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| Boilerpipe Text | A view of the
Watergate complex
in Washington, D.C., with the
Howard Johnson's
motel to the left, with legal notation from the trial of the
White House Plumbers
The
Watergate scandal
, or simply
Watergate
, was a
political scandal
in the United States involving the
administration
of President
Richard Nixon
. On June 17, 1972, operatives associated with Nixon's
1972 re-election campaign
were caught burglarizing and planting listening devices in the
Democratic National Committee
headquarters at Washington, D.C.'s
Watergate complex
. Nixon's efforts to conceal his administration's involvement led to an
impeachment process
and
his resignation
in August
Â
1974.
Emerging from the
White House
's efforts to stop
leaks
, the break-in was an implementation of
Operation Gemstone
, enacted by mostly Cuban burglars led by former intelligence agents
E. Howard Hunt
and
G. Gordon Liddy
. After the arrests, investigators and reporters like
The Washington Post
'
s
Bob Woodward
and
Carl Bernstein
âguided by the source "
Deep Throat
"âexposed a White House political espionage program illegally funded by donor contributions. Nixon denied involvement but his administration destroyed evidence, obstructed investigators, and bribed the burglars. This cover-up initially worked, helping Nixon win a
landslide re-election
, until revelations from the burglars' 1973 trial led to a
Senate
investigation.
Mounting pressure led Attorney General
Elliot Richardson
to appoint
Archibald Cox
as Watergate
special prosecutor
. Cox
subpoenaed
Nixon's
Oval Office tapes
âsuspected to include Watergate conversationsâbut Nixon invoked
executive privilege
to block their release, triggering a
constitutional crisis
. In the "
Saturday Night Massacre
", Nixon fired Cox, forcing the resignations of the attorney general and his deputy and fueling suspicions of Nixon's involvement. Nixon released select tapes, although one was
partially erased
and two others disappeared. In April 1974, Cox's replacement
Leon Jaworski
reissued the subpoena, but Nixon provided only redacted transcripts. In July, the
Supreme Court ordered
the tapes' release, and the House Judiciary Committee recommended impeachment for obstructing justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress. The White House released the "Smoking Gun" tape, showing that Nixon ordered the CIA to stop the FBI's investigation. Facing impeachment, on August 9, 1974, Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign. In total, 69 people were charged for Watergateâincluding two
cabinet members
âand most pleaded guilty or were convicted.
Nixon was pardoned
by his successor,
Gerald Ford
.
Watergate, often considered the greatest presidential scandal, tarnished Nixon's legacy and had electoral ramifications for the
Republican Party
: heavy losses in the
1974 midterm elections
and
Ford's failed 1976 reelection bid
. Despite significant coverage, no consensus exists on the motive for the break-in or who specifically ordered it. Theories range from an incompetent break-in by rogue campaign officials to a
sexpionage
operation or CIA plot. The scandal generated over 30 memoirs and left such an impression that it is common for scandals, even outside politics or the United States, to be named with the suffix
-gate
.
Leaks and early wiretapping
[
edit
]
Nixon giving his staple
V sign
in Pennsylvania during his
1968 campaign
[
1
]
Richard Nixon
was elected the 37th
president of the United States
in 1968.
[
2
]
[
3
]
He inherited
American involvement
in the
Vietnam War
, which he promised to
end honorably
.
[
4
]
Seeking to force a diplomatic resolution, he secretly
expanded bombing to Cambodia
.
[
5
]
When
The New York Times
exposed the bombing in May 1969, Nixon ordered the
wiretapping
of reporters and suspected
leakers
.
[
6
]
[
7
]
After the
Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) could not bug some targets, Nixon's domestic policy chief
John Ehrlichman
directly arranged the wiretapping.
[
8
]
[
9
]
Nixon's discontent with the FBI also led him to hire
New York Police Department
detectives
Jack Caulfield
and
Anthony Ulasewicz
as private investigators.
[
10
]
In June 1971,
The New York Times
started publishing the
Pentagon Papers
: a leaked 7,000-page study of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned in 1967.
[
11
]
[
12
]
Leaked by analyst
Daniel Ellsberg
,
[
13
]
the papers exposed government deception about the war's progress.
[
14
]
Nixon was initially unworried, as the
Pentagon Papers
predated his presidency,
[
15
]
but
National Security Advisor
Henry Kissinger
âfurious as Ellsberg was his menteeâpushed Nixon into what
White House chief of staff
H. R. Haldeman
called a "frenzy".
[
16
]
[
17
]
Attorney General
John Mitchell
filed a restraining order against the
Times
, halting the papers' publication.
[
18
]
[
19
]
The Washington Post
began to
publish the papers instead
, and the
Times
case traveled to the
Supreme Court
, which
ruled against Nixon
.
[
20
]
[
21
]
The episode was, according to journalist
Garrett Graff
, a "self-inflicted
Â
... disaster".
[
22
]
The White House Plumbers
[
edit
]
"We've got a damn counter-government here and we've got to fight it. I don't give a damn how it is done, do whatever has to be done to stop these leaks. I don't want to be told why it can't be done. This government cannot survive, it cannot function if anyone can run out and leak."
Retired CIA officer
E. Howard Hunt
and former FBI agent
G. Gordon Liddy
(pictured 1964) were the
handlers
of the five Watergate burglars.
[
24
]
After the Supreme Court's ruling, Nixon told aide
Chuck Colson
to stop all leaks by any means.
[
23
]
Nixon fixated on files at the
Brookings Institution
on the
Chennault Affair
, which implicated him in the sabotage of 1968 Vietnam peace talks,
[
25
]
[
a
]
and urged aides to "get in and get those filesâblow the safe and get it".
[
28
]
Nixon advisors had previously drafted the
Huston Plan
, which proposed expanded domestic surveillance and tactics like "surreptitious entry" (burglary).
[
29
]
[
b
]
For the Brookings burglary, Colson recruited retired
[
c
]
Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA) agent
E. Howard Hunt
,
[
34
]
who had helped arrange the
1954 Guatemalan coup d'ĂŠtat
and the failed 1961
Bay of Pigs Invasion
of Cuba.
[
35
]
[
36
]
The plot escalated into a planned
firebombing
with burglars posing as firefighters:
White House Counsel
John Dean
halted the operation.
[
37
]
Their focus shifted to leaker Ellsberg: Hunt was teamed with aides
Egil Krogh
and
David Young
in the new "Special Investigations Unit".
[
38
]
Former FBI agent
G. Gordon Liddy
also joined the group, which he dubbed "
ODESSA
" after a rumored
Nazi
Schutzstaffel
group.
[
39
]
[
d
]
Young's grandmother, misunderstanding leaks, suggested another name: the "
Plumbers
".
[
41
]
[
42
]
Seeking compromising material, the Plumbers targeted Ellsberg's psychiatrist, Lewis Fielding.
[
43
]
[
44
]
Krogh approved a burglary of his Los Angeles office: "Hunt/Liddy Project #1".
[
45
]
Hunt enlisted Cuban collaborators from the Bay of Pigs: CIA veteran
Bernard Barker
âwho had served under Cuban dictator
Fulgencio Batista
âand anti-
Castro
exiles
Eugenio MartĂnez
and Felipe De Diego.
[
46
]
[
47
]
[
48
]
The September 3 burglary reportedly failed, the Cubans finding no Ellsberg files and staging an addict's rampage after accidentally damaging the safe.
[
49
]
[
50
]
De Diego said that they found and photographed Ellsberg's records, and Fielding reported that Ellsberg's health files were in his office and appeared to have been "fingered". Liddy later suspected that Hunt had deceived him, photographing the files and sending them instead to the CIA.
[
51
]
[
e
]
Hunt and Liddy then planned to burglarize Fielding's home but were stopped by Ehrlichman.
[
52
]
The Plumbers next plotted to discredit Ellsberg by drugging him with
LSD
at a Washington gala, but White House approval came too late.
[
53
]
They revived the Brookings firebombing scheme, proposing to buy a fire engine for firefighterâdisguised Cubans, which the White House ultimately deemed too costly.
[
51
]
[
54
]
Other projects included investigating
Ted Kennedy
's
Chappaquiddick accident
, assessing whether
Hoover
should be made to leave the FBI, and forging a cable to link John F. Kennedy to the
1963 assassination
of South Vietnamese president
NgĂ´ ÄĂŹnh Diáťm
.
[
55
]
[
56
]
[
57
]
The Plumbers also helped discover that the
Pentagon
was
surveilling the White House
via a leaker on the
National Security Council
, outraging an increasingly paranoid Nixon.
[
58
]
[
59
]
Collectively, the Plumbers' schemes are often called the "White House horrors", a phrase coined by Attorney General Mitchell.
[
60
]
[
61
]
Committee for the Re-Election of the President
[
edit
]
Attorney General
John Mitchell
(left) resigned to lead the
CRP
, which also hired former CIA officer
James McCord
(right) as its head of security.
As Nixon prepared for his
1972 re-election campaign
, Caulfield proposed
Operation Sandwedge
: a private-sector intelligence operation against the Democrats.
[
62
]
[
63
]
White House officials deemed the plan too moderate and doubted Caulfield's competence: Liddy was selected to head the project before it was scrapped.
[
64
]
[
f
]
In December 1971, Liddy instead became
general counsel
for the
Committee for the Re-Election of the President
(CRP)âthe fundraising arm of Nixon's re-election campaignâintroduced by deputy campaign manager
Jeb Stuart Magruder
as "our man in charge of dirty tricks".
[
66
]
[
67
]
The CRP also recruited retired CIA officer
James McCord
as its security chief.
[
68
]
[
69
]
With Hunt, Liddy devised
Operation Gemstone
, a set of covert campaign schemes pitched to Attorney General Mitchell on January 27.
[
70
]
These included Operation Diamond: kidnapping, drugging, and detaining in Mexico likely protesters during the
1972 Republican National Convention
. The plan, nicknamed
Nacht und Nebel
after an
Adolf Hitler
directive, would be enacted by an "
Einsatzgruppe
" of
mobsters
that Hunt said had committed 22 murders.
[
71
]
[
72
]
Other plots included Operation Emerald, a
spy airliner
to trail the Democratic
nominee
; Operation Turquoise, Cuban commandos sabotaging air-conditioning at the Democrats'
1972 Miami convention
; and Operation Sapphire, a boat with
sex workers to entrap
Democrats at the convention.
[
72
]
[
73
]
Mitchell rejected the plots as unrealistic and expensive, requesting a simpler Gemstone.
[
74
]
[
75
]
In February, Mitchell resigned to become CRP director.
[
76
]
Although disputed by Graff and biographer
James Rosen
, Mitchell is generally believed to have approved Liddy's next version of Gemstone, which proposed burglarizing and bugging the office of
Larry O'Brien
at the
Democratic National Committee
's (DNC) headquarters within D.C.'s
Watergate Complex
, the
Fontainebleau Hotel
suites of top Democrats during their Miami convention, and the campaign headquarters of the eventual nominee.
[
77
]
[
78
]
As another break-in target, Mitchell or Magruder suggested
Las Vegas Sun
publisher
Hank Greenspun
's office.
[
79
]
[
80
]
The desired material may have involved possible Democratic nominee
Edmund Muskie
or the financial dealings of reclusive billionaire
Howard Hughes
with Nixon or his brother
Donald Nixon
.
[
80
]
[
81
]
[
82
]
Althoughâaccording to Hunt and Liddyâthe burglary was abandoned after Hughes would not provide a getaway plane, Greenspun's office showed evidence of forced entry, and Ehrlichman told Nixon in 1973 that Hunt and Liddy "flew out [to Las Vegas], broke his safe, got something out" [
sic
].
[
80
]
[
83
]
Oval Office taping system
[
edit
]
A Sony tape-recorder used by Nixon to record all conversations in the Oval Office
After his election, Nixon made the
Army Signal Corps
remove a taping system used by predecessor
Lyndon B. Johnson
in the
Oval Office
.
[
84
]
By 1971, Nixon worried that his presidency would not be sufficiently preserved for posterity and had the
Secret Service
install microphones in his desk and throughout the room. The system was deliberately kept secret from those close to Nixon, including his secretary,
Rose Mary Woods
.
[
85
]
From February 16, 1971 to July 12, 1973, the system recorded 3,432 hours of conversation.
[
86
]
According to Graff, the tapes were ultimately "the root cause of [Nixon's] downfall".
[
86
]
No president since Nixon is known to have taped White House conversations, although President
Donald Trump
suggested that he did.
[
87
]
Watergate break-ins
[
edit
]
Assembling the crew
[
edit
]
Eugenio MartĂnez
, one of the Cuban burglars
Following the May 1972 death of FBI director Hoover, Colson asked the CRP to send counterprotestors to a protest at Hoover's
state funeral
in the
Capitol rotunda
.
[
88
]
[
89
]
Hunt and Liddy again recruited Bay of Pigs collaborators: Barker flew to D.C. with nine men from Miami.
[
90
]
After the counterprotest, according to Lukas, Barker's team may have committed two unsolved burglaries in Washington, those of the Chilean Embassy and of a major Democratic law firm within the Watergate Complex on May 16.
[
91
]
The counterprotest may also have been a ruse to bring the Cubans to D.C. to burglarize Hoover's home in search of alleged
kompromat
used to
blackmail politicians
.
[
89
]
After meeting with Hunt in Miami, Barker selected the men for the DNC break-in planned for
Memorial Day
weekend: MartĂnez, as photographer;
Virgilio Gonzalez
, as lockpicker; and De Diego, Reinaldo Pico, and
Frank Sturgis
as guards.
[
92
]
Sturgis was the only non-Cuban member, but he had fought alongside Castro during the
Cuban Revolution
.
[
93
]
[
94
]
[
g
]
Pico and De Diego were dropped because McCord forgot two walkie-talkies.
[
93
]
After a planning session with McCord and Hunt at the
Hamilton Hotel
near the White House, Barker's team checked into the
Watergate Hotel
on May 26.
[
93
]
McCord recruited former FBI agent
Alfred Baldwin III
to perform the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward; he was booked at the
Howard Johnson's motel
opposite the Watergate.
[
96
]
Initial attempts and May 28 break-in
[
edit
]
The Watergate Complex and its parking garage entrance (pictured 1982), through which the Plumbers first broke into the
Democratic National Committee
office on May 28, 1972
The Plumbers attempted a break-in on the night of May 26, when Hunt and seven others posed as executives in a banquet room located beneath the Watergate office building and connected to the office's stairwell. This effort failed when Hunt and MartĂnez, after hiding in a closet to evade a night guard, were unable to pick the lock and were stuck in the banquet room overnight.
[
97
]
[
98
]
[
99
]
A concurrent, spontaneous plot led by Liddy with the Cubansâthe bugging of
George McGovern
's D.C.
campaign headquarters
âfailed on two nights when a lone volunteer was seen working late.
[
100
]
On May 27, a second DNC break-in failed after Gonzalez lacked proper tools for the DNC office's door; he flew back to Miami to retrieve them.
[
101
]
[
102
]
On May 28, Gonzalez and Sturgis entered the office on their third attempt, approaching via the garage.
[
101
]
[
102
]
They were joined by Barker, who sought files on Cuban contributions and had MartĂnez photograph convention security files, and McCord, who bugged the phones of both staffer
R. Spencer Oliver
and O'Brien's secretary.
[
103
]
[
104
]
After the team left the office, McCord was unable to pick up one of the wiretap transmittersâthat of O'Brien's secretaryâwith his remote receiver.
[
105
]
In the following weeks, Baldwin recorded hundreds of calls on Oliver's wiretap, including many sexual conversations from secretaries using his phone.
[
106
]
[
h
]
Liddy delivered the phone transcripts and developed photos
[
i
]
to Magruder and a disappointed Mitchell, who dismissed them as "shitty".
[
109
]
On June 12, Magruder asked Liddy to photograph all documents in the office.
[
110
]
Later that day, Baldwin, directed by Liddy, visited the Watergate DNC office under the guise of a nephew of former DNC chairman
John Bailey
and was given a tour of the floor.
[
111
]
Two days later, Liddy told Hunt that the DNC break-in would be reattempted. On June 16, Barker's team returned to D.C. and checked into the Watergate.
[
112
]
Chapstick radio microphones discovered in
E. Howard Hunt
's White House safe after the burglary
For the May 28 break-in, Sturgis and Gonzalez had used tape to cover
latches
and prevent doors locking. On the night of June 17, McCord volunteered to tape the doors but did so horizontally such that excess tape was visible on the sides.
[
113
]
He then returned to Baldwin's listening post at the Howard Johnson's,
[
113
]
where Hunt called him to ask if the DNC office was empty. McCord reported a lone staffer:
Bruce Givner
, an intern calling friends.
[
114
]
At around 12:45, Givner left the office, and security guard
Frank Wills
began his shift.
[
114
]
At 1 a.m., Wills removed the garage door tape, assuming a worker left it.
[
114
]
Stumbling upon Givner, Wills left to eat with him at the Howard Johnson's.
[
114
]
Accounts differ on which burglar decided to proceed with the operation after the tape removal was found.
[
115
]
Regardless, McCord rejoined the burglars, and Gonzalez repicked and retaped the door.
[
115
]
Reaching the DNC office, the burglars abandoned picking the lock and removed the door from the hinges instead.
[
115
]
At around 1:50Â a.m., Wills returned and discovered the new tape and called the police. An unmarked
Metropolitan Police
cruiser, belonging to a special
undercover
vice squad disguised as
hippies
, arrived within three minutes.
[
115
]
[
116
]
Baldwin, acting as spotter, saw the car but ignored it.
[
j
]
He contacted Hunt, however, when the officers turned on the eighth floor lights.
[
118
]
Hunt dismissed it as the night guard, and the team continued installing a new bug disguised as a smoke detector.
[
119
]
The three Metropolitan officers swept the ninth floor and, after finding a taped door on the sixth floor, began searching the DNC offices.
[
119
]
[
116
]
Baldwin radioed Hunt that three armed men were approaching.
[
119
]
McCord and the four others, hiding behind a partition, surrendered to the officers under false names.
[
120
]
[
k
]
Hunt and Liddy escaped their hotel room in a Jeep, leaving behind traceable items in the team's two hotel suites, and told Baldwin to flee.
[
121
]
[
122
]
[
123
]
Hunt drove to the White House, where he dumped electronic equipment in a safe and took $10,000: the three men then slept at their respective homes.
[
124
]
[
125
]
The arrested burglars' listening devices led the Metropolitan police to involve the FBI under the presumption of a federal
intercepted communications violation
;
[
126
]
by June 23, a federal
grand jury
of 23 D.C. residents began hearing testimony.
[
127
]
Theories on motive range from files on an
escort ring
allegedly linked to the CIA or White House Counsel
John Dean
's (left) partner to illicit
Howard Hughes
contributions (seen right, on a 1948
Time
cover).
The purpose of the Watergate break-in and who ultimately ordered the operation has never been established and has spawned
conspiracist literature
akin to
that
on the
Kennedy assassination
.
[
128
]
[
129
]
No one was ever charged for ordering the burglary, and the Plumbers' accounts conflict.
[
130
]
According to Graff, the burglars may have had "two or even three distinct and separate motives" and deceived even each other.
[
131
]
The simplest theory is that Watergate was an incompetent break-in to bug O'Brien, emerging from White House paranoia, and that Hunt, Liddy, and McCord were overzealous and acted without proper oversight.
[
132
]
Alternative theories often focus on the bugging of the relatively minor staffer Oliver, which investigators could not explain. Although Dean said that Oliver was accidentally bugged, the FBI found that Martinez carried a key matching the locked desk of Oliver's secretary.
[
133
]
A common theory argues that the burglars sought "dirt" on the Democrats, specifically involving illegal Democratic finances or sexual scandals.
[
132
]
Both Dean and Magruder said that the break-in sought to expose the Democrats for "cutting deals" with donors to fund their convention.
[
134
]
Hunt testified that he told the Cubans to photograph files on finances and contributions:
[
135
]
the Cubans believed they were looking for files linking the Democrats to funding from Castro.
[
130
]
In 1980, Liddy conversely wrote that the break-in's purpose "was to find out what O'Brien had of a derogatory nature about us",
[
135
]
[
136
]
often suggested to be files on illegal contributions to Nixon, possibly CIA-linked, from the
Greek junta
or Howard Hughes.
[
137
]
[
138
]
[
139
]
A
sexual blackmail
theory, as advanced in
Secret Agenda
(1984) and
Silent Coup
(1992), alleges a link either between Oliver and a high-end
escort service
, or that Dean feared Democrat-held files linking his partner to a D.C. escort ring run by lawyer Phillip Mackin Bailley, or both.
[
140
]
[
141
]
[
142
]
Liddy and Ehrlichman endorsed this theory, and Colson called it "one of the most plausible explanations".
[
143
]
[
144
]
[
145
]
Dean rejected it as "baloney", and Oliver's secretary sued Liddy regarding the claims.
[
145
]
Wells subsequently lost the lawsuit; following a mistrial due to a hung jury in 2001 and a successful appeal, a 2004 retrial resulted in a unanimous jury verdict in Liddy's favor.
[
146
]
[
147
]
CIA involvement and other theories
[
edit
]
"Even if we should learn the Administration was victimized by a CIA plotâeven if we should learn the motive for the burglaryâthat would change nothing regarding our understanding of John Mitchell's 'White House horrors.' Nor would it mitigate the resulting inter-institutional conflicts and encounters, which raised profound constitutional and political questions, or the constitutional crisis generated by the Administration's behavior in the wake of the burglary. That behavior resulted in the special crimes of cover-up and obstruction by high Administration officialsâup to and including the President of the United States."
A prominent theory, supported by Colson and Haldeman, alleges that the CIA sabotaged the break-in or the cover-up to smear Nixonâwith whom it had a tense relationshipâor to conceal ties to the Bailley escort ring or
ally Howard Hughes
.
[
149
]
[
150
]
[
151
]
[
152
]
In January 1974, according to Colson, Nixon nearly removed CIA director
William Colby
over such suspicions; that June, Senator
Howard Baker
released an inconclusive report on CIA complicity.
[
129
]
Beyond the burglars' past roles in CIA plots, both McCord and Hunt had been CIA agents, Hunt continued to work for a firm that was a CIA cover, and MartĂnez was on the CIA's payroll throughout Watergate. The CIA also had unexplained insight into the plot, helped Hunt develop the Fielding photographs, and did not cooperate with investigators.
[
33
]
[
153
]
A "sixth man" theory links McCord's periodic absences to the possible presence of Lou Russell, a CRP security guard allegedly linked to the escort ring and CIA.
[
154
]
Another theory noted by
Stanley Kutler
suggests that Colson and Hunt were rogue operatives and proceeded with a version of Gemstone that also targeted election rival
George Wallace
and, after Wallace's
attempted assassination
, sought to
plant leftist literature at the shooter's home
âa story broken by
Seymour Hersh
.
[
155
]
[
156
]
[
l
]
The final major theory, according to Graff, is that the Democrats or Metropolitan Police had foreknowledge of the burglary and "sprung a trap" or were somehow alerted by McCord or Hunt. Proponents note that the responding Metropolitan squad were coincidentally vice officers with experience dismantling D.C. sex work.
[
154
]
Cover-up and investigations
[
edit
]
Reactions and destruction of evidence
[
edit
]
Address book of
Bernard Barker
, discovered in a room at the Watergate Hotel, June 18, 1972
On the morning of June 18, Liddy visited the CRP, destroyed Gemstone files, and reported the arrests to Magruder.
[
161
]
[
162
]
Nixon was informed shortly thereafter.
[
163
]
Later that day, federal prosecutors
Earl Silbert
and
Chuck Work
searched the burglars' hotel rooms: they found spying gear, $100 bills, papers mentioning Hunt, Barker's address books (listing "WH"), and MartĂnez's telephone directory (listing "W. House").
[
164
]
[
165
]
Investigators learned that the burglars had given pseudonyms, that McCord worked for the CRP, and that the White House had conducted a background check on Hunt.
[
166
]
The burglars did not cooperate with the FBI or in court.
[
167
]
[
168
]
Visited by FBI agents, Hunt admitted that a check found at Watergate was his but refused further comment.
[
169
]
On June 19, CIA agent Lee Pennington Jr. destroyed incriminating material at McCord's home.
[
170
]
The CRP conducted a "massive housecleaning": Magruder burned Gemstone files at his home, and Colson destroyed pages in the White House phone directory listing Hunt.
