaudal dimension of the liver was measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 7](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b82c476d6_liver.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 7*\n\n**Children**\n\n**Material and methods**  \n US study in 307 healthy children.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/liver-doppler.png)]()\n\n**Doppler parameters**\n\n**Materials and Method** An additional study of 100 healthy children (age range 0–17.9 years, median 7.8 years) established reference values for:\n\n- Portal vein peak systolic velocity\n- Hepatic artery peak systolic velocity\n- Hepatic artery resistive index (RI)\n\n([reference](https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1742271X221114050)).\n\n**Findings:**\n\n- Portal vein velocity was not age-independent\n- Hepatic artery velocity and RI decreased with increasing age\n\n## Mesenteric lymph nodes\n[![Adapted from reference 15](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3100139e072_14nodes.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 15*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nThis retrospective study included 61 children (36 boys, 25 girls; mean age 10.7 years, range 1.1–17.3 years) who underwent non-contrast abdominal CT for evaluation of suspected or confirmed renal stones. Lymph node size was evaluated on these images, and findings were extrapolated to ultrasonographic reference values.\n\n**Findings:**  \nEnlarged mesenteric lymph nodes (short-axis diameter \\> 5 mm) were observed in 33 of 61 children (54%), predominantly in the right lower quadrant (88%).  \nBased on these results, a short-axis diameter \\> 8 mm may represent a more accurate threshold for pediatric mesenteric lymphadenopathy.\n\nFalse-positive rate for enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes with varying lymph node threshold size is seen in the table.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a7d9f5b010ac_14nodes.jpg\/1e91d8809b655347c3df0111d63c5372.jpg)]()\n\n**Common pathological causes of enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes include**\n\n- Intestinal lymphoma\n- Lymphogenic metastasis\n- Specific infectious enteritis (e.g., tuberculosis)\n\n## Ovary\n[![Adapted from reference 20](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310d55abb62_6-ovarian.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 20*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls.\n\n**Common causes of ovarian enlargement include:**\n\n- Precocious puberty\n- Ovarian torsion\n- Polycystic ovarian disease\n- Teratoma or dermoid cyst\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310db1ca27a_ovary-figure.jpg)]()\n\nOvarian volume is calculated using the formula:\n\n- Length x Width x Height x 0.523.\n\n## Pancreas\n[![Adapted from reference 12](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30f3d725362_2-pancreas.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 12*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nThis retrospective ultrasonographic study included 273 pediatric patients (sex distribution not specified).\n\n**Echogenicity findings:**\n\n- Low echogenicity in 27 cases (10%)\n- Isoechoic in 145 cases (53%)\n- Increased echogenicity in 101 cases (37%)\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30f47b12f8f_pancreas-figure.jpg\/49e02d7117ba767efc1a51803d267aa3.jpg)]()\n\nThe maximum anteroposterior (AP) diameters of the head, body, and tail of the pancreas were measured on transverse or oblique ultrasound images.\n\n**Common causes of pancreatic enlargement include:**\n\n- Traumatic pancreatitis\n- Viral pancreatitis\n- Drug-induced pancreatitis\n\n## Portal vein\n[![Adapted from reference 9](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a7da42a557f9_portal-vein.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 9*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nA study was conducted in 150 children aged 0–16 years without clinical evidence of hepatic or intestinal disease who underwent abdominal ultrasonography.\n\n[![Measurement of portal vein diameter](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30f002aecc2_portal-vein-figure.jpg\/f4f3914fbf684f2261b06787da9f5cd1.jpg)]()  *Measurement of portal vein diameter*\n\nThe portal vein was visualized in the longitudinal plane from the splenomesenteric junction to the hepatic hilum.  \nThe maximum anteroposterior diameter was measured at the point where the hepatic artery crosses the portal vein.\n\n## Spleen\n[![Adapted from reference 6](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b899e2028_TAB-spleen-intrauterine.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 6*\n\n**Preterm and term babies**\n\n**Material and methods** US study in 261 healthy newborn infants.   \nCraniocaudal dimension of the spleen was determined with ultrasonography.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 11](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b883c45f8_TAB-spleen-children.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 11*\n\n**Children**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic examination included 512 healthy children (238 boys, 274 girls; age range 1 day to 17 years) and 96 preterm infants (gestational age 25–35 weeks).  \nNone of the subjects had medical conditions affecting spleen size.\n\n**Common causes of splenomegaly include:**\n\n- Portal hypertension\n- Leukemia\n- Systemic infections (e.g., Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus)\n- Hematologic disorders (e.g., spherocytosis, thalassemia)\n- Storage diseases\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30f24eb3bd5_spleen-figure.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurement**  \nSpleen length was defined as the maximal distance between the most superomedial and inferolateral points on a longitudinal coronal view, ideally through the splenic hilum.\n\n## Subarachnoid space\n[![Adapted from reference 5](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b8684ea2a_Subarachnoid.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 5*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic assessment of the subarachnoid space was performed in 278 full-term healthy Chinese infants.  \nMeasurements were taken in the coronal plane at the level of the foramen of Monro.\n\nMean values were derived from regression equations, and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from the published data.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a312815da933_ventricle-width-figure.jpg\/54d5c083be82c3cee3991eb1fb701af2.jpg)]()\n\n**Ultrasonographic parameters**\n\n- SCW: Sinu-cortical width\n- CCW: Cranio-cortical width\n- IHW: Interhemispheric width\n\n**Common causes of subarachnoid space enlargement include**\n\n- Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces of infancy (BESSI)\n- Cerebral atrophy\n- Dural sinus thrombosis\n\n## Testicle\n[![Adapted from reference 19](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310ac1391bc_8-testis.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 19*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic measurements were obtained from 344 boys of various ethnic backgrounds.   \nNo significant differences were noted between ethnicities or between the right and left testes.\n\n**Common causes of testicular enlargement include**\n\n- Leukemia\n- Precocious puberty\n- Testicular torsion\n- Epididymo-orchitis\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310bbeaed71_testis-figure.jpg\/d0b99102dbc132dfd96944a4d6a6ade7.jpg)]()\n\n**Testicular volume** was calculated using the formula:  \nLength × Width × Height × 0.523\n\n## Thymus\n[![Adapted from reference 22](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/1-thymus.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 22*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nMediastinal ultrasonography was performed in 151 healthy infants (79 boys and 72 girls) with no stress-related factorsaffecting thymic size.\n\n**Common causes of thymic enlargement include:**\n\n- Rebound thymic hyperplasia\n- T-cell lymphoma or leukemia\n- Thymoma\n- Langerhans cell histiocytosis\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31228e10e8d_thymus-figure.jpg\/d638a8f6dd15d1ef19341d9f2c2c8ce9.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurements included**\n\n- Maximum transverse diameter\n- Right and left lobe anteroposterior diameters\n- Craniocaudal (longitudinal) length\n\nThe **thymic index** was calculated as:  \nTransverse diameter × largest sagittal area\n\n## Thyroid gland\n[![Adapted from reference 1-3](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b8b0f19a5_Thyroid.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 1-3*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic evaluation of thyroid volume was conducted in:\n\n- 100 English neonates (within the first week of life)\n- A subset of iodine-sufficient European children (n = 5,709, aged 6–15 years)\n- A group of German children (n = 252, aged 2–4 years)\n\n**Common causes of thyroid enlargement include**\n\n- Hashimoto’s thyroiditis\n- Graves’ disease\n- Multinodular goiter\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30e9c3ed26a_thyroid.jpg\/0b35a2e28fea0230fa9957079376ec5c.jpg)]()\n\nThyroid volume was calculated as the sum of both lobes, excluding the isthmus.  \nThe **ellipsoid formula** was used:  \nVolume = Length × Width × Height × 0.52\n\n## Uterus\n[![Adapted from reference 20](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310c15ed07d_7-uterus.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 20*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls.\n\n**Common causes of uterine enlargement include**\n\n- Precocious puberty\n- Hydro- or hematometrocolpos\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310cc2793c3_uterine-figure.jpg)]()\n\n**Uterine volume** was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:  \nLength × Width × Height × 0.523\n\n## Ventricles\n[![Adapted from reference 4](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b8d832905_ventricles.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 4*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nAn ultrasonographic study was performed in 1,483 neonates (gestational age 25–42 weeks) examined on day 3 of life.  \nInfants with perinatal asphyxia, CNS infection, intracranial hemorrhage, or craniospinal malformations were excluded.\n\n**Common causes of ventriculomegaly include**\n\n- Congenital malformations (e.g., holoprosencephaly)\n- Obstructive hydrocephalus\n- Communicating hydrocephalus\n- Cerebral atrophy\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3126fb37bb0_ventricles-figure.jpg\/841c48788e69b116c5d21b2620f75cc2.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurements**\n\n- Anterior horn width (AHW)\n- Ventriculohemispheric ratio (VHR)  \n  Measured on coronal images at the level of the foramen of Monro.\n\n1. Delange F, Benker G, Caron P, et al. Thyroid volume and urinary iodine in European schoolchildren: standardization of values for assessment of iodine deficiency. Eur J Endocrinol 1997;136:180-7.\n2. Menken KU, Engelhardt S, Olbricht T. \\[Thyroid gland volume and urinary iodine excretion in children 2-16 years of age\\]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1992;117:1047-51.\n3. Perry RJ, Hollman AS, Wood AM, et al. Ultrasound of the thyroid gland in the newborn: normative data. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2002;87:F209-11.\n4. Sondhi V, Gupta G, Gupta PK, et al. Establishment of nomograms and reference ranges for intra-cranial ventricular dimensions and ventriculo-hemispheric ratio in newborns by ultrasonography. Acta Paediatr 2008;97:738-44.\n5. Lam WW, Ai VH, Wong V, et al. Ultrasonographic measurement of subarachnoid space in normal infants and children. Pediatr Neurol 2001;25:380-4.\n6. Soyupak SK, Narli N, Yapicioglu H, et al. Sonographic measurements of the liver, spleen and kidney dimensions in the healthy term and preterm newborns. Eur J Radiol 2002;43:73-8.\n7. Konus OL, Ozdemir A, Akkaya A, et al. Normal liver, spleen, and kidney dimensions in neonates, infants, and children: evaluation with sonography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;171:1693-8.\n8. Hernanz-Schulman M, Ambrosino MM, Freeman PC, et al. Common bile duct in children: sonographic dimensions. Radiology 1995;195:193-5.\n9. Patriquin HB, Perreault G, Grignon A, et al. Normal portal venous diameter in children. Pediatr Radiol 1990;20:451-3.\n10. Ho ML, Chen JY, Ling UP, et al. Gallbladder volume and contractility in term and preterm neonates: normal values and clinical applications in ultrasonography. Acta Paediatr 1998;87:799-804.\n11. Megremis SD, Vlachonikolis IG, Tsilimigaki AM. Spleen length in childhood with US: normal values based on age, sex, and somatometric parameters. Radiology 2004;231:129-34.\n12. Siegel MJ, Martin KW, Worthington JL. Normal and abnormal pancreas in children: US studies. Radiology 1987;165:15-8.\n13. Haber HP, Stern M. Intestinal ultrasonography in children and young adults: bowel wall thickness is age dependent. J Ultrasound Med 2000;19:315-21.\n14. Wiersma F, Sramek A, Holscher HC. US features of the normal appendix and surrounding area in children. Radiology 2005;235:1018-22.\n15. Karmazyn B, Werner EA, Rejaie B, et al. Mesenteric lymph nodes in children: what is normal? Pediatr Radiol 2005;35:774-7.\n16. Rosenbaum DM, Korngold E, Teele RL. Sonographic assessment of renal length in normal children. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1984;142:467-9.\n17. Leung VY, Chu WC, Yeung CK, et al. Nomograms of total renal volume, urinary bladder volume and bladder wall thickness index in 3,376 children with a normal urinary tract. Pediatr Radiol 2007;37:181-8.\n18. Robben SG, Boesten M, Linmans J, et al. Significance of thickening of the wall of the renal collecting system in children: an ultrasound study. Pediatr Radiol 1999;29:736-40.\n19. Kuijper EA, van Kooten J, Verbeke JI, et al. Ultrasonographically measured testicular volumes in 0- to 6-year-old boys. Hum Reprod 2008;23:792-6.\n20. Haber HP, Mayer EI. Ultrasound evaluation of uterine and ovarian size from birth to puberty. Pediatr Radiol 1994;24:11-3.\n21. Oppenheimer DA, Carroll BA, Yousem S. Sonography of the normal neonatal adrenal gland. Radiology 1983;146:157-60.\n22. Robben SG, Lequin MH, Diepstraten AF, et al. Anterior joint capsule of the normal hip and in children with transient synovitis: US study with anatomic and histologic correlation. Radiology 1999;210:499-507.\n23. Graf R. Hip Sonography. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2006.\n24. Yekeler E, Tambag A, Tunaci A, et al. Analysis of the thymus in 151 healthy infants from 0 to 2 years of age. J Ultrasound Med 2004;23:1321-6.\n\n<https:\/\/mam.org.mm\/>\n\n- [Guidelines for authors](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/guidelines-for-authors \"Guidelines for authors\")\n- [About Us](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/about-us \"About Us\")\n- [Disclaimer](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/disclaimer \"Disclaimer\")\n- [Charity](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/charity \"Charity\")\n- [Privacy and cookie statement](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/privacy-and-cookie-statement \"Privacy and cookie statement\")\n- [Contact us](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/contact-us \"Contact us\")\n- [Search](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/search \"Search\")","attrs_readable_markdown":"### Simon Robben, Rick van Rijn and Robin Smithuis\n#### Radiology Departement of the Maastricht University Hospital, Academical Medical Centre in Amsterdam and the Alrijne hospital in Leiden, the Netherlands\n\nPublicationdate 2018-02-09 update 2025-10-27\n\nThis document provides an overview of normal reference values for ultrasound examinations in neonates and children.  \nThe items are in an alphabethic order.  \nSelect one of the items listed on the left for details.\n\n- [Adrenal](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#adrenal)\n- [Appendix](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#appendix)\n- [Bladder](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#bladder)\n- [Bowel](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#bowel)\n- [Common Bile Duct](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#common-bile-duct)\n- [Galbladder](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#galbladder)\n- [Hip](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#hip)\n- [Kidney](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#kidney)\n- [Liver](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#liver)\n- [Mesenteric lymph nodes](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#mesenteric-lymph-nodes)\n- [Ovary](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#ovary)\n- [Pancreas](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#pancreas)\n- [Portal vein](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#portal-vein)\n- [Spleen](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#spleen)\n- [Subarachnoid space](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#subarachnoid-space)\n- [Testicle](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#testicle)\n- [Thymus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#thymus)\n- [Thyroid gland](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#thyroid-gland)\n- [Uterus](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#uterus)\n- [Ventricles](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/pediatrics\/normal-values\/normal-values-ultrasound#ventricles)\n\n## Adrenal\n[![Adapted from reference 21](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310eacb87a7_5-adrenal.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 21*\n\n**Materials and Methods** An ultrasonographic study was performed in 92 infants.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a311158ab94b_adrenal-tek.png)]()\n\n**Measurements**\n\n- **Length (L):** Defined as the maximum cephalocaudal dimension of the adrenal gland, measured in either the coronal or sagittal plane.\n- **Width (w):** Defined as the maximum thickness of one of the limbs.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310e76cdbce_adrenal-figure.jpg\/c7dc86912a080718aa395a874a95a203.jpg)]()\n\n**Causes of Adrenal Enlargement**\n\n- Congenital adrenal hyperplasia\n- Adrenal hemorrhage\n- Adrenal neuroblastoma\n\n## Appendix\n[![Adapted from reference 14](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30fef5087db_15appendix.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 14*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nAn ultrasonographic study was conducted in 146 consecutive patients (62 boys and 84 girls; mean age, 7 years; age range, 2–15 years).\n\n**Exclusion criteria**\n\n- Cystic fibrosis\n- Acute abdominal pain\n- Previous appendectomy\n- Age \\<2 years (due to difficulty in performing the examination)\n\nThe appendix was successfully visualized in 120 children.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30ff86c51fc_appendix-figure.jpg\/7b087530fafd945d9eb21a4c48c2ecf3.jpg)]()\n\n**Causes of Appendiceal Enlargement**\n\n- Acute appendicitis\n- Cystic fibrosis\n- Lymphoid hypertrophy (due to immune deficiency or viral enteritis)\n- Intraluminal gas, mucus, or fecal material\n- Mucocele\n\n## Bladder\n[![Adapted from reference 17](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3104d2285e7_10-bladder-capacity.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 17*\n\n**Bladder volume**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nA total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study.  \nNote: The total number of patients listed in the results tables may differ, as not all age subgroups were represented.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31051b2b3f4_Bladder-volume-figure.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurement Technique**\n\n1. **Length (L):** Measured on a longitudinal scan from the bladder neck to the fundus.