[
171
]
Nixon made his first public statement on Watergate on June 22, denying White House involvement.
[
172
]
Following Ehrlichman's orders, Dean had Hunt's White House safe drilled open;
[
173
]
Ehrlichman told Dean to "
deep six
" incriminating files in the
Potomac River
.
[
174
]
As a Secret Service agent and two aides had seen the files' removal, Dean feared perjuring himself in future testimony. On June 27, he instead gave nonsensitive files to the FBI and sensitive filesâon the Fielding burglary and other Plumber activitiesâdirectly to acting FBI director
L. Patrick Gray
.
[
175
]
Dean personally destroyed two Hunt notebooks and an address book, and Gray burned the surrendered files around Christmas 1972.
[
176
]
[
177
]
Early press investigations
[
edit
]
Washington Post
reporters
Bob Woodward
and
Carl Bernstein
, 2024
Shortly after the break-in, DNC counsel
Joseph Califano Jr.
notified
The Washington Post
: editor
Barry Sussman
assigned veteran journalist
Alfred Lewis
and the novices
Bob Woodward
and
Carl Bernstein
to the story.
[
178
]
The team found that four of the burglars were Cuban exiles;
[
179
]
Woodward attended the burglars' preliminary hearing, where McCord admitted to being former CIA.
[
180
]
The Washington Post
'
s next issue contained three stories on Watergate, but the scandal received negligible coverage from papers like
The New York Times
.
[
180
]
Based on the address book and letters found in the burglar's suite, Woodward and Bernstein contacted the White House
switchboard
and asked for Hunt. They were connected to "Mr. Colson's office" and then referred to Hunt's office at the Mullen Company PR Firm. They were able to reach Hunt, who hung up.
[
181
]
Contacting acquaintances, they learned that Hunt was "with the CIA" and that McCord had created a presidential list of "domestic radicals" and a censorship plan in case of a national emergency.
[
182
]
Based on Sussman's research on Colson, the trio published a headline implicating the White House: "White House Consultant Linked to Bugging Suspects".
[
183
]
Press attention on the "Watergate caper" grew from other outlets.
[
184
]
The New York Times
'
Latin-American specialist
Tad Szulc
connected the Cuban burglars to past CIA plots and Hunt to the Bay of Pigs.
[
184
]
[
185
]
Kidnapping of Martha Mitchell
[
edit
]
After the burglary,
Martha Mitchell
was kidnapped and sedated.
Martha Mitchell
, the wife of CRP head John Mitchell, was a vocal Nixon supporter and, according to Graff, "perhaps the first national
conservative
celebrity pundit".
[
186
]
After the arrests, John Mitchell distanced the CRP from McCordâwho had previously been assigned to guard Marthaâclaiming he was just an outside security contractor.
[
187
]
[
188
]
Through aides, he unsuccessfully tried to prevent Martha from seeing news about McCord.
[
189
]
Furious at the deception, Martha had a
nervous episode
.
[
188
]
[
190
]
If her husband would not leave politics, she threatened to permanently leave D.C. and contact
UPI
reporter
Helen Thomas
.
[
190
]
In a locked bedroom of a
Newport Beach
villa, Martha's call to Thomas was interrupted when bodyguard
Steve King
broke down the door, destroyed the phone, and restrained her.
[
188
]
[
189
]
[
191
]
A thwarted morning escape attempt from King resulted in Martha slicing her hand on a broken glass door. A doctor visited the house and forcibly sedated Martha, who was restrained and had her pants removed by FBI and Secret Service agents. Other escape attempts also failed.
[
191
]
Her concerned husband had her flown to the
Westchester Country Club
in New York, where she called Thomas, stating that "I'm black and blue. I'm a political prisoner".
[
192
]
[
193
]
She was then interviewed by the
New York Daily News
.
[
193
]
John and his team denied Martha's account and blocked the FBI from interviewing her.
[
193
]
[
194
]
On June 30, less than two weeks after the break-in, John Mitchell resigned to tend to his wife and because he had become a liability for Nixon.
[
192
]
[
195
]
"Smoking Gun" conversation
[
edit
]
Part of the "Smoking Gun" tape of Nixon and Haldeman discussing how to pressure the CIA into stopping the FBI investigation
The FBI traced $4,500 from the burglars' suite to Barker's account, which had received $89,000 in four Mexican checks and a $25,000 check from the CRP's
Midwest
finance chairman
Kenneth Dahlberg
, closing in on the "money trail" source: CRP contributions.
[
196
]
[
197
]
The FBI's progressâincluding a hypothesis by the Washington field office head that Watergate was "in furtherance of the White House efforts to locate and identify 'leaks'"âalarmed the White House.
[
198
]
As Gray was considering CIA involvement, Dean, Haldeman, and Mitchell plotted to have the CIA pressure the FBI to drop its probe under the pretense of national security.
[
199
]
[
200
]
On June 23, Nixon approved the plan and instructed Haldeman in a recorded conversation known as the
"Smoking Gun" tape
:
[
199
]
[
201
]
[
202
]
"... When you get in (inaudible) people, say 'Look, the problem is that this will open the whole, the whole Bay of Pigs thing, and the President just feels that ah, without going into the details â don't, don't lie to them to the extent to say no involvement, but just say this is a comedy of errors, without getting into it, the President believes that it is going to open the whole Bay of Pigs thing up again. And, ah, because these people are plugging for (inaudible) and that they should call the FBI in and (inaudible) don't go any further into this case period!'"
[
203
]
Haldeman and Ehrlichman relayed this message to CIA director
Richard Helms
and deputy director
Vernon Walters
in a White House meeting: Helms agreed to pressure the FBI to end their investigation by claiming that it might reveal CIA
money laundering
.
[
204
]
[
205
]
Although he threatened to resign, Walters reluctantly repeated this message to Gray; he refused to halt the investigation unless the CIA put the request in writing, which it rebuffed.
[
206
]
The meaning of "the whole Bay of Pigs thing" has drawn much attention.
[
201
]
[
207
]
Helms deemed it "incoherent";
[
201
]
investigators for the
Senate Select Committee on Intelligence
suspected it referred to the
then-secret CIA assassination attempts on Cuban leader Castro
but did not raise the subject with Nixon during 1975 testimony.
[
207
]
Haldeman's memoir said it was Nixon's "way of reminding Helms, not so gently, of the cover-up of the CIA assassination attempts on the hero of the Bay of Pigs, Fidel Castro, a CIA operation that
may have triggered
the Kennedy tragedy and which Helms desperately wanted to hide."
[
m
]
Journalist
Jefferson Morley
cites another tape in which Nixon mentions "
the 'Who shot John?' angle
" to support Haldeman's interpretation.
[
201
]
FBI associate director
Mark Felt
, revealed to be "
Deep Throat
" in 2005, was labeled by
The New York Times
as "the most famous anonymous source in American history".
[
208
]
In 1971, Hoover made
Mark Felt
deputy associate director and his apparent successor.
[
209
]
[
n
]
Felt was spurned after Hoover's 1972 death when Nixon selected L. Patrick Gray as acting director (avoiding a pre-election
Senate confirmation
).
[
210
]
Gray named Felt as acting associate director. Hoping to become director, Felt sought to undermine Gray through leaks.
[
211
]
Woodward first met Felt in 1970, and he became a key anonymous source.
[
182
]
[
212
]
[
213
]
No one else at the
Post
knew his identity; editor
Howard Simons
dubbed him "Deep Throat", referencing both his
deep background
status and the 1972 pornographic film
Deep Throat
.
[
214
]
[
215
]
Woodward and Bernstein also relied on the anonymous "Z": a female grand juror.
[
216
]
[
217
]
Felt gave Woodward many early Watergate leads but soon avoided the telephone. According to Woodward, Felt created a covert protocol to schedule 2 a.m. rendezvous in an underground garage in
Rosslyn, Virginia
. The system involved Woodward placing a flag on his sixth floor apartment's balcony and Felt intercepting and notating Woodward's daily
The New York Times
.
[
212
]
Felt also leaked to
The Washington Daily News
and
Time
'
s Sandy Smith;
[
218
]
other FBI agents, like the Washington field office head, were also likely leakers.
[
219
]
Woodward and Bernstein's role in Watergate is often exaggerated,
[
220
]
[
221
]
and some, including
Post
managing editor
Ben Bradlee
and biographer
Adrian Havill
, have criticized their account as overly cinematic and have identified inaccuracies.
[
212
]
[
222
]
[
o
]
Edward Jay Epstein
wrote that their reporting was derivative or the mere presentation of leaks. Woodward has said that "the mythologizing of our role in Watergate has gone to the point of absurdity, where journalists write
Â
... that I, single-handedly, brought down Richard Nixon. Totally absurd."
[
220
]
Obstruction and bribery
[
edit
]
Following the death of
E. Howard Hunt
's wife Dorothy on
United Air Lines Flight 553
, Bay of Pigs invasion leader
Manuel Artime
(seen far left with President Kennedy in 1962) dispersed the hush money.
By July, Baldwin was granted immunity by the FBI and provided their first major insight into Watergate.
[
117
]
[
224
]
The administration grew concerned over $250,000 in CRP funds authorized for Liddy's operations, of which $199,000 was used.
[
225
]
That month, Magruder pressed CRP treasurer
Hugh Sloan
to fabricate a narrative of CRP payments to Liddy, suggesting perjury.
[
226
]
Sloan, conflicted, confided to two lawyers, fled to California, and then returned to D.C. a week later to resign from the CRP.
[
60
]
He confessed to the U.S. attorney's office and gave truthful grand jury testimony.
[
227
]
Alarmed, Mitchell convened with Magruder, Dean, and Nixon advisor
Fred LaRue
to concoct a cover.
[
228
]
They decided to inflate funding for Liddy's less illicit activities, such as campus surveillance of radicals, and convinced aide
Herbert Porter
to perjure himself.
[
229
]
[
230
]
Their motto became "
The buck stops with Liddy
", who was fired from the CRP to create distance.
[
231
]
Other efforts including delaying FBI interviews on "national security" grounds, coaching witnesses,
[
232
]
and having Dean and assistant
Fred Fielding
sit in on FBI interviews of White House staff.
[
233
]
They also disrupted the grand jury by making staffers testify privately at the DOJ, rather than before jurors that could assess their credibility.
[
234
]
Throughout the grand jury investigation, prosecutors Silbert and especially
Henry Petersen
were overly deferent to Nixon.
[
235
]
Before the burglary, an unknown official had assured Liddy that the Plumbers would be "taken care of" financially if caught.
[
236
]
Liddy reminded Mitchell of this, leading Dean to unsuccessfully ask CIA deputy director Walters to front
hush money
.
[
237
]
[
238
]
Dean then convinced Nixon's former deputy campaign finance manager
Herbert Kalmbach
to provide the bribes.
[
239
]
[
240
]
[
p
]
Ulasewicz delivered $180,000 in cash to the Plumbers, dispersed by Hunt's wife and,
[
241
]
[
242
]
after her death on
United Air Lines Flight 553
,
[
q
]
by Bay of Pigs invasion leader
Manuel Artime
.
[
244
]
[
245
]
[
246
]
[
r
]
Patman probe and indictment of the Plumbers
[
edit
]
The cover-up enabled Nixon to
win re-election in 1972
in the largest landslide in American history.
In August 1972, the
Government Accountability Office
released an audit of Nixon's re-election campaign, referring $350,000 in questionable transactions to the DOJ for prosecution.
[
248
]
The DOJ did not pursue these, and Nixon declined to appoint a special prosecutor.
[
248
]
Wright Patman
, the Democrat
House Banking Committee
chair, initiated his own probe. Like the FBI, his committee was stonewalled by the White House.
[
249
]
In September, O'Brien's legal teamâall of whom also worked for the
Post
âinterviewed Baldwin, yielding a front-page story for Woodward and Bernstein. Felt used the story to shift leaking suspicion to other FBI staffers,
[
250
]
and Silbert made the FBI search his office and the grand jury room for bugs: none were found.
[
251
]
Another wiretap of unclear origin was found in Oliver's DNC office.
[
251
]
[
252
]
On September 13, the Patman probe released a confidential report on the Mexican transactions: the findings were leaked to the
Post
.
[
251
]
Fearing more revelations, Nixon used
House Republican leader
Gerald Ford
to stop the probe from gaining
subpoena power
.
[
253
]
On September 15, Hunt, Liddy, and the five burglars were indicted on eight counts, none relating to the misuse of campaign funds.
[
254
]
[
255
]
The limited indictment, sparing Nixon officials, was a White House victory, and Eisenhower appointee
John Sirica
assigned himself as judge.
[
256
]
[
257
]
Baldwin then gave his complete account of Watergate to the
Los Angeles Times
'
Jack Nelson
and
Ronald Ostrow
.
[
117
]
[
258
]
Although Hunt's lawyers and Silbert convinced Sirica to issue a gag order and advise the
Times
against publication, the paper printed the storyâthe first directly linking the break-in to the White Houseâon October 5.
[
117
]
[
259
]
The cover-up proved effective, and Democrats could not make Watergate a campaign issue.
[
260
]
[
261
]
Although most Americans knew of the break-in, few associated it with Nixon,
[
262
]
and in November he won re-election in the largest landslide in American history, winning 49 of 50 states.
[
260
]
[
263
]
Jack Caulfield
thrice met with
James McCord
alongside the
George Washington Parkway
to dissuade him from cooperating with prosecutors.
On January 6, 1973, Dean promised Liddy $30,000 annually, legal fees, and a 1975 pardon if he stayed silent;
[
264
]
as early as January 8, Nixon discussed "Goddamn hush money" with Colson.
[
264
]
Two days later, the trial began, the Silbert-led prosecution arguing that McCord and Liddy were rogue agents and that Hunt and the other burglars acted on Liddy's payments.
[
265
]
[
266
]
Hunt and the Cubans unexpectedly pleaded guilty.
[
267
]
Using Sturgis as a source,
The New York Times
'
Seymour Hershâwho had exposed the
My Lai massacre
ârevealed that the burglars were receiving hush money and were pressured to plead guilty.
[
267
]
Questioned by Sirica, the Cubans refused to say who sent the payments.
[
268
]
The White House learned that McCord, who had expressed concerns that he or the CIA might be scapegoated, was considering cooperating with prosecutors.
[
269
]
[
270
]
[
271
]
Through Ulasewicz, Dean promised McCord an eventual government job and his family's financial security. To calm McCord, Caulfield thrice met with him alongside the
George Washington Parkway
. McCord proposed that the trial could be dismissed if prosecutors introduced telephone conversations regarding Watergate that he had made to the
Israeli
and
Chilean embassies
âboth of which were illegally wiretapped.
[
272
]
[
273
]
[
s
]
Dean rejected this approach.
[
274
]
In the trial's only interruption, Oliver's lawyer
Charles Morgan
convinced Sirica and Silbert to suspend the trial to stop Baldwin from describing the conversations from Oliver's wiretap: an appeals court sealed the transcripts. As of 2022, these remain secret and are, according to Graff, "the last and potentially only chance to [know] whether... the burglary and wiretapping plot included a sexual motive."
[
275
]
In resumed testimony, administration officials denied involvement in the break-in.
[
276
]
Dissatisfied with Silbert's examination, Sirica made the unusual move to interrogate the officials privately.
[
277
]
On January 30, the jury found the last two defendantsâLiddy and McCordâguilty on all counts, and Sirica scheduled sentencing for March 23.
[
278
]
[
279
]
[
280
]
After setting bail at $100,000 each on February 2, he declared that he was "still not satisfied that all pertinent facts that might be available... have been produced before an American jury".
[
279
]
Ervin Committee and the "Dean Report"
[
edit
]
In addition to the trial's perceived failure, a multi-month, secret inquiry by Senator Ted Kennedy raised Congress' suspicions about Watergate.
[
281
]
[
282
]
On February 7, 1973, the Senate voted 77â0 to establish a
select committee to investigate Watergate
, naming Senator
Sam Ervin
of
North Carolina
as chairman.
[
282
]
[
283
]
Ervin in turn selected
Samuel Dash
as chief counsel.
[
284
]
The Ervin Committee took over files created by both Ted Kennedy and the Patman probe.
[
285
]
Due to his loyalty, Nixon nominated Gray as FBI director.
[
286
]
During his confirmation proceedings, Gray admitted that he had given the bureau's investigative Watergate reports to John Dean, alarming both his own agents and the senators.
[
287
]
In a bid to save his nomination, Gray offered the reports to Congress, which was vetoed by an infuriated Nixon.
[
288
]
[
289
]
In late February, Nixon devised two ways to stop the committee:
executive privilege
âa then-vague doctrine that the
Constitution
's
separation of powers
prevented presidential disclosure to Congressâand the release of an exonerative "Dean Report".
[
290
]
[
291
]
The report was, according to Graff, "mythic" as Dean had never conducted a real investigation of Watergate and was himself involved.
[
292
]
On March 21, Dean told Nixon that "I have the impression that you don't know everything I know" and gave a full account of Watergateâwhich he called "a cancer within"âparticularly blaming Liddy and Magruder.
[
293
]
[
294
]
Although Nixon seemed largely ignorant and asked over 150 questions, Dean was sometimes surprised by Nixon's knowledge of the plot, including the hush money and Fielding break-in.
[
295
]
[
296
]
At another confirmation hearing the following day, Gray testified that Dean had lied about his ignorance of the opening of Hunt's safe, damaging Dean's credibility and leading Gray to withdraw his nomination.
[
297
]
McCord, Dean, and Magruder cooperate
[
edit
]
By the end of April, both
Jeb Magruder
(pictured) and
John Dean
were cooperating with prosecutors.
At the March 23 sentencing, Judge Sirica read a confession from McCord that the Plumbers were told to plead guilty; perjury occurred; others were involved; and the Cubans were misled to think that Watergate was a CIA operation.
[
298
]
[
299
]
Sirica tabled McCord's sentencing and gave maximum sentences to Liddy, Hunt, and the Cubans.
[
300
]
[
301
]
McCord identified false testimony to the Ervin Committee, implicating Magruder and Dean,
[
302
]
and leaked his accountâmostly
hearsay
through Liddyâto the
Los Angeles Times
.
[
303
]
Press attention on Watergate exploded,
[
304
]
and the Ervin Committee uncovered Gemstone, the destruction of evidence, and the Liddy payments.
[
305
]
In April, Dean and Magruder began cooperating with prosecutors, exposing the Fielding break-in and the cover-up complicity of Magruder, Mitchell, Haldeman, and Ehrlichmanâbut not Nixon.
[
306
]
Liddy refused to testify before the grand jury and was held in contempt.
[
307
]
[
308
]
By the end of April, Nixonâto save faceâmade Ehrlichman, Haldeman, Magruder, and Attorney General
Richard Kleindienst
resign; Dean was fired on April 30.
[
309
]
[
310
]
[
311
]
Watergate scrutiny spawned probes into other abuses, including a "dirty tricks" campaign by
Donald Segretti
; Kissinger-ordered wiretaps that led to Felt's resignation; B-52 bombings in Cambodia; illegal CRP donations from firms like
American Airlines
; and an off-record $200,000 from investor
Robert Vesco
that led to the May 10 indictment of Mitchell and CRP finance chairman
Maurice Stans
.
[
312
]
[
313
]
Later that month, Congressman
William Mills
committed suicide after it emerged that he had taken an unreported $25,000 from a CRP slush fund.
[
314
]
In July, Nixon was hospitalized with
pneumonia
, possibly caused by the stress of Watergate;
[
315
]
acting White House Counsel
Leonard Garment
wrote that "The organizing objective of these investigations was to bleed Nixon to death".
[
316
]
Ervin hearings and Special Prosecutor Cox
[
edit
]
"If the many allegations to this date are true, then the burglars who broke into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate were, in effect, breaking into the home of every citizen of the United States. And if these allegations prove true, what they were seeking to steal were not the jewels, money, or other property of American citizens, but something more valuableâtheir most precious heritage: the right to vote in a free election."
â Senator
Sam Ervin
on the first day of hearings
[
317
]
The Ervin Committee's public hearings began on May 17.
[
318
]
Testimony from McCord, Caulfield, Ulasewicz, and others suggested White House involvement in the break-in and cover-up,
[
319
]
which Nixon vehemently denied.
[
320
]
The hearingsâwhich also included testimony from Dean, Magruder, and Mitchellâdrew immense publicity: three in four American households watched live testimony, an average of 30 hours per home.
[
321
]
[
322
]
In concurrent Senate proceedings, Attorney General nominee
Elliot Richardson
agreed to appoint a
special prosecutor
on Watergate.
[
323
]
After rejecting Nixon's suggestions, Richardson chose
Archibald Cox
âPresident Kennedy's
solicitor general
. They negotiated that Cox could only be fired by Richardson and only due to "extraordinary improprieties".
[
324
]
Cox built a legal team he called the Watergate Special Prosecution Force.
[
325
]
[
326
]
As early as July 4, Nixon expressed a desire to fire Cox after the Force considered investigating the financial impropriety of his California estate,
La Casa Pacifica
.
[
316
]
In August, the Force empaneled a second grand jury to pursue crimes beyond the break-in, such as campaign finance irregularities.
[
327
]
Struggle for the tapes
[
edit
]
Special prosecutor on Watergate
Archibald Cox
in 1973
On July 13, Haldeman assistant
Alexander Butterfield
revealed the existence of the Oval Office tapes to the Ervin Committee.
[
328
]
[
329
]
In urgent meetings, White House counsel
J. Fred Buzhardt
and Vice President
Spiro Agnew
suggested the tapes be destroyed.
[
330
]
Nixon did not destroy the tapes for unclear reasons, possibly to preserve his legacy, protect himself against perjury or Kissinger's aggrandizement, or because he did not believe he would ever have to surrender them.
[
331
]
[
332
]
Following Butterfield's revelation, Cox and the Ervin Committee formally subpoenaed tapes corresponding to meetings suspected to involve Watergate.
[
333
]
[
334
]
Nixon rejected both subpoenas, leading to objections in court.
[
335
]
Due to stronger
standing
under the separation of powers, Sirica prioritized the executive branch Cox over the legislative Ervin committee.
[
336
]
Nixon's legal teamâled by
Charles Alan Wright
âinvoked executive privilege and argued that releasing the tapes would create a precedent allowing judicial access to all sensitive presidential material.
[
337
]
[
338
]
Cox asserted that executive privilege did not apply when criminality was suspected,
[
337
]
and also cited
United States v. Burr
, in which Chief Justice
John Marshall
ruled that President
Thomas Jefferson
could be subpoenaed.
[
339
]
In a decision that upset both parties, Sirica ordered the tapes be submitted to him to determine if any were protected by executive privilege.
[
340
]
This was appealed, and on October 12 the appeals court ruled 5â2 to force Nixon to surrender the tapes to Sirica, or to make a deal with Cox.
[
341
]
Saturday Night Massacre
[
edit
]
Attorney General
Elliot Richardson
(right)âseen with Senator
John Stennis
(left)âresigned when ordered by Nixon to fire Special Prosecutor Cox.
During October, Cox and the Force made progress on Watergate-related investigations, including securing a grand jury indictment of Krogh for
false declarations
on the Fielding break-in,
[
342
]
[
343
]
and guilty pleas from American Airlines,
Goodyear
, and the
3M Company
for illegal contributions to the CRP.
[
344
]
[
345
]
Cox also began investigating Nixon's closest friend
Bebe Rebozo
for mediating an illicit $100,000 campaign contribution from Howard Hughes.
[
346
]
After weighing the appellate decision, Nixon proposed giving Sirica the tapes and then firing Cox to negate the appeals court case; Attorney General Richardson rejected the scheme.
[
347
]
Negotiations with Cox to drop the subpoena and have Senator
John Stennis
review the tapes also collapsed.
[
348
]
On October 19âciting the need for stability in the
Middle East
amid the
Yom Kippur War
âNixon unexpectedly announced that Stennis would review the tapes: a deal not approved by Stennis, the Ervin Committee, Cox, or Richardson.
[
349
]
[
350
]
On October 20, in what became known as the
Saturday Night Massacre
, Nixon ordered Richardson to fire Cox. He refused and resigned in protest.
[
351
]
[
352
]
[
t
]
Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General
William Ruckelshaus
to fire Cox, but Ruckelshaus declined and was fired after offering his resignation.
[
354
]
The next acting attorney general, Solicitor General
Robert Bork
, agreed to fire Cox.
[
355
]
FBI agents sealed the Force's office and blocked the entry of Cox's staff.
[
353
]
Though Bork believed Nixon's order was legal and justified, he considered resigning to avoid being "perceived as a man who did the President's bidding to save my job".
[
355
]
[
356
]
Impeachment process and resignation
[
edit
]
The Saturday Night Massacre triggered a
constitutional crisis
and drew wide condemnation and calls for Nixon's resignation or impeachment.
[
357
]
[
358
]
Congress received an unprecedented near-500,000
mailgrams
and
telegrams
,
[
359
]
and protests were held outside the White House.
[
360
]
Nixon's
approval rating
fell to 24 percent;
[
361
]
98 representatives and 57 senators introduced bills calling for another special prosecutor.
[
362
]
Nixon, under severe stress, withdrew from engagements and drank: in his absence, Kissinger briefly declared
DEFCON 3
when Soviet deployment in the Yom Kippur War seemed imminent.
[
363
]
[
364
]
At an October 26 press conference, Nixon denounced the "hysterical reporting" and promised to appoint another special prosecutor, although with limited access to presidential material.
[
365
]
Representatives introduced over 20 impeachment and impeachment-inquiry resolutions;
[
366
]
the
House Judiciary Committee
launched an impeachment inquiry on October 30 and granted Chairman
Peter Rodino
subpoena power.
[
366
]
Missing tapes and building pressure
[
edit
]
On October 30, Buzhardt informed Sirica that two of the nine subpoenaed tapesâa June 20, 1972 Nixon-Mitchell call and an April 15, 1973 NixonâDean meetingâwere "missing".
[
367
]
[
368
]
Secret Service agents and aides testified that the tapes had been signed out and not returned; aides like Buzhardt inconsistently said they never existed due to recorder malfunctions or insufficient tape.
[
367
]
Investigators discovered a tape labeled "April 15 Part I", implying a missing "Part II".
[
369
]
Nixon's "I am not a crook" defense (recording below) was delivered at the
Contemporary Resort
at
Walt Disney World
.
On November 1, Nixon and Haig selected as special prosecutor
Leon Jaworski
, a former
Nuremberg prosecutor
presumed to be sympathetic to the president.
[
370
]
Impeachment calls grew, including from the editors of
The New York Times
and
Time
andâfor the first timeâfrom a Republican Senator,
Edward Brooke
.
[
371
]
Buzhardt and Garment flew to Miami to urge a vacationing Nixon to resign; he refused to see them.
[
372
]
Tipped off by Dean, Senator
Lowell Weicker
and investigators uncovered likely tax fraud: Nixon had claimed deductions for an illegally backdated document donation to the
National Archives
âa loophole outlawed in 1969 after President Johnson exploited it.
[
373
]
[
374
]
The investigation expanded to Nixon's other finances, including publicly funded renovations to his private homes in California and Florida.
[
375
]
On November 17, addressing Associated Press editors at
Walt Disney World
's
Contemporary Resort
, Nixon denied wrongdoing and, in a defense considered the most iconic line from Watergate, declared, "I am not a crook."
[
376
]
[
377
]
[
378
]
The eighteen-minute gap
[
edit
]
Nixon's secretary
Rose Mary Woods
demonstrating the implausible "Rose Mary Stretch" that the White House said erased the 18½ minute gap
On November 21, Buzhardt told Jaworski that an 18-minute, 15-second segment was missing from a June 20, 1972 tape: a Nixon-Haldeman conversation thought to be Nixon's first on Watergate after the break-in.
[
379
]
[
380
]
Buzhardt believed the erasure was intentional and blamed Nixon's secretary, Rose Mary Woods, who could not explain the gap;
[
381
]
Sirica ordered all tapes be surrendered within five days.
[
382
]
Nixon complied, and they were placed in a
National Security Agency
-installed safeâguarded by
U.S. Marshals
âin Sirica's chambers; the seven extant tapes were given to the Force on December 12.
[
383
]
In December hearings, Force lawyer
Jill Volner
interrogated Woods, who now claimed that, while transcribing the tape on October 1, she accidentally hit "record" instead of "off" while reaching for the telephone and also kept her foot on the "forward" pedal throughout the call.
[
384
]
[
385
]
[
386
]
In a reenactment, Woods could not keep her foot on the pedal.
[
387
]
[
388
]
Photos of the recreation generated the mocking label of the "Rose Mary Stretch".
[
385
]
[
388
]
Woods' five-minute call also did not match the erasure's 18-minute duration.
[
389
]
[
390
]
Questioned on the discrepancy, Haig suggested the "devil theory", that "some sinister force had come in and applied the other energy source and taken care of the information."
[
391
]
[
392
]
Volner theorized that Woods and Nixon had listened to the tape (the first subpoenaed) and that Nixon had panicked and made Woods erase it before realizing that the other subpoenaed tapes were equally incriminating.
[
391
]
Sirica deemed the erasure "more symbolic than substantive", and Jaworski and the FBI declined to prosecute.
[
391
]
[
393
]
In January 1974, an expert panel appointed by Sirica concluded that the tape had been erased in five to nine separate segments using the hand keysânot the pedal.
[
394
]
[
395
]
Other tapes had apparent seconds-long deletionsâobscuring key wordsâbut Sirica decided that further analysis was tangential.
[
396
]
Investigations advance
[
edit
]
Pushed by Speaker
Tip O'Neill
to accelerate the impeachment inquiry, Rodino's Judiciary Committee selected
John Doar
as special counsel.
[
397
]
In December, Nixon withdrew from engagementsâsometimes for daysâamid drinking bouts. On New Year's Eve, he resolved to "fight it all out", selecting trial lawyer
James St. Clair
to resist and delay all investigations.
[
398
]
In January, Sirica's scientific panel began deciphering the muffled and compressed tapes, which were recorded at a fast 15/16th inch per second speed to save tape.
[
399
]
Transcription was arduous, 100 hours of labor needed for just one hour of tape.
[
400
]
The contents were damning, and Sirica finally concluded that the White House had obstructed justice.
[
400
]
Concurrently, the Judiciary Committee debated charging Nixon with specific offenses or more ambiguous Constitutional crimes.
[
401
]
Prosecutors focused on the cover-upâan explicit White House conspiracyârather than the break-in, a more nebulous campaign conspiracy.
[
402
]
Although Jaworski identified at least 15 instances where Nixon acknowledged or advanced the hush money scheme,
[
403
]
he hesitated to indict the president
due to lack of precedent
.
[
404
]
The Force instead designated Nixon an unindicted co-conspirator, allowing jurors to hear him on the tape and empowering Jaworksi to send incriminating evidence to the impeachment inquiry.
[
405
]
On March 1, the Force indicted the "
Watergate Seven
": Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Colson,
Gordon Strachan
,
Robert Mardian
, and
Kenneth Parkinson
on 24 counts of conspiracy, lying, and obstructing justice.
[
406
]
[
407
]
On March 26, Sirica transferred a 55-page report on presidential criminality, compiled by Jaworski and the grand jury, to the Judiciary Committee.
[
408
]
Nixon releases tape transcripts
[
edit
]
President Nixon announcing the release of edited transcripts, April 29, 1974
In mid-April, Jaworski subpoenaed another 64 taped conversations, with a May 2 deadline.
[
409
]
Nixon then spent his days listening to the tapes, taking notes, and brooding in what Graff calls "one of the oddest weeks in all of modern presidential history".
[
410
]
Instead of releasing the tapes, Nixon's staff produced edited transcripts; Nixon himself excised "unpresidential" language,
[
411
]
namely replacing profanity and vulgarity with hundreds of "
expletive deleted
".
[
412
]
[
413
]
On April 29, Nixon released 1,300 pages of transcripts spanning 46 tapes.
[
414
]
House investigators discovered that only 20 of the 64 subpoenaed conversations had been transcribed.
[
415
]
Comparison with tapes already acquired by investigators showed pervasive misrepresentations and intelligible dialogue marked "unintelligible".
[
416
]
The edited transcripts still showed Nixon's apparent acceptance of the cover-up.
[
417
]
The House Judiciary Committee informed Nixon that the transcripts did not fulfill the subpoena.
[
418
]
St. Clair moved to block Jaworski's subpoena, calling the tapes "inadmissible hearsay" as Nixon was not a conspirator.
[
419
]
Jaworski revealed that Nixon was an unindicted co-conspirator and offered, as a compromise, to keep this secret and drop the subpoena if the White House released just 38 of the 64 tapes.
[
420
]
St. Clair rejected this as blackmail.
[
421
]
On May 9, the pro-Nixon
Chicago Tribune
abandoned the president in an editorial: "He is humorless to the point of being inhumane. He is devious. He is vacillating. He is profane."
[
422
]
[
423
]
Senate Republican leader
Hugh Scott
called the transcripts "deplorable, disgusting, shabby, and immoral".
[
416
]
Nixon's miscalculation yielded the first poll showing that a majority of Americans supported impeachment.
[
413
]
Impeachment hearings and
United States v. Nixon
[
edit
]
First day of impeachment proceedings, May 9, 1974
On May 9, impeachment hearings began.
[
422
]
Over ten weeks, Doar and colleagues presented representatives with a complete account of Watergate from the break-in through to the cover-up, highlighting likely constitutional crimes.
[
424
]
On May 10, Jaworski released a 39-page brief naming Nixon an unindicted co-conspirator; Sirica concluded that "the president was doomed".
[
425
]
[
u
]
To avoid protracted appeals, Jaworski requested the Supreme Court
directly review
the subpoena's legality, to which it agreed on May 31.
[
427
]
[
428
]
On June 15, Woodward and Bernstein published
All the President's Men
, which became a bestseller.
[
429
]
[
430
]
Later that month, the Ervin Committee released its 1,094-page final report, outlining White House misconduct without explicitly accusing Nixon.
[
431
]
After the Fourth of July recess, the inquiry presented "seminars" synthesizing the information to the House and began releasing evidential "Statements of Information", beginning with a 4,133-page installment.
[
432
]
Aiming to remain neutral, Rodino presented no analysis of the evidence, frustrating readers.
[
433
]
Conservative
Southern Democrats
began abandoning Nixon, and on July 23
Lawrence Hogan
became the first Republican representative to support impeachment.
[
434
]
The following day, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously (8â0) that the subpoenaed tapes were admissible while also affirming executive privilege.
[
435
]
[
436
]
Nixon complied and released the first 20 subpoenaed tapes on July 30.
[
437
]
'Smoking gun' tape released
[
edit
]
On July 27, 1974, the
House Judiciary Committee
voted 27-to-11 to recommend the first
article of impeachment
:
obstruction of justice
.
[
438
]
[
439
]
[
v
]
On July 29, the committee recommended a second article,
abuse of power
,
[
442
]
and, on the following day, approved a thirdâobstruction of Congressâand rejected two related to the Cambodian bombings and tax fraud.
[
442
]
Ninety percent of Americans listened to the proceedings on radio or television.
[
443
]
As Congressional support for Nixon collapsed and the release of the June 23 "smoking gun" tape loomed, Nixon weighed resigning to preserve his federal benefits and those of his staff and limit liability.
[
444
]
[
445
]
If impeached by the House, Nixon needed the support of 34 Senators for acquittal.
[
446
]
On August 5, the White House released the "smoking gun" tape.
[
202
]
The Haldeman-Nixon conversation showed that the president had lied and had been involved in the cover-up from its inception.
[
447
]
[
448
]
Its release extinguished most Congressional support for Nixon, particularly among Republicans who felt betrayed.
[
202
]
[
449
]
Republican House minority leader
John Rhodes
and ten Republican House Judiciary Committee members who had opposed the articles now backed impeachment.
[
202
]
[
450
]
The following day, California governor
Ronald Reagan
and
RNC chairman
George H. W. Bush
both urged Nixon to resign.
[
451
]
[
452
]
Senator
Barry Goldwater
told Haig that Nixon only had 12 votes in the Senate and said "He has lied to me for the last time".
[
451
]
Fearing a "berserk" Nixon might unilaterally trigger
nuclear armageddon
, Defense Secretary
James R. Schlesinger
, according to Graff, alerted military leaders to confirm any presidential launch orders with himself or Kissinger.
[
453
]
Following an August 7 meeting with Senate minority leader
Hugh Scott
, Senator
Barry Goldwater
, and House minority leader
John Rhodes
(pictured left), Nixon decided to resign. He left the White House on August 9 (right).
On August 7, House minority leader Rhodes, Senate minority leader Hugh Scott, and Senator Goldwaterâa respected Republican statesmanâvisited Nixon in the Oval Office and, although not explicitly urging his resignation, informed him that he did not have enough support to be acquitted.
[
454
]
[
455
]
Faced with the inevitability of his impeachment and removal, Nixon resolved to resign.
[
456
]
In an August 8
Oval Office address
, Nixon announced his resignationâthe first of any U.S. presidentâeffective at noon the following day, and his succession by then-Vice President Ford.
[
263
]
[
457
]
[
w
]
Although he declared that he was not a "quitter", Nixon explained that he lacked support in Congress and had to "put the interest of America first".
[
263
]
Jaworski noted that the farewell speech expressed no remorse.
[
459
]
In the morning, Nixon and his family bid farewell to the White House staff in the
East Room
.
[
460
]
They left on the presidential helicopter,
Army One
, for Maryland's
Andrews Air Force Base
, where they boarded
Air Force One
for California.
[
460
]
[
461
]
[
462
]
[
x
]
Ford delivered an 8-minute inauguration speech, also in the East Room, declaring that "our long national nightmare is over".
[
463
]
[
464
]
Time
'
s resignation special sold 527,000 copiesâthe most of any newsweekly ever.
[
465
]
Ford's pardon of Nixon
[
edit
]
President Ford announcing his pardon of Nixon on September 8, 1974
With Nixon's resignation, Congress dropped its impeachment proceedings, though federal prosecution remained a possibility.
[
466
]
In its final report, the House Judiciary identified 36 instances of obstruction of justice by Nixon,
[
465
]
and Jaworski and the Watergate Special Prosecution Force weighed indicting Nixon.
[
467
]
On September 8, President Ford issued Nixon a full pardon for all acts committed as president.
[
160
]
[
468
]
Ford may have feared the damage of a long, divisive trial, or a technical acquittal that might delegitimize his own presidency.
[
469
]
Ford was criticized for the unilateral pardon's suddenness, granted without consultation with Congressional leaders.
[
468
]
[
469
]
Senator Ervin called it "incompatible with good government",
[
470
]
and Ford's press secretary
Jerald terHorst
resigned in protest.
[
471
]
The president's approval rating fell by 22 percentage points.
[
472
]
Although some argued that the Force could still prosecute Nixon, Jaworski resigned in October.
[
473
]
According to Hersh, Jaworski was in financial distress at the time and could no longer be absent from his Texan law practice.
[
160
]
Many, including O'Neill, suspected a secret pardon deal between Ford and Nixon.
[
474
]
No tapes or documentation suggest an explicit agreement,
[
470
]
[
474
]
but biographer Jay Farrell concluded that implicit suggestions may have "greased his departure".
[
474
]
When Haig approached him about Nixon's possible choices, then-Vice President Ford reportedly refused to offer advice as he was an "interested party."
[
160
]
[
475
]
Starting September 4, Fordâthrough aidesâsought a formal apology from Nixon in exchange for a pardon. The former president refused to make any admission of guilt, and Ford abandoned the effort.
[
476
]
According to Kutler, Nixon correctly assumed that Ford would pardon him regardless.
[
477
]
Hersh argues that a recorded September 7 call shows Nixon threatening to expose Ford's prior promises of a pardon if he was not pardoned.
[
478
]
Final legal actions
[
edit
]
In total, 69 people were charged with crimes in conjunction with Watergate, including two of Nixon's Cabinet secretaries. Most were convicted or pleaded guilty.
[
130
]
A Watergate-related probe on the
ITT corporation
resulted in the conviction of
Ed Reinecke
,
Lieutenant Governor of California
under Ronald Reagan.
[
479
]
Of the Watergate Seven, Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman were convicted. Parkinson was acquitted, and Mardian's conviction was overturned.
[
459
]
Mitchell remains the highest-ranking US government official to be imprisoned. Upon his sentencing, he quipped: "It could have been worse. They could have sentenced me to spend the rest of my life with Martha Mitchell."
[
480
]
In June 1975, Nixon gave secret testimony to a grand jury.
[
481
]
[
482
]
He evaded questions on the 18-minute gap and tax fraud and praised "hardball" tactics used by Kennedy in contrast to the Watergate "bunglers".
[
481
]
In 1978, FBI directors Gray and Felt and FBI Domestic Intelligence head Edward Miller were indicted for their approval of "surreptitious entries".
[
483
]
Nixon voluntarily testified in their defense in 1980, his only appearance in any Watergate-related trial.
[
484
]
Felt and Miller were found guilty.
[
485
]
The Watergate Complex in September, 2025
Watergate is regarded as the greatest scandal in presidential history and a successful demonstration of the separation of powers.
[
486
]
[
487
]
[
488
]
It is frequently invoked during presidential scandals and impeachments, particularly
those of President Trump
.
[
488
]
[
489
]
[
490
]
Haig and Kissinger respectively blamed Watergate for the Yom Kippur War (1973) and the
Fall of Saigon
(1975).
[
347
]
[
491
]
In 1977, Nixonâfinancially distressed and also hoping to improve his legacyâaccepted $600,000 for
a series of interviews
with British journalist
David Frost
.
[
492
]
Nixon expected Frost to be amenable and was surprised by his combative questions, leading Nixon to declare "When the President does it, that means that it is not illegal."
[
493
]
[
494
]
Although Nixon formally apologized for Watergate after the interview, his legacy remained tarnished.
[
494
]
The Watergate Hotel has conversely embraced the scandal, incorporating it into its theming and converting Hunt and Liddy's room into the "scandal suite".
[
495
]
[
496
]
Political and professional
[
edit
]
An anti-Ford button referencing Watergate from the
1976 presidential election
Watergate led to legislation limiting the powers of the "
imperial presidency
", including the designation of all presidential records as publicly owned (the
Presidential Records Act
) and a mechanism for counsel investigations of executive scandals (the
Ethics in Government Act
).
[
497
]
These reforms were partly achieved by "
Watergate Babies
", new Democratic legislators who swept the post-Watergate
November 1974 Senate
and
House elections
.
[
497
]
Ford's pardon of Nixon effectively caused his loss to
Jimmy Carter
in the
1976 election
; seven percent of voters decided against Ford explicitly due to the pardon.
[
480
]
[
498
]
Seeking to restore public trust after Watergate and the release of the CIA's "
Family Jewels
", Congress organized the
Church Committee
to investigate illegal activities by the CIA and other agencies, as did President Ford with the
Rockefeller Commission
.
[
499
]
[
500
]
Concerns emerging from the burglaries and wiretappings resulted in the
Privacy Act of 1974
and the
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act
, which limited the ability of federal agencies to collect, maintain, and share information on Americans.
[
501
]
[
502
]
Congress also strengthened the
Freedom of Information Act
,
[
503
]
and created intelligence oversight committees with access to classified material.
[
497
]
As nearly all involved in Watergate crimes were lawyers,
[
504
]
[
505
]
the
American Bar Association
mandated ethics courses at law schools.
[
506
]
[
505
]
Watergate also revived
investigative reporting
, popularizing the use of anonymous sources and displacing "
New Journalism
" approaches.
[
507
]
Cultural impact and depictions
[
edit
]
Watergate is often regarded as the climactic moment in the loss of American trust in government following the Vietnam War.
[
508
]
[
509
]
Journalist
Bill Schneider
writes that although American political cynicism did not "start with Watergate... Watergate turned an erosion of public confidence into a collapse".
[
508
]
It left such an impression that post-Watergate scandals are often named with the
suffix "-gate"
.
[
487
]
[
510
]
These range from genuine political scandals like
Koreagate
to the sports scandal
Deflategate
and the discredited
Pizzagate conspiracy theory
.
[
510
]
The paranoia of the "Watergate era" is often associated with a subgenre of 1970s conspiracy thrillers, such as cinematic releases such as
Francis Ford Coppola
's
The Conversation
(1974) or
Three Days of the Condor
(1975), and
Washington: Behind Closed Doors
(1977), which depicts the lead up to Watergate, on television.
[
511
]
[
512
]
In some cases, production had begun before the scandal's zenith and are partly a reflection of the period's
zeitgeist
.
[
513
]
[
514
]
[
515
]
Over thirty Watergate participants have written memoirs.
[
516
]
Woodward and Bernstein's 1974 book
All the President's Men
was adapted into a
1976 film of the same name
by
Alan J. Pakula
âin which Watergate guard Frank Wills played himself.
[
517
]
Although not used in the book, the phrase "
follow the money
" became part of the American lexicon after its use in the movie: Graff calls it the second most famous Watergate quote after "I am not a crook".
[
518
]
[
519
]
The book also popularized the term "
ratfucking
" to describe covert political espionage.
[
520
]
[
521
]
Other depictions include
Oliver Stone
's
Nixon
(1996) and
Frost/Nixon
(2008),
[
507
]
[
522
]
[
523
]
adapted from a
Tony
-winning
play of the same name
.
[
507
]
[
524
]
Notes and references
[
edit
]
^
In 1973,
Walt Rostow
âJohnson's former national security advisorâwrote that the affair was a clear precedent for Watergate: "They got away with [the Chennault Affair]. As the same men faced the election of 1972 there was nothing in their previous experience with an operation of doubtful propriety (or, even, legality) to warn them off; and there were memories of
how close an election could get
and the possible utility of pressing to the limit â or beyond."
[
26
]
[
27
]
^
Although approved by Nixon, a worried Hoover had the plan officially withdrawn.
[
30
]
[
31
]
Senator
Richard Schweiker
noted that "Even though the Huston plan was dead, I believe it had nine lives."
[
32
]
^
Hunt continued to work for a firm that was a CIA cover.
[
33
]
^
The White House was apparently oblivious to the Nazi association. Liddy told them that it was an acronym for "our Organization has been Directed to Eliminate Subversion of the Secrets of our Administration". Liddy displayed a strong interest in Nazi paraphernalia, even arranging the screening of a
Leni Riefenstahl
film at the White House.
[
40
]
^
Hunt conspicuously celebrated the failed burglary with a champagne toast.
[
51
]
^
White House Chief of Staff
John Dean
later said regarding Caulfield: "I sensed that an Irish cop without a college education would not be entrusted with such a sensitive assignment in an administration of
WASP
professional men.
[
65
]
^
Many within the US intelligence communityâespecially the CIAâwere initially sympathetic towards Castro.
[
95
]
^
These conversationsâdescribed by a federal prosecutor as "extremely personal, intimate, and potentially embarrassing"âwere reportedly the result of secretaries regarding Oliver's phone as the most private in the office. Ehrlichman said that Oliver himself frequently called "his girl friends all over the country lining up assignations". According to Lukas, these telephone conversations have fueled speculation that an
escort service
was operated out of the DNC office.
[
107
]
^
After picking up the developed photographs in Miami, Hunt was shocked to notice the conspicuous shag rug of the Howard Johnson's motel in the background and not the floor of the DNC office. This led to suspicions that the photographed files may have been secretly swapped. McCord, who was responsible for the photographs, proclaimed innocence. The photographs no longer exist and were shredded.
[
108
]
^
A 2012 article in the
Washingtonian
claimed that Baldwin was distracted by the film
Attack of the Puppet People
on the television. He denied this, saying the film was used to obscure the sound of his walkie-talkie from others in the hotel.
[
117
]
^
The five men were found to have rolls of
hundred-dollar bills
, intended as bribes for any security guards that found them.
[
116
]
^
Lukas writes that, beyond unsubstantiated reports of would-be-assassin
Arthur Bremer
meeting with Ulasewicz, nothing supports the theory that the Plumbers were involved in Wallace's attempted assassination. According to Hunt, Colson dispatched him to Bremer's Milwaukee apartment after the shooting to "take a look" and to evaluate whether he had leftist motives. Hunt said that Colson canceled the assignment as he was packing.
[
157
]
[
158
]
Colson called Hunt's claims "utterly preposterous".
[
159
]
As Vice President, Gerald Ford questioned Nixon lawyer
James St. Clair
as to whether the Nixon administration had been involved in the shooting. A
Washington Post
story one year after the shooting reported that Nixon had feared that the shooting was organized by members of his re-election campaign.