\n2. **Depth (D):** Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal plane at the level of maximum cross-sectional area, from the anterior to posterior mucosal surface in the midline.\n3. **Width (W):** Measured perpendicular to D at its midpoint.\n\n**Bladder Volume Calculation**  \nBladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:\n\n*Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523*\n\n[![Adapted from reference 17](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a7d9883989f5_BVWI-figure2.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 17*\n\n**Bladder wall thickness**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nA total of 3,376 children were included.  \nBladder wall thickness was measured only when the residual bladder volume was \\<10% of the pre-voided volume.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31092f3f745_Bladder-wall-figure.jpg\/1cebdcdd36771496d038b34cc2f897d7.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurement Technique**  \nThe bladder wall was evaluated on a zoomed transverse image of the emptied bladder.  \nMeasurements were taken at three sites:\n\n- Anterolateral\n- Lateral\n- Posterolateral\n\nThe mean of these three measurements was used for analysis.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31082700e0f_BVWI-figure.png)]()\n\n**Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWTI)**   \nBladder wall thickness depends on the degree of bladder filling and bladder capacity.  \nTherefore, it is expressed as the Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWI).\n\nIt helps normalize bladder wall measurements across different degrees of bladder distension and improves diagnostic accuracy for lower urinary tract abnormalities, especially in children.\n\n**Causes of Bladder Wall Thickening**\n\n- Cystitis\n- Dysfunctional voiding\n- Posterior urethral valves\n\n## Bowel\n[![Adapted from reference 13](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30fe3d9932e_16small-bowel.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 13*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \n The study population consisted of 128 patients (57 males and 71 females). Of these, 86 individuals were aged between 1 and 19 years (only data pertaining to this subgroup are presented).\n\n**Bowel wall thickness** was measured on transverse ultrasound sections and included the following histologic layers: mucosa, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, submucosa, and muscularis propria.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30fe142ad72_bowel-wall-figure.jpg\/240ef50fae229c4cd7aeff0792c8f97e.jpg)]()\n\n**Ultrasonographic example** Measurement of the terminal ileum wall thickness in a 12-year-old male patient with cystic fibrosis.\n\n**Common causes of small bowel wall thickening include:**\n\n- Henoch–Schönlein purpura\n- Crohn’s disease\n- Lymphoma\n\n[![Adapted from reference 13](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30fe7b008a5_17colon.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 13*\n\nIn the same study, colonic wall thickness was also measured.\n\n**Common causes of colonic wall thickening include:**\n\n- Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)\n- Hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS)\n- Pseudomembranous colitis\n\n## Common Bile Duct\n[![Adapted from reference 8](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b7f8b46d4_CBD.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 8*\n\n**Materials and Methods**\n\nA total of 173 consecutive pediatric patients (100 boys and 73 girls) referred for abdominal ultrasonography unrelated to hepatobiliary pathology were included. The age range was 1 day to 13 years (median 5.0 years).\n\nIn all subjects, the diameter of the common bile duct measured ≤ 3.3 mm.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30ef2bb1780_Common-bile-duct.png\/b8258ce3c9a024309b74734cec1db6fe.png)]()\n\n**Image** Transverse ultrasonographic image of the common bile duct and surrounding anatomy.\n\n## Galbladder\n[![Adapted from reference 10](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b814ec168_Galbladder.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 10*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic gallbladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:  \nVolume = length × width × height × 0.52\n\nThe study included 50 preterm infants (mean gestational age 31.7 ± 2.5 weeks, mean birth weight 1556 ± 441 g) and 46 term infants (mean gestational age 38.3 ± 1.2 weeks, mean birth weight 3253 ± 440 g).\n\nMeasurements were obtained shortly after birth, following 6 hours of fasting, and again at 5–7 days of age after 3-hour and 6-hour fasting intervals following regular milk feeding.\n\n**Common causes of a small gallbladder include:**\n\n- Biliary atresia\n- Postprandial (after fatty meal) contraction\n\n## Hip\n[![Adapted from reference 22](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3112ffd0110_4-capsule-normal.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 22*\n\n**Anterior recess**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nAn ultrasonographic study was performed in 58 healthy children and 105 children with unilateral transient synovitis, aged 1.7–12.8 years.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 22](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a312de254b6d_border-capsule.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 22*\n\nAll examinations were performed with the patient in the supine position and the hips in a neutral position.\n\nThe anterior joint capsule was measured, including both its anterior and posterior layers. The anterior contour of the joint capsule was also evaluated.  \nNo statistically significant correlation was found between age and anterior joint capsule thickness.\n\nA difference greater than 2 mm between sides or an effusion \\>2 mm was considered abnormal.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3114bbb3e20_Hip-capsule-figure.jpg\/447ad6206929b39299e8b35897538dbe.jpg)]()\n\n**Shape of the border of the anterior joint capsule**\n\nThe anterior contour of the joint capsule can be evaluated.  \n Ultrasonographic measurement of the anterior joint capsule.   \nBoth anterior (a) and posterior (p) layer can be identified.\n\n**Common causes of hip joint effusion include:**\n\n- Transient synovitis\n- Septic arthritis\n- Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA)\n\n[![Adapted from reference 23](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a1fee003a3e1_3D-TAB-Graf.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 23*\n\n**Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip (Graf’s Classification)**\n\n- **Type I:** Mature, centered hip joint with a well-developed acetabular roof and an angular or slightly blunt bony rim.\n- **Type II:** Centered hip joint with a deficiently developed acetabular roof and a rounded bony rim.\n- **Type III:** Decentered hip joint with a poorly developed acetabular roof and a flattened bony rim.\n\nClick [here](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/en\/p54ba2c50995c5\/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip-ultrasound.html) for article on Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3130224514b_Graf-figure.jpg\/a5944f1beaacbc5359471b5dd69f62c7.jpg)]()\n\n**Ultrasonographic parameters:**\n\n- Coronal plane view of the hip joint\n- Measurement of the **α (alpha) angle**\n\n## Kidney\n[![Adapted from reference 6](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3100be277e0_13kidney-neonates.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 6*\n\n**Preterm and Term Babies**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic evaluation was performed in 261 healthy newborn infants.  \nThe craniocaudal dimension of each kidney was measured using standard ultrasonography.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31016b20dd6_kidney-preterm.jpg\/1e9a81adcc62887a52f0f1bc45840266.jpg)]()\n\nUltrasonographic measurement of the length of a neonatal kidney.\n\nIn neonates, the renal parenchyma is typically more echogenic than the liver parenchyma, which is a normal finding at this age.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 16](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310245c4caf_12kidney-length.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 16*\n\n**Children**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nThe study included 203 pediatric patients. Exclusion criteria included a history of malignancy, steroid use, upper urinary tract abnormalities, vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) greater than grade I, urologic surgery, or abnormal renal sonographic findings.\n\nOn average, the left kidney measured 1.9 mm longer than the right.\n\n**Common causes of renal enlargement include:**\n\n- Duplicated collecting system\n- Nephritis (infectious and non-infectious)\n- Leukemia or lymphoma\n- Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD)\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31025845ec9_kindney-figure.jpg\/f60d6a13cca590051660627be906c4d1.jpg)]()\n\nUltrasonographic measurement of the length of a kidney.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 17](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a7d9d0710617_11-kidney-volume.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 17*\n\n**Renal volume**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nA total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31039903734_Kidney-volume.jpg)]()\n\n**Renal volume** was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:  \nVolume = Length × Width × Depth × 0.523\n\nThe total renal volume was determined by summing the right and left kidney volumes.   \nThe reported values represent the average of both kidneys.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 18](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310a3f64ca9_Collecting-system-figure.jpg\/e23cecb7d2b934bfbfce9b2f6d94baae.jpg)]()  *Adapted from reference 18*\n\n**Thickness of the wall of the collecting system**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic examination of 48 renal collecting systems in 24 healthy children (aged 3 days–12.6 years) was performed.  \nThe wall of the collecting system was identifiable in all kidneys, ranging from 0 (not visible) to 0.8 mm in thickness.  \nA wall thickness ≥ 1 mm was considered abnormal.\n\n**Common causes of collecting system wall thickening include:**\n\n- Urinary tract infection (UTI)\n- Intermittent dilatation (e.g., vesicoureteral reflux)\n- Recent or resolved dilatation\n\n## Liver\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30ee1fb0199_liver.jpg)]()\n\nThe craniocaudal dimension of the liver is measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography.\n\n**Causes of hepatomegaly include:**\n\n- Leukemia\n- Storage diseases (e.g., glycogen storage disorders)\n- Neonatal hepatitis\n\n[![Adapted from reference 6](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3128ce7fd61_Liver-neonate-figure.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 6*\n\n**Newborns**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nIn newborns (n = 261), the craniocaudal dimension of the liver was measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 7](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b82c476d6_liver.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 7*\n\n**Children**\n\n**Material and methods**  \n US study in 307 healthy children.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/liver-doppler.png)]()\n\n**Doppler parameters**\n\n**Materials and Method** An additional study of 100 healthy children (age range 0–17.9 years, median 7.8 years) established reference values for:\n\n- Portal vein peak systolic velocity\n- Hepatic artery peak systolic velocity\n- Hepatic artery resistive index (RI)\n\n([reference](https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1742271X221114050)).\n\n**Findings:**\n\n- Portal vein velocity was not age-independent\n- Hepatic artery velocity and RI decreased with increasing age\n\n## Mesenteric lymph nodes\n[![Adapted from reference 15](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3100139e072_14nodes.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 15*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nThis retrospective study included 61 children (36 boys, 25 girls; mean age 10.7 years, range 1.1–17.3 years) who underwent non-contrast abdominal CT for evaluation of suspected or confirmed renal stones. Lymph node size was evaluated on these images, and findings were extrapolated to ultrasonographic reference values.\n\n**Findings:**  \nEnlarged mesenteric lymph nodes (short-axis diameter \\> 5 mm) were observed in 33 of 61 children (54%), predominantly in the right lower quadrant (88%).  \nBased on these results, a short-axis diameter \\> 8 mm may represent a more accurate threshold for pediatric mesenteric lymphadenopathy.\n\nFalse-positive rate for enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes with varying lymph node threshold size is seen in the table.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a7d9f5b010ac_14nodes.jpg\/1e91d8809b655347c3df0111d63c5372.jpg)]()\n\n**Common pathological causes of enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes include**\n\n- Intestinal lymphoma\n- Lymphogenic metastasis\n- Specific infectious enteritis (e.g., tuberculosis)\n\n## Ovary\n[![Adapted from reference 20](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310d55abb62_6-ovarian.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 20*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls.\n\n**Common causes of ovarian enlargement include:**\n\n- Precocious puberty\n- Ovarian torsion\n- Polycystic ovarian disease\n- Teratoma or dermoid cyst\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310db1ca27a_ovary-figure.jpg)]()\n\nOvarian volume is calculated using the formula:\n\n- Length x Width x Height x 0.523.\n\n## Pancreas\n[![Adapted from reference 12](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30f3d725362_2-pancreas.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 12*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nThis retrospective ultrasonographic study included 273 pediatric patients (sex distribution not specified).\n\n**Echogenicity findings:**\n\n- Low echogenicity in 27 cases (10%)\n- Isoechoic in 145 cases (53%)\n- Increased echogenicity in 101 cases (37%)\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30f47b12f8f_pancreas-figure.jpg\/49e02d7117ba767efc1a51803d267aa3.jpg)]()\n\nThe maximum anteroposterior (AP) diameters of the head, body, and tail of the pancreas were measured on transverse or oblique ultrasound images.\n\n**Common causes of pancreatic enlargement include:**\n\n- Traumatic pancreatitis\n- Viral pancreatitis\n- Drug-induced pancreatitis\n\n## Portal vein\n[![Adapted from reference 9](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a7da42a557f9_portal-vein.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 9*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nA study was conducted in 150 children aged 0–16 years without clinical evidence of hepatic or intestinal disease who underwent abdominal ultrasonography.\n\n[![Measurement of portal vein diameter](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30f002aecc2_portal-vein-figure.jpg\/f4f3914fbf684f2261b06787da9f5cd1.jpg)]()  *Measurement of portal vein diameter*\n\nThe portal vein was visualized in the longitudinal plane from the splenomesenteric junction to the hepatic hilum.  \nThe maximum anteroposterior diameter was measured at the point where the hepatic artery crosses the portal vein.\n\n## Spleen\n[![Adapted from reference 6](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b899e2028_TAB-spleen-intrauterine.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 6*\n\n**Preterm and term babies**\n\n**Material and methods** US study in 261 healthy newborn infants.   \nCraniocaudal dimension of the spleen was determined with ultrasonography.\n\n[![Adapted from reference 11](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b883c45f8_TAB-spleen-children.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 11*\n\n**Children**\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic examination included 512 healthy children (238 boys, 274 girls; age range 1 day to 17 years) and 96 preterm infants (gestational age 25–35 weeks).  \nNone of the subjects had medical conditions affecting spleen size.\n\n**Common causes of splenomegaly include:**\n\n- Portal hypertension\n- Leukemia\n- Systemic infections (e.g., Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus)\n- Hematologic disorders (e.g., spherocytosis, thalassemia)\n- Storage diseases\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30f24eb3bd5_spleen-figure.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurement**  \nSpleen length was defined as the maximal distance between the most superomedial and inferolateral points on a longitudinal coronal view, ideally through the splenic hilum.\n\n## Subarachnoid space\n[![Adapted from reference 5](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b8684ea2a_Subarachnoid.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 5*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic assessment of the subarachnoid space was performed in 278 full-term healthy Chinese infants.  \nMeasurements were taken in the coronal plane at the level of the foramen of Monro.\n\nMean values were derived from regression equations, and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from the published data.\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a312815da933_ventricle-width-figure.jpg\/54d5c083be82c3cee3991eb1fb701af2.jpg)]()\n\n**Ultrasonographic parameters**\n\n- SCW: Sinu-cortical width\n- CCW: Cranio-cortical width\n- IHW: Interhemispheric width\n\n**Common causes of subarachnoid space enlargement include**\n\n- Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces of infancy (BESSI)\n- Cerebral atrophy\n- Dural sinus thrombosis\n\n## Testicle\n[![Adapted from reference 19](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310ac1391bc_8-testis.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 19*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic measurements were obtained from 344 boys of various ethnic backgrounds.   \nNo significant differences were noted between ethnicities or between the right and left testes.\n\n**Common causes of testicular enlargement include**\n\n- Leukemia\n- Precocious puberty\n- Testicular torsion\n- Epididymo-orchitis\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310bbeaed71_testis-figure.jpg\/d0b99102dbc132dfd96944a4d6a6ade7.jpg)]()\n\n**Testicular volume** was calculated using the formula:  \nLength × Width × Height × 0.523\n\n## Thymus\n[![Adapted from reference 22](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/1-thymus.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 22*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nMediastinal ultrasonography was performed in 151 healthy infants (79 boys and 72 girls) with no stress-related factorsaffecting thymic size.\n\n**Common causes of thymic enlargement include:**\n\n- Rebound thymic hyperplasia\n- T-cell lymphoma or leukemia\n- Thymoma\n- Langerhans cell histiocytosis\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a31228e10e8d_thymus-figure.jpg\/d638a8f6dd15d1ef19341d9f2c2c8ce9.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurements included**\n\n- Maximum transverse diameter\n- Right and left lobe anteroposterior diameters\n- Craniocaudal (longitudinal) length\n\nThe **thymic index** was calculated as:  \nTransverse diameter × largest sagittal area\n\n## Thyroid gland\n[![Adapted from reference 1-3](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b8b0f19a5_Thyroid.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 1-3*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic evaluation of thyroid volume was conducted in:\n\n- 100 English neonates (within the first week of life)\n- A subset of iodine-sufficient European children (n = 5,709, aged 6–15 years)\n- A group of German children (n = 252, aged 2–4 years)\n\n**Common causes of thyroid enlargement include**\n\n- Hashimoto’s thyroiditis\n- Graves’ disease\n- Multinodular goiter\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30e9c3ed26a_thyroid.jpg\/0b35a2e28fea0230fa9957079376ec5c.jpg)]()\n\nThyroid volume was calculated as the sum of both lobes, excluding the isthmus.  \nThe **ellipsoid formula** was used:  \nVolume = Length × Width × Height × 0.52\n\n## Uterus\n[![Adapted from reference 20](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310c15ed07d_7-uterus.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 20*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nUltrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls.\n\n**Common causes of uterine enlargement include**\n\n- Precocious puberty\n- Hydro- or hematometrocolpos\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a310cc2793c3_uterine-figure.jpg)]()\n\n**Uterine volume** was calculated using the ellipsoid formula:  \nLength × Width × Height × 0.523\n\n## Ventricles\n[![Adapted from reference 4](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/assets\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a30b8d832905_ventricles.png)]()  *Adapted from reference 4*\n\n**Materials and Methods**  \nAn ultrasonographic study was performed in 1,483 neonates (gestational age 25–42 weeks) examined on day 3 of life.  \nInfants with perinatal asphyxia, CNS infection, intracranial hemorrhage, or craniospinal malformations were excluded.\n\n**Common causes of ventriculomegaly include**\n\n- Congenital malformations (e.g., holoprosencephaly)\n- Obstructive hydrocephalus\n- Communicating hydrocephalus\n- Cerebral atrophy\n\n[![](https:\/\/radiologyassistant.nl\/img\/containers\/main\/normal-values-ultrasound\/a5a3126fb37bb0_ventricles-figure.jpg\/841c48788e69b116c5d21b2620f75cc2.jpg)]()\n\n**Measurements**\n\n- Anterior horn width (AHW)\n- Ventriculohemispheric ratio (VHR)  \n  Measured on coronal images at the level of the foramen 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Boilerpipe Text	Simon Robben, Rick van Rijn and Robin Smithuis Radiology Departement of the Maastricht University Hospital, Academical Medical Centre in Amsterdam and the Alrijne hospital in Leiden, the Netherlands Publicationdate 2018-02-09 update 2025-10-27 This document provides an overview of normal reference values for ultrasound examinations in neonates and children. The items are in an alphabethic order. Select one of the items listed on the left for details. Adrenal Appendix Bladder Bowel Common Bile Duct Galbladder Hip Kidney Liver Mesenteric lymph nodes Ovary Pancreas Portal vein Spleen Subarachnoid space Testicle Thymus Thyroid gland Uterus Ventricles Adrenal Adapted from reference 21 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 92 infants. Measurements Length (L): Defined as the maximum cephalocaudal dimension of the adrenal gland, measured in either the coronal or sagittal plane. Width (w): Defined as the maximum thickness of one of the limbs. Causes of Adrenal Enlargement Congenital adrenal hyperplasia Adrenal hemorrhage Adrenal neuroblastoma Appendix Adapted from reference 14 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was conducted in 146 consecutive patients (62 boys and 84 girls; mean age, 7 years; age range, 2–15 years). Exclusion criteria Cystic fibrosis Acute abdominal pain Previous appendectomy Age <2 years (due to difficulty in performing the examination) The appendix was successfully visualized in 120 children. Causes of Appendiceal Enlargement Acute appendicitis Cystic fibrosis Lymphoid hypertrophy (due to immune deficiency or viral enteritis) Intraluminal gas, mucus, or fecal material Mucocele Bladder Adapted from reference 17 Bladder volume Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study. Note: The total number of patients listed in the results tables may differ, as not all age subgroups were represented. Measurement Technique Length (L): Measured on a longitudinal scan from the bladder neck to the fundus. Depth (D): Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal plane at the level of maximum cross-sectional area, from the anterior to posterior mucosal surface in the midline. Width (W): Measured perpendicular to D at its midpoint. Bladder Volume Calculation Bladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523 Adapted from reference 17 Bladder wall thickness Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included. Bladder wall thickness was measured only when the residual bladder volume was <10% of the pre-voided volume. Measurement Technique The bladder wall was evaluated on a zoomed transverse image of the emptied bladder. Measurements were taken at three sites: Anterolateral Lateral Posterolateral The mean of these three measurements was used for analysis. Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWTI) Bladder wall thickness depends on the degree of bladder filling and bladder capacity. Therefore, it is expressed as the Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWI). It helps normalize bladder wall measurements across different degrees of bladder distension and improves diagnostic accuracy for lower urinary tract abnormalities, especially in children. Causes of Bladder Wall Thickening Cystitis Dysfunctional voiding Posterior urethral valves Bowel Adapted from reference 13 Materials and Methods The study population consisted of 128 patients (57 males and 71 females). Of these, 86 individuals were aged between 1 and 19 years (only data pertaining to this subgroup are presented). Bowel wall thickness was measured on transverse ultrasound sections and included the following histologic layers: mucosa, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, submucosa, and muscularis propria. Ultrasonographic example Measurement of the terminal ileum wall thickness in a 12-year-old male patient with cystic fibrosis. Common causes of small bowel wall thickening include: Henoch–Schönlein purpura Crohn’s disease Lymphoma Adapted from reference 13 In the same study, colonic wall thickness was also measured. Common causes of colonic wall thickening include: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) Hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS) Pseudomembranous colitis Common Bile Duct Adapted from reference 8 Materials and Methods A total of 173 consecutive pediatric patients (100 boys and 73 girls) referred for abdominal ultrasonography unrelated to hepatobiliary pathology were included. The age range was 1 day to 13 years (median 5.0 years). In all subjects, the diameter of the common bile duct measured ≤ 3.3 mm. Image Transverse ultrasonographic image of the common bile duct and surrounding anatomy. Galbladder Adapted from reference 10 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic gallbladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume = length × width × height × 0.52 The study included 50 preterm infants (mean gestational age 31.7 ± 2.5 weeks, mean birth weight 1556 ± 441 g) and 46 term infants (mean gestational age 38.3 ± 1.2 weeks, mean birth weight 3253 ± 440 g). Measurements were obtained shortly after birth, following 6 hours of fasting, and again at 5–7 days of age after 3-hour and 6-hour fasting intervals following regular milk feeding. Common causes of a small gallbladder include: Biliary atresia Postprandial (after fatty meal) contraction Hip Adapted from reference 22 Anterior recess Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 58 healthy children and 105 children with unilateral transient synovitis, aged 1.7–12.8 years. Adapted from reference 22 All examinations were performed with the patient in the supine position and the hips in a neutral position. The anterior joint capsule was measured, including both its anterior and posterior layers. The anterior contour of the joint capsule was also evaluated. No statistically significant correlation was found between age and anterior joint capsule thickness. A difference greater than 2 mm between sides or an effusion >2 mm was considered abnormal. Shape of the border of the anterior joint capsule The anterior contour of the joint capsule can be evaluated. Ultrasonographic measurement of the anterior joint capsule. Both anterior (a) and posterior (p) layer can be identified. Common causes of hip joint effusion include: Transient synovitis Septic arthritis Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) Adapted from reference 23 Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip (Graf’s Classification) Type I: Mature, centered hip joint with a well-developed acetabular roof and an angular or slightly blunt bony rim. Type II: Centered hip joint with a deficiently developed acetabular roof and a rounded bony rim. Type III: Decentered hip joint with a poorly developed acetabular roof and a flattened bony rim. Click here for article on Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip. Ultrasonographic parameters: Coronal plane view of the hip joint Measurement of the α (alpha) angle Kidney Adapted from reference 6 Preterm and Term Babies Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic evaluation was performed in 261 healthy newborn infants. The craniocaudal dimension of each kidney was measured using standard ultrasonography. Ultrasonographic measurement of the length of a neonatal kidney. In neonates, the renal parenchyma is typically more echogenic than the liver parenchyma, which is a normal finding at this age. Adapted from reference 16 Children Materials and Methods The study included 203 pediatric patients. Exclusion criteria included a history of malignancy, steroid use, upper urinary tract abnormalities, vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) greater than grade I, urologic surgery, or abnormal renal sonographic findings. On average, the left kidney measured 1.9 mm longer than the right. Common causes of renal enlargement include: Duplicated collecting system Nephritis (infectious and non-infectious) Leukemia or lymphoma Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) Ultrasonographic measurement of the length of a kidney. Adapted from reference 17 Renal volume Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study. Renal volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume = Length × Width × Depth × 0.523 The total renal volume was determined by summing the right and left kidney volumes. The reported values represent the average of both kidneys. Adapted from reference 18 Thickness of the wall of the collecting system Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic examination of 48 renal collecting systems in 24 healthy children (aged 3 days–12.6 years) was performed. The wall of the collecting system was identifiable in all kidneys, ranging from 0 (not visible) to 0.8 mm in thickness. A wall thickness ≥ 1 mm was considered abnormal. Common causes of collecting system wall thickening include: Urinary tract infection (UTI) Intermittent dilatation (e.g., vesicoureteral reflux) Recent or resolved dilatation Liver The craniocaudal dimension of the liver is measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography. Causes of hepatomegaly include: Leukemia Storage diseases (e.g., glycogen storage disorders) Neonatal hepatitis Adapted from reference 6 Newborns Materials and Methods In newborns (n = 261), the craniocaudal dimension of the liver was measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography. Adapted from reference 7 Children Material and methods US study in 307 healthy children. Doppler parameters Materials and Method An additional study of 100 healthy children (age range 0–17.9 years, median 7.8 years) established reference values for: Portal vein peak systolic velocity Hepatic artery peak systolic velocity Hepatic artery resistive index (RI) ( reference ). Findings: Portal vein velocity was not age-independent Hepatic artery velocity and RI decreased with increasing age Mesenteric lymph nodes Adapted from reference 15 Materials and Methods This retrospective study included 61 children (36 boys, 25 girls; mean age 10.7 years, range 1.1–17.3 years) who underwent non-contrast abdominal CT for evaluation of suspected or confirmed renal stones. Lymph node size was evaluated on these images, and findings were extrapolated to ultrasonographic reference values. Findings: Enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes (short-axis diameter > 5 mm) were observed in 33 of 61 children (54%), predominantly in the right lower quadrant (88%). Based on these results, a short-axis diameter > 8 mm may represent a more accurate threshold for pediatric mesenteric lymphadenopathy. False-positive rate for enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes with varying lymph node threshold size is seen in the table. Common pathological causes of enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes include Intestinal lymphoma Lymphogenic metastasis Specific infectious enteritis (e.g., tuberculosis) Ovary Adapted from reference 20 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls. Common causes of ovarian enlargement include: Precocious puberty Ovarian torsion Polycystic ovarian disease Teratoma or dermoid cyst Ovarian volume is calculated using the formula: Length x Width x Height x 0.523. Pancreas Adapted from reference 12 Materials and Methods This retrospective ultrasonographic study included 273 pediatric patients (sex distribution not specified). Echogenicity findings: Low echogenicity in 27 cases (10%) Isoechoic in 145 cases (53%) Increased echogenicity in 101 cases (37%) The maximum anteroposterior (AP) diameters of the head, body, and tail of the pancreas were measured on transverse or oblique ultrasound images. Common causes of pancreatic enlargement include: Traumatic pancreatitis Viral pancreatitis Drug-induced pancreatitis Portal vein Adapted from reference 9 Materials and Methods A study was conducted in 150 children aged 0–16 years without clinical evidence of hepatic or intestinal disease who underwent abdominal ultrasonography. Measurement of portal vein diameter The portal vein was visualized in the longitudinal plane from the splenomesenteric junction to the hepatic hilum. The maximum anteroposterior diameter was measured at the point where the hepatic artery crosses the portal vein. Spleen Adapted from reference 6 Preterm and term babies Material and methods US study in 261 healthy newborn infants. Craniocaudal dimension of the spleen was determined with ultrasonography. Adapted from reference 11 Children Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic examination included 512 healthy children (238 boys, 274 girls; age range 1 day to 17 years) and 96 preterm infants (gestational age 25–35 weeks). None of the subjects had medical conditions affecting spleen size. Common causes of splenomegaly include: Portal hypertension Leukemia Systemic infections (e.g., Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus) Hematologic disorders (e.g., spherocytosis, thalassemia) Storage diseases Measurement Spleen length was defined as the maximal distance between the most superomedial and inferolateral points on a longitudinal coronal view, ideally through the splenic hilum. Subarachnoid space Adapted from reference 5 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic assessment of the subarachnoid space was performed in 278 full-term healthy Chinese infants. Measurements were taken in the coronal plane at the level of the foramen of Monro. Mean values were derived from regression equations, and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from the published data. Ultrasonographic parameters SCW: Sinu-cortical width CCW: Cranio-cortical width IHW: Interhemispheric width Common causes of subarachnoid space enlargement include Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces of infancy (BESSI) Cerebral atrophy Dural sinus thrombosis Testicle Adapted from reference 19 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements were obtained from 344 boys of various ethnic backgrounds. No significant differences were noted between ethnicities or between the right and left testes. Common causes of testicular enlargement include Leukemia Precocious puberty Testicular torsion Epididymo-orchitis Testicular volume was calculated using the formula: Length × Width × Height × 0.523 Thymus Adapted from reference 22 Materials and Methods Mediastinal ultrasonography was performed in 151 healthy infants (79 boys and 72 girls) with no stress-related factorsaffecting thymic size. Common causes of thymic enlargement include: Rebound thymic hyperplasia T-cell lymphoma or leukemia Thymoma Langerhans cell histiocytosis Measurements included Maximum transverse diameter Right and left lobe anteroposterior diameters Craniocaudal (longitudinal) length The thymic index was calculated as: Transverse diameter × largest sagittal area Thyroid gland Adapted from reference 1-3 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic evaluation of thyroid volume was conducted in: 100 English neonates (within the first week of life) A subset of iodine-sufficient European children (n = 5,709, aged 6–15 years) A group of German children (n = 252, aged 2–4 years) Common causes of thyroid enlargement include Hashimoto’s thyroiditis Graves’ disease Multinodular goiter Thyroid volume was calculated as the sum of both lobes, excluding the isthmus. The ellipsoid formula was used: Volume = Length × Width × Height × 0.52 Uterus Adapted from reference 20 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls. Common causes of uterine enlargement include Precocious puberty Hydro- or hematometrocolpos Uterine volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Length × Width × Height × 0.523 Ventricles Adapted from reference 4 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 1,483 neonates (gestational age 25–42 weeks) examined on day 3 of life. Infants with perinatal asphyxia, CNS infection, intracranial hemorrhage, or craniospinal malformations were excluded. Common causes of ventriculomegaly include Congenital malformations (e.g., holoprosencephaly) Obstructive hydrocephalus Communicating hydrocephalus Cerebral atrophy Measurements Anterior horn width (AHW) Ventriculohemispheric ratio (VHR) Measured on coronal images at the level of the foramen of Monro.