[
160
]
^
Commentator
Chris Matthews
claims that this was fabricated by ghostwriter Joseph Dimona (Haldeman died shortly after publication). This was denied by the ghostwriter and
The New York Times Books
editor, who said that Haldeman was a "control freak" who would not have allowed such an insertion.
[
201
]
^
At the time, Hoover was feuding with assistant director
William C. Sullivan
, the third-ranking FBI official. Hoover effectively demoted Sullivan by creating a new higher-ranking position, deputy associate director, and naming Felt to the position. Hoover's longtime number two, the Associate Director
Clyde Tolson
, was in poor health, rendering Felt as Hoover's desired and likely successor.
[
209
]
^
Graff writes that other
Washington Post
journalists, like
Howard Simons
and
Barry Sussman
, are not given fair credit for their contributions to Watergate stories. Regarding Woodward and Bernstein, Sussman later said "I don't have anything good to say about either one of them."
[
223
]
^
Dean reportedly convinced
Herbert Kalmbach
to provide the funds under the false pretense of legal support kept secret to avoid negative publicity.
[
239
]
^
Some $10,000 was found on Dorothy Hunt's remains in the crash, possibly hush money. Hunt had also taken out a $225,000 life insurance plan shortly before the crash, which E. Howard Hunt received. Speculation of assassination was unfounded, and the FBI and
National Transportation Safety Board
found no evidence of foul play.
[
243
]
^
These payments continued for months; by March 1973, the White House ran out of untraceable funds for hush money and secured funding from Greek grocery magnate Thomas Pappas by agreeing to not remove the
US ambassador to Greece
.
[
247
]
^
Graff notes an "odd thread of Watergate" involving Chile and the
ITT Corporation
that may suggest "deeper connections or further, still-uncovered plots and geopolitical intrigue".
[
274
]
^
Richardson later said that, in an attempt to dissuade him from resigning, White House chief of staff
Alexander Haig
suggested that the administration would help him secure the
1976 Republican nomination
for president.
[
353
]
^
The Los Angeles Times
exposed the revelation that Nixon was an unindicted co-conspirator on June 5.
[
426
]
^
The room was immediately evacuated after a false report of a pro-Nixon kamikaze plane about to crash into the Capitol.
[
440
]
[
441
]
^
Ford
had succeeded
Vice President Agnew after his resignation due to tax fraud.
[
458
]
^
After Ford's swearing-in, Air Force One reverted to callsign "SAM 27000" for Special Active Mission, designating a non-presidential military flight.
[
461
]
^
Anderson 2019
.
^
The National Archives
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Berman 2001
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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^
Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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^
Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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a
b
Graff 2022
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Roig-Franzia 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Purdum 2003
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^
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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^
Graff 2022
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a
b
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Weiner 2007
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Kutler 1992
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Kutler 1992
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Dobbs 2021
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
a
b
c
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
a
b
Lukas 1999
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^
Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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^
Glass 2012
.
^
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Emery 1995
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^
a
b
Graff 2022
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Emery 1995
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Robenalt 2022a
.
^
Lukas 1999
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a
b
c
Emery 1995
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Leung 2005
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^
Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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a
b
Graff 2022
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Selverstone 2017
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^
Lukas 1999
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a
b
Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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^
a
b
c
Lukas 1999
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Emery 1995
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^
Gjelten 2009
.
^
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Lukas 1999
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a
b
Lukas 1999
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a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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Emery 1995
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
a
b
Lukas 1999
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^
a
b
c
d
Lukas 1999
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a
b
c
d
Lukas 1999
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^
a
b
c
Graff 2022
, p. 168.
^
a
b
c
d
Seelye 2022
.
^
Lukas 1999
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^
a
b
c
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Kutler 1992
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
Emery 1995
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^
a
b
c
Graff 2022a
.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. xix, 170, 178.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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^
Emery 1995
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Graff 2022
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Swan 2012
.
^
Roig-Franzia 2001
.
^
Graff 2022
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^
Associated Press 2001
.
^
a
b
Hettena 2001
.
^
Wells v. Liddy
,
186 F.3d 505
(4th Cir. 1999).
^
Wells v. Liddy
,
37 F. App'x 53
(4th Cir. 2002).
^
Kutler 1992
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^
Graff 2022
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^
New York Times
1976
.
^
Kutler 1992
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Lukas 1984
.
^
Kutler 1992
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^
a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Kutler 1992
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Molotsky 1992
.
^
Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Crewdson 1973
.
^
a
b
c
d
Hersh 1983
.
^
Graff 2022
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Olson 2003
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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^
Kutler 1992
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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a
b
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
c
Dobbs 2021
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^
a
b
Lukas 1999
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a
b
Graff 2022
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a
b
Graff 2022
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a
b
Dobbs 2021
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a
b
c
Graff 2022
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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^
Memmott 2011
.
^
Lukas 1999
, p. 230.
^
a
b
Lukas 1999
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^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
c
d
e
Morley 2022
.
^
a
b
c
d
Glass 2018
.
^
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Kutler 1992
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
a
b
Crewdson 1976
.
^
Weiner 2008
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, pp. 71â73.
^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
c
Buncombe 2005
.
^
Dobbs 2021
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^
Graff 2022
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Holson 2004
.
^
Graff 2022
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^
Byers 2012
.
^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
Campbell 2012
.
^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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^
Emery 1995
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Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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^
Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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^
a
b
Lukas 1999
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Olson 2003
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^
Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Emery 1995
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Lukas 1999
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Volsky 1977
.
^
Robenalt 2022b
.
^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
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^
a
b
c
Graff 2022
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^
Emery 1995
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^
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Olson 2003
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Graff 2022
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Olson 2003
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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a
b
Lukas 1999
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^
Graff 2022
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Olson 2003
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^
a
b
c
Elving 2024
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Olson 2003
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^
Graff 2022
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a
b
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Olson 2003
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^
Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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a
b
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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a
b
Lukas 1999
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Rugaber 1972
.
^
Graff 2022
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a
b
Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Time
1974
.
^
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Emery 1995
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Graff 2022
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Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Emery 1995
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New York Times
1974
.
^
Emery 1995
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Graff 2022
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Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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^
Time
1973
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Shafer 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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Lukas 1999
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a
b
Lukas 1999
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Graff 2022
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Kutler 1992
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Elving 2018
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b
Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Noble 1987
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Kutler 1992
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Graff 2022
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Emery 1995
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Kutler 1992
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b
Kutler 1992
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b
Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Graff 2022
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Los Angeles Times
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a
b
Graff 2022
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^
Graff 2022
, p. 594.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 595.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 596.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 595â596.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 597â598.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 598.
^
Lukas 1999
, pp. 494â495.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 599.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 600.
^
Sullivan 2004
.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 606â607.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 602.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 609.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 603.
^
Lukas 1999
, p. 495.
^
Allen 2024
.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 611.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 615.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 620, 623.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 623.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 629â630.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 631, 654.
^
Kutler 1992
, pp. 513â514.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 642.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 639â640.
^
Kutler 1992
, pp. 525â526.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 640.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 530.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 641.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 531.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 642â644, 649.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 527.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 647.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 635.
^
Woodward & Bernstein 1976
, p. 309.
^
Kutler 1992
, pp. 536, 537.
^
Barnes 2003
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 653.
^
Lukas 1999
, p. 560.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 655â656.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 658.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 539.
^
Kutler 1992
, pp. 539â540.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 661, 663.
^
Hunter 1973
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 663.
^
a
b
Wooten 1974
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 664.
^
Emery 1995
, p. 481.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 665.
^
Hunter 1981
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 667.
^
Time
1974b
.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 667â668.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 668.
^
a
b
Kutler 1992
, p. 568.
^
a
b
Kutler 1992
, p. 567.
^
Holson 2018
.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 566.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 569.
^
a
b
c
Graff 2022
, p. 669.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 646.
^
Kutler 1992
, pp. 560â561.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 562.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 572.
^
Grimes 2016
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, p. 676.
^
a
b
Nagourney & Shane 2011
.
^
Totenberg 2011
.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 674.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 674â675.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 675.
^
Greenberg 2021
.
^
a
b
Clymer 2002
.
^
a
b
Bennett 2020
.
^
Elving 2022
.
^
Fadulu 2025
.
^
New Straits Times
1975
.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 670.
^
Naughton 1977
.
^
a
b
Stelter 2013
.
^
Ranahan 2025
.
^
Reeve 2017
.
^
a
b
c
Schulman 2024
.
^
Shane 2006
.
^
Kutler 1992
, pp. 586â587.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. 672â673.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 589.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 673.
^
Kutler 1992
, p. 591.
^
Graff 2022
, p. 324.
^
a
b
Clark 2000
, p. 673.
^
Cleveland State University
.
^
a
b
c
The Library of Congress
.
^
a
b
Schneider 1999
.
^
Balz 2022
.
^
a
b
Graff 2022
, pp. xviiâxviii.
^
Derry 2010
, p. 153.
^
Coyne 2008
, pp. 79â80.
^
NPR 2022
.
^
Scovell 2024
.
^
Hoffman 2024
.
^
Graff 2022
, p. xxiii.
^
Graff 2022
, pp. xx, 676.
^
Malesky 2012
.
^
Graff 2022
, p. xx.
^
Zimmer 2019
.
^
Pierce 2013
.
^
Weinraub 1995
.
^
Dargis 2008
.
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McGrath 2008
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## Contents
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- [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal)
- [1 Prelude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Prelude)
Toggle Prelude subsection
- [1\.1 Leaks and early wiretapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Leaks_and_early_wiretapping)
- [1\.2 The White House Plumbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#The_White_House_Plumbers)
- [1\.3 Committee for the Re-Election of the President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Committee_for_the_Re-Election_of_the_President)
- [1\.4 Oval Office taping system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Oval_Office_taping_system)
- [2 Watergate break-ins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Watergate_break-ins)
Toggle Watergate break-ins subsection
- [2\.1 Assembling the crew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Assembling_the_crew)
- [2\.2 Initial attempts and May 28 break-in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Initial_attempts_and_May_28_break-in)
- [2\.3 June 17 break-in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#June_17_break-in)
- [3 Motives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Motives)
Toggle Motives subsection
- [3\.1 Kompromat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Kompromat)
- [3\.2 CIA involvement and other theories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CIA_involvement_and_other_theories)
- [4 Cover-up and investigations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Cover-up_and_investigations)
Toggle Cover-up and investigations subsection
- [4\.1 Reactions and destruction of evidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Reactions_and_destruction_of_evidence)
- [4\.2 Early press investigations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Early_press_investigations)
- [4\.3 Kidnapping of Martha Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Kidnapping_of_Martha_Mitchell)
- [4\.4 "Smoking Gun" conversation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#"Smoking_Gun"_conversation)
- [4\.5 Deep Throat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Deep_Throat)
- [4\.6 Obstruction and bribery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Obstruction_and_bribery)
- [4\.7 Patman probe and indictment of the Plumbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Patman_probe_and_indictment_of_the_Plumbers)
- [4\.8 Trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Trial)
- [4\.9 Ervin Committee and the "Dean Report"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Ervin_Committee_and_the_"Dean_Report")
- [4\.10 McCord, Dean, and Magruder cooperate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#McCord,_Dean,_and_Magruder_cooperate)
- [4\.11 Ervin hearings and Special Prosecutor Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Ervin_hearings_and_Special_Prosecutor_Cox)
- [4\.12 Struggle for the tapes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Struggle_for_the_tapes)
- [4\.13 Saturday Night Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Saturday_Night_Massacre)
- [5 Impeachment process and resignation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Impeachment_process_and_resignation)
Toggle Impeachment process and resignation subsection
- [5\.1 Massacre aftermath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Massacre_aftermath)
- [5\.2 Missing tapes and building pressure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Missing_tapes_and_building_pressure)
- [5\.3 The eighteen-minute gap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#The_eighteen-minute_gap)
- [5\.4 Investigations advance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Investigations_advance)
- [5\.5 Nixon releases tape transcripts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Nixon_releases_tape_transcripts)
- [5\.6 Impeachment hearings and *United States v. Nixon*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Impeachment_hearings_and_United_States_v._Nixon)
- [5\.7 'Smoking gun' tape released](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#'Smoking_gun'_tape_released)
- [5\.8 Resignation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Resignation)
- [6 Aftermath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Aftermath)
Toggle Aftermath subsection
- [6\.1 Ford's pardon of Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Ford's_pardon_of_Nixon)
- [6\.2 Final legal actions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Final_legal_actions)
- [7 Legacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Legacy)
Toggle Legacy subsection
- [7\.1 Political and professional](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Political_and_professional)
- [7\.2 Cultural impact and depictions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Cultural_impact_and_depictions)
- [8 Notes and references](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Notes_and_references)
Toggle Notes and references subsection
- [8\.1 Notes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Notes)
- [8\.2 Citations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Citations)
- [8\.3 Works cited](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Works_cited)
- [8\.3.1 Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Books)
- [8\.3.2 Journal articles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Journal_articles)
- [8\.3.3 News articles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#News_articles)
- [8\.3.4 Web sources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Web_sources)
Toggle the table of contents
# Watergate scandal
78 languages
- [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-skandaal "Watergate-skandaal â Afrikaans")
- [اŮؚعبŮŘŠ](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%AA "ŮŘśŮŘŘŠ ŮŮتعغŮŘŞ â Arabic")
- [Ů
ؾعŮ](https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%AA "ŮŘśŮŘŘŠ ŮŮتع؏ŮŘŞ â Egyptian Arabic")
- [AzÉrbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votergeyt_qalmaqal%C4%B1 "Votergeyt qalmaqalÄą â Azerbaijani")
- [ŘŞŰŘąÚŠŘŹŮ](https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C "ŮاتعŮŰŘŞ ŘąŮŘłŮاŮŰŘşŰ â South Azerbaijani")
- [ĐоНаŃŃŃкаŃ](https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%BA%D1%96_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB "ĐŁĐžŃŃŃгоКŃĐşŃ ŃкандаН â Belarusian")
- [ĐŃНгаŃŃки](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82 "ĐŁĐžŃŃŃĐłĐľĐšŃ â Bulgarian")
- [বাŕŚŕŚ˛ŕŚž](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF "ŕŚŕŚŻŕŚźŕŚžŕŚŕŚžŕŚ°ŕŚŕ§ŕŚ ŕŚŕ§ŕŚ˛ŕ§ŕŚŕ§ŕŚŕŚžŕŚ°ŕŚż â Bangla")
- [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afera_%22Watergate%22 "Afera \"Watergate\" â Bosnian")
- [CatalĂ ](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esc%C3%A0ndol_Watergate "EscĂ ndol Watergate â Catalan")
- [ÄeĹĄtina](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Af%C3%A9ra_Watergate "AfĂŠra Watergate â Czech")
- [Cymraeg](https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sgandal_Watergate "Sgandal Watergate â Welsh")
- [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-skandalen "Watergate-skandalen â Danish")
- [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-Aff%C3%A4re "Watergate-Affäre â German")
- [ÎΝΝΡνΚκΏ](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%8A%CF%84 "ΣκΏνδιΝο ÎÎżĎ
ĎĎÎľĎγκξĎĎ â Greek")
- [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skandalo_Watergate "Skandalo Watergate â Esperanto")
- [EspaĂąol](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esc%C3%A1ndalo_Watergate "EscĂĄndalo Watergate â Spanish")
- [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate%27i_skandaal "Watergate'i skandaal â Estonian")
- [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate "Watergate â Basque")
- [ŮاعسŰ](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA "عسŮاŰŰ ŮاتعگŰŘŞ â Persian")
- [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-skandaali "Watergate-skandaali â Finnish")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandale_du_Watergate "Scandale du Watergate â French")
- [Frysk](https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergateskandaal "Watergateskandaal â Western Frisian")
- [Gaeilge](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scannal_Watergate "Scannal Watergate â Irish")
- [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate "Watergate â Galician")
- [Hausa](https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal "Watergate scandal â Hausa")
- [ע×ר×ת](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98 "פר׊ת ×××ר×××× â Hebrew")
- [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afera_Watergate "Afera Watergate â Croatian")
- [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-botr%C3%A1ny "Watergate-botrĂĄny â Hungarian")
- [ŐŐĄŐľŐĽÖŐĽŐś](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%B8%D5%A9%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AC "ŐÖŐ¸ŐŠŐĽÖŐŁŐĽŐľŐŠŐľŐĄŐś Ő˝ŐŻŐĄŐśŐ¤ŐĄŐŹ â Armenian")
- [Interlingua](https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate "Watergate â Interlingua")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skandal_Watergate "Skandal Watergate â Indonesian")
- [Ido](https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skandalo_di_Watergate "Skandalo di Watergate â Ido")
- [Ăslenska](https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-hneyksli%C3%B0 "Watergate-hneyksliĂ° â Icelandic")
- [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandalo_Watergate "Scandalo Watergate â Italian")
- [ćĽćŹčŞ](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6 "ăŚăŠăźăżăźă˛ăźăäşäťś â Japanese")
- [Jawa](https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendra_Watergate "Gendra Watergate â Javanese")
- [áĽáá ááŁáá](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98 "áŁáá˘áá áááá˘áᥠáĄááááááá â Georgian")
- [ŇаСаŇŃĐ°](https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B "ĐŁĐžŃĐľŃĐłĐľĐšŃ ĐśĐ°Đ˝ĐśĐ°ĐťŃ â Kazakh")
- [íęľě´](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%8C%ED%84%B0%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8_%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4 "ěí°ę˛ě´í¸ ěŹęą´ â Korean")
- [ĐŃŃĐłŃСŃĐ°](https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%C2%BB "ÂŤĐŁĐžŃĐľŃĐłĐľĐšŃ ĐśĐ°ŇŁĐśĐ°ĐťŃÂť â Kyrgyz")
- [LĂŤtzebuergesch](https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-Aff%C3%A4r "Watergate-Affär â Luxembourgish")
- [LietuviĹł](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votergeito_skandalas "Votergeito skandalas â Lithuanian")
- [LatvieĹĄu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votergeitas_skand%C4%81ls "Votergeitas skandÄls â Latvian")
- [ĐакодОнŃки](https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0 "ĐĐžŃĐľŃгоŃŃŃка Đ°ŃĐľŃĐ° â Macedonian")
- [എലയഞളŕ´](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82 "ŕ´ľŕ´žŕ´ŕľŕ´ŕľźŕ´ŕľŕ´ąŕľŕ´ąŕľ ŕ´ľŕ´żŕ´ľŕ´žŕ´Śŕ´ â Malayalam")
- [ĐОнгОН](https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD "ĐŁĐžŃĐľŃгоКŃŃĐ˝ Đ´ŃŃНиан â Mongolian")
- [ऎरञठŕĽ](https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1 "ाŕĽŕ¤ŕ¤°ŕ¤ŕĽŕ¤ ŕ¤ŕĽŕ¤ŕ¤žŕ¤ŕ¤Ą â Marathi")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skandal_Watergate "Skandal Watergate â Malay")
- [ááźááşááŹááŹááŹ](https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AB%E1%80%B8%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%82%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6 "ááŤá¸ááŹá¸ááááş áĄáážáŻááşááąáŹáşááŻáś â Burmese")
- [Plattdßßtsch](https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-Schandaal "Watergate-Schandaal â Low German")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergateschandaal "Watergateschandaal â Dutch")
- [Norsk nynorsk](https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-skandalen "Watergate-skandalen â Norwegian Nynorsk")
- [Norsk bokmĂĽl](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate-skandalen "Watergate-skandalen â Norwegian BokmĂĽl")
- [ਪੰŕ¨ŕ¨žŕ¨ŹŕŠ](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%9F_%E0%A8%98%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE "ਾਞŕ¨ŕ¨°ŕ¨ŕŠŕ¨ ŕ¨ŕŠŕ¨ŕ¨žŕ¨˛ŕ¨ž â Punjabi")
- [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afera_Watergate "Afera Watergate â Polish")
- [PortuguĂŞs](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caso_Watergate "Caso Watergate â Portuguese")
- [RomânÄ](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afacerea_Watergate "Afacerea Watergate â Romanian")
- [Đ ŃŃŃкиК](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB "ĐŁĐžŃĐľŃгоКŃŃкиК ŃкандаН â Russian")
- [ŘłŮÚŮ](https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%BD%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%8A%D9%BD_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%8A%D9%84 "ŮاٽعگŮŮ˝ اسڪŮŮÚŮ â Sindhi")
- [Srpskohrvatski / ŃŃĐżŃкОŃ
ŃваŃŃки](https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate "Watergate â Serbo-Croatian")
- [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal "Watergate scandal â Simple English")
- [SlovenÄina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Af%C3%A9ra_Watergate "AfĂŠra Watergate â Slovak")
- [SlovenĹĄÄina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afera_Watergate "Afera Watergate â Slovenian")
- [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skandali_i_Watergatit "Skandali i Watergatit â Albanian")
- [ĐĄŃĐżŃки / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%82 "ĐŃĐľŃĐ° ĐĐžŃĐľŃгоŃŃ â Serbian")
- [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergateaff%C3%A4ren "Watergateaffären â Swedish")
- [ŕšŕ¸ŕ¸˘](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95 "ŕ¸ŕ¸ŕ¸ľŕ¸§ŕ¸ŕšŕ¸ŕ¸ŕ¸Łŕšŕšŕ¸ŕ¸ â Thai")
- [Tagalog](https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iskandalong_Watergate "Iskandalong Watergate â Tagalog")
- [TĂźrkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_skandal%C4%B1 "Watergate skandalÄą â Turkish")
- [ĐŁĐşŃĐ°ŃĐ˝ŃŃка](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB "ĐĐžŃĐľŃгоКŃŃŃкиК ŃкандаН â Ukrainian")
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## Page version status
This is an accepted version of this page
This is the [latest accepted revision](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes "Wikipedia:Pending changes"), [reviewed](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Watergate_scandal) on *28 March 2026*.
1970s political scandal in the U.S.
"Watergate" redirects here. For the buildings, see [Watergate complex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_complex "Watergate complex"). For other uses, see [Watergate (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_\(disambiguation\) "Watergate (disambiguation)").
For a chronological guide, see [Timeline of the Watergate scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Watergate_scandal "Timeline of the Watergate scandal").
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Watergate_complex.jpg)
A view of the [Watergate complex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_complex "Watergate complex") in Washington, D.C., with the [Howard Johnson's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Johnson%27s "Howard Johnson's") motel to the left, with legal notation from the trial of the [White House Plumbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Plumbers "White House Plumbers")
The **Watergate scandal**, or simply **Watergate**, was a [political scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_scandal "Political scandal") in the United States involving the [administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon "Presidency of Richard Nixon") of President [Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon "Richard Nixon"). On June 17, 1972, operatives associated with Nixon's [1972 re-election campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1972_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign") were caught burglarizing and planting listening devices in the [Democratic National Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee "Democratic National Committee") headquarters at Washington, D.C.'s [Watergate complex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_complex "Watergate complex"). Nixon's efforts to conceal his administration's involvement led to an [impeachment process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachment_process_against_Richard_Nixon "Impeachment process against Richard Nixon") and [his resignation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_resignation_speech "Richard Nixon's resignation speech") in August 1974\.
Emerging from the [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House "White House")'s efforts to stop [leaks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_leak "News leak"), the break-in was an implementation of [Operation Gemstone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Gemstone "Operation Gemstone"), enacted by mostly Cuban burglars led by former intelligence agents [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt") and [G. Gordon Liddy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Gordon_Liddy "G. Gordon Liddy"). After the arrests, investigators and reporters like *[The Washington Post](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")*'s [Bob Woodward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Woodward "Bob Woodward") and [Carl Bernstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Bernstein "Carl Bernstein")âguided by the source "[Deep Throat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Throat_\(Watergate\) "Deep Throat (Watergate)")"âexposed a White House political espionage program illegally funded by donor contributions. Nixon denied involvement but his administration destroyed evidence, obstructed investigators, and bribed the burglars. This cover-up initially worked, helping Nixon win a [landslide re-election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election "1972 United States presidential election"), until revelations from the burglars' 1973 trial led to a [Senate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") investigation.