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[Ovarian cystic lesions.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/common-ovarian-cystic-lesions-1) ### [Kidney](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/kidney) - [Bosniak Classification 2019](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/kidney/bozniak-2019) - [Solid Renal Masses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/kidney/solid-masses) ### [Liver](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver) - [Characterisation of liver masses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/characterisation-of-liver-masses) - [Common Liver Tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/common-liver-tumors) - [Incidentalomas in the liver](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/incidentalomas) - [Liver - Segmental Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/segmental-anatomy) - [LI-RADS](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/li-rads) ### [Ovarium](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ovarium) - [Roadmap to evaluate ovarian cysts.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ovarium/roadmap-to-evaluate-ovarian-cysts-1) ### [Pancreas](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/pancreas) - [Acute Pancreatitis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/pancreas/acute-pancreatitis) - [Pancreatic Cancer - CT staging 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/pancreas/pancreas-carcinoma-1) - [Pancreatic cystic Lesions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/pancreas/pancreas-cystic-lesions) ### [Peritoneum](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/peritoneum) - [Anatomy of Peritoneum and Mesentery](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/peritoneum/anatomy-of-peritoneum-and-mesentery) - [Peritoneal Carcinomatosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/peritoneum/peritoneal-carcinomatosis) - [Peritoneal Pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/peritoneum/peritoneal-pathology) ### [Prostate](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/prostate) - [Prostate Cancer - PI-RADS v2.1](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/prostate/prostate-cancer-pi-rads-v2-1) - [Prostate Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/prostate/prostate-cancer-pi-rads-v2-1-1) ### [Rectum](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/rectum) - [Rectal Cancer MR staging and restaging- update 2026](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/rectum/rectal-cancer-mr-staging-1-1) - [Perianal Fistulas](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/rectum/perianal-fistulas) - [Dynamic Rectal examination](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/rectum/dynamic-rectal-examination) ### [Ultrasound](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound) - [Transvaginal Ultrasound for Non-Gynaecological Conditions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound/transvaginal-ultrasound-for-non-gynaecological-conditions) - [Ultrasound in Acute Abdomen](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound/role-of-ultrasound-in-acute-abdomen) - [US of the GI tract - Technique](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound/lk-jg-1-1-1) - [US of the GI tract - Normal Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound/lk-jg-1-1) - [Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast) ### [BI-RADS](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/bi-rads) - [Bi-RADS for Mammography and Ultrasound 2013](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/bi-rads/bi-rads-for-mammography-and-ultrasound-2013) ### [Calcifications](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/calcifications) - [Differential of Breast Calcifications](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/calcifications/differential-of-breast-calcifications) ### [Breast Cancer](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/breast-cancer) - [Staging and Treatment of Breast Cancer](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/breast-cancer/staging-and-treatment-of-breast-cancer) ### [Breast Prosthesis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/breast-prosthesis) - [Breast Implants](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/breast-prosthesis/breast-prosthesis-imaging) ### [Male Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/male-breast) - [Pathology of the Male Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/male-breast/pathology-of-the-male-breast) ### [MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/mri) - [MRI of the Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/mri/mri-of-the-breast) ### [Ultrasound](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/ultrasound) - [Ultrasound of the Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/ultrasound/ultrasound-of-the-breast) - [Cardiovascular](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular) ### [Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/anatomy) - [Cardiac Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/anatomy/cardiac-anatomy) - [Coronary anatomy and anomalies](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/anatomy/coronary-anatomy-and-anomalies) ### [CAD-RADS](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/cad-rads) - [Coronary Artery Disease-Reporting and Data System 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/cad-rads/coronary-artery-disease-reporting-and-data-system) ### [Cardiomyopathy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/cardiomyopathy) - [Ischemic and non-ischemic cardiomyopathy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/cardiomyopathy/ischemic-and-non-ischemic-cardiomyopathy) ### [Devices](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/devices) - [Cardiovascular devices](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/devices/cardiovascular-devices) ### [Peripheral MRA](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/peripheral-mra) - [Contrast-enhanced MRA of peripheral vessels](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/peripheral-mra/contrast-enhanced-mra-of-peripheral-vessels) ### [Pearls...](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/pearls) - [Cardiovascular Pearls on Chest CT...](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/pearls/cardiovascular-pearls-on-chest-ct) ### [Pulmonary Hypertension](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/thoracic-aorta-1) - [Pulmonary Hypertension and Thromboembolic disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/thoracic-aorta-1/acute-aortic-syndrome-1) ### [Thoracic Aorta](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/thoracic-aorta) - [Acute Aortic Syndrome](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/thoracic-aorta/acute-aortic-syndrome) - [Vascular Anomalies of Aorta, Pulmonary and Systemic vessels](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/thoracic-aorta/vascular-anomalies-of-aorta-pulmonary-and-systemic-vessels) - [Chest](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest) ### [Airways](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/airways) - [Large airway disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/airways/large-airway-disease) ### [Chest X-Ray](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/chest-x-ray) - [Chest X-Ray - Basic Interpretation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/chest-x-ray/basic-interpretation) - [Chest X-Ray - Heart Failure](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/chest-x-ray/heart-failure) - [Chest X-Ray - Lung disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/chest-x-ray/lung-disease) ### [COVID-19](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19) - [COVID-19 Imaging findings](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19/covid19-imaging-findings) - [COVID-19 Differential Diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19/covid-19-differential-diagnosis) - [COVID-19 CO-RADS classification](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19/corads-classification) - [32 cases of suspected COVID-19](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19/ct-findings-in-patients) ### [Cystic Lung Disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/cystic-lung-disease) - [Cystic Lung Disease - Differential diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/cystic-lung-disease/analysis-of-cystic-lung-disease-1-1-1) ### [Esophagus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/esophagus) - [Esophagus I: anatomy, rings, inflammation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/esophagus/esophagus-i-anatomy-rings-inflammation) - [Esophagus II: Strictures, Acute syndromes, Neoplasms and Vascular impressions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/esophagus/esophagus-ii-strictures-acute-syndromes-neoplasms-and-vascular-impressions) ### [HRCT](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/hrct) - [HRCT - Basic Interpretation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/hrct/basic-interpretation) - [HRCT - Common diagnoses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/hrct/common-diseases) - [HRCT – Patterns of pulmonary fibrosis in ILD](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/hrct/fibrosis-of-the-lung-on-hrct-imaging) ### [Lung anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/lung-anatomy) - [Lung Segments and Bronchi](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/lung-anatomy/lung-segments) ### [Lung Cancer](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/lung-cancer) - [TNM classification 9ᵗʰ edition](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/lung-cancer/tnm-classification-8th-edition-1) - [Cystic Lung Cancer](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/lung-cancer/cystic-lung-cancer) ### [Mediastinum](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/mediastinum) - [Mediastinal Lymph Node Map](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/mediastinum/mediastinum-lymph-node-map) - [Mediastinal Masses - differential diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/mediastinum/masses-differential-diagnosis) ### [Pearls](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/pearls) - [Cardiovascular Pearls on Chest CT.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/pearls/cardiovascular-pearls-on-chest-ct-2) ### [Pulmonary nodules](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/plumonary-nodules) - [BTS guideline of pulmonary nodules](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/plumonary-nodules/bts-guideline) - [Fleischner 2017 guideline](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/plumonary-nodules/fleischner-2017-guideline) ### [Solitary Pulmonary Nodule](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/solitary-pulmonary-nodule) - [Pulmonary nodule - Benign versus Malignant](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/solitary-pulmonary-nodule/benign-versus-malignant) ### [Tuberculosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/tb) - [Imaging findings in TB](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/tb/tuberculosis) ### [Thymus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/thymus) - [Thymic masses and mimics](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/thymus/thymus) - [Head/Neck](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck) ### [Cervical Nodes](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/cervical-node-mapping) - [Cervical Lymph Node Map](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/cervical-node-mapping/cervical-node-map) ### [Esophagus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/esophagus-1) - [Esophagus I: anatomy, rings, inflammation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/esophagus-1/esophagus-i-anatomy-rings-inflammation-1) - [Esophagus II: Strictures, Acute syndromes, Neoplasms and Vascular impressions.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/esophagus-1/esophagus-ii-strictures-acute-syndromes-neoplasms-and-vascular-impressions-1) ### [Infra- and suprahyoid neck](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/infrahyoid-neck) - [Anatomy and Pathology of the Infrahyoid Neck](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/infrahyoid-neck/anatomy-and-pathology) ### [Tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/neck-masses) - [Neck Masses in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/neck-masses/neck-masses-in-children) - [Head Neck tumors - When to think of malignancy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/neck-masses/head-neck-tumors) ### [Orbita](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/orbita) - [CT and MRI of the Eye](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/orbita/pathology) ### [Paranasal Sinuses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/paranasal-sinuses) - [MRI of the Paranasal Sinuses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/paranasal-sinuses/mri-examination) ### [Swallowing](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/swallowing) - [Swallowing disorders update](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/swallowing/swallowing-disorders-update) ### [Temporal Bone](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/temporal-bone) - [Temporal Bone Anatomy 1.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/temporal-bone/anatomy) - [Temporal Bone Anatomy 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/temporal-bone/anatomy-2-0) - [Temporal Bone Pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/temporal-bone/pathology) ### [Tinnitus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/tinnitus) - [Pulsatile and non-pulsatile tinnitus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/tinnitus/pulsatile-and-non-pulsatile-tinnitus) ### [TI-RADS](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/ti-rads) - [TI-RADS - Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/ti-rads/ti-rads) ### [Trigeminus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/trigeminus) - [Trigeminal neuralgia](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/trigeminus/trigeminal-neuralgia-and-neuropathy) - [Musculoskeletal](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal) ### [Ankle](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle) - [Ankle Fracture Mechanism and Radiography](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/fracture-mechanism-and-radiography) - [Algoritm for Ankle Fractures 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/fractures-video-lesson-1) - [Ankle fractures - Weber and Lauge-Hansen Classification](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/weber-and-lauge-hansen-classification) - [Special Ankle Fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/special-fracture-cases) - [MRI examination of the ankle](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/mri-examination) ### [Arthritis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/arthritis) - [Arthritis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/arthritis/fractures-video-lesson) ### [Bone Tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors) - [Bone tumors in alphabetical order](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/alphabetical-order) - [Bone tumors - Differential diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/differential-diagnosis) - [Osteolytic - ill defined bone tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/osteolytic-ill-defined) - [Osteolytic - well defined bone tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/osteolytic-well-defined) - [Sclerotic bone tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/sclerotic-tumors) - [Cartilage tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/chondrotumors-1) ### [Cases - pearls in radiology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist-1) - [Foot and Ankle cases](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist-1/foot) ### [Diabetic foot](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/diabetic-foot) - [MRI examination](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/diabetic-foot/mri-examination) ### [Elbow](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/elbow) - [MRI examination of the Elbow](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/elbow/mri-examination) - [Elbow fractures in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/elbow/fractures-in-children) ### [Hip](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/hip) - [Arthroplasty of the Hip](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/hip/arthroplasty) - [Femoroacetabular impingement syndrome](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/hip/femoroacetabular-impingement-syndrome) ### [Knee](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/knee) - [Meniscal pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/knee/meniscal-pathology) - [Non-Meniscal pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/knee/non-meniscal-pathology) - [Meniscus special cases](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/knee/meniscus-special-cases) ### [Muscle](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/muscle) - [MRI traumatic changes](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/muscle/mri-traumatic-changes) - [Non-traumatic changes](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/muscle/non-traumatic-changes) - [Hamstring injury](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/muscle/hamstring-injury) ### [Shoulder](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder) - [Shoulder Anatomy and Variants on MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder/mri-anatomy) - [Shoulder instability - MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder/instability) - [Shoulder Rotator cuff injury](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder/rotator-cuff-injury) - [Shoulder Ultrasound](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder/shoulder-ultrasound) ### [Spine](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/spine) - [Spine fractures - TLICS Classification](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/spine/tlics-classification-1) - [AO Spine Classification of Thoracolumbar Fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/spine/ao-classification) ### [Stress fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/unsorted) - [Stress fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/unsorted/stress-fractures) ### [Ultrasound](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ultrasound) - [US-guided injection of joints](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ultrasound/us-guided-injection-of-joints) ### [Wrist](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist) - [Carpal instability](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist/carpal-instability) - [Fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist/fractures) - [...](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist/foot-1) - [Neuroradiology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology) ### [Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain) - [Brain Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain/anatomy) ### [Brain Ischemia](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain-ischemia) - [Imaging in Acute Stroke](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain-ischemia/imaging-in-acute-stroke) - [Vascular territories of the Brain](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain-ischemia/vascular-territories) ### [Brain Tumor](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain-tumor) - [Systematic Approach to Brain Tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain-tumor/systematic-approach) ### [Carotid Pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/carotid-pathology) - [How to Differentiate Carotid Obstructions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/carotid-pathology/differentiating-carotid-pathology) ### [Dementia](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/dementia) - [Dementia - Role of MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/dementia/role-of-mri) ### [Enhancement Patterns](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/enhancement-patterns) - [Enhancement Patterns in CNS disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/enhancement-patterns/enhancement-patterns-in-cns-diseases) ### [Epilepsy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/epilepsy) - [Epilepsy - Role of MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/epilepsy/role-of-mri) ### [Hemorrhage](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/hemorrhage) - [Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/hemorrhage/traumatic-intracranial-haemorrhage) - [Non-traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/hemorrhage/non-traumatic-intracranial-hemorrhage) ### [Multiple Sclerosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/multiple-sclerosis) - [Multiple Sclerosis 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/multiple-sclerosis/diagnosis-and-differential-diagnosis-3) ### [Sella Turcica](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/sella-turcica) - [Sella Turcica and Parasellar Region](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/sella-turcica/sella-turcica-and-parasellar-region) ### [Sinus Thrombosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/sinus-thrombosis) - [Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/sinus-thrombosis/cerebral-venous-thrombosis) ### [Spine](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine) - [Cervical injury](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/cervical-injury) - [Lumbar Disc Herniation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/lumbar-disc-herniation) - [Lumbar Disc Nomenclature 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/lumbar-disc-nomenclature-2-0) - [Myelopathy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/myelopathy) - [Thoracolumbar injury](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/thoracolumbar-injury) - [TLICS Classification of fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/tlics-classification) ### [Intracranial Hypotension](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/white-matter-disease-1) - [Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/white-matter-disease-1/spontaneous-intracranial-hypotension) - [Pediatrics](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics) ### [Abdomen](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses) - [Acute Abdomen in Neonates](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/acute-abdomen-in-neonates) - [Cystic Abdominal Masses in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/cystic-abdominal-masses-in-children) - [Solid Abdominal Masses in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/malignant-abdominal-tumors-in-children) - [Renal Tumors in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/renal-tumors-in-children) - [Acute Scrotum in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/acute-scrotum-in-children) - [Lines and tubes in Neonates](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/lines-and-tubes-in-neonates) - [Necrotizing Enterocolitis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/necrotizing-enterocolitis) ### [Chest](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/pediatric-chest-ct) - [Nonvascular Mediastinal Masses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/pediatric-chest-ct/nonvascular-mediastinal-masses) - [Neonatal Chest X-Ray](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/pediatric-chest-ct/neonatal-chest) - [Pediatric Chest CT 2](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/pediatric-chest-ct/pediatric-chest-ct-2) ### [Child Abuse](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/child-abuse) - [Child abuse - Diagnostic Imaging 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/child-abuse/diagnostic-imaging-in-child-abuse) ### [Head/neck](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/head-neck) - [Neck Masses in Children.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/head-neck/neck-masses-in-children-1) - [Craniosynostosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/head-neck/craniosynosthosis) ### [Musculoskeletal](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/hip) - [Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/hip/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip-ultrasound) - [Elbow fractures in Children.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/hip/fractures-in-children-1) - [Hip pathology in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/hip/hip-pathology-in-children) ### [Neuro](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/spine) - [Neonatal Brain US](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/spine/neonatal-brain-us) - [Ultrasound of the Neonatal spine](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/spine/ultrasound-of-the-neonatal-spine) ### [Normal values](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values) - [Normal Values in Pediatric Ultrasound](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound) - [More](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more) ### [ANBI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/radioloy-assistant) - [Jaarverslagen en financiële rapporten](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/radioloy-assistant/anbi) ### [Radiology Assistant](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/radiology-assistant) - [Information](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/radiology-assistant/information) ### [Apps](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/apps) - [Radiology Assistant 2.0 app](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/apps/radiology-assistant-2-0-app) - [Radiology.expert](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/apps/startradiology) ### [How to make videos and illustrations](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/how-to-make-videos-illustrations) - [How to make illustrations in Keynote](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/how-to-make-videos-illustrations/how-to-make-illustrations-in-keynote) - [How to make videos in Quicktime Player](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/how-to-make-videos-illustrations/how-to-make-videos-in-quicktime-player) ### [CT Protocols](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/ct-protocols) - [CT contrast injection and protocols](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/ct-protocols/ct-contrast-injection-and-protocols) ### [RECIST 1.1](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/recist-1-1) - [RECIST 1.1 - examples](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/recist-1-1/recist-1-1-examples) - [RECIST 1.1 - and more](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/recist-1-1/recist-1-1) - [RECIST 1.1 - the basics](https://radiologyassistant.nl/more/recist-1-1/recist-1-1-1) - [Abdomen](https://radiologyassistant.nl/) - ### Acute Abdomen - [Appendicitis and Mimics](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/acute-abdomen/appendicitis-and-mimics) - [Appendicitis - US findings](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/acute-abdomen/appendicitis-us-findings) - [Appendicitis - Pitfalls in US and CT diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/acute-abdomen/appendicitis-pitfalls-in-us-and-ct-diagnosis) - [CT in Abdominal Trauma](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/acute-abdomen/ct-in-trauma) - [Practical approach to Acute Abdomen](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/acute-abdomen/practical-approach-to-acute-abdomen) - ### Anal cancer - [Anal cancer staging](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/anal-cancer-2/anal) - ### Abdominal wall - [Abdominal wall hernias](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/abdomen-1/abdominal-wall-hernias) - ### Adrenals - [Characterization of Adrenal lesions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/adrenals/lesion-characterization) - [Characterization of Adrenal lesions 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/adrenals/lesion-characterization-1) - ### Aorta - [Aortic Aneurysm Rupture](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/aorta/aneurysm-rupture) - ### Biliary system - [Gallbladder obstruction](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/biliary-system/lk-jg) - [Biliary duct pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/biliary-system/biliary-duct-pathology) - [Gallbladder wall thickening](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/biliary-system/gallbladder-wall-thickening) - ### Bladder - [Bladder Cancer - VI-RADS](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bladder/bladder-cancer-vi-rads) - ### Bowel - [Bowel Ischemia - Video Lectures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bowel/bowel-ischemia) - [CT-pattern of Bowel wall thickening](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bowel/bowel-wall-thickening-ct-pattern) - [Closed Loop in Small bowel obstruction](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bowel/closed-loop-in-small-bowel-obstruction) - [Closed Loop Obstruction with video](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bowel/closed-loop-obstruction-with-video) - [Crohn's disease - role of MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bowel/crohn-s-disease) - [Crohn's disease - role of Ultrasound](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bowel/ultrasound-in-crohns-disease) - [Small Bowel Tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bowel/small-bowel-tumors) - [Sharp foreign bodies in GI tract](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/bowel/sharp-foreign-bodies-in-gi-tract) - ### Chest radiology for Abdominal radiologists - [Thoracic Ultrasound in Acute Abdomen](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/chest-radiology-for-abdominal-radiologists/chest-radiology-for-abdominal-radiologists) - ### Gynaecology - [Acute Abdomen in Gynaecology - Ultrasound](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/us-of-acute-gynaecology) - [Endometriosis - MRI detection](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/endometriosis-mri-detection) - [Cervical Cancer - MR staging](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/mr-in-cervical-cancer-1) - [Endometrial Cancer - MR staging](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/mr-in-endometrial-cancer) - [Müllerian duct anomalies](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/mullerian-duct-anomalies) - [Ovarian cystic lesions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/common-ovarian-cystic-lesions) - [Roadmap to evaluate ovarian cysts](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/roadmap-to-evaluate-ovarian-cysts) - [Ovarian cystic lesions.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/unsorted/common-ovarian-cystic-lesions-1) - ### Kidney - [Bosniak Classification 2019](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/kidney/bozniak-2019) - [Solid Renal Masses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/kidney/solid-masses) - ### Liver - [Characterisation of liver masses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/characterisation-of-liver-masses) - [Common Liver Tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/common-liver-tumors) - [Incidentalomas in the liver](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/incidentalomas) - [Liver - Segmental Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/segmental-anatomy) - [LI-RADS](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/liver/li-rads) - ### Ovarium - [Roadmap to evaluate ovarian cysts.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ovarium/roadmap-to-evaluate-ovarian-cysts-1) - ### Pancreas - [Acute Pancreatitis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/pancreas/acute-pancreatitis) - [Pancreatic Cancer - CT staging 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/pancreas/pancreas-carcinoma-1) - [Pancreatic cystic Lesions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/pancreas/pancreas-cystic-lesions) - ### Peritoneum - [Anatomy of Peritoneum and Mesentery](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/peritoneum/anatomy-of-peritoneum-and-mesentery) - [Peritoneal Carcinomatosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/peritoneum/peritoneal-carcinomatosis) - [Peritoneal Pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/peritoneum/peritoneal-pathology) - ### Prostate - [Prostate Cancer - PI-RADS v2.1](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/prostate/prostate-cancer-pi-rads-v2-1) - [Prostate Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/prostate/prostate-cancer-pi-rads-v2-1-1) - ### Rectum - [Rectal Cancer MR staging and restaging- update 2026](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/rectum/rectal-cancer-mr-staging-1-1) - [Perianal Fistulas](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/rectum/perianal-fistulas) - [Dynamic Rectal examination](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/rectum/dynamic-rectal-examination) - ### Ultrasound - [Transvaginal Ultrasound for Non-Gynaecological Conditions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound/transvaginal-ultrasound-for-non-gynaecological-conditions) - [Ultrasound in Acute Abdomen](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound/role-of-ultrasound-in-acute-abdomen) - [US of the GI tract - Technique](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound/lk-jg-1-1-1) - [US of the GI tract - Normal Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/abdomen/ultrasound/lk-jg-1-1) - [Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/) - ### BI-RADS - [Bi-RADS for Mammography and Ultrasound 2013](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/bi-rads/bi-rads-for-mammography-and-ultrasound-2013) - ### Calcifications - [Differential of Breast Calcifications](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/calcifications/differential-of-breast-calcifications) - ### Breast Cancer - [Staging and Treatment of Breast Cancer](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/breast-cancer/staging-and-treatment-of-breast-cancer) - ### Breast Prosthesis - [Breast Implants](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/breast-prosthesis/breast-prosthesis-imaging) - ### Male Breast - [Pathology of the Male Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/male-breast/pathology-of-the-male-breast) - ### MRI - [MRI of the Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/mri/mri-of-the-breast) - ### Ultrasound - [Ultrasound of the Breast](https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/ultrasound/ultrasound-of-the-breast) - [Cardiovascular](https://radiologyassistant.nl/) - ### Anatomy - [Cardiac Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/anatomy/cardiac-anatomy) - [Coronary anatomy and anomalies](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/anatomy/coronary-anatomy-and-anomalies) - ### CAD-RADS - [Coronary Artery Disease-Reporting and Data System 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/cad-rads/coronary-artery-disease-reporting-and-data-system) - ### Cardiomyopathy - [Ischemic and non-ischemic cardiomyopathy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/cardiomyopathy/ischemic-and-non-ischemic-cardiomyopathy) - ### Devices - [Cardiovascular devices](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/devices/cardiovascular-devices) - ### Peripheral MRA - [Contrast-enhanced MRA of peripheral vessels](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/peripheral-mra/contrast-enhanced-mra-of-peripheral-vessels) - ### Pearls... - [Cardiovascular Pearls on Chest CT...](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/pearls/cardiovascular-pearls-on-chest-ct) - ### Pulmonary Hypertension - [Pulmonary Hypertension and Thromboembolic disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/thoracic-aorta-1/acute-aortic-syndrome-1) - ### Thoracic Aorta - [Acute Aortic Syndrome](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/thoracic-aorta/acute-aortic-syndrome) - [Vascular Anomalies of Aorta, Pulmonary and Systemic vessels](https://radiologyassistant.nl/cardiovascular/thoracic-aorta/vascular-anomalies-of-aorta-pulmonary-and-systemic-vessels) - [Chest](https://radiologyassistant.nl/) - ### Airways - [Large airway disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/airways/large-airway-disease) - ### Chest X-Ray - [Chest X-Ray - Basic Interpretation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/chest-x-ray/basic-interpretation) - [Chest X-Ray - Heart Failure](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/chest-x-ray/heart-failure) - [Chest X-Ray - Lung disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/chest-x-ray/lung-disease) - ### COVID-19 - [COVID-19 Imaging findings](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19/covid19-imaging-findings) - [COVID-19 Differential Diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19/covid-19-differential-diagnosis) - [COVID-19 CO-RADS classification](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19/corads-classification) - [32 cases of suspected COVID-19](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/covid-19/ct-findings-in-patients) - ### Cystic Lung Disease - [Cystic Lung Disease - Differential diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/cystic-lung-disease/analysis-of-cystic-lung-disease-1-1-1) - ### Esophagus - [Esophagus I: anatomy, rings, inflammation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/esophagus/esophagus-i-anatomy-rings-inflammation) - [Esophagus II: Strictures, Acute syndromes, Neoplasms and Vascular impressions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/esophagus/esophagus-ii-strictures-acute-syndromes-neoplasms-and-vascular-impressions) - ### HRCT - [HRCT - Basic Interpretation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/hrct/basic-interpretation) - [HRCT - Common diagnoses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/hrct/common-diseases) - [HRCT – Patterns of pulmonary fibrosis in ILD](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/hrct/fibrosis-of-the-lung-on-hrct-imaging) - ### Lung anatomy - [Lung Segments and Bronchi](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/lung-anatomy/lung-segments) - ### Lung Cancer - [TNM classification 9ᵗʰ edition](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/lung-cancer/tnm-classification-8th-edition-1) - [Cystic Lung Cancer](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/lung-cancer/cystic-lung-cancer) - ### Mediastinum - [Mediastinal Lymph Node Map](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/mediastinum/mediastinum-lymph-node-map) - [Mediastinal Masses - differential diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/mediastinum/masses-differential-diagnosis) - ### Pearls - [Cardiovascular Pearls on Chest CT.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/pearls/cardiovascular-pearls-on-chest-ct-2) - ### Pulmonary nodules - [BTS guideline of pulmonary nodules](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/plumonary-nodules/bts-guideline) - [Fleischner 2017 guideline](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/plumonary-nodules/fleischner-2017-guideline) - ### Solitary Pulmonary Nodule - [Pulmonary nodule - Benign versus Malignant](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/solitary-pulmonary-nodule/benign-versus-malignant) - ### Tuberculosis - [Imaging findings in TB](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/tb/tuberculosis) - ### Thymus - [Thymic masses and mimics](https://radiologyassistant.nl/chest/thymus/thymus) - [Head/Neck](https://radiologyassistant.nl/) - ### Cervical Nodes - [Cervical Lymph Node Map](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/cervical-node-mapping/cervical-node-map) - ### Esophagus - [Esophagus I: anatomy, rings, inflammation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/esophagus-1/esophagus-i-anatomy-rings-inflammation-1) - [Esophagus II: Strictures, Acute syndromes, Neoplasms and Vascular impressions.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/esophagus-1/esophagus-ii-strictures-acute-syndromes-neoplasms-and-vascular-impressions-1) - ### Horner syndrome - ### Infra- and suprahyoid neck - [Anatomy and Pathology of the Infrahyoid Neck](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/infrahyoid-neck/anatomy-and-pathology) - ### Tumors - [Neck Masses in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/neck-masses/neck-masses-in-children) - [Head Neck tumors - When to think of malignancy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/neck-masses/head-neck-tumors) - ### Orbita - [CT and MRI of the Eye](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/orbita/pathology) - ### Paranasal Sinuses - [MRI of the Paranasal Sinuses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/paranasal-sinuses/mri-examination) - ### Swallowing - [Swallowing disorders update](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/swallowing/swallowing-disorders-update) - ### Temporal Bone - [Temporal Bone Anatomy 1.