Mounting pressure led Attorney General [Elliot Richardson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Richardson "Elliot Richardson") to appoint [Archibald Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Cox "Archibald Cox") as Watergate [special prosecutor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_prosecutor "Special prosecutor"). Cox [subpoenaed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoenaed "Subpoenaed") Nixon's [Oval Office tapes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes "Nixon White House tapes")âsuspected to include Watergate conversationsâbut Nixon invoked [executive privilege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_privilege "Executive privilege") to block their release, triggering a [constitutional crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_crisis "Constitutional crisis"). In the "[Saturday Night Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Massacre "Saturday Night Massacre")", Nixon fired Cox, forcing the resignations of the attorney general and his deputy and fueling suspicions of Nixon's involvement. Nixon released select tapes, although one was [partially erased](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18_minute_gap "18 minute gap") and two others disappeared. In April 1974, Cox's replacement [Leon Jaworski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Jaworski "Leon Jaworski") reissued the subpoena, but Nixon provided only redacted transcripts. In July, the [Supreme Court ordered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon "United States v. Nixon") the tapes' release, and the House Judiciary Committee recommended impeachment for obstructing justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress. The White House released the "Smoking Gun" tape, showing that Nixon ordered the CIA to stop the FBI's investigation. Facing impeachment, on August 9, 1974, Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign. In total, 69 people were charged for Watergateâincluding two [cabinet members](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States "Cabinet of the United States")âand most pleaded guilty or were convicted. [Nixon was pardoned](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon_of_Richard_Nixon "Pardon of Richard Nixon") by his successor, [Gerald Ford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford "Gerald Ford").
Watergate, often considered the greatest presidential scandal, tarnished Nixon's legacy and had electoral ramifications for the [Republican Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_\(United_States\) "Republican Party (United States)"): heavy losses in the [1974 midterm elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_United_States_elections "1974 United States elections") and [Ford's failed 1976 reelection bid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election"). Despite significant coverage, no consensus exists on the motive for the break-in or who specifically ordered it. Theories range from an incompetent break-in by rogue campaign officials to a [sexpionage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexpionage "Sexpionage") operation or CIA plot. The scandal generated over 30 memoirs and left such an impression that it is common for scandals, even outside politics or the United States, to be named with the suffix *[\-gate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-gate "-gate")*.
## Prelude
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Prelude")\]
See also: [Timeline of the Watergate scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Watergate_scandal "Timeline of the Watergate scandal")
### Leaks and early wiretapping
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Leaks and early wiretapping")\]
Further information: [Presidency of Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon "Presidency of Richard Nixon") and [Pentagon Papers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon_Papers "Pentagon Papers")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NIXONcampaigns.jpg)
Nixon giving his staple [V sign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_sign "V sign") in Pennsylvania during his [1968 campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1968_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign")[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2019-1)
[Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon "Richard Nixon") was elected the 37th [president of the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") in 1968.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_National_Archives-2)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202240-3) He inherited [American involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_in_the_Vietnam_War "United States in the Vietnam War") in the [Vietnam War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), which he promised to [end honorably](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_with_Honor "Peace with Honor").[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerman20011%E2%80%9310-4) Seeking to force a diplomatic resolution, he secretly [expanded bombing to Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Menu "Operation Menu").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202213-5) When *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* exposed the bombing in May 1969, Nixon ordered the [wiretapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_listening_device "Covert listening device") of reporters and suspected [leakers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_leak "News leak").[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202213%E2%80%9315-6)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992119-7) After the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") (FBI) could not bug some targets, Nixon's domestic policy chief [John Ehrlichman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ehrlichman "John Ehrlichman") directly arranged the wiretapping.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff20226,_13%E2%80%9315,_44-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992119%E2%80%93120-9) Nixon's discontent with the FBI also led him to hire [New York Police Department](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Police_Department "New York Police Department") detectives [Jack Caulfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Caulfield "Jack Caulfield") and [Anthony Ulasewicz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Ulasewicz "Anthony Ulasewicz") as private investigators.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202245,_54%E2%80%9355-10)
In June 1971, *The New York Times* started publishing the *[Pentagon Papers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon_Papers "Pentagon Papers")*: a leaked 7,000-page study of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned in 1967.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxvii,_xxxii-11)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992108%E2%80%93109-12) Leaked by analyst [Daniel Ellsberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Ellsberg "Daniel Ellsberg"),[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202219-13) the papers exposed government deception about the war's progress.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202217-14) Nixon was initially unworried, as the *Pentagon Papers* predated his presidency,[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202217%E2%80%9318-15) but [National Security Advisor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Advisor "National Security Advisor") [Henry Kissinger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Kissinger "Henry Kissinger")âfurious as Ellsberg was his menteeâpushed Nixon into what [White House chief of staff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff "White House Chief of Staff") [H. R. Haldeman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._R._Haldeman "H. R. Haldeman") called a "frenzy".[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff20226,_19-16)[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199919,_68%E2%80%9369-17) Attorney General [John Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Mitchell "John N. Mitchell") filed a restraining order against the *Times*, halting the papers' publication.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202220%E2%80%9321-18)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199971-19) *[The Washington Post](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* began to [publish the papers instead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon_Papers#The_Nixon_administration's_restraint_of_the_media "Pentagon Papers"), and the *Times* case traveled to the [Supreme Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Supreme_Court "US Supreme Court"), which [ruled against Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States "New York Times Co. v. United States").[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202221%E2%80%9322-20)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992110-21) The episode was, according to journalist [Garrett Graff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_Graff "Garrett Graff"), a "self-inflicted ... disaster".[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202222-22)
### The White House Plumbers
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: The White House Plumbers")\]
Further information: [White House Plumbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Plumbers "White House Plumbers") and [Watergate Seven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Seven "Watergate Seven")
> "We've got a damn counter-government here and we've got to fight it. I don't give a damn how it is done, do whatever has to be done to stop these leaks. I don't want to be told why it can't be done. This government cannot survive, it cannot function if anyone can run out and leak."
â Nixon to aide [Chuck Colson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Colson "Chuck Colson") after *[New York Times Co. v. United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States "New York Times Co. v. United States")* (1971)[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202222%E2%80%9323-23)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:G._Gordon_Liddy_c_1964.jpg)
Retired CIA officer [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt") and former FBI agent [G. Gordon Liddy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Gordon_Liddy "G. Gordon Liddy") (pictured 1964) were the [handlers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_handling "Agent handling") of the five Watergate burglars.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoig-Franzia2022-24)
After the Supreme Court's ruling, Nixon told aide [Chuck Colson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Colson "Chuck Colson") to stop all leaks by any means.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202222%E2%80%9323-23) Nixon fixated on files at the [Brookings Institution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution "Brookings Institution") on the [Chennault Affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Chennault#Vietnam_and_the_"Chennault_Affair" "Anna Chennault"), which implicated him in the sabotage of 1968 Vietnam peace talks,[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202227%E2%80%9337-25)[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-28) and urged aides to "get in and get those filesâblow the safe and get it".[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202237-29) Nixon advisors had previously drafted the [Huston Plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huston_Plan "Huston Plan"), which proposed expanded domestic surveillance and tactics like "surreptitious entry" (burglary).[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202247%E2%80%9351-30)[\[b\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-34)
For the Brookings burglary, Colson recruited retired[\[c\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-36) [Central Intelligence Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency") (CIA) agent [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt"),[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202264%E2%80%9366-37) who had helped arrange the [1954 Guatemalan coup d'ĂŠtat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1954 Guatemalan coup d'ĂŠtat") and the failed 1961 [Bay of Pigs Invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion "Bay of Pigs Invasion") of Cuba.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202267-38)[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner2007-39) The plot escalated into a planned [firebombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firebombing "Firebombing") with burglars posing as firefighters: [White House Counsel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Counsel "White House Counsel") [John Dean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dean "John Dean") halted the operation.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202270-40) Their focus shifted to leaker Ellsberg: Hunt was teamed with aides [Egil Krogh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egil_Krogh "Egil Krogh") and [David Young](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Young_\(Watergate\) "David Young (Watergate)") in the new "Special Investigations Unit".[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202279%E2%80%9380-41) Former FBI agent [G. Gordon Liddy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Gordon_Liddy "G. Gordon Liddy") also joined the group, which he dubbed "[ODESSA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ODESSA "ODESSA")" after a rumored [Nazi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi "Nazi") *[Schutzstaffel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schutzstaffel "Schutzstaffel")* group.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202280%E2%80%9382-42)[\[d\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-44) Young's grandmother, misunderstanding leaks, suggested another name: the "[Plumbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Plumbers "White House Plumbers")".[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202282-45)[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992113-46)
Seeking compromising material, the Plumbers targeted Ellsberg's psychiatrist, Lewis Fielding.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202283%E2%80%9384,_90-47)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992114-48) Krogh approved a burglary of his Los Angeles office: "Hunt/Liddy Project \#1".[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202290%E2%80%9392-49) Hunt enlisted Cuban collaborators from the Bay of Pigs: CIA veteran [Bernard Barker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Barker "Bernard Barker")âwho had served under Cuban dictator [Fulgencio Batista](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista "Fulgencio Batista")âand anti-[Castro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Castro "Fidel Castro") exiles [Eugenio MartĂnez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio_Mart%C3%ADnez "Eugenio MartĂnez") and Felipe De Diego.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202291%E2%80%9393-50)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199994%E2%80%9397-51)[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs202144-52) The September 3 burglary reportedly failed, the Cubans finding no Ellsberg files and staging an addict's rampage after accidentally damaging the safe.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202293-53)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999100%E2%80%93101-54) De Diego said that they found and photographed Ellsberg's records, and Fielding reported that Ellsberg's health files were in his office and appeared to have been "fingered". Liddy later suspected that Hunt had deceived him, photographing the files and sending them instead to the CIA.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202294-55)[\[e\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-56) Hunt and Liddy then planned to burglarize Fielding's home but were stopped by Ehrlichman.[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022101-57)
The Plumbers next plotted to discredit Ellsberg by drugging him with [LSD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSD "LSD") at a Washington gala, but White House approval came too late.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202295-58) They revived the Brookings firebombing scheme, proposing to buy a fire engine for firefighterâdisguised Cubans, which the White House ultimately deemed too costly.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202294-55)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199579-59) Other projects included investigating [Ted Kennedy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Kennedy "Ted Kennedy")'s [Chappaquiddick accident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chappaquiddick_incident "Chappaquiddick incident"), assessing whether [Hoover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover "J. Edgar Hoover") should be made to leave the FBI, and forging a cable to link John F. Kennedy to the [1963 assassination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrest_and_assassination_of_Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Di%E1%BB%87m "Arrest and assassination of NgĂ´ ÄĂŹnh Diáťm") of South Vietnamese president [NgĂ´ ÄĂŹnh Diáťm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Di%E1%BB%87m "NgĂ´ ÄĂŹnh Diáťm").[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202282%E2%80%9383,_96-60)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199579%E2%80%9380-61)[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199981%E2%80%9383-62) The Plumbers also helped discover that the [Pentagon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pentagon "The Pentagon") was [surveilling the White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorer-Radford_Affair "Moorer-Radford Affair") via a leaker on the [National Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council "United States National Security Council"), outraging an increasingly paranoid Nixon.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022101%E2%80%93104-63)[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999104%E2%80%93106-64) Collectively, the Plumbers' schemes are often called the "White House horrors", a phrase coined by Attorney General Mitchell.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999237-65)[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992200-66)
### Committee for the Re-Election of the President
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Committee for the Re-Election of the President")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Interview_with_Atty._Gen._John_Mitchell_01_copy.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_McCord_Jr.jpg)
Attorney General [John Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Mitchell "John N. Mitchell") (left) resigned to lead the [CRP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_the_Re-Election_of_the_President "Committee for the Re-Election of the President"), which also hired former CIA officer [James McCord](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._McCord_Jr. "James W. McCord Jr.") (right) as its head of security.
As Nixon prepared for his [1972 re-election campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1972_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign"), Caulfield proposed [Operation Sandwedge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Sandwedge "Operation Sandwedge"): a private-sector intelligence operation against the Democrats.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202299%E2%80%93100-67)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999107%E2%80%93108-68) White House officials deemed the plan too moderate and doubted Caulfield's competence: Liddy was selected to head the project before it was scrapped.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022100%E2%80%93101-69)[\[f\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-71) In December 1971, Liddy instead became [general counsel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_counsel "General counsel") for the [Committee for the Re-Election of the President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_the_Re-Election_of_the_President "Committee for the Re-Election of the President") (CRP)âthe fundraising arm of Nixon's re-election campaignâintroduced by deputy campaign manager [Jeb Stuart Magruder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeb_Stuart_Magruder "Jeb Stuart Magruder") as "our man in charge of dirty tricks".[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022105,_110-72)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2012-73) The CRP also recruited retired CIA officer [James McCord](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._McCord_Jr. "James W. McCord Jr.") as its security chief.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022105-74)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999170-75)
With Hunt, Liddy devised [Operation Gemstone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Gemstone "Operation Gemstone"), a set of covert campaign schemes pitched to Attorney General Mitchell on January 27.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022109,_118%E2%80%93119-76) These included Operation Diamond: kidnapping, drugging, and detaining in Mexico likely protesters during the [1972 Republican National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Republican_National_Convention "1972 Republican National Convention"). The plan, nicknamed *[Nacht und Nebel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacht_und_Nebel "Nacht und Nebel")* after an [Adolf Hitler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") directive, would be enacted by an "*[Einsatzgruppe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsatzgruppen "Einsatzgruppen")*" of [mobsters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mafia "American Mafia") that Hunt said had committed 22 murders.[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199589%E2%80%9390-77)[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022119-78) Other plots included Operation Emerald, a [spy airliner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft "Reconnaissance aircraft") to trail the Democratic [nominee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_nominee "Presidential nominee"); Operation Turquoise, Cuban commandos sabotaging air-conditioning at the Democrats' [1972 Miami convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Democratic_National_Convention "1972 Democratic National Convention"); and Operation Sapphire, a boat with [sex workers to entrap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_trapping "Honey trapping") Democrats at the convention.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022119-78)[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199590%E2%80%9391-79) Mitchell rejected the plots as unrealistic and expensive, requesting a simpler Gemstone.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022120%E2%80%93121-80)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999172%E2%80%93173-81)
In February, Mitchell resigned to become CRP director.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022128-82) Although disputed by Graff and biographer [James Rosen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Rosen_\(journalist\) "James Rosen (journalist)"), Mitchell is generally believed to have approved Liddy's next version of Gemstone, which proposed burglarizing and bugging the office of [Larry O'Brien](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_O%27Brien "Larry O'Brien") at the [Democratic National Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee "Democratic National Committee")'s (DNC) headquarters within D.C.'s [Watergate Complex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Complex "Watergate Complex"), the [Fontainebleau Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fontainebleau_Hotel "Fontainebleau Hotel") suites of top Democrats during their Miami convention, and the campaign headquarters of the eventual nominee.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999173%E2%80%93174-83)[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobenalt2022a-84) As another break-in target, Mitchell or Magruder suggested *[Las Vegas Sun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas_Sun "Las Vegas Sun")* publisher [Hank Greenspun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Greenspun "Hank Greenspun")'s office.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999174%E2%80%93176-85)[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199597-86) The desired material may have involved possible Democratic nominee [Edmund Muskie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Muskie "Edmund Muskie") or the financial dealings of reclusive billionaire [Howard Hughes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Hughes "Howard Hughes") with Nixon or his brother [Donald Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Nixon "Donald Nixon").[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199597-86)[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999177-87)[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeung2005-88) Althoughâaccording to Hunt and Liddyâthe burglary was abandoned after Hughes would not provide a getaway plane, Greenspun's office showed evidence of forced entry, and Ehrlichman told Nixon in 1973 that Hunt and Liddy "flew out \[to Las Vegas\], broke his safe, got something out" \[*[sic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic "Sic")*\].[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199597-86)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999176%E2%80%93177-89)
### Oval Office taping system
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Oval Office taping system")\]
Main article: [Nixon White House tapes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes "Nixon White House tapes")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tape_recorder_from_President_Nixon%27s_Oval_Office.jpg)
A Sony tape-recorder used by Nixon to record all conversations in the Oval Office
After his election, Nixon made the [Army Signal Corps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Signal_Corps "United States Army Signal Corps") remove a taping system used by predecessor [Lyndon B. Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson") in the [Oval Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oval_Office "Oval Office").[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202259-90) By 1971, Nixon worried that his presidency would not be sufficiently preserved for posterity and had the [Secret Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service "United States Secret Service") install microphones in his desk and throughout the room. The system was deliberately kept secret from those close to Nixon, including his secretary, [Rose Mary Woods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Mary_Woods "Rose Mary Woods").[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202259%E2%80%9360-91) From February 16, 1971 to July 12, 1973, the system recorded 3,432 hours of conversation.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202260-92) According to Graff, the tapes were ultimately "the root cause of \[Nixon's\] downfall".[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202260-92) No president since Nixon is known to have taped White House conversations, although President [Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") suggested that he did.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESelverstone2017-93)
## Watergate break-ins
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Watergate break-ins")\]
### Assembling the crew
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Assembling the crew")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eugenio_Martinez.jpg)
[Eugenio MartĂnez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio_Mart%C3%ADnez "Eugenio MartĂnez"), one of the Cuban burglars
Following the May 1972 death of FBI director Hoover, Colson asked the CRP to send counterprotestors to a protest at Hoover's [state funeral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_funerals_in_the_United_States "State funerals in the United States") in the [Capitol rotunda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol_rotunda "United States Capitol rotunda").[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999194-94)[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022156-95) Hunt and Liddy again recruited Bay of Pigs collaborators: Barker flew to D.C. with nine men from Miami.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999194%E2%80%93195-96) After the counterprotest, according to Lukas, Barker's team may have committed two unsolved burglaries in Washington, those of the Chilean Embassy and of a major Democratic law firm within the Watergate Complex on May 16.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999196-97) The counterprotest may also have been a ruse to bring the Cubans to D.C. to burglarize Hoover's home in search of alleged *[kompromat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompromat "Kompromat")* used to [blackmail politicians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover#Sexuality_and_gender_identity "J. Edgar Hoover").[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022156-95)
After meeting with Hunt in Miami, Barker selected the men for the DNC break-in planned for [Memorial Day](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Day "Memorial Day") weekend: MartĂnez, as photographer; [Virgilio Gonzalez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgilio_Gonzalez "Virgilio Gonzalez"), as lockpicker; and De Diego, Reinaldo Pico, and [Frank Sturgis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sturgis "Frank Sturgis") as guards.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999196%E2%80%93197-98) Sturgis was the only non-Cuban member, but he had fought alongside Castro during the [Cuban Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Revolution "Cuban Revolution").[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999197-99)[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995119-100)[\[g\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-102) Pico and De Diego were dropped because McCord forgot two walkie-talkies.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999197-99) After a planning session with McCord and Hunt at the [Hamilton Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_Hotel_\(Washington,_D.C.\) "Hamilton Hotel (Washington, D.C.)") near the White House, Barker's team checked into the [Watergate Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Hotel "Watergate Hotel") on May 26.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999197-99) McCord recruited former FBI agent [Alfred Baldwin III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_C._Baldwin_III "Alfred C. Baldwin III") to perform the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward; he was booked at the [Howard Johnson's motel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Johnson%27s "Howard Johnson's") opposite the Watergate.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999193,_197%E2%80%93198-103)
### Initial attempts and May 28 break-in
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Initial attempts and May 28 break-in")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Watergate_Complex,_Office_Buildings_\(1982\).jpg)
The Watergate Complex and its parking garage entrance (pictured 1982), through which the Plumbers first broke into the [Democratic National Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee "Democratic National Committee") office on May 28, 1972
The Plumbers attempted a break-in on the night of May 26, when Hunt and seven others posed as executives in a banquet room located beneath the Watergate office building and connected to the office's stairwell. This effort failed when Hunt and MartĂnez, after hiding in a closet to evade a night guard, were unable to pick the lock and were stuck in the banquet room overnight.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999197%E2%80%93198-104)[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022162%E2%80%93163-105)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995119%E2%80%93120-106) A concurrent, spontaneous plot led by Liddy with the Cubansâthe bugging of [George McGovern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McGovern "George McGovern")'s D.C. [campaign headquarters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McGovern_1972_presidential_campaign "George McGovern 1972 presidential campaign")âfailed on two nights when a lone volunteer was seen working late.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999198%E2%80%93199-107) On May 27, a second DNC break-in failed after Gonzalez lacked proper tools for the DNC office's door; he flew back to Miami to retrieve them.[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999199-108)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022163-109)
On May 28, Gonzalez and Sturgis entered the office on their third attempt, approaching via the garage.[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999199-108)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022163-109) They were joined by Barker, who sought files on Cuban contributions and had MartĂnez photograph convention security files, and McCord, who bugged the phones of both staffer [R. Spencer Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Spencer_Oliver "R. Spencer Oliver") and O'Brien's secretary.[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999199%E2%80%93200-110)[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995121%E2%80%93122-111) After the team left the office, McCord was unable to pick up one of the wiretap transmittersâthat of O'Brien's secretaryâwith his remote receiver.[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999200-112) In the following weeks, Baldwin recorded hundreds of calls on Oliver's wiretap, including many sexual conversations from secretaries using his phone.[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999200%E2%80%93201-113)[\[h\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-115) Liddy delivered the phone transcripts and developed photos[\[i\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-117) to Magruder and a disappointed Mitchell, who dismissed them as "shitty".[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999201%E2%80%93202-118)
On June 12, Magruder asked Liddy to photograph all documents in the office.[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022164-119) Later that day, Baldwin, directed by Liddy, visited the Watergate DNC office under the guise of a nephew of former DNC chairman [John Bailey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Moran_Bailey "John Moran Bailey") and was given a tour of the floor.[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999202-120) Two days later, Liddy told Hunt that the DNC break-in would be reattempted. On June 16, Barker's team returned to D.C. and checked into the Watergate.[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999203-121)
### June 17 break-in
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: June 17 break-in")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Government_Exhibit_133,_Chapstick_Tubes_with_Hidden_Microphones_-_NARA_-_304967.jpg)
Chapstick radio microphones discovered in [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt")'s White House safe after the burglary
For the May 28 break-in, Sturgis and Gonzalez had used tape to cover [latches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latch "Latch") and prevent doors locking. On the night of June 17, McCord volunteered to tape the doors but did so horizontally such that excess tape was visible on the sides.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999204-122) He then returned to Baldwin's listening post at the Howard Johnson's,[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999204-122) where Hunt called him to ask if the DNC office was empty. McCord reported a lone staffer: [Bruce Givner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Givner "Bruce Givner"), an intern calling friends.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999205-123) At around 12:45, Givner left the office, and security guard [Frank Wills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Wills_\(security_guard\) "Frank Wills (security guard)") began his shift.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999205-123) At 1 a.m., Wills removed the garage door tape, assuming a worker left it.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999205-123) Stumbling upon Givner, Wills left to eat with him at the Howard Johnson's.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999205-123)
Accounts differ on which burglar decided to proceed with the operation after the tape removal was found.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206-124) Regardless, McCord rejoined the burglars, and Gonzalez repicked and retaped the door.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206-124) Reaching the DNC office, the burglars abandoned picking the lock and removed the door from the hinges instead.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206-124) At around 1:50 a.m., Wills returned and discovered the new tape and called the police. An unmarked [Metropolitan Police](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Police_Department_of_the_District_of_Columbia "Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia") cruiser, belonging to a special [undercover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_operation "Covert operation") vice squad disguised as [hippies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippies "Hippies"), arrived within three minutes.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206-124)[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168-125) Baldwin, acting as spotter, saw the car but ignored it.[\[j\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-127) He contacted Hunt, however, when the officers turned on the eighth floor lights.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206%E2%80%93207-128) Hunt dismissed it as the night guard, and the team continued installing a new bug disguised as a smoke detector.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999207-129)
The three Metropolitan officers swept the ninth floor and, after finding a taped door on the sixth floor, began searching the DNC offices.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999207-129)[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168-125) Baldwin radioed Hunt that three armed men were approaching.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999207-129) McCord and the four others, hiding behind a partition, surrendered to the officers under false names.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999208,_212-130)[\[k\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-131) Hunt and Liddy escaped their hotel room in a Jeep, leaving behind traceable items in the team's two hotel suites, and told Baldwin to flee.[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999208%E2%80%93210-132)[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995136-133)[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022169-134) Hunt drove to the White House, where he dumped electronic equipment in a safe and took \$10,000: the three men then slept at their respective homes.[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022169%E2%80%93170-135)[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999210-136) The arrested burglars' listening devices led the Metropolitan police to involve the FBI under the presumption of a federal [intercepted communications violation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission "Federal Communications Commission");[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992187-137) by June 23, a federal [grand jury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_juries_in_the_United_States "Grand juries in the United States") of 23 D.C. residents began hearing testimony.[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995194-138)
## Motives
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: Motives")\]
Main article: [Watergate break-in motives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_break-in_motives "Watergate break-in motives")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Dean_photo_portrait_as_White_House_Counsel_black_and_white_sitting.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Howard_Hughes_TIME_Magazine_cover,_July_19,_1948.jpg)
Theories on motive range from files on an [escort ring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_agency "Escort agency") allegedly linked to the CIA or White House Counsel [John Dean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dean "John Dean")'s (left) partner to illicit [Howard Hughes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Hughes "Howard Hughes") contributions (seen right, on a 1948 *Time* cover).