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/temporal-bone/anatomy) - [Temporal Bone Anatomy 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/temporal-bone/anatomy-2-0) - [Temporal Bone Pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/temporal-bone/pathology) - ### Tinnitus - [Pulsatile and non-pulsatile tinnitus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/tinnitus/pulsatile-and-non-pulsatile-tinnitus) - ### TI-RADS - [TI-RADS - Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/ti-rads/ti-rads) - ### Trigeminus - [Trigeminal neuralgia](https://radiologyassistant.nl/head-neck/trigeminus/trigeminal-neuralgia-and-neuropathy) - [Musculoskeletal](https://radiologyassistant.nl/) - ### Ankle - [Ankle Fracture Mechanism and Radiography](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/fracture-mechanism-and-radiography) - [Algoritm for Ankle Fractures 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/fractures-video-lesson-1) - [Ankle fractures - Weber and Lauge-Hansen Classification](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/weber-and-lauge-hansen-classification) - [Special Ankle Fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/special-fracture-cases) - [MRI examination of the ankle](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ankle/mri-examination) - ### Arthritis - [Arthritis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/arthritis/fractures-video-lesson) - ### Bone Tumors - [Bone tumors in alphabetical order](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/alphabetical-order) - [Bone tumors - Differential diagnosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/differential-diagnosis) - [Osteolytic - ill defined bone tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/osteolytic-ill-defined) - [Osteolytic - well defined bone tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/osteolytic-well-defined) - [Sclerotic bone tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/sclerotic-tumors) - [Cartilage tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/bone-tumors/chondrotumors-1) - ### Cases - pearls in radiology - [Foot and Ankle cases](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist-1/foot) - ### Diabetic foot - [MRI examination](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/diabetic-foot/mri-examination) - ### Elbow - [MRI examination of the Elbow](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/elbow/mri-examination) - [Elbow fractures in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/elbow/fractures-in-children) - ### Hip - [Arthroplasty of the Hip](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/hip/arthroplasty) - [Femoroacetabular impingement syndrome](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/hip/femoroacetabular-impingement-syndrome) - ### Knee - [Meniscal pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/knee/meniscal-pathology) - [Non-Meniscal pathology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/knee/non-meniscal-pathology) - [Meniscus special cases](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/knee/meniscus-special-cases) - ### Muscle - [MRI traumatic changes](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/muscle/mri-traumatic-changes) - [Non-traumatic changes](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/muscle/non-traumatic-changes) - [Hamstring injury](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/muscle/hamstring-injury) - ### Shoulder - [Shoulder Anatomy and Variants on MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder/mri-anatomy) - [Shoulder instability - MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder/instability) - [Shoulder Rotator cuff injury](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder/rotator-cuff-injury) - [Shoulder Ultrasound](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/shoulder/shoulder-ultrasound) - ### Spine - [Spine fractures - TLICS Classification](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/spine/tlics-classification-1) - [AO Spine Classification of Thoracolumbar Fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/spine/ao-classification) - ### Stress fractures - [Stress fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/unsorted/stress-fractures) - ### Ultrasound - [US-guided injection of joints](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/ultrasound/us-guided-injection-of-joints) - ### Wrist - [Carpal instability](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist/carpal-instability) - [Fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist/fractures) - [...](https://radiologyassistant.nl/musculoskeletal/wrist/foot-1) - [Neuroradiology](https://radiologyassistant.nl/) - ### Anatomy - [Brain Anatomy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain/anatomy) - ### Brain Ischemia - [Imaging in Acute Stroke](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain-ischemia/imaging-in-acute-stroke) - [Vascular territories of the Brain](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain-ischemia/vascular-territories) - ### Brain Tumor - [Systematic Approach to Brain Tumors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/brain-tumor/systematic-approach) - ### Carotid Pathology - [How to Differentiate Carotid Obstructions](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/carotid-pathology/differentiating-carotid-pathology) - ### Dementia - [Dementia - Role of MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/dementia/role-of-mri) - ### Enhancement Patterns - [Enhancement Patterns in CNS disease](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/enhancement-patterns/enhancement-patterns-in-cns-diseases) - ### Epilepsy - [Epilepsy - Role of MRI](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/epilepsy/role-of-mri) - ### Hemorrhage - [Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/hemorrhage/traumatic-intracranial-haemorrhage) - [Non-traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/hemorrhage/non-traumatic-intracranial-hemorrhage) - ### Horner syndrome. - ### Multiple Sclerosis - [Multiple Sclerosis 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/multiple-sclerosis/diagnosis-and-differential-diagnosis-3) - ### Sella Turcica - [Sella Turcica and Parasellar Region](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/sella-turcica/sella-turcica-and-parasellar-region) - ### Sinus Thrombosis - [Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/sinus-thrombosis/cerebral-venous-thrombosis) - ### Spine - [Cervical injury](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/cervical-injury) - [Lumbar Disc Herniation](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/lumbar-disc-herniation) - [Lumbar Disc Nomenclature 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/lumbar-disc-nomenclature-2-0) - [Myelopathy](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/myelopathy) - [Thoracolumbar injury](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/thoracolumbar-injury) - [TLICS Classification of fractures](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/spine/tlics-classification) - ### Intracranial Hypotension - [Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension](https://radiologyassistant.nl/neuroradiology/white-matter-disease-1/spontaneous-intracranial-hypotension) - [Pediatrics](https://radiologyassistant.nl/) - ### Abdomen - [Acute Abdomen in Neonates](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/acute-abdomen-in-neonates) - [Cystic Abdominal Masses in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/cystic-abdominal-masses-in-children) - [Solid Abdominal Masses in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/malignant-abdominal-tumors-in-children) - [Renal Tumors in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/renal-tumors-in-children) - [Acute Scrotum in Children](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/acute-scrotum-in-children) - [Lines and tubes in Neonates](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/lines-and-tubes-in-neonates) - [Necrotizing Enterocolitis](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/abdominal-masses/necrotizing-enterocolitis) - ### Chest - [Nonvascular Mediastinal Masses](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/pediatric-chest-ct/nonvascular-mediastinal-masses) - [Neonatal Chest X-Ray](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/pediatric-chest-ct/neonatal-chest) - [Pediatric Chest CT 2](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/pediatric-chest-ct/pediatric-chest-ct-2) - ### Child Abuse - [Child abuse - Diagnostic Imaging 2.0](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/child-abuse/diagnostic-imaging-in-child-abuse) - ### Head/neck - [Neck Masses in Children.](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/head-neck/neck-masses-in-children-1) - 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The items are in an alphabethic order. Select one of the items listed on the left for details. - [Adrenal](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#adrenal) - [Appendix](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#appendix) - [Bladder](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#bladder) - [Bowel](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#bowel) - [Common Bile Duct](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#common-bile-duct) - [Galbladder](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#galbladder) - [Hip](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#hip) - [Kidney](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#kidney) - [Liver](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#liver) - [Mesenteric lymph nodes](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#mesenteric-lymph-nodes) - [Ovary](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#ovary) - [Pancreas](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#pancreas) - [Portal vein](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#portal-vein) - [Spleen](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#spleen) - [Subarachnoid space](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#subarachnoid-space) - [Testicle](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#testicle) - [Thymus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#thymus) - [Thyroid gland](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#thyroid-gland) - [Uterus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#uterus) - [Ventricles](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#ventricles) ## Adrenal [![Adapted from reference 21](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310eacb87a7_5-adrenal.png)]() Adapted from reference 21 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 92 infants. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a311158ab94b_adrenal-tek.png)]() Measurements - Length (L): Defined as the maximum cephalocaudal dimension of the adrenal gland, measured in either the coronal or sagittal plane. - Width (w): Defined as the maximum thickness of one of the limbs. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310e76cdbce_adrenal-figure.jpg/c7dc86912a080718aa395a874a95a203.jpg)]() Causes of Adrenal Enlargement - Congenital adrenal hyperplasia - Adrenal hemorrhage - Adrenal neuroblastoma ## Appendix [![Adapted from reference 14](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30fef5087db_15appendix.png)]() Adapted from reference 14 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was conducted in 146 consecutive patients (62 boys and 84 girls; mean age, 7 years; age range, 2–15 years). Exclusion criteria - Cystic fibrosis - Acute abdominal pain - Previous appendectomy - Age \<2 years (due to difficulty in performing the examination) The appendix was successfully visualized in 120 children. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30ff86c51fc_appendix-figure.jpg/7b087530fafd945d9eb21a4c48c2ecf3.jpg)]() Causes of Appendiceal Enlargement - Acute appendicitis - Cystic fibrosis - Lymphoid hypertrophy (due to immune deficiency or viral enteritis) - Intraluminal gas, mucus, or fecal material - Mucocele ## Bladder [![Adapted from reference 17](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3104d2285e7_10-bladder-capacity.png)]() Adapted from reference 17 Bladder volume Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study. Note: The total number of patients listed in the results tables may differ, as not all age subgroups were represented. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31051b2b3f4_Bladder-volume-figure.jpg)]() Measurement Technique 1. Length (L): Measured on a longitudinal scan from the bladder neck to the fundus. 2. Depth (D): Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal plane at the level of maximum cross-sectional area, from the anterior to posterior mucosal surface in the midline. 3. Width (W): Measured perpendicular to D at its midpoint. Bladder Volume Calculation Bladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523 [![Adapted from reference 17](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a7d9883989f5_BVWI-figure2.png)]() Adapted from reference 17 Bladder wall thickness Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included. Bladder wall thickness was measured only when the residual bladder volume was \<10% of the pre-voided volume. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31092f3f745_Bladder-wall-figure.jpg/1cebdcdd36771496d038b34cc2f897d7.jpg)]() Measurement Technique The bladder wall was evaluated on a zoomed transverse image of the emptied bladder. Measurements were taken at three sites: - Anterolateral - Lateral - Posterolateral The mean of these three measurements was used for analysis. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31082700e0f_BVWI-figure.png)]() Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWTI) Bladder wall thickness depends on the degree of bladder filling and bladder capacity. Therefore, it is expressed as the Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWI). It helps normalize bladder wall measurements across different degrees of bladder distension and improves diagnostic accuracy for lower urinary tract abnormalities, especially in children. Causes of Bladder Wall Thickening - Cystitis - Dysfunctional voiding - Posterior urethral valves ## Bowel [![Adapted from reference 13](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30fe3d9932e_16small-bowel.png)]() Adapted from reference 13 Materials and Methods The study population consisted of 128 patients (57 males and 71 females). Of these, 86 individuals were aged between 1 and 19 years (only data pertaining to this subgroup are presented). Bowel wall thickness was measured on transverse ultrasound sections and included the following histologic layers: mucosa, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, submucosa, and muscularis propria. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30fe142ad72_bowel-wall-figure.jpg/240ef50fae229c4cd7aeff0792c8f97e.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic example Measurement of the terminal ileum wall thickness in a 12-year-old male patient with cystic fibrosis. Common causes of small bowel wall thickening include: - Henoch–Schönlein purpura - Crohn’s disease - Lymphoma [![Adapted from reference 13](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30fe7b008a5_17colon.png)]() Adapted from reference 13 In the same study, colonic wall thickness was also measured. Common causes of colonic wall thickening include: - Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) - Hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS) - Pseudomembranous colitis ## Common Bile Duct [![Adapted from reference 8](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b7f8b46d4_CBD.png)]() Adapted from reference 8 Materials and Methods A total of 173 consecutive pediatric patients (100 boys and 73 girls) referred for abdominal ultrasonography unrelated to hepatobiliary pathology were included. The age range was 1 day to 13 years (median 5.0 years). In all subjects, the diameter of the common bile duct measured ≤ 3.3 mm. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30ef2bb1780_Common-bile-duct.png/b8258ce3c9a024309b74734cec1db6fe.png)]() Image Transverse ultrasonographic image of the common bile duct and surrounding anatomy. ## Galbladder [![Adapted from reference 10](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b814ec168_Galbladder.png)]() Adapted from reference 10 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic gallbladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume = length × width × height × 0.52 The study included 50 preterm infants (mean gestational age 31.7 ± 2.5 weeks, mean birth weight 1556 ± 441 g) and 46 term infants (mean gestational age 38.3 ± 1.2 weeks, mean birth weight 3253 ± 440 g). Measurements were obtained shortly after birth, following 6 hours of fasting, and again at 5–7 days of age after 3-hour and 6-hour fasting intervals following regular milk feeding. Common causes of a small gallbladder include: - Biliary atresia - Postprandial (after fatty meal) contraction ## Hip [![Adapted from reference 22](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3112ffd0110_4-capsule-normal.png)]() Adapted from reference 22 Anterior recess Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 58 healthy children and 105 children with unilateral transient synovitis, aged 1.7–12.8 years. [![Adapted from reference 22](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a312de254b6d_border-capsule.png)]() Adapted from reference 22 All examinations were performed with the patient in the supine position and the hips in a neutral position. The anterior joint capsule was measured, including both its anterior and posterior layers. The anterior contour of the joint capsule was also evaluated. No statistically significant correlation was found between age and anterior joint capsule thickness. A difference greater than 2 mm between sides or an effusion \>2 mm was considered abnormal. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3114bbb3e20_Hip-capsule-figure.jpg/447ad6206929b39299e8b35897538dbe.jpg)]() Shape of the border of the anterior joint capsule The anterior contour of the joint capsule can be evaluated. Ultrasonographic measurement of the anterior joint capsule. Both anterior (a) and posterior (p) layer can be identified. Common causes of hip joint effusion include: - Transient synovitis - Septic arthritis - Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) [![Adapted from reference 23](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a1fee003a3e1_3D-TAB-Graf.png)]() Adapted from reference 23 Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip (Graf’s Classification) - Type I: Mature, centered hip joint with a well-developed acetabular roof and an angular or slightly blunt bony rim. - Type II: Centered hip joint with a deficiently developed acetabular roof and a rounded bony rim. - Type III: Decentered hip joint with a poorly developed acetabular roof and a flattened bony rim. Click [here](https://radiologyassistant.nl/en/p54ba2c50995c5/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip-ultrasound.html) for article on Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3130224514b_Graf-figure.jpg/a5944f1beaacbc5359471b5dd69f62c7.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic parameters: - Coronal plane view of the hip joint - Measurement of the α (alpha) angle ## Kidney [![Adapted from reference 6](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3100be277e0_13kidney-neonates.png)]() Adapted from reference 6 Preterm and Term Babies Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic evaluation was performed in 261 healthy newborn infants. The craniocaudal dimension of each kidney was measured using standard ultrasonography. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31016b20dd6_kidney-preterm.jpg/1e9a81adcc62887a52f0f1bc45840266.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic measurement of the length of a neonatal kidney. In neonates, the renal parenchyma is typically more echogenic than the liver parenchyma, which is a normal finding at this age. [![Adapted from reference 16](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310245c4caf_12kidney-length.png)]() Adapted from reference 16 Children Materials and Methods The study included 203 pediatric patients. Exclusion criteria included a history of malignancy, steroid use, upper urinary tract abnormalities, vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) greater than grade I, urologic surgery, or abnormal renal sonographic findings. On average, the left kidney measured 1.9 mm longer than the right. Common causes of renal enlargement include: - Duplicated collecting system - Nephritis (infectious and non-infectious) - Leukemia or lymphoma - Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31025845ec9_kindney-figure.jpg/f60d6a13cca590051660627be906c4d1.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic measurement of the length of a kidney. [![Adapted from reference 17](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a7d9d0710617_11-kidney-volume.png)]() Adapted from reference 17 Renal volume Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31039903734_Kidney-volume.jpg)]() Renal volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume = Length × Width × Depth × 0.523 The total renal volume was determined by summing the right and left kidney volumes. The reported values represent the average of both kidneys. [![Adapted from reference 18](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310a3f64ca9_Collecting-system-figure.jpg/e23cecb7d2b934bfbfce9b2f6d94baae.jpg)]() Adapted from reference 18 Thickness of the wall of the collecting system Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic examination of 48 renal collecting systems in 24 healthy children (aged 3 days–12.6 years) was performed. The wall of the collecting system was identifiable in all kidneys, ranging from 0 (not visible) to 0.8 mm in thickness. A wall thickness ≥ 1 mm was considered abnormal. Common causes of collecting system wall thickening include: - Urinary tract infection (UTI) - Intermittent dilatation (e.g., vesicoureteral reflux) - Recent or resolved dilatation ## Liver [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30ee1fb0199_liver.jpg)]() The craniocaudal dimension of the liver is measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography. Causes of hepatomegaly include: - Leukemia - Storage diseases (e.g., glycogen storage disorders) - Neonatal hepatitis [![Adapted from reference 6](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3128ce7fd61_Liver-neonate-figure.png)]() Adapted from reference 6 Newborns Materials and Methods In newborns (n = 261), the craniocaudal dimension of the liver was measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography. [![Adapted from reference 7](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b82c476d6_liver.png)]() Adapted from reference 7 Children Material and methods US study in 307 healthy children. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/liver-doppler.png)]() Doppler parameters Materials and Method An additional study of 100 healthy children (age range 0–17.9 years, median 7.8 years) established reference values for: - Portal vein peak systolic velocity - Hepatic artery peak systolic velocity - Hepatic artery resistive index (RI) ([reference](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1742271X221114050)). Findings: - Portal vein velocity was not age-independent - Hepatic artery velocity and RI decreased with increasing age ## Mesenteric lymph nodes [![Adapted from reference 15](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3100139e072_14nodes.png)]() Adapted from reference 15 Materials and Methods This retrospective study included 61 children (36 boys, 25 girls; mean age 10.7 years, range 1.1–17.3 years) who underwent non-contrast abdominal CT for evaluation of suspected or confirmed renal stones. Lymph node size was evaluated on these images, and findings were extrapolated to ultrasonographic reference values. Findings: Enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes (short-axis diameter \> 5 mm) were observed in 33 of 61 children (54%), predominantly in the right lower quadrant (88%). Based on these results, a short-axis diameter \> 8 mm may represent a more accurate threshold for pediatric mesenteric lymphadenopathy. False-positive rate for enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes with varying lymph node threshold size is seen in the table. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a7d9f5b010ac_14nodes.jpg/1e91d8809b655347c3df0111d63c5372.jpg)]() Common pathological causes of enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes include - Intestinal lymphoma - Lymphogenic metastasis - Specific infectious enteritis (e.g., tuberculosis) ## Ovary [![Adapted from reference 20](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310d55abb62_6-ovarian.png)]() Adapted from reference 20 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls. Common causes of ovarian enlargement include: - Precocious puberty - Ovarian torsion - Polycystic ovarian disease - Teratoma or dermoid cyst [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310db1ca27a_ovary-figure.jpg)]() Ovarian volume is calculated using the formula: - Length x Width x Height x 0.523. ## Pancreas [![Adapted from reference 12](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30f3d725362_2-pancreas.png)]() Adapted from reference 12 Materials and Methods This retrospective ultrasonographic study included 273 pediatric patients (sex distribution not specified). Echogenicity findings: - Low echogenicity in 27 cases (10%) - Isoechoic in 145 cases (53%) - Increased echogenicity in 101 cases (37%) [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30f47b12f8f_pancreas-figure.jpg/49e02d7117ba767efc1a51803d267aa3.jpg)]() The maximum anteroposterior (AP) diameters of the head, body, and tail of the pancreas were measured on transverse or oblique ultrasound images. Common causes of pancreatic enlargement include: - Traumatic pancreatitis - Viral pancreatitis - Drug-induced pancreatitis ## Portal vein [![Adapted from reference 9](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a7da42a557f9_portal-vein.png)]() Adapted from reference 9 Materials and Methods A study was conducted in 150 children aged 0–16 years without clinical evidence of hepatic or intestinal disease who underwent abdominal ultrasonography. [![Measurement of portal vein diameter](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30f002aecc2_portal-vein-figure.jpg/f4f3914fbf684f2261b06787da9f5cd1.jpg)]() Measurement of portal vein diameter The portal vein was visualized in the longitudinal plane from the splenomesenteric junction to the hepatic hilum. The maximum anteroposterior diameter was measured at the point where the hepatic artery crosses the portal vein. ## Spleen [![Adapted from reference 6](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b899e2028_TAB-spleen-intrauterine.png)]() Adapted from reference 6 Preterm and term babies Material and methods US study in 261 healthy newborn infants. Craniocaudal dimension of the spleen was determined with ultrasonography. [![Adapted from reference 11](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b883c45f8_TAB-spleen-children.png)]() Adapted from reference 11 Children Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic examination included 512 healthy children (238 boys, 274 girls; age range 1 day to 17 years) and 96 preterm infants (gestational age 25–35 weeks). None of the subjects had medical conditions affecting spleen size. Common causes of splenomegaly include: - Portal hypertension - Leukemia - Systemic infections (e.g., Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus) - Hematologic disorders (e.g., spherocytosis, thalassemia) - Storage diseases [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30f24eb3bd5_spleen-figure.jpg)]() Measurement Spleen length was defined as the maximal distance between the most superomedial and inferolateral points on a longitudinal coronal view, ideally through the splenic hilum. ## Subarachnoid space [![Adapted from reference 5](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b8684ea2a_Subarachnoid.png)]() Adapted from reference 5 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic assessment of the subarachnoid space was performed in 278 full-term healthy Chinese infants. Measurements were taken in the coronal plane at the level of the foramen of Monro. Mean values were derived from regression equations, and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from the published data. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a312815da933_ventricle-width-figure.jpg/54d5c083be82c3cee3991eb1fb701af2.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic parameters - SCW: Sinu-cortical width - CCW: Cranio-cortical width - IHW: Interhemispheric width Common causes of subarachnoid space enlargement include - Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces of infancy (BESSI) - Cerebral atrophy - Dural sinus thrombosis ## Testicle [![Adapted from reference 19](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310ac1391bc_8-testis.png)]() Adapted from reference 19 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements were obtained from 344 boys of various ethnic backgrounds. No significant differences were noted between ethnicities or between the right and left testes. Common causes of testicular enlargement include - Leukemia - Precocious puberty - Testicular torsion - Epididymo-orchitis [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310bbeaed71_testis-figure.jpg/d0b99102dbc132dfd96944a4d6a6ade7.jpg)]() Testicular volume was calculated using the formula: Length × Width × Height × 0.523 ## Thymus [![Adapted from reference 22](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/1-thymus.png)]() Adapted from reference 22 Materials and Methods Mediastinal ultrasonography was performed in 151 healthy infants (79 boys and 72 girls) with no stress-related factorsaffecting thymic size. Common causes of thymic enlargement include: - Rebound thymic hyperplasia - T-cell lymphoma or leukemia - Thymoma - Langerhans cell histiocytosis [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31228e10e8d_thymus-figure.jpg/d638a8f6dd15d1ef19341d9f2c2c8ce9.jpg)]() Measurements included - Maximum transverse diameter - Right and left lobe anteroposterior diameters - Craniocaudal (longitudinal) length The thymic index was calculated as: Transverse diameter × largest sagittal area ## Thyroid gland [![Adapted from reference 1-3](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b8b0f19a5_Thyroid.png)]() Adapted from reference 1-3 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic evaluation of thyroid volume was conducted in: - 100 English neonates (within the first week of life) - A subset of iodine-sufficient European children (n = 5,709, aged 6–15 years) - A group of German children (n = 252, aged 2–4 years) Common causes of thyroid enlargement include - Hashimoto’s thyroiditis - Graves’ disease - Multinodular goiter [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30e9c3ed26a_thyroid.jpg/0b35a2e28fea0230fa9957079376ec5c.jpg)]() Thyroid volume was calculated as the sum of both lobes, excluding the isthmus. The ellipsoid formula was used: Volume = Length × Width × Height × 0.52 ## Uterus [![Adapted from reference 20](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310c15ed07d_7-uterus.png)]() Adapted from reference 20 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls. Common causes of uterine enlargement include - Precocious puberty - Hydro- or hematometrocolpos [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310cc2793c3_uterine-figure.jpg)]() Uterine volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Length × Width × Height × 0.523 ## Ventricles [![Adapted from reference 4](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b8d832905_ventricles.png)]() Adapted from reference 4 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 1,483 neonates (gestational age 25–42 weeks) examined on day 3 of life. Infants with perinatal asphyxia, CNS infection, intracranial hemorrhage, or craniospinal malformations were excluded. Common causes of ventriculomegaly include - Congenital malformations (e.g., holoprosencephaly) - Obstructive hydrocephalus - Communicating hydrocephalus - Cerebral atrophy [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3126fb37bb0_ventricles-figure.jpg/841c48788e69b116c5d21b2620f75cc2.jpg)]() Measurements - Anterior horn width (AHW) - Ventriculohemispheric ratio (VHR) Measured on coronal images at the level of the foramen of Monro. 1. Delange F, Benker G, Caron P, et al. Thyroid volume and urinary iodine in European schoolchildren: standardization of values for assessment of iodine deficiency. Eur J Endocrinol 1997;136:180-7. 2. Menken KU, Engelhardt S, Olbricht T. \[Thyroid gland volume and urinary iodine excretion in children 2-16 years of age\]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1992;117:1047-51. 3. Perry RJ, Hollman AS, Wood AM, et al. Ultrasound of the thyroid gland in the newborn: normative data. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2002;87:F209-11. 4. Sondhi V, Gupta G, Gupta PK, et al. Establishment of nomograms and reference ranges for intra-cranial ventricular dimensions and ventriculo-hemispheric ratio in newborns by ultrasonography. Acta Paediatr 2008;97:738-44. 5. Lam WW, Ai VH, Wong V, et al. Ultrasonographic measurement of subarachnoid space in normal infants and children. Pediatr Neurol 2001;25:380-4. 6. Soyupak SK, Narli N, Yapicioglu H, et al. Sonographic measurements of the liver, spleen and kidney dimensions in the healthy term and preterm newborns. Eur J Radiol 2002;43:73-8. 7. Konus OL, Ozdemir A, Akkaya A, et al. Normal liver, spleen, and kidney dimensions in neonates, infants, and children: evaluation with sonography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;171:1693-8. 8. Hernanz-Schulman M, Ambrosino MM, Freeman PC, et al. Common bile duct in children: sonographic dimensions. Radiology 1995;195:193-5. 9. Patriquin HB, Perreault G, Grignon A, et al. Normal portal venous diameter in children. Pediatr Radiol 1990;20:451-3. 10. Ho ML, Chen JY, Ling UP, et al. Gallbladder volume and contractility in term and preterm neonates: normal values and clinical applications in ultrasonography. Acta Paediatr 1998;87:799-804. 11. Megremis SD, Vlachonikolis IG, Tsilimigaki AM. Spleen length in childhood with US: normal values based on age, sex, and somatometric parameters. Radiology 2004;231:129-34. 12. Siegel MJ, Martin KW, Worthington JL. Normal and abnormal pancreas in children: US studies. Radiology 1987;165:15-8. 13. Haber HP, Stern M. Intestinal ultrasonography in children and young adults: bowel wall thickness is age dependent. J Ultrasound Med 2000;19:315-21. 14. Wiersma F, Sramek A, Holscher HC. US features of the normal appendix and surrounding area in children. Radiology 2005;235:1018-22. 15. Karmazyn B, Werner EA, Rejaie B, et al. Mesenteric lymph nodes in children: what is normal? Pediatr Radiol 2005;35:774-7. 16. Rosenbaum DM, Korngold E, Teele RL. Sonographic assessment of renal length in normal children. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1984;142:467-9. 17. Leung VY, Chu WC, Yeung CK, et al. Nomograms of total renal volume, urinary bladder volume and bladder wall thickness index in 3,376 children with a normal urinary tract. Pediatr Radiol 2007;37:181-8. 18. Robben SG, Boesten M, Linmans J, et al. Significance of thickening of the wall of the renal collecting system in children: an ultrasound study. Pediatr Radiol 1999;29:736-40. 19. Kuijper EA, van Kooten J, Verbeke JI, et al. Ultrasonographically measured testicular volumes in 0- to 6-year-old boys. Hum Reprod 2008;23:792-6. 20. Haber HP, Mayer EI. Ultrasound evaluation of uterine and ovarian size from birth to puberty. Pediatr Radiol 1994;24:11-3. 21. Oppenheimer DA, Carroll BA, Yousem S. Sonography of the normal neonatal adrenal gland. Radiology 1983;146:157-60. 22. Robben SG, Lequin MH, Diepstraten AF, et al. Anterior joint capsule of the normal hip and in children with transient synovitis: US study with anatomic and histologic correlation. Radiology 1999;210:499-507. 23. Graf R. Hip Sonography. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2006. 24. Yekeler E, Tambag A, Tunaci A, et al. Analysis of the thymus in 151 healthy infants from 0 to 2 years of age. J Ultrasound Med 2004;23:1321-6. <https://mam.org.mm/> - [Guidelines for authors](https://radiologyassistant.nl/guidelines-for-authors "Guidelines for authors") - [About Us](https://radiologyassistant.nl/about-us "About Us") - [Disclaimer](https://radiologyassistant.nl/disclaimer "Disclaimer") - [Charity](https://radiologyassistant.nl/charity "Charity") - [Privacy and cookie statement](https://radiologyassistant.nl/privacy-and-cookie-statement "Privacy and cookie statement") - [Contact us](https://radiologyassistant.nl/contact-us "Contact us") - [Search](https://radiologyassistant.nl/search "Search")
Readable Markdown	### Simon Robben, Rick van Rijn and Robin Smithuis #### Radiology Departement of the Maastricht University Hospital, Academical Medical Centre in Amsterdam and the Alrijne hospital in Leiden, the Netherlands Publicationdate 2018-02-09 update 2025-10-27 This document provides an overview of normal reference values for ultrasound examinations in neonates and children. The items are in an alphabethic order. Select one of the items listed on the left for details. - [Adrenal](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#adrenal) - [Appendix](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#appendix) - [Bladder](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#bladder) - [Bowel](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#bowel) - [Common Bile Duct](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#common-bile-duct) - [Galbladder](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#galbladder) - [Hip](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#hip) - [Kidney](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#kidney) - [Liver](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#liver) - [Mesenteric lymph nodes](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#mesenteric-lymph-nodes) - [Ovary](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#ovary) - [Pancreas](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#pancreas) - [Portal vein](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#portal-vein) - [Spleen](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#spleen) - [Subarachnoid space](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#subarachnoid-space) - [Testicle](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#testicle) - [Thymus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#thymus) - [Thyroid gland](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#thyroid-gland) - [Uterus](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#uterus) - [Ventricles](https://radiologyassistant.nl/pediatrics/normal-values/normal-values-ultrasound#ventricles) ## Adrenal [![Adapted from reference 21](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310eacb87a7_5-adrenal.png)]() Adapted from reference 21 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 92 infants. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a311158ab94b_adrenal-tek.png)]() Measurements - Length (L): Defined as the maximum cephalocaudal dimension of the adrenal gland, measured in either the coronal or sagittal plane. - Width (w): Defined as the maximum thickness of one of the limbs. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310e76cdbce_adrenal-figure.jpg/c7dc86912a080718aa395a874a95a203.jpg)]() Causes of Adrenal Enlargement - Congenital adrenal hyperplasia - Adrenal hemorrhage - Adrenal neuroblastoma ## Appendix [![Adapted from reference 14](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30fef5087db_15appendix.png)]() Adapted from reference 14 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was conducted in 146 consecutive patients (62 boys and 84 girls; mean age, 7 years; age range, 2–15 years). Exclusion criteria - Cystic fibrosis - Acute abdominal pain - Previous appendectomy - Age \<2 years (due to difficulty in performing the examination) The appendix was successfully visualized in 120 children. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30ff86c51fc_appendix-figure.jpg/7b087530fafd945d9eb21a4c48c2ecf3.jpg)]() Causes of Appendiceal Enlargement - Acute appendicitis - Cystic fibrosis - Lymphoid hypertrophy (due to immune deficiency or viral enteritis) - Intraluminal gas, mucus, or fecal material - Mucocele ## Bladder [![Adapted from reference 17](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3104d2285e7_10-bladder-capacity.png)]() Adapted from reference 17 Bladder volume Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study. Note: The total number of patients listed in the results tables may differ, as not all age subgroups were represented. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31051b2b3f4_Bladder-volume-figure.jpg)]() Measurement Technique 1. Length (L): Measured on a longitudinal scan from the bladder neck to the fundus. 2. Depth (D): Measured perpendicular to the longitudinal plane at the level of maximum cross-sectional area, from the anterior to posterior mucosal surface in the midline. 