The purpose of the Watergate break-in and who ultimately ordered the operation has never been established and has spawned [conspiracist literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_theory "Conspiracy theory") akin to [that](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories "John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories") on the [Kennedy assassination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy "Assassination of John F. Kennedy").[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022170,_177%E2%80%93178-139)[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995441-140) No one was ever charged for ordering the burglary, and the Plumbers' accounts conflict.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a-141) According to Graff, the burglars may have had "two or even three distinct and separate motives" and deceived even each other.[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xix,_170,_178-142)
The simplest theory is that Watergate was an incompetent break-in to bug O'Brien, emerging from White House paranoia, and that Hunt, Liddy, and McCord were overzealous and acted without proper oversight.[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171-143) Alternative theories often focus on the bugging of the relatively minor staffer Oliver, which investigators could not explain. Although Dean said that Oliver was accidentally bugged, the FBI found that Martinez carried a key matching the locked desk of Oliver's secretary.[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022173-144)
### Kompromat
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: Kompromat")\]
See also: [Kompromat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompromat "Kompromat") and [Sexpionage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexpionage "Sexpionage")
A common theory argues that the burglars sought "dirt" on the Democrats, specifically involving illegal Democratic finances or sexual scandals.[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171-143) Both Dean and Magruder said that the break-in sought to expose the Democrats for "cutting deals" with donors to fund their convention.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171%E2%80%93172-145) Hunt testified that he told the Cubans to photograph files on finances and contributions:[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022172-146) the Cubans believed they were looking for files linking the Democrats to funding from Castro.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a-141)
In 1980, Liddy conversely wrote that the break-in's purpose "was to find out what O'Brien had of a derogatory nature about us",[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022172-146)[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995125-147) often suggested to be files on illegal contributions to Nixon, possibly CIA-linked, from the [Greek junta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_junta "Greek junta") or Howard Hughes.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992204%E2%80%93208-148)[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022174%E2%80%93175-149)[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199530-150) A [sexual blackmail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexpionage "Sexpionage") theory, as advanced in *[Secret Agenda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Hougan "Jim Hougan")* (1984) and *[Silent Coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Coup "Silent Coup")* (1992), alleges a link either between Oliver and a high-end [escort service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_agency "Escort agency"), or that Dean feared Democrat-held files linking his partner to a D.C. escort ring run by lawyer Phillip Mackin Bailley, or both.[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022173%E2%80%93174-151)[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwan2012-152)[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoig-Franzia2001-153) Liddy and Ehrlichman endorsed this theory, and Colson called it "one of the most plausible explanations".[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022174-154)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociated_Press_2001-155)[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHettena2001-156) Dean rejected it as "baloney", and Oliver's secretary sued Liddy regarding the claims.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHettena2001-156) Wells subsequently lost the lawsuit; following a mistrial due to a hung jury in 2001 and a successful appeal, a 2004 retrial resulted in a unanimous jury verdict in Liddy's favor.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-157)[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-158)
### CIA involvement and other theories
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: CIA involvement and other theories")\]
> "Even if we should learn the Administration was victimized by a CIA plotâeven if we should learn the motive for the burglaryâthat would change nothing regarding our understanding of John Mitchell's 'White House horrors.' Nor would it mitigate the resulting inter-institutional conflicts and encounters, which raised profound constitutional and political questions, or the constitutional crisis generated by the Administration's behavior in the wake of the burglary. That behavior resulted in the special crimes of cover-up and obstruction by high Administration officialsâup to and including the President of the United States."
â Historian [Stanley Kutler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Kutler "Stanley Kutler"), 1992[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992209-159)
A prominent theory, supported by Colson and Haldeman, alleges that the CIA sabotaged the break-in or the cover-up to smear Nixonâwith whom it had a tense relationshipâor to conceal ties to the Bailley escort ring or [ally Howard Hughes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Hughes#Glomar_Explorer_and_the_taking_of_K-129 "Howard Hughes").[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176%E2%80%93177-160)[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_York_Times''_1976-161)[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992201%E2%80%93202,_204%E2%80%93205,_209,_492-162)[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1984-163) In January 1974, according to Colson, Nixon nearly removed CIA director [William Colby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Colby "William Colby") over such suspicions; that June, Senator [Howard Baker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Baker "Howard Baker") released an inconclusive report on CIA complicity.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995441-140) Beyond the burglars' past roles in CIA plots, both McCord and Hunt had been CIA agents, Hunt continued to work for a firm that was a CIA cover, and MartĂnez was on the CIA's payroll throughout Watergate. The CIA also had unexplained insight into the plot, helped Hunt develop the Fielding photographs, and did not cooperate with investigators.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176-35)[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992203-164)
A "sixth man" theory links McCord's periodic absences to the possible presence of Lou Russell, a CRP security guard allegedly linked to the escort ring and CIA.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022177-165) Another theory noted by [Stanley Kutler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Kutler "Stanley Kutler") suggests that Colson and Hunt were rogue operatives and proceeded with a version of Gemstone that also targeted election rival [George Wallace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wallace "George Wallace") and, after Wallace's [attempted assassination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wallace#Assassination_attempt "George Wallace"), sought to [plant leftist literature at the shooter's home](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Bremer#Break-in_plot "Arthur Bremer")âa story broken by [Seymour Hersh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Hersh "Seymour Hersh").[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992194,_200-166)[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolotsky1992-167)[\[l\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-172)
The final major theory, according to Graff, is that the Democrats or Metropolitan Police had foreknowledge of the burglary and "sprung a trap" or were somehow alerted by McCord or Hunt. Proponents note that the responding Metropolitan squad were coincidentally vice officers with experience dismantling D.C. sex work.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022177-165)
## Cover-up and investigations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: Cover-up and investigations")\]
### Reactions and destruction of evidence
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=14 "Edit section: Reactions and destruction of evidence")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Address_Book_of_Watergate_Burglar_Bernard_Barker,_Discovered_in_a_Room_at_the_Watergate_Hotel,_June_18,_1972_-_NARA_-_304966.tif)
Address book of [Bernard Barker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Barker "Bernard Barker"), discovered in a room at the Watergate Hotel, June 18, 1972
On the morning of June 18, Liddy visited the CRP, destroyed Gemstone files, and reported the arrests to Magruder.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022179%E2%80%93180-173)[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200344-174) Nixon was informed shortly thereafter.[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022181-175) Later that day, federal prosecutors [Earl Silbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_J._Silbert "Earl J. Silbert") and [Chuck Work](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chuck_Work&action=edit&redlink=1 "Chuck Work (page does not exist)") searched the burglars' hotel rooms: they found spying gear, \$100 bills, papers mentioning Hunt, Barker's address books (listing "WH"), and MartĂnez's telephone directory (listing "W. House").[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999213-176)[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022183%E2%80%93184-177) Investigators learned that the burglars had given pseudonyms, that McCord worked for the CRP, and that the White House had conducted a background check on Hunt.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022184-178) The burglars did not cooperate with the FBI or in court.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022184%E2%80%93185,_187-179)[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992188-180) Visited by FBI agents, Hunt admitted that a check found at Watergate was his but refused further comment.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999217-181)
On June 19, CIA agent Lee Pennington Jr. destroyed incriminating material at McCord's home.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999211-182) The CRP conducted a "massive housecleaning": Magruder burned Gemstone files at his home, and Colson destroyed pages in the White House phone directory listing Hunt.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999223,_226-183) Nixon made his first public statement on Watergate on June 22, denying White House involvement.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022206-184)
Following Ehrlichman's orders, Dean had Hunt's White House safe drilled open;[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999222%E2%80%93223-185) Ehrlichman told Dean to "[deep six](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deep_six "wikt:deep six")" incriminating files in the [Potomac River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potomac_River "Potomac River").[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999227-186) As a Secret Service agent and two aides had seen the files' removal, Dean feared perjuring himself in future testimony. On June 27, he instead gave nonsensitive files to the FBI and sensitive filesâon the Fielding burglary and other Plumber activitiesâdirectly to acting FBI director [L. Patrick Gray](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Patrick_Gray "L. Patrick Gray").[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999227%E2%80%93228-187) Dean personally destroyed two Hunt notebooks and an address book, and Gray burned the surrendered files around Christmas 1972.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999228-188)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022291%E2%80%93292-189)
### Early press investigations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=15 "Edit section: Early press investigations")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LBJ_Foundation_and_More_Perfect_conference_called_Trust_News_Democracy,_at_the_LBJ_Presidential_Library_in_Austin,_Texas_on_9_April_2024_-_13.jpg)
*Washington Post* reporters [Bob Woodward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Woodward "Bob Woodward") and [Carl Bernstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Bernstein "Carl Bernstein"), 2024
Shortly after the break-in, DNC counsel [Joseph Califano Jr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Califano_Jr. "Joseph A. Califano Jr.") notified *The Washington Post*: editor [Barry Sussman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Sussman "Barry Sussman") assigned veteran journalist [Alfred Lewis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_E._Lewis "Alfred E. Lewis") and the novices [Bob Woodward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Woodward "Bob Woodward") and [Carl Bernstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Bernstein "Carl Bernstein") to the story.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022185%E2%80%93186-190) The team found that four of the burglars were Cuban exiles;[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022186-191) Woodward attended the burglars' preliminary hearing, where McCord admitted to being former CIA.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022187-192) *The Washington Post*'s next issue contained three stories on Watergate, but the scandal received negligible coverage from papers like *The New York Times*.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022187-192)
Based on the address book and letters found in the burglar's suite, Woodward and Bernstein contacted the White House [switchboard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchboard_operator "Switchboard operator") and asked for Hunt. They were connected to "Mr. Colson's office" and then referred to Hunt's office at the Mullen Company PR Firm. They were able to reach Hunt, who hung up.[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022191-193)
Contacting acquaintances, they learned that Hunt was "with the CIA" and that McCord had created a presidential list of "domestic radicals" and a censorship plan in case of a national emergency.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022192-194) Based on Sussman's research on Colson, the trio published a headline implicating the White House: "White House Consultant Linked to Bugging Suspects".[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022193-195) Press attention on the "Watergate caper" grew from other outlets.[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022197%E2%80%93198-196) *The New York Times*' Latin-American specialist [Tad Szulc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tad_Szulc "Tad Szulc") connected the Cuban burglars to past CIA plots and Hunt to the Bay of Pigs.[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022197%E2%80%93198-196)[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999272-197)
### Kidnapping of Martha Mitchell
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=16 "Edit section: Kidnapping of Martha Mitchell")\]
Main article: [Martha Mitchell § June 1972 kidnapping, aftermath and vindication](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Mitchell#June_1972_kidnapping,_aftermath_and_vindication "Martha Mitchell")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Martha_Mitchell_1969_-_NARA_-_194649_\(cropped\).jpg)
After the burglary, [Martha Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Mitchell "Martha Mitchell") was kidnapped and sedated.
[Martha Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Mitchell "Martha Mitchell"), the wife of CRP head John Mitchell, was a vocal Nixon supporter and, according to Graff, "perhaps the first national [conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States "Conservatism in the United States") celebrity pundit".[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022114-198) After the arrests, John Mitchell distanced the CRP from McCordâwho had previously been assigned to guard Marthaâclaiming he was just an outside security contractor.[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022188%E2%80%93189-199)[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142-200) Through aides, he unsuccessfully tried to prevent Martha from seeing news about McCord.[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999218%E2%80%93219-201) Furious at the deception, Martha had a [nervous episode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_breakdown "Nervous breakdown").[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142-200)[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022215-202) If her husband would not leave politics, she threatened to permanently leave D.C. and contact [UPI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International "United Press International") reporter [Helen Thomas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Thomas "Helen Thomas").[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022215-202) In a locked bedroom of a [Newport Beach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newport_Beach,_California "Newport Beach, California") villa, Martha's call to Thomas was interrupted when bodyguard [Steve King](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_B._King "Stephen B. King") broke down the door, destroyed the phone, and restrained her.[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142-200)[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999218%E2%80%93219-201)[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022216-203)
A thwarted morning escape attempt from King resulted in Martha slicing her hand on a broken glass door. A doctor visited the house and forcibly sedated Martha, who was restrained and had her pants removed by FBI and Secret Service agents. Other escape attempts also failed.[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022216-203) Her concerned husband had her flown to the [Westchester Country Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westchester_Country_Club "Westchester Country Club") in New York, where she called Thomas, stating that "I'm black and blue. I'm a political prisoner".[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021143-204)[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217-205) She was then interviewed by the *[New York Daily News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Daily_News "New York Daily News")*.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217-205) John and his team denied Martha's account and blocked the FBI from interviewing her.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217-205)[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999220-206) On June 30, less than two weeks after the break-in, John Mitchell resigned to tend to his wife and because he had become a liability for Nixon.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021143-204)[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999237%E2%80%93238-207)
### "Smoking Gun" conversation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=17 "Edit section: \"Smoking Gun\" conversation")\]
Further information: [Nixon White House tapes § "Smoking Gun" tape](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes#"Smoking_Gun"_tape "Nixon White House tapes")
Part of the "Smoking Gun" tape of Nixon and Haldeman discussing how to pressure the CIA into stopping the FBI investigation
The FBI traced \$4,500 from the burglars' suite to Barker's account, which had received \$89,000 in four Mexican checks and a \$25,000 check from the CRP's [Midwest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States") finance chairman [Kenneth Dahlberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_H._Dahlberg "Kenneth H. Dahlberg"), closing in on the "money trail" source: CRP contributions.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999229%E2%80%93230-208)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMemmott2011-209) The FBI's progressâincluding a hypothesis by the Washington field office head that Watergate was "in furtherance of the White House efforts to locate and identify 'leaks'"âalarmed the White House.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999230-210) As Gray was considering CIA involvement, Dean, Haldeman, and Mitchell plotted to have the CIA pressure the FBI to drop its probe under the pretense of national security.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999230%E2%80%93231-211)[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022209-212) On June 23, Nixon approved the plan and instructed Haldeman in a recorded conversation known as the ["Smoking Gun" tape](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes#"Smoking_Gun"_tape "Nixon White House tapes"):[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999230%E2%80%93231-211)[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2018-214)
> "... When you get in (inaudible) people, say 'Look, the problem is that this will open the whole, the whole Bay of Pigs thing, and the President just feels that ah, without going into the details â don't, don't lie to them to the extent to say no involvement, but just say this is a comedy of errors, without getting into it, the President believes that it is going to open the whole Bay of Pigs thing up again. And, ah, because these people are plugging for (inaudible) and that they should call the FBI in and (inaudible) don't go any further into this case period!'"[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999231-215)
Haldeman and Ehrlichman relayed this message to CIA director [Richard Helms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Helms "Richard Helms") and deputy director [Vernon Walters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon_A._Walters "Vernon A. Walters") in a White House meeting: Helms agreed to pressure the FBI to end their investigation by claiming that it might reveal CIA [money laundering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_laundering "Money laundering").[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999231%E2%80%93233-216)[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992219%E2%80%93220-217) Although he threatened to resign, Walters reluctantly repeated this message to Gray; he refused to halt the investigation unless the CIA put the request in writing, which it rebuffed.[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999233%E2%80%93234-218)
The meaning of "the whole Bay of Pigs thing" has drawn much attention.[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213)[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrewdson1976-219) Helms deemed it "incoherent";[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213) investigators for the [Senate Select Committee on Intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate_Select_Committee_on_Intelligence "United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence") suspected it referred to the [then-secret CIA assassination attempts on Cuban leader Castro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_assassination_attempts_on_Fidel_Castro "CIA assassination attempts on Fidel Castro") but did not raise the subject with Nixon during 1975 testimony.[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrewdson1976-219) Haldeman's memoir said it was Nixon's "way of reminding Helms, not so gently, of the cover-up of the CIA assassination attempts on the hero of the Bay of Pigs, Fidel Castro, a CIA operation that [may have triggered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory#E._Howard_Hunt "CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory") the Kennedy tragedy and which Helms desperately wanted to hide."[\[m\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-220) Journalist [Jefferson Morley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_Morley "Jefferson Morley") cites another tape in which Nixon mentions "[the 'Who shot John?' angle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy#Conspiracy_theories "Assassination of John F. Kennedy")" to support Haldeman's interpretation.[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213)
### Deep Throat
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=18 "Edit section: Deep Throat")\]
Further information: [Deep Throat (Watergate)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Throat_\(Watergate\) "Deep Throat (Watergate)") and [Mark Felt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Felt "Mark Felt")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FBI_photo_of_Mark_Felt.jpg)
FBI associate director [Mark Felt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Felt "Mark Felt"), revealed to be "[Deep Throat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Throat_\(Watergate\) "Deep Throat (Watergate)")" in 2005, was labeled by *The New York Times* as "the most famous anonymous source in American history".[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner2008-221)
In 1971, Hoover made [Mark Felt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Felt "Mark Felt") deputy associate director and his apparent successor.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202271%E2%80%9373-222)[\[n\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-223) Felt was spurned after Hoover's 1972 death when Nixon selected L. Patrick Gray as acting director (avoiding a pre-election [Senate confirmation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_of_the_Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation#Nominations "Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation")).[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022154%E2%80%93155-224) Gray named Felt as acting associate director. Hoping to become director, Felt sought to undermine Gray through leaks.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022158-225)
Woodward first met Felt in 1970, and he became a key anonymous source.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022192-194)[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005-226)[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs202166-227) No one else at the *Post* knew his identity; editor [Howard Simons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Simons "Howard Simons") dubbed him "Deep Throat", referencing both his [deep background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_\(journalism\)#Speaking_terms "Source (journalism)") status and the 1972 pornographic film *[Deep Throat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Throat_\(film\) "Deep Throat (film)")*.[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022268-228)[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolson2004-229) Woodward and Bernstein also relied on the anonymous "Z": a female grand juror.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022286%E2%80%93288-230)[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByers2012-231)
Felt gave Woodward many early Watergate leads but soon avoided the telephone. According to Woodward, Felt created a covert protocol to schedule 2 a.m. rendezvous in an underground garage in [Rosslyn, Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosslyn,_Virginia "Rosslyn, Virginia"). The system involved Woodward placing a flag on his sixth floor apartment's balcony and Felt intercepting and notating Woodward's daily *The New York Times*.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005-226) Felt also leaked to *[The Washington Daily News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Daily_News "The Washington Daily News")* and *[Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_\(magazine\) "Time (magazine)")*'s Sandy Smith;[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022222,_245-232) other FBI agents, like the Washington field office head, were also likely leakers.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022265-233)
Woodward and Bernstein's role in Watergate is often exaggerated,[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2012-234)[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxi-235) and some, including *Post* managing editor [Ben Bradlee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Bradlee "Ben Bradlee") and biographer [Adrian Havill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Havill "Adrian Havill"), have criticized their account as overly cinematic and have identified inaccuracies.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005-226)[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022612%E2%80%93615-236)[\[o\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-238) [Edward Jay Epstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jay_Epstein "Edward Jay Epstein") wrote that their reporting was derivative or the mere presentation of leaks. Woodward has said that "the mythologizing of our role in Watergate has gone to the point of absurdity, where journalists write ... that I, single-handedly, brought down Richard Nixon. Totally absurd."[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2012-234)
### Obstruction and bribery
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=19 "Edit section: Obstruction and bribery")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robert_King_High.jpg)
Following the death of [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt")'s wife Dorothy on [United Air Lines Flight 553](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Air_Lines_Flight_553 "United Air Lines Flight 553"), Bay of Pigs invasion leader [Manuel Artime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Artime "Manuel Artime") (seen far left with President Kennedy in 1962) dispersed the hush money.
By July, Baldwin was granted immunity by the FBI and provided their first major insight into Watergate.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeelye2022-126)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999236-239) The administration grew concerned over \$250,000 in CRP funds authorized for Liddy's operations, of which \$199,000 was used.[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999235%E2%80%93239-240) That month, Magruder pressed CRP treasurer [Hugh Sloan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_W._Sloan_Jr. "Hugh W. Sloan Jr.") to fabricate a narrative of CRP payments to Liddy, suggesting perjury.[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999235-241) Sloan, conflicted, confided to two lawyers, fled to California, and then returned to D.C. a week later to resign from the CRP.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999237-65) He confessed to the U.S. attorney's office and gave truthful grand jury testimony.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999237,_243-242)
Alarmed, Mitchell convened with Magruder, Dean, and Nixon advisor [Fred LaRue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_LaRue "Fred LaRue") to concoct a cover.[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999238%E2%80%93239-243) They decided to inflate funding for Liddy's less illicit activities, such as campus surveillance of radicals, and convinced aide [Herbert Porter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Porter "Herbert Porter") to perjure himself.[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999239%E2%80%93240-244)[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995211%E2%80%93212-245) Their motto became "[The buck stops with Liddy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_passing#"The_buck_stops_here" "Buck passing")", who was fired from the CRP to create distance.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999240%E2%80%93241-246) Other efforts including delaying FBI interviews on "national security" grounds, coaching witnesses,[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999241-247) and having Dean and assistant [Fred Fielding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_F._Fielding "Fred F. Fielding") sit in on FBI interviews of White House staff.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999241%E2%80%93242-248) They also disrupted the grand jury by making staffers testify privately at the DOJ, rather than before jurors that could assess their credibility.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999242-249) Throughout the grand jury investigation, prosecutors Silbert and especially [Henry Petersen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_E._Petersen "Henry E. Petersen") were overly deferent to Nixon.[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999246%E2%80%93249-250)
Before the burglary, an unknown official had assured Liddy that the Plumbers would be "taken care of" financially if caught.[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999249-251) Liddy reminded Mitchell of this, leading Dean to unsuccessfully ask CIA deputy director Walters to front [hush money](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hush_money "Hush money").[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999249%E2%80%93250-252)[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022224-253) Dean then convinced Nixon's former deputy campaign finance manager [Herbert Kalmbach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_W._Kalmbach "Herbert W. Kalmbach") to provide the bribes.[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999250%E2%80%93251-254)[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200355-255)[\[p\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-256) Ulasewicz delivered \$180,000 in cash to the Plumbers, dispersed by Hunt's wife and,[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022225%E2%80%93226-257)[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999251%E2%80%93252-258) after her death on [United Air Lines Flight 553](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Air_Lines_Flight_553 "United Air Lines Flight 553"),[\[q\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-260) by Bay of Pigs invasion leader [Manuel Artime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Artime "Manuel Artime").[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999278%E2%80%93279-261)[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolsky1977-262)[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobenalt2022b-263)[\[r\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-265)
### Patman probe and indictment of the Plumbers
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=20 "Edit section: Patman probe and indictment of the Plumbers")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Nation_needs_coolness_more_than_clarion_calls;_intelligence_more_than_charisma;_a_sense_of_history_more_than_a_sense_of_histrionics_LCCN2015649989.jpg)
The cover-up enabled Nixon to [win re-election in 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election "1972 United States presidential election") in the largest landslide in American history.