3. Width (W): Measured perpendicular to D at its midpoint. Bladder Volume Calculation Bladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523Volume (cm³)=L×D×W×0.523 [![Adapted from reference 17](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a7d9883989f5_BVWI-figure2.png)]() Adapted from reference 17 Bladder wall thickness Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included. Bladder wall thickness was measured only when the residual bladder volume was \<10% of the pre-voided volume. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31092f3f745_Bladder-wall-figure.jpg/1cebdcdd36771496d038b34cc2f897d7.jpg)]() Measurement Technique The bladder wall was evaluated on a zoomed transverse image of the emptied bladder. Measurements were taken at three sites: - Anterolateral - Lateral - Posterolateral The mean of these three measurements was used for analysis. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31082700e0f_BVWI-figure.png)]() Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWTI) Bladder wall thickness depends on the degree of bladder filling and bladder capacity. Therefore, it is expressed as the Bladder Volume Wall Thickness Index (BVWI). It helps normalize bladder wall measurements across different degrees of bladder distension and improves diagnostic accuracy for lower urinary tract abnormalities, especially in children. Causes of Bladder Wall Thickening - Cystitis - Dysfunctional voiding - Posterior urethral valves ## Bowel [![Adapted from reference 13](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30fe3d9932e_16small-bowel.png)]() Adapted from reference 13 Materials and Methods The study population consisted of 128 patients (57 males and 71 females). Of these, 86 individuals were aged between 1 and 19 years (only data pertaining to this subgroup are presented). Bowel wall thickness was measured on transverse ultrasound sections and included the following histologic layers: mucosa, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, submucosa, and muscularis propria. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30fe142ad72_bowel-wall-figure.jpg/240ef50fae229c4cd7aeff0792c8f97e.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic example Measurement of the terminal ileum wall thickness in a 12-year-old male patient with cystic fibrosis. Common causes of small bowel wall thickening include: - Henoch–Schönlein purpura - Crohn’s disease - Lymphoma [![Adapted from reference 13](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30fe7b008a5_17colon.png)]() Adapted from reference 13 In the same study, colonic wall thickness was also measured. Common causes of colonic wall thickening include: - Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) - Hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS) - Pseudomembranous colitis ## Common Bile Duct [![Adapted from reference 8](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b7f8b46d4_CBD.png)]() Adapted from reference 8 Materials and Methods A total of 173 consecutive pediatric patients (100 boys and 73 girls) referred for abdominal ultrasonography unrelated to hepatobiliary pathology were included. The age range was 1 day to 13 years (median 5.0 years). In all subjects, the diameter of the common bile duct measured ≤ 3.3 mm. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30ef2bb1780_Common-bile-duct.png/b8258ce3c9a024309b74734cec1db6fe.png)]() Image Transverse ultrasonographic image of the common bile duct and surrounding anatomy. ## Galbladder [![Adapted from reference 10](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b814ec168_Galbladder.png)]() Adapted from reference 10 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic gallbladder volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume = length × width × height × 0.52 The study included 50 preterm infants (mean gestational age 31.7 ± 2.5 weeks, mean birth weight 1556 ± 441 g) and 46 term infants (mean gestational age 38.3 ± 1.2 weeks, mean birth weight 3253 ± 440 g). Measurements were obtained shortly after birth, following 6 hours of fasting, and again at 5–7 days of age after 3-hour and 6-hour fasting intervals following regular milk feeding. Common causes of a small gallbladder include: - Biliary atresia - Postprandial (after fatty meal) contraction ## Hip [![Adapted from reference 22](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3112ffd0110_4-capsule-normal.png)]() Adapted from reference 22 Anterior recess Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 58 healthy children and 105 children with unilateral transient synovitis, aged 1.7–12.8 years. [![Adapted from reference 22](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a312de254b6d_border-capsule.png)]() Adapted from reference 22 All examinations were performed with the patient in the supine position and the hips in a neutral position. The anterior joint capsule was measured, including both its anterior and posterior layers. The anterior contour of the joint capsule was also evaluated. No statistically significant correlation was found between age and anterior joint capsule thickness. A difference greater than 2 mm between sides or an effusion \>2 mm was considered abnormal. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3114bbb3e20_Hip-capsule-figure.jpg/447ad6206929b39299e8b35897538dbe.jpg)]() Shape of the border of the anterior joint capsule The anterior contour of the joint capsule can be evaluated. Ultrasonographic measurement of the anterior joint capsule. Both anterior (a) and posterior (p) layer can be identified. Common causes of hip joint effusion include: - Transient synovitis - Septic arthritis - Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) [![Adapted from reference 23](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a1fee003a3e1_3D-TAB-Graf.png)]() Adapted from reference 23 Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip (Graf’s Classification) - Type I: Mature, centered hip joint with a well-developed acetabular roof and an angular or slightly blunt bony rim. - Type II: Centered hip joint with a deficiently developed acetabular roof and a rounded bony rim. - Type III: Decentered hip joint with a poorly developed acetabular roof and a flattened bony rim. Click [here](https://radiologyassistant.nl/en/p54ba2c50995c5/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip-ultrasound.html) for article on Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3130224514b_Graf-figure.jpg/a5944f1beaacbc5359471b5dd69f62c7.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic parameters: - Coronal plane view of the hip joint - Measurement of the α (alpha) angle ## Kidney [![Adapted from reference 6](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3100be277e0_13kidney-neonates.png)]() Adapted from reference 6 Preterm and Term Babies Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic evaluation was performed in 261 healthy newborn infants. The craniocaudal dimension of each kidney was measured using standard ultrasonography. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31016b20dd6_kidney-preterm.jpg/1e9a81adcc62887a52f0f1bc45840266.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic measurement of the length of a neonatal kidney. In neonates, the renal parenchyma is typically more echogenic than the liver parenchyma, which is a normal finding at this age. [![Adapted from reference 16](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310245c4caf_12kidney-length.png)]() Adapted from reference 16 Children Materials and Methods The study included 203 pediatric patients. Exclusion criteria included a history of malignancy, steroid use, upper urinary tract abnormalities, vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) greater than grade I, urologic surgery, or abnormal renal sonographic findings. On average, the left kidney measured 1.9 mm longer than the right. Common causes of renal enlargement include: - Duplicated collecting system - Nephritis (infectious and non-infectious) - Leukemia or lymphoma - Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31025845ec9_kindney-figure.jpg/f60d6a13cca590051660627be906c4d1.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic measurement of the length of a kidney. [![Adapted from reference 17](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a7d9d0710617_11-kidney-volume.png)]() Adapted from reference 17 Renal volume Materials and Methods A total of 3,376 children were included in this ultrasonographic study. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31039903734_Kidney-volume.jpg)]() Renal volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Volume = Length × Width × Depth × 0.523 The total renal volume was determined by summing the right and left kidney volumes. The reported values represent the average of both kidneys. [![Adapted from reference 18](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310a3f64ca9_Collecting-system-figure.jpg/e23cecb7d2b934bfbfce9b2f6d94baae.jpg)]() Adapted from reference 18 Thickness of the wall of the collecting system Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic examination of 48 renal collecting systems in 24 healthy children (aged 3 days–12.6 years) was performed. The wall of the collecting system was identifiable in all kidneys, ranging from 0 (not visible) to 0.8 mm in thickness. A wall thickness ≥ 1 mm was considered abnormal. Common causes of collecting system wall thickening include: - Urinary tract infection (UTI) - Intermittent dilatation (e.g., vesicoureteral reflux) - Recent or resolved dilatation ## Liver [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30ee1fb0199_liver.jpg)]() The craniocaudal dimension of the liver is measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography. Causes of hepatomegaly include: - Leukemia - Storage diseases (e.g., glycogen storage disorders) - Neonatal hepatitis [![Adapted from reference 6](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3128ce7fd61_Liver-neonate-figure.png)]() Adapted from reference 6 Newborns Materials and Methods In newborns (n = 261), the craniocaudal dimension of the liver was measured along the midclavicular line using ultrasonography. [![Adapted from reference 7](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b82c476d6_liver.png)]() Adapted from reference 7 Children Material and methods US study in 307 healthy children. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/liver-doppler.png)]() Doppler parameters Materials and Method An additional study of 100 healthy children (age range 0–17.9 years, median 7.8 years) established reference values for: - Portal vein peak systolic velocity - Hepatic artery peak systolic velocity - Hepatic artery resistive index (RI) ([reference](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1742271X221114050)). Findings: - Portal vein velocity was not age-independent - Hepatic artery velocity and RI decreased with increasing age ## Mesenteric lymph nodes [![Adapted from reference 15](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3100139e072_14nodes.png)]() Adapted from reference 15 Materials and Methods This retrospective study included 61 children (36 boys, 25 girls; mean age 10.7 years, range 1.1–17.3 years) who underwent non-contrast abdominal CT for evaluation of suspected or confirmed renal stones. Lymph node size was evaluated on these images, and findings were extrapolated to ultrasonographic reference values. Findings: Enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes (short-axis diameter \> 5 mm) were observed in 33 of 61 children (54%), predominantly in the right lower quadrant (88%). Based on these results, a short-axis diameter \> 8 mm may represent a more accurate threshold for pediatric mesenteric lymphadenopathy. False-positive rate for enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes with varying lymph node threshold size is seen in the table. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a7d9f5b010ac_14nodes.jpg/1e91d8809b655347c3df0111d63c5372.jpg)]() Common pathological causes of enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes include - Intestinal lymphoma - Lymphogenic metastasis - Specific infectious enteritis (e.g., tuberculosis) ## Ovary [![Adapted from reference 20](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310d55abb62_6-ovarian.png)]() Adapted from reference 20 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls. Common causes of ovarian enlargement include: - Precocious puberty - Ovarian torsion - Polycystic ovarian disease - Teratoma or dermoid cyst [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310db1ca27a_ovary-figure.jpg)]() Ovarian volume is calculated using the formula: - Length x Width x Height x 0.523. ## Pancreas [![Adapted from reference 12](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30f3d725362_2-pancreas.png)]() Adapted from reference 12 Materials and Methods This retrospective ultrasonographic study included 273 pediatric patients (sex distribution not specified). Echogenicity findings: - Low echogenicity in 27 cases (10%) - Isoechoic in 145 cases (53%) - Increased echogenicity in 101 cases (37%) [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30f47b12f8f_pancreas-figure.jpg/49e02d7117ba767efc1a51803d267aa3.jpg)]() The maximum anteroposterior (AP) diameters of the head, body, and tail of the pancreas were measured on transverse or oblique ultrasound images. Common causes of pancreatic enlargement include: - Traumatic pancreatitis - Viral pancreatitis - Drug-induced pancreatitis ## Portal vein [![Adapted from reference 9](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a7da42a557f9_portal-vein.png)]() Adapted from reference 9 Materials and Methods A study was conducted in 150 children aged 0–16 years without clinical evidence of hepatic or intestinal disease who underwent abdominal ultrasonography. [![Measurement of portal vein diameter](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30f002aecc2_portal-vein-figure.jpg/f4f3914fbf684f2261b06787da9f5cd1.jpg)]() Measurement of portal vein diameter The portal vein was visualized in the longitudinal plane from the splenomesenteric junction to the hepatic hilum. The maximum anteroposterior diameter was measured at the point where the hepatic artery crosses the portal vein. ## Spleen [![Adapted from reference 6](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b899e2028_TAB-spleen-intrauterine.png)]() Adapted from reference 6 Preterm and term babies Material and methods US study in 261 healthy newborn infants. Craniocaudal dimension of the spleen was determined with ultrasonography. [![Adapted from reference 11](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b883c45f8_TAB-spleen-children.png)]() Adapted from reference 11 Children Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic examination included 512 healthy children (238 boys, 274 girls; age range 1 day to 17 years) and 96 preterm infants (gestational age 25–35 weeks). None of the subjects had medical conditions affecting spleen size. Common causes of splenomegaly include: - Portal hypertension - Leukemia - Systemic infections (e.g., Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus) - Hematologic disorders (e.g., spherocytosis, thalassemia) - Storage diseases [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30f24eb3bd5_spleen-figure.jpg)]() Measurement Spleen length was defined as the maximal distance between the most superomedial and inferolateral points on a longitudinal coronal view, ideally through the splenic hilum. ## Subarachnoid space [![Adapted from reference 5](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b8684ea2a_Subarachnoid.png)]() Adapted from reference 5 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic assessment of the subarachnoid space was performed in 278 full-term healthy Chinese infants. Measurements were taken in the coronal plane at the level of the foramen of Monro. Mean values were derived from regression equations, and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from the published data. [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a312815da933_ventricle-width-figure.jpg/54d5c083be82c3cee3991eb1fb701af2.jpg)]() Ultrasonographic parameters - SCW: Sinu-cortical width - CCW: Cranio-cortical width - IHW: Interhemispheric width Common causes of subarachnoid space enlargement include - Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces of infancy (BESSI) - Cerebral atrophy - Dural sinus thrombosis ## Testicle [![Adapted from reference 19](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310ac1391bc_8-testis.png)]() Adapted from reference 19 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements were obtained from 344 boys of various ethnic backgrounds. No significant differences were noted between ethnicities or between the right and left testes. Common causes of testicular enlargement include - Leukemia - Precocious puberty - Testicular torsion - Epididymo-orchitis [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310bbeaed71_testis-figure.jpg/d0b99102dbc132dfd96944a4d6a6ade7.jpg)]() Testicular volume was calculated using the formula: Length × Width × Height × 0.523 ## Thymus [![Adapted from reference 22](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/1-thymus.png)]() Adapted from reference 22 Materials and Methods Mediastinal ultrasonography was performed in 151 healthy infants (79 boys and 72 girls) with no stress-related factorsaffecting thymic size. Common causes of thymic enlargement include: - Rebound thymic hyperplasia - T-cell lymphoma or leukemia - Thymoma - Langerhans cell histiocytosis [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a31228e10e8d_thymus-figure.jpg/d638a8f6dd15d1ef19341d9f2c2c8ce9.jpg)]() Measurements included - Maximum transverse diameter - Right and left lobe anteroposterior diameters - Craniocaudal (longitudinal) length The thymic index was calculated as: Transverse diameter × largest sagittal area ## Thyroid gland [![Adapted from reference 1-3](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b8b0f19a5_Thyroid.png)]() Adapted from reference 1-3 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic evaluation of thyroid volume was conducted in: - 100 English neonates (within the first week of life) - A subset of iodine-sufficient European children (n = 5,709, aged 6–15 years) - A group of German children (n = 252, aged 2–4 years) Common causes of thyroid enlargement include - Hashimoto’s thyroiditis - Graves’ disease - Multinodular goiter [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30e9c3ed26a_thyroid.jpg/0b35a2e28fea0230fa9957079376ec5c.jpg)]() Thyroid volume was calculated as the sum of both lobes, excluding the isthmus. The ellipsoid formula was used: Volume = Length × Width × Height × 0.52 ## Uterus [![Adapted from reference 20](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310c15ed07d_7-uterus.png)]() Adapted from reference 20 Materials and Methods Ultrasonographic measurements of uterine and ovarian volumes were performed in 178 healthy girls. Common causes of uterine enlargement include - Precocious puberty - Hydro- or hematometrocolpos [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a310cc2793c3_uterine-figure.jpg)]() Uterine volume was calculated using the ellipsoid formula: Length × Width × Height × 0.523 ## Ventricles [![Adapted from reference 4](https://radiologyassistant.nl/assets/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a30b8d832905_ventricles.png)]() Adapted from reference 4 Materials and Methods An ultrasonographic study was performed in 1,483 neonates (gestational age 25–42 weeks) examined on day 3 of life. Infants with perinatal asphyxia, CNS infection, intracranial hemorrhage, or craniospinal malformations were excluded. Common causes of ventriculomegaly include - Congenital malformations (e.g., holoprosencephaly) - Obstructive hydrocephalus - Communicating hydrocephalus - Cerebral atrophy [![](https://radiologyassistant.nl/img/containers/main/normal-values-ultrasound/a5a3126fb37bb0_ventricles-figure.jpg/841c48788e69b116c5d21b2620f75cc2.jpg)]() Measurements - Anterior horn width (AHW) - Ventriculohemispheric ratio (VHR) Measured on coronal images at the level of the foramen of Monro.
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