In August 1972, the [Government Accountability Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Government_Accountability_Office "United States Government Accountability Office") released an audit of Nixon's re-election campaign, referring \$350,000 in questionable transactions to the DOJ for prosecution.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022239%E2%80%93240-266) The DOJ did not pursue these, and Nixon declined to appoint a special prosecutor.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022239%E2%80%93240-266) [Wright Patman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Patman "Wright Patman"), the Democrat [House Banking Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Financial_Services "United States House Committee on Financial Services") chair, initiated his own probe. Like the FBI, his committee was stonewalled by the White House.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022240%E2%80%93244-267)
In September, O'Brien's legal teamâall of whom also worked for the *Post*âinterviewed Baldwin, yielding a front-page story for Woodward and Bernstein. Felt used the story to shift leaking suspicion to other FBI staffers,[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022246-268) and Silbert made the FBI search his office and the grand jury room for bugs: none were found.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247-269) Another wiretap of unclear origin was found in Oliver's DNC office.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247-269)[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995216-270) On September 13, the Patman probe released a confidential report on the Mexican transactions: the findings were leaked to the *Post*.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247-269) Fearing more revelations, Nixon used [House Republican leader](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives "Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives") [Gerald Ford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford "Gerald Ford") to stop the probe from gaining [subpoena power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena#United_States "Subpoena").[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022251%E2%80%93252,_262-271)
On September 15, Hunt, Liddy, and the five burglars were indicted on eight counts, none relating to the misuse of campaign funds.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022249-272)[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200367-273) The limited indictment, sparing Nixon officials, was a White House victory, and Eisenhower appointee [John Sirica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sirica "John Sirica") assigned himself as judge.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022249%E2%80%93250-274)[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200367%E2%80%9368-275) Baldwin then gave his complete account of Watergate to the *[Los Angeles Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*' [Jack Nelson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Nelson_\(journalist\) "Jack Nelson (journalist)") and [Ronald Ostrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Ostrow&action=edit&redlink=1 "Ronald Ostrow (page does not exist)").[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeelye2022-126)[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022258%E2%80%93260-276) Although Hunt's lawyers and Silbert convinced Sirica to issue a gag order and advise the *Times* against publication, the paper printed the storyâthe first directly linking the break-in to the White Houseâon October 5.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeelye2022-126)[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022260%E2%80%93261-277) The cover-up proved effective, and Democrats could not make Watergate a campaign issue.[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999256-278)[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022240-279) Although most Americans knew of the break-in, few associated it with Nixon,[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200365-280) and in November he won re-election in the largest landslide in American history, winning 49 of 50 states.[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999256-278)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2024-281)
### Trial
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=21 "Edit section: Trial")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:George_Washington_Parkway_04_2012_1403.JPG)
[Jack Caulfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Caulfield "Jack Caulfield") thrice met with [James McCord](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._McCord_Jr. "James W. McCord Jr.") alongside the [George Washington Parkway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Parkway "George Washington Memorial Parkway") to dissuade him from cooperating with prosecutors.
On January 6, 1973, Dean promised Liddy \$30,000 annually, legal fees, and a 1975 pardon if he stayed silent;[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022304-282) as early as January 8, Nixon discussed "Goddamn hush money" with Colson.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022304-282) Two days later, the trial began, the Silbert-led prosecution arguing that McCord and Liddy were rogue agents and that Hunt and the other burglars acted on Liddy's payments.[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200369-283)[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022299,_302,_309-284) Hunt and the Cubans unexpectedly pleaded guilty.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022302%E2%80%93303-285) Using Sturgis as a source, *The New York Times*' Seymour Hershâwho had exposed the [My Lai massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Lai_massacre "My Lai massacre")ârevealed that the burglars were receiving hush money and were pressured to plead guilty.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022302%E2%80%93303-285) Questioned by Sirica, the Cubans refused to say who sent the payments.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022303-286)
The White House learned that McCord, who had expressed concerns that he or the CIA might be scapegoated, was considering cooperating with prosecutors.[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022291,_305-287)[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200368-288)[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999265-289) Through Ulasewicz, Dean promised McCord an eventual government job and his family's financial security. To calm McCord, Caulfield thrice met with him alongside the [George Washington Parkway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Parkway "George Washington Memorial Parkway"). McCord proposed that the trial could be dismissed if prosecutors introduced telephone conversations regarding Watergate that he had made to the [Israeli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_Israel,_Washington,_D.C. "Embassy of Israel, Washington, D.C.") and [Chilean embassies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_Chile,_Washington,_D.C. "Embassy of Chile, Washington, D.C.")âboth of which were illegally wiretapped.[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022305%E2%80%93306-290)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999267%E2%80%93268-291)[\[s\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-293) Dean rejected this approach.[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022306-292)
In the trial's only interruption, Oliver's lawyer [Charles Morgan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Morgan_Jr. "Charles Morgan Jr.") convinced Sirica and Silbert to suspend the trial to stop Baldwin from describing the conversations from Oliver's wiretap: an appeals court sealed the transcripts. As of 2022, these remain secret and are, according to Graff, "the last and potentially only chance to \[know\] whether... the burglary and wiretapping plot included a sexual motive."[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022307-294) In resumed testimony, administration officials denied involvement in the break-in.[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022308-295) Dissatisfied with Silbert's examination, Sirica made the unusual move to interrogate the officials privately.[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022308%E2%80%93309-296) On January 30, the jury found the last two defendantsâLiddy and McCordâguilty on all counts, and Sirica scheduled sentencing for March 23.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022309-297)[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999269-298)[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERugaber1972-299) After setting bail at \$100,000 each on February 2, he declared that he was "still not satisfied that all pertinent facts that might be available... have been produced before an American jury".[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999269-298)
### Ervin Committee and the "Dean Report"
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=22 "Edit section: Ervin Committee and the \"Dean Report\"")\]
Further information: [Nixon White House tapes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes "Nixon White House tapes") and [United States Senate Watergate Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate_Watergate_Committee "United States Senate Watergate Committee")
In addition to the trial's perceived failure, a multi-month, secret inquiry by Senator Ted Kennedy raised Congress' suspicions about Watergate.[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022311-300)[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999277-301) On February 7, 1973, the Senate voted 77â0 to establish a [select committee to investigate Watergate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate_Watergate_Committee "United States Senate Watergate Committee"), naming Senator [Sam Ervin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Ervin "Sam Ervin") of [North Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina") as chairman.[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999277-301)[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022311%E2%80%93312-302) Ervin in turn selected [Samuel Dash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Dash "Samuel Dash") as chief counsel.[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022313-303) The Ervin Committee took over files created by both Ted Kennedy and the Patman probe.[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022356-304)
Due to his loyalty, Nixon nominated Gray as FBI director.[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022319%E2%80%93320-305) During his confirmation proceedings, Gray admitted that he had given the bureau's investigative Watergate reports to John Dean, alarming both his own agents and the senators.[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022320%E2%80%93321-306) In a bid to save his nomination, Gray offered the reports to Congress, which was vetoed by an infuriated Nixon.[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022321-307)[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992268-308) In late February, Nixon devised two ways to stop the committee: [executive privilege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_privilege "Executive privilege")âa then-vague doctrine that the [Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States "Constitution of the United States")'s [separation of powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution "Separation of powers under the United States Constitution") prevented presidential disclosure to Congressâand the release of an exonerative "Dean Report".[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022325%E2%80%93326-309)[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999287%E2%80%93290-310) The report was, according to Graff, "mythic" as Dean had never conducted a real investigation of Watergate and was himself involved.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022325,_327-311)
On March 21, Dean told Nixon that "I have the impression that you don't know everything I know" and gave a full account of Watergateâwhich he called "a cancer within"âparticularly blaming Liddy and Magruder.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022328%E2%80%93329-312)[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992265%E2%80%93266-313) Although Nixon seemed largely ignorant and asked over 150 questions, Dean was sometimes surprised by Nixon's knowledge of the plot, including the hush money and Fielding break-in.[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022331-314)[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1974-315) At another confirmation hearing the following day, Gray testified that Dean had lied about his ignorance of the opening of Hunt's safe, damaging Dean's credibility and leading Gray to withdraw his nomination.[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022333%E2%80%93334-316)
### McCord, Dean, and Magruder cooperate
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=23 "Edit section: McCord, Dean, and Magruder cooperate")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Jeb_Magruder_-_NARA_-_194667.tif)
By the end of April, both [Jeb Magruder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeb_Magruder "Jeb Magruder") (pictured) and [John Dean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dean "John Dean") were cooperating with prosecutors.
At the March 23 sentencing, Judge Sirica read a confession from McCord that the Plumbers were told to plead guilty; perjury occurred; others were involved; and the Cubans were misled to think that Watergate was a CIA operation.[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022337%E2%80%93338-317)[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995270-318) Sirica tabled McCord's sentencing and gave maximum sentences to Liddy, Hunt, and the Cubans.[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022338-319)[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992262-320) McCord identified false testimony to the Ervin Committee, implicating Magruder and Dean,[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022339%E2%80%93340-321) and leaked his accountâmostly [hearsay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearsay "Hearsay") through Liddyâto the *Los Angeles Times*.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022340%E2%80%93341,_343-322) Press attention on Watergate exploded,[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022341-323) and the Ervin Committee uncovered Gemstone, the destruction of evidence, and the Liddy payments.[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022344,_356,_366-324)
In April, Dean and Magruder began cooperating with prosecutors, exposing the Fielding break-in and the cover-up complicity of Magruder, Mitchell, Haldeman, and Ehrlichmanâbut not Nixon.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022346%E2%80%93347,_349%E2%80%93350,_353-325) Liddy refused to testify before the grand jury and was held in contempt.[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022347-326)[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995288-327) By the end of April, Nixonâto save faceâmade Ehrlichman, Haldeman, Magruder, and Attorney General [Richard Kleindienst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Kleindienst "Richard Kleindienst") resign; Dean was fired on April 30.[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022366,_369,_371-328)[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_York_Times''_1974-329)[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995352%E2%80%93353-330)
Watergate scrutiny spawned probes into other abuses, including a "dirty tricks" campaign by [Donald Segretti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Segretti "Donald Segretti"); Kissinger-ordered wiretaps that led to Felt's resignation; B-52 bombings in Cambodia; illegal CRP donations from firms like [American Airlines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines "American Airlines"); and an off-record \$200,000 from investor [Robert Vesco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Vesco "Robert Vesco") that led to the May 10 indictment of Mitchell and CRP finance chairman [Maurice Stans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Stans "Maurice Stans").[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022383%E2%80%93386,_422%E2%80%93423-331)[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992349-332) Later that month, Congressman [William Mills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oswald_Mills "William Oswald Mills") committed suicide after it emerged that he had taken an unreported \$25,000 from a CRP slush fund.[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022398-333) In July, Nixon was hospitalized with [pneumonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia "Pneumonia"), possibly caused by the stress of Watergate;[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1973-334) acting White House Counsel [Leonard Garment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Garment "Leonard Garment") wrote that "The organizing objective of these investigations was to bleed Nixon to death".[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022418-335)
### Ervin hearings and Special Prosecutor Cox
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=24 "Edit section: Ervin hearings and Special Prosecutor Cox")\]
> "If the many allegations to this date are true, then the burglars who broke into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate were, in effect, breaking into the home of every citizen of the United States. And if these allegations prove true, what they were seeking to steal were not the jewels, money, or other property of American citizens, but something more valuableâtheir most precious heritage: the right to vote in a free election."
â Senator [Sam Ervin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Ervin "Sam Ervin") on the first day of hearings[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022392-336)
The Ervin Committee's public hearings began on May 17.[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022391-337) Testimony from McCord, Caulfield, Ulasewicz, and others suggested White House involvement in the break-in and cover-up,[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022392%E2%80%93393-338) which Nixon vehemently denied.[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022396%E2%80%93397-339) The hearingsâwhich also included testimony from Dean, Magruder, and Mitchellâdrew immense publicity: three in four American households watched live testimony, an average of 30 hours per home.[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShafer2022-340)[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022424%E2%80%93426,_443%E2%80%93444-341)
In concurrent Senate proceedings, Attorney General nominee [Elliot Richardson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Richardson "Elliot Richardson") agreed to appoint a [special prosecutor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_counsel "Special counsel") on Watergate.[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022393%E2%80%93394-342) After rejecting Nixon's suggestions, Richardson chose [Archibald Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Cox "Archibald Cox")âPresident Kennedy's [solicitor general](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States "Solicitor General of the United States"). They negotiated that Cox could only be fired by Richardson and only due to "extraordinary improprieties".[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022395-343) Cox built a legal team he called the Watergate Special Prosecution Force.[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022401-344)[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992329%E2%80%93332-345) As early as July 4, Nixon expressed a desire to fire Cox after the Force considered investigating the financial impropriety of his California estate, [La Casa Pacifica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Casa_Pacifica "La Casa Pacifica").[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022418-335) In August, the Force empaneled a second grand jury to pursue crimes beyond the break-in, such as campaign finance irregularities.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022456-346)
### Struggle for the tapes
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=25 "Edit section: Struggle for the tapes")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archibald_Cox_04989v_\(cropped\).jpg)
Special prosecutor on Watergate [Archibald Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Cox "Archibald Cox") in 1973
On July 13, Haldeman assistant [Alexander Butterfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butterfield "Alexander Butterfield") revealed the existence of the Oval Office tapes to the Ervin Committee.[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022429%E2%80%93433-347)[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992368%E2%80%93369-348) In urgent meetings, White House counsel [J. Fred Buzhardt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Fred_Buzhardt "J. Fred Buzhardt") and Vice President [Spiro Agnew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiro_Agnew "Spiro Agnew") suggested the tapes be destroyed.[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022435-349) Nixon did not destroy the tapes for unclear reasons, possibly to preserve his legacy, protect himself against perjury or Kissinger's aggrandizement, or because he did not believe he would ever have to surrender them.[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022436%E2%80%93437-350)[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999385-351)
Following Butterfield's revelation, Cox and the Ervin Committee formally subpoenaed tapes corresponding to meetings suspected to involve Watergate.[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022434-352)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999383,_385-353) Nixon rejected both subpoenas, leading to objections in court.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999386-354) Due to stronger [standing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_\(law\) "Standing (law)") under the separation of powers, Sirica prioritized the executive branch Cox over the legislative Ervin committee.[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999387-355)
Nixon's legal teamâled by [Charles Alan Wright](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alan_Wright "Charles Alan Wright")âinvoked executive privilege and argued that releasing the tapes would create a precedent allowing judicial access to all sensitive presidential material.[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999389,_393%E2%80%93394-356)[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022455%E2%80%93456-357) Cox asserted that executive privilege did not apply when criminality was suspected,[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999389,_393%E2%80%93394-356) and also cited [*United States v. Burr*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burr_conspiracy#Trial "Burr conspiracy"), in which Chief Justice [John Marshall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall "John Marshall") ruled that President [Thomas Jefferson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") could be subpoenaed.[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022454%E2%80%93455-358) In a decision that upset both parties, Sirica ordered the tapes be submitted to him to determine if any were protected by executive privilege.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022462-359) This was appealed, and on October 12 the appeals court ruled 5â2 to force Nixon to surrender the tapes to Sirica, or to make a deal with Cox.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022467,_483,_486-360)
### Saturday Night Massacre
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=26 "Edit section: Saturday Night Massacre")\]
Main article: [Saturday Night Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Massacre "Saturday Night Massacre")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elliot_Richardson_talks_with_John_Stennis.jpg)
Attorney General [Elliot Richardson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Richardson "Elliot Richardson") (right)âseen with Senator [John Stennis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stennis "John Stennis") (left)âresigned when ordered by Nixon to fire Special Prosecutor Cox.
During October, Cox and the Force made progress on Watergate-related investigations, including securing a grand jury indictment of Krogh for [false declarations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Making_false_statements "Making false statements") on the Fielding break-in,[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022481-361)[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992416-362) and guilty pleas from American Airlines, [Goodyear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company "Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company"), and the [3M Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3M_Company "3M Company") for illegal contributions to the CRP.[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022490-363)[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992434%E2%80%93435-364) Cox also began investigating Nixon's closest friend [Bebe Rebozo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebe_Rebozo "Bebe Rebozo") for mediating an illicit \$100,000 campaign contribution from Howard Hughes.[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022497-365)
After weighing the appellate decision, Nixon proposed giving Sirica the tapes and then firing Cox to negate the appeals court case; Attorney General Richardson rejected the scheme.[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022487-366) Negotiations with Cox to drop the subpoena and have Senator [John Stennis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stennis "John Stennis") review the tapes also collapsed.[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022488%E2%80%93489,_494-367) On October 19âciting the need for stability in the [Middle East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") amid the [Yom Kippur War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War "Yom Kippur War")âNixon unexpectedly announced that Stennis would review the tapes: a deal not approved by Stennis, the Ervin Committee, Cox, or Richardson.[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022502%E2%80%93504-368)[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992413-369)
On October 20, in what became known as the [Saturday Night Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Massacre "Saturday Night Massacre"), Nixon ordered Richardson to fire Cox. He refused and resigned in protest.[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022507%E2%80%93509-370)[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2018-371)[\[t\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-373) Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General [William Ruckelshaus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ruckelshaus "William Ruckelshaus") to fire Cox, but Ruckelshaus declined and was fired after offering his resignation.[\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022509%E2%80%93510-374) The next acting attorney general, Solicitor General [Robert Bork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bork "Robert Bork"), agreed to fire Cox.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022510%E2%80%93511-375) FBI agents sealed the Force's office and blocked the entry of Cox's staff.[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992406-372) Though Bork believed Nixon's order was legal and justified, he considered resigning to avoid being "perceived as a man who did the President's bidding to save my job".[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022510%E2%80%93511-375)[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoble1987-376)
## Impeachment process and resignation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=27 "Edit section: Impeachment process and resignation")\]
Main article: [Impeachment process against Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachment_process_against_Richard_Nixon "Impeachment process against Richard Nixon")
### Massacre aftermath
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=28 "Edit section: Massacre aftermath")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Impeach_Nixon_retouched.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Rodino_1974.jpg)
The [Saturday Night Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Massacre "Saturday Night Massacre") led to protests and the October 30 launch of an impeachment inquiry by the [House Judiciary Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_the_Judiciary "United States House Committee on the Judiciary") under Chairman [Peter Rodino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Rodino "Peter Rodino") (right).
The Saturday Night Massacre triggered a [constitutional crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_crisis "Constitutional crisis") and drew wide condemnation and calls for Nixon's resignation or impeachment.[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992409%E2%80%93411,_413-377)[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022513,_516%E2%80%93517-378) Congress received an unprecedented near-500,000 [mailgrams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mailgrams "Mailgrams") and [telegrams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegrams "Telegrams"),[\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022516-379) and protests were held outside the White House.[\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022516%E2%80%93517-380) Nixon's [approval rating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_presidential_approval_rating "United States presidential approval rating") fell to 24 percent;[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022517-381) 98 representatives and 57 senators introduced bills calling for another special prosecutor.[\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022518-382) Nixon, under severe stress, withdrew from engagements and drank: in his absence, Kissinger briefly declared [DEFCON 3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEFCON_3 "DEFCON 3") when Soviet deployment in the Yom Kippur War seemed imminent.[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022521%E2%80%93522-383)[\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995408%E2%80%93409-384)
At an October 26 press conference, Nixon denounced the "hysterical reporting" and promised to appoint another special prosecutor, although with limited access to presidential material.[\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992408-385) Representatives introduced over 20 impeachment and impeachment-inquiry resolutions;[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992412-386) the [House Judiciary Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_the_Judiciary "United States House Committee on the Judiciary") launched an impeachment inquiry on October 30 and granted Chairman [Peter Rodino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Rodino "Peter Rodino") subpoena power.[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992412-386)
### Missing tapes and building pressure
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=29 "Edit section: Missing tapes and building pressure")\]
On October 30, Buzhardt informed Sirica that two of the nine subpoenaed tapesâa June 20, 1972 Nixon-Mitchell call and an April 15, 1973 NixonâDean meetingâwere "missing".[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022525-387)[\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992429-388) Secret Service agents and aides testified that the tapes had been signed out and not returned; aides like Buzhardt inconsistently said they never existed due to recorder malfunctions or insufficient tape.[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022525-387) Investigators discovered a tape labeled "April 15 Part I", implying a missing "Part II".[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022526-389)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Disney%27s_Contemporary_Resort_Arriving_Monorail_Teal.jpg)
Nixon's "I am not a crook" defense (recording below) was delivered at the [Contemporary Resort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%27s_Contemporary_Resort "Disney's Contemporary Resort") at [Walt Disney World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_World "Walt Disney World").
On November 1, Nixon and Haig selected as special prosecutor [Leon Jaworski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Jaworski "Leon Jaworski"), a former [Nuremberg prosecutor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_trials "Nuremberg trials") presumed to be sympathetic to the president.[\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022526%E2%80%93527,_529-390) Impeachment calls grew, including from the editors of *The New York Times* and *Time* andâfor the first timeâfrom a Republican Senator, [Edward Brooke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Brooke "Edward Brooke").[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022531%E2%80%93532-391) Buzhardt and Garment flew to Miami to urge a vacationing Nixon to resign; he refused to see them.[\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022532%E2%80%93533-392)
Tipped off by Dean, Senator [Lowell Weicker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell_Weicker "Lowell Weicker") and investigators uncovered likely tax fraud: Nixon had claimed deductions for an illegally backdated document donation to the [National Archives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives "National Archives")âa loophole outlawed in 1969 after President Johnson exploited it.[\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022536%E2%80%93537,_552-393)[\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992432%E2%80%93433-394) The investigation expanded to Nixon's other finances, including publicly funded renovations to his private homes in California and Florida.[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022538%E2%80%93539-395) On November 17, addressing Associated Press editors at [Walt Disney World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_World "Walt Disney World")'s [Contemporary Resort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%27s_Contemporary_Resort "Disney's Contemporary Resort"), Nixon denied wrongdoing and, in a defense considered the most iconic line from Watergate, declared, "I am not a crook."[\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx,_539%E2%80%93540-396)[\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPope2016-397)[\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENPR_2013-398)
### The eighteen-minute gap
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=30 "Edit section: The eighteen-minute gap")\]
Main article: [18½ minute gap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18%C2%BD_minute_gap "18½ minute gap")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rose_Mary_Woods.jpg)
Nixon's secretary [Rose Mary Woods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Mary_Woods "Rose Mary Woods") demonstrating the implausible "Rose Mary Stretch" that the White House said erased the 18½ minute gap
On November 21, Buzhardt told Jaworski that an 18-minute, 15-second segment was missing from a June 20, 1972 tape: a Nixon-Haldeman conversation thought to be Nixon's first on Watergate after the break-in.[\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022540%E2%80%93541-399)[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson2003127-400) Buzhardt believed the erasure was intentional and blamed Nixon's secretary, Rose Mary Woods, who could not explain the gap;[\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022541-401) Sirica ordered all tapes be surrendered within five days.[\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022542-402) Nixon complied, and they were placed in a [National Security Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency "National Security Agency")\-installed safeâguarded by [U.S. Marshals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Marshals "U.S. Marshals")âin Sirica's chambers; the seven extant tapes were given to the Force on December 12.[\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022543,_547-403)
In December hearings, Force lawyer [Jill Volner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Wine-Banks "Jill Wine-Banks") interrogated Woods, who now claimed that, while transcribing the tape on October 1, she accidentally hit "record" instead of "off" while reaching for the telephone and also kept her foot on the "forward" pedal throughout the call.[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022544%E2%80%93545-404)[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_2017-405)[\[386\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999458%E2%80%93459,_462-406) In a reenactment, Woods could not keep her foot on the pedal.[\[387\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022545-407)[\[388\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995417-408) Photos of the recreation generated the mocking label of the "Rose Mary Stretch".[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_2017-405)[\[388\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995417-408)
Woods' five-minute call also did not match the erasure's 18-minute duration.[\[389\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022545%E2%80%93546-409)[\[390\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992429%E2%80%93430-410) Questioned on the discrepancy, Haig suggested the "devil theory", that "some sinister force had come in and applied the other energy source and taken care of the information."[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546-411)[\[392\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995418-412) Volner theorized that Woods and Nixon had listened to the tape (the first subpoenaed) and that Nixon had panicked and made Woods erase it before realizing that the other subpoenaed tapes were equally incriminating.[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546-411) Sirica deemed the erasure "more symbolic than substantive", and Jaworski and the FBI declined to prosecute.[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546-411)[\[393\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992430-413) In January 1974, an expert panel appointed by Sirica concluded that the tape had been erased in five to nine separate segments using the hand keysânot the pedal.[\[394\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2016-414)[\[395\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022566-415) Other tapes had apparent seconds-long deletionsâobscuring key wordsâbut Sirica decided that further analysis was tangential.[\[396\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022567%E2%80%93568-416)
### Investigations advance
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=31 "Edit section: Investigations advance")\]
Pushed by Speaker [Tip O'Neill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_O%27Neill "Tip O'Neill") to accelerate the impeachment inquiry, Rodino's Judiciary Committee selected [John Doar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Doar "John Doar") as special counsel.[\[397\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022553-417) In December, Nixon withdrew from engagementsâsometimes for daysâamid drinking bouts. On New Year's Eve, he resolved to "fight it all out", selecting trial lawyer [James St. Clair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._St._Clair "James D. St. Clair") to resist and delay all investigations.[\[398\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022558,_570-418)
In January, Sirica's scientific panel began deciphering the muffled and compressed tapes, which were recorded at a fast 15/16th inch per second speed to save tape.[\[399\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022563%E2%80%93564-419) Transcription was arduous, 100 hours of labor needed for just one hour of tape.[\[400\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022565-420) The contents were damning, and Sirica finally concluded that the White House had obstructed justice.[\[400\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022565-420) Concurrently, the Judiciary Committee debated charging Nixon with specific offenses or more ambiguous Constitutional crimes.[\[401\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022572%E2%80%93573-421)
Prosecutors focused on the cover-upâan explicit White House conspiracyârather than the break-in, a more nebulous campaign conspiracy.[\[402\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022583%E2%80%93584-422) Although Jaworski identified at least 15 instances where Nixon acknowledged or advanced the hush money scheme,[\[403\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022578%E2%80%93579-423) he hesitated to indict the president [due to lack of precedent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_immunity_in_the_United_States "Presidential immunity in the United States").[\[404\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022578-424) The Force instead designated Nixon an unindicted co-conspirator, allowing jurors to hear him on the tape and empowering Jaworksi to send incriminating evidence to the impeachment inquiry.[\[405\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022580%E2%80%93581-425) On March 1, the Force indicted the "[Watergate Seven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Seven "Watergate Seven")": Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Colson, [Gordon Strachan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_C._Strachan "Gordon C. Strachan"), [Robert Mardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mardian "Robert Mardian"), and [Kenneth Parkinson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Parkinson "Kenneth Parkinson") on 24 counts of conspiracy, lying, and obstructing justice.[\[406\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022584%E2%80%93585-426)[\[407\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999475-427) On March 26, Sirica transferred a 55-page report on presidential criminality, compiled by Jaworski and the grand jury, to the Judiciary Committee.[\[408\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022586%E2%80%93587-428)
### Nixon releases tape transcripts
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=32 "Edit section: Nixon releases tape transcripts")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nixon_edited_transcripts.jpg)
President Nixon announcing the release of edited transcripts, April 29, 1974
In mid-April, Jaworski subpoenaed another 64 taped conversations, with a May 2 deadline.[\[409\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022592-429) Nixon then spent his days listening to the tapes, taking notes, and brooding in what Graff calls "one of the oddest weeks in all of modern presidential history".[\[410\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022592%E2%80%93593-430) Instead of releasing the tapes, Nixon's staff produced edited transcripts; Nixon himself excised "unpresidential" language,[\[411\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022593,_597-431) namely replacing profanity and vulgarity with hundreds of "[expletive deleted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expletive_deleted "Expletive deleted")".[\[412\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Los_Angeles_Times''_1990-432)[\[413\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597-433) On April 29, Nixon released 1,300 pages of transcripts spanning 46 tapes.[\[414\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022594-434)
House investigators discovered that only 20 of the 64 subpoenaed conversations had been transcribed.[\[415\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022595-435) Comparison with tapes already acquired by investigators showed pervasive misrepresentations and intelligible dialogue marked "unintelligible".[\[416\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022596-436) The edited transcripts still showed Nixon's apparent acceptance of the cover-up.[\[417\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022595%E2%80%93596-437)
The House Judiciary Committee informed Nixon that the transcripts did not fulfill the subpoena.[\[418\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597%E2%80%93598-438) St. Clair moved to block Jaworski's subpoena, calling the tapes "inadmissible hearsay" as Nixon was not a conspirator.[\[419\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022598-439) Jaworski revealed that Nixon was an unindicted co-conspirator and offered, as a compromise, to keep this secret and drop the subpoena if the White House released just 38 of the 64 tapes.[\[420\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999494%E2%80%93495-440) St. Clair rejected this as blackmail.[\[421\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022599-441)
On May 9, the pro-Nixon *Chicago Tribune* abandoned the president in an editorial: "He is humorless to the point of being inhumane. He is devious. He is vacillating. He is profane."[\[422\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022600-442)[\[423\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan2004-443) Senate Republican leader [Hugh Scott](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Scott "Hugh Scott") called the transcripts "deplorable, disgusting, shabby, and immoral".[\[416\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022596-436) Nixon's miscalculation yielded the first poll showing that a majority of Americans supported impeachment.[\[413\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597-433)
### Impeachment hearings and *United States v. Nixon*
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=33 "Edit section: Impeachment hearings and United States v. Nixon")\]
Main articles: [Impeachment process against Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachment_process_against_Richard_Nixon "Impeachment process against Richard Nixon") and [United States v. Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon "United States v. Nixon")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opening_day_of_the_Nixon_impeachment_inquiry.jpg)
First day of impeachment proceedings, May 9, 1974
On May 9, impeachment hearings began.[\[422\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022600-442) Over ten weeks, Doar and colleagues presented representatives with a complete account of Watergate from the break-in through to the cover-up, highlighting likely constitutional crimes.[\[424\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022606%E2%80%93607-444) On May 10, Jaworski released a 39-page brief naming Nixon an unindicted co-conspirator; Sirica concluded that "the president was doomed".[\[425\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022602-445)[\[u\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-447) To avoid protracted appeals, Jaworski requested the Supreme Court [directly review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certiorari "Certiorari") the subpoena's legality, to which it agreed on May 31.[\[427\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022603-448)[\[428\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999495-449)
On June 15, Woodward and Bernstein published *All the President's Men*, which became a bestseller.[\[429\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2024-450)[\[430\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022611-451) Later that month, the Ervin Committee released its 1,094-page final report, outlining White House misconduct without explicitly accusing Nixon.[\[431\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022615-452) After the Fourth of July recess, the inquiry presented "seminars" synthesizing the information to the House and began releasing evidential "Statements of Information", beginning with a 4,133-page installment.[\[432\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022620,_623-453) Aiming to remain neutral, Rodino presented no analysis of the evidence, frustrating readers.[\[433\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022623-454)
Conservative [Southern Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Democrats "Southern Democrats") began abandoning Nixon, and on July 23 [Lawrence Hogan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Hogan "Lawrence Hogan") became the first Republican representative to support impeachment.[\[434\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022629%E2%80%93630-455) The following day, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously (8â0) that the subpoenaed tapes were admissible while also affirming executive privilege.[\[435\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022631,_654-456)[\[436\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992513%E2%80%93514-457) Nixon complied and released the first 20 subpoenaed tapes on July 30.[\[437\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022642-458)
### 'Smoking gun' tape released
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=34 "Edit section: 'Smoking gun' tape released")\]
On July 27, 1974, the [House Judiciary Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_Judiciary_Committee "House Judiciary Committee") voted 27-to-11 to recommend the first [article of impeachment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_of_impeachment "Article of impeachment"): [obstruction of justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice "Obstruction of justice").[\[438\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022639%E2%80%93640-459)[\[439\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992525%E2%80%93526-460)[\[v\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-463) On July 29, the committee recommended a second article, [abuse of power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_power "Abuse of power"),[\[442\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022641-464) and, on the following day, approved a thirdâobstruction of Congressâand rejected two related to the Cambodian bombings and tax fraud.[\[442\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022641-464) Ninety percent of Americans listened to the proceedings on radio or television.[\[443\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992531-465) As Congressional support for Nixon collapsed and the release of the June 23 "smoking gun" tape loomed, Nixon weighed resigning to preserve his federal benefits and those of his staff and limit liability.[\[444\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022642%E2%80%93644,_649-466)[\[445\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992527-467) If impeached by the House, Nixon needed the support of 34 Senators for acquittal.[\[446\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022647-468)
On August 5, the White House released the "smoking gun" tape.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2018-214) The Haldeman-Nixon conversation showed that the president had lied and had been involved in the cover-up from its inception.[\[447\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022635-469)[\[448\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodwardBernstein1976309-470) Its release extinguished most Congressional support for Nixon, particularly among Republicans who felt betrayed.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2018-214)[\[449\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992536,_537-471) Republican House minority leader [John Rhodes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_Rhodes "John Jacob Rhodes") and ten Republican House Judiciary Committee members who had opposed the articles now backed impeachment.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2018-214)[\[450\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes2003-472) The following day, California governor [Ronald Reagan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") and [RNC chairman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chairs_of_the_Republican_National_Committee "List of chairs of the Republican National Committee") [George H. W. Bush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") both urged Nixon to resign.[\[451\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022653-473)[\[452\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999560-474) Senator [Barry Goldwater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Goldwater "Barry Goldwater") told Haig that Nixon only had 12 votes in the Senate and said "He has lied to me for the last time".[\[451\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022653-473) Fearing a "berserk" Nixon might unilaterally trigger [nuclear armageddon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_armageddon "Nuclear armageddon"), Defense Secretary [James R. Schlesinger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_R._Schlesinger "James R. Schlesinger"), according to Graff, alerted military leaders to confirm any presidential launch orders with himself or Kissinger.[\[453\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022655%E2%80%93656-475)
### Resignation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=35 "Edit section: Resignation")\]
Further information: [Richard Nixon's resignation speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_resignation_speech "Richard Nixon's resignation speech") and [Inauguration of Gerald Ford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inauguration_of_Gerald_Ford "Inauguration of Gerald Ford")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Informal_press_conference_following_a_meeting_between_Congressmen_and_the_President_to_discuss_Watergate_matters._-_NARA_-_194590.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nixon-depart_crop.png)
Following an August 7 meeting with Senate minority leader [Hugh Scott](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Scott "Hugh Scott"), Senator [Barry Goldwater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Goldwater "Barry Goldwater"), and House minority leader [John Rhodes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_Rhodes "John Jacob Rhodes") (pictured left), Nixon decided to resign. He left the White House on August 9 (right).
On August 7, House minority leader Rhodes, Senate minority leader Hugh Scott, and Senator Goldwaterâa respected Republican statesmanâvisited Nixon in the Oval Office and, although not explicitly urging his resignation, informed him that he did not have enough support to be acquitted.[\[454\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022658-476)[\[455\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992539-477) Faced with the inevitability of his impeachment and removal, Nixon resolved to resign.[\[456\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992539%E2%80%93540-478)
In an August 8 [Oval Office address](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Oval_Office_Address "United States Oval Office Address"), Nixon announced his resignationâthe first of any U.S. presidentâeffective at noon the following day, and his succession by then-Vice President Ford.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2024-281)[\[457\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022661,_663-479)[\[w\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-481) Although he declared that he was not a "quitter", Nixon explained that he lacked support in Congress and had to "put the interest of America first".[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2024-281) Jaworski noted that the farewell speech expressed no remorse.[\[459\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022663-482)
In the morning, Nixon and his family bid farewell to the White House staff in the [East Room](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Room "East Room").[\[460\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWooten1974-483) They left on the presidential helicopter, [Army One](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_One "Army One"), for Maryland's [Andrews Air Force Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews_Air_Force_Base "Andrews Air Force Base"), where they boarded [Air Force One](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_One "Air Force One") for California.[\[460\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWooten1974-483)[\[461\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022664-484)[\[462\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995481-485)[\[x\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-486) Ford delivered an 8-minute inauguration speech, also in the East Room, declaring that "our long national nightmare is over".[\[463\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022665-487)[\[464\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter1981-488) *Time*'s resignation special sold 527,000 copiesâthe most of any newsweekly ever.[\[465\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667-489)
## Aftermath
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=36 "Edit section: Aftermath")\]
### Ford's pardon of Nixon
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=37 "Edit section: Ford's pardon of Nixon")\]
Further information: [Pardon of Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon_of_Richard_Nixon "Pardon of Richard Nixon")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:President_Ford_announces_his_decision_to_pardon_former_President_Richard_Nixon_-_NARA_-_7140608.jpg)
President Ford announcing his pardon of Nixon on September 8, 1974
With Nixon's resignation, Congress dropped its impeachment proceedings, though federal prosecution remained a possibility.[\[466\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1974b-490) In its final report, the House Judiciary identified 36 instances of obstruction of justice by Nixon,[\[465\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667-489) and Jaworski and the Watergate Special Prosecution Force weighed indicting Nixon.[\[467\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667%E2%80%93668-491) On September 8, President Ford issued Nixon a full pardon for all acts committed as president.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHersh1983-171)[\[468\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022668-492) Ford may have feared the damage of a long, divisive trial, or a technical acquittal that might delegitimize his own presidency.[\[469\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992568-493)
Ford was criticized for the unilateral pardon's suddenness, granted without consultation with Congressional leaders.[\[468\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022668-492)[\[469\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992568-493) Senator Ervin called it "incompatible with good government",[\[470\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992567-494) and Ford's press secretary [Jerald terHorst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerald_terHorst "Jerald terHorst") resigned in protest.[\[471\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolson2018-495) The president's approval rating fell by 22 percentage points.[\[472\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992566-496) Although some argued that the Force could still prosecute Nixon, Jaworski resigned in October.[\[473\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992569-497) According to Hersh, Jaworski was in financial distress at the time and could no longer be absent from his Texan law practice.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHersh1983-171)
Many, including O'Neill, suspected a secret pardon deal between Ford and Nixon.[\[474\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669-498) No tapes or documentation suggest an explicit agreement,[\[470\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992567-494)[\[474\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669-498) but biographer Jay Farrell concluded that implicit suggestions may have "greased his departure".[\[474\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669-498) When Haig approached him about Nixon's possible choices, then-Vice President Ford reportedly refused to offer advice as he was an "interested party."[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHersh1983-171)[\[475\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022646-499) Starting September 4, Fordâthrough aidesâsought a formal apology from Nixon in exchange for a pardon. The former president refused to make any admission of guilt, and Ford abandoned the effort.[\[476\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992560%E2%80%93561-500) According to Kutler, Nixon correctly assumed that Ford would pardon him regardless.[\[477\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992562-501) Hersh argues that a recorded September 7 call shows Nixon threatening to expose Ford's prior promises of a pardon if he was not pardoned.[\[478\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992572-502)
### Final legal actions
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=38 "Edit section: Final legal actions")\]
In total, 69 people were charged with crimes in conjunction with Watergate, including two of Nixon's Cabinet secretaries. Most were convicted or pleaded guilty.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a-141) A Watergate-related probe on the [ITT corporation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITT_Inc. "ITT Inc.") resulted in the conviction of [Ed Reinecke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Reinecke "Ed Reinecke"), [Lieutenant Governor of California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_California "Lieutenant Governor of California") under Ronald Reagan.[\[479\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes2016-503) Of the Watergate Seven, Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman were convicted. Parkinson was acquitted, and Mardian's conviction was overturned.[\[459\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022663-482) Mitchell remains the highest-ranking US government official to be imprisoned. Upon his sentencing, he quipped: "It could have been worse. They could have sentenced me to spend the rest of my life with Martha Mitchell."[\[480\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022676-504)
In June 1975, Nixon gave secret testimony to a grand jury.[\[481\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENagourneyShane2011-505)[\[482\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTETotenberg2011-506) He evaded questions on the 18-minute gap and tax fraud and praised "hardball" tactics used by Kennedy in contrast to the Watergate "bunglers".[\[481\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENagourneyShane2011-505) In 1978, FBI directors Gray and Felt and FBI Domestic Intelligence head Edward Miller were indicted for their approval of "surreptitious entries".[\[483\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022674-507) Nixon voluntarily testified in their defense in 1980, his only appearance in any Watergate-related trial.[\[484\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022674%E2%80%93675-508) Felt and Miller were found guilty.[\[485\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022675-509)
## Legacy
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=39 "Edit section: Legacy")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Watergate_complex,_2025.jpg)
The Watergate Complex in September, 2025
Watergate is regarded as the greatest scandal in presidential history and a successful demonstration of the separation of powers.[\[486\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg2021-510)[\[487\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClymer2002-511)[\[488\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2020-512) It is frequently invoked during presidential scandals and impeachments, particularly [those of President Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Donald_Trump "Efforts to impeach Donald Trump").[\[488\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2020-512)[\[489\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2022-513)[\[490\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFadulu2025-514) Haig and Kissinger respectively blamed Watergate for the Yom Kippur War (1973) and the [Fall of Saigon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon "Fall of Saigon") (1975).[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022487-366)[\[491\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_Straits_Times''_1975-515)
In 1977, Nixonâfinancially distressed and also hoping to improve his legacyâaccepted \$600,000 for [a series of interviews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nixon_Interviews "The Nixon Interviews") with British journalist [David Frost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Frost "David Frost").[\[492\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022670-516) Nixon expected Frost to be amenable and was surprised by his combative questions, leading Nixon to declare "When the President does it, that means that it is not illegal."[\[493\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaughton1977-517)[\[494\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStelter2013-518) Although Nixon formally apologized for Watergate after the interview, his legacy remained tarnished.[\[494\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStelter2013-518) The Watergate Hotel has conversely embraced the scandal, incorporating it into its theming and converting Hunt and Liddy's room into the "scandal suite".[\[495\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanahan2025-519)[\[496\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeve2017-520)
### Political and professional
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=40 "Edit section: Political and professional")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1976_campaign_button_f.JPG)
An anti-Ford button referencing Watergate from the [1976 presidential election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election")
Watergate led to legislation limiting the powers of the "[imperial presidency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_presidency "Imperial presidency")", including the designation of all presidential records as publicly owned (the [Presidential Records Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Records_Act "Presidential Records Act")) and a mechanism for counsel investigations of executive scandals (the [Ethics in Government Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_in_Government_Act "Ethics in Government Act")).[\[497\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulman2024-521) These reforms were partly achieved by "[Watergate Babies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Babies "Watergate Babies")", new Democratic legislators who swept the post-Watergate [November 1974 Senate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_United_States_Senate_elections "1974 United States Senate elections") and [House elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections "1974 United States House of Representatives elections").[\[497\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulman2024-521) Ford's pardon of Nixon effectively caused his loss to [Jimmy Carter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter") in the [1976 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election"); seven percent of voters decided against Ford explicitly due to the pardon.[\[480\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022676-504)[\[498\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShane2006-522)
Seeking to restore public trust after Watergate and the release of the CIA's "[Family Jewels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Jewels_\(Central_Intelligence_Agency\) "Family Jewels (Central Intelligence Agency)")", Congress organized the [Church Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Committee "Church Committee") to investigate illegal activities by the CIA and other agencies, as did President Ford with the [Rockefeller Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_President%27s_Commission_on_CIA_Activities_within_the_United_States "United States President's Commission on CIA Activities within the United States").[\[499\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992586%E2%80%93587-523)[\[500\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022672%E2%80%93673-524) Concerns emerging from the burglaries and wiretappings resulted in the [Privacy Act of 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_Act_of_1974 "Privacy Act of 1974") and the [Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act "Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act"), which limited the ability of federal agencies to collect, maintain, and share information on Americans.[\[501\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992589-525)[\[502\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022673-526) Congress also strengthened the [Freedom of Information Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_\(United_States\) "Freedom of Information Act (United States)"),[\[503\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992591-527) and created intelligence oversight committees with access to classified material.[\[497\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulman2024-521)
As nearly all involved in Watergate crimes were lawyers,[\[504\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022324-528)[\[505\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2000673-529) the [American Bar Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Bar_Association "American Bar Association") mandated ethics courses at law schools.[\[506\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleveland_State_University-530)[\[505\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2000673-529) Watergate also revived [investigative reporting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigative_journalism "Investigative journalism"), popularizing the use of anonymous sources and displacing "[New Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Journalism "New Journalism")" approaches.[\[507\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress-531)
### Cultural impact and depictions
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=41 "Edit section: Cultural impact and depictions")\]
Watergate is often regarded as the climactic moment in the loss of American trust in government following the Vietnam War.[\[508\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneider1999-532)[\[509\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalz2022-533) Journalist [Bill Schneider](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Schneider_\(journalist\) "Bill Schneider (journalist)") writes that although American political cynicism did not "start with Watergate... Watergate turned an erosion of public confidence into a collapse".[\[508\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneider1999-532) It left such an impression that post-Watergate scandals are often named with the [suffix "-gate"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scandals_with_%22-gate%22_suffix "List of scandals with \"-gate\" suffix").[\[487\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClymer2002-511)[\[510\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xvii%E2%80%93xviii-534) These range from genuine political scandals like [Koreagate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreagate "Koreagate") to the sports scandal [Deflategate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflategate "Deflategate") and the discredited [Pizzagate conspiracy theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizzagate_conspiracy_theory "Pizzagate conspiracy theory").[\[510\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xvii%E2%80%93xviii-534) The paranoia of the "Watergate era" is often associated with a subgenre of 1970s conspiracy thrillers, such as cinematic releases such as [Francis Ford Coppola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Ford_Coppola "Francis Ford Coppola")'s *[The Conversation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Conversation "The Conversation")* (1974) or *[Three Days of the Condor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Days_of_the_Condor "Three Days of the Condor")* (1975), and *[Washington: Behind Closed Doors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington:_Behind_Closed_Doors "Washington: Behind Closed Doors")* (1977), which depicts the lead up to Watergate, on television.[\[511\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerry2010153-535)[\[512\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne200879%E2%80%9380-536) In some cases, production had begun before the scandal's zenith and are partly a reflection of the period's [zeitgeist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeist "Zeitgeist").[\[513\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENPR_2022-537)[\[514\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScovell2024-538)[\[515\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffman2024-539)
Over thirty Watergate participants have written memoirs.[\[516\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxiii-540) Woodward and Bernstein's 1974 book *All the President's Men* was adapted into a [1976 film of the same name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_the_President%27s_Men_\(film\) "All the President's Men (film)") by [Alan J. Pakula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_J._Pakula "Alan J. Pakula")âin which Watergate guard Frank Wills played himself.[\[517\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx,_676-541) Although not used in the book, the phrase "[follow the money](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follow_the_money "Follow the money")" became part of the American lexicon after its use in the movie: Graff calls it the second most famous Watergate quote after "I am not a crook".[\[518\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalesky2012-542)[\[519\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx-543) The book also popularized the term "[ratfucking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratfucking "Ratfucking")" to describe covert political espionage.[\[520\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer2019-544)[\[521\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce2013-545) Other depictions include [Oliver Stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Stone "Oliver Stone")'s *[Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_\(film\) "Nixon (film)")* (1996) and *[Frost/Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost/Nixon_\(film\) "Frost/Nixon (film)")* (2008),[\[507\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress-531)[\[522\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinraub1995-546)[\[523\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDargis2008-547) adapted from a [Tony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Awards "Tony Awards")\-winning [play of the same name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost/Nixon_\(play\) "Frost/Nixon (play)").[\[507\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress-531)[\[524\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath2008-548)
## Notes and references
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=42 "Edit section: Notes and references")\]
### Notes
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=43 "Edit section: Notes")\]
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-28)** In 1973, [Walt Rostow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Rostow "Walt Rostow")âJohnson's former national security advisorâwrote that the affair was a clear precedent for Watergate: "They got away with \[the Chennault Affair\]. As the same men faced the election of 1972 there was nothing in their previous experience with an operation of doubtful propriety (or, even, legality) to warn them off; and there were memories of [how close an election could get](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election#Results "1960 United States presidential election") and the possible utility of pressing to the limit â or beyond."[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202236-26)[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurdum2003-27)
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-34)** Although approved by Nixon, a worried Hoover had the plan officially withdrawn.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202251%E2%80%9352-31)[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199935%E2%80%9337-32) Senator [Richard Schweiker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Schweiker "Richard Schweiker") noted that "Even though the Huston plan was dead, I believe it had nine lives."[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202252-33)
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-36)** Hunt continued to work for a firm that was a CIA cover.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176-35)
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-44)** The White House was apparently oblivious to the Nazi association. Liddy told them that it was an acronym for "our Organization has been Directed to Eliminate Subversion of the Secrets of our Administration". Liddy displayed a strong interest in Nazi paraphernalia, even arranging the screening of a [Leni Riefenstahl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leni_Riefenstahl "Leni Riefenstahl") film at the White House.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199557-43)
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-56)** Hunt conspicuously celebrated the failed burglary with a champagne toast.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202294-55)
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-71)** White House Chief of Staff [John Dean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dean "John Dean") later said regarding Caulfield: "I sensed that an Irish cop without a college education would not be entrusted with such a sensitive assignment in an administration of [WASP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestants "White Anglo-Saxon Protestants") professional men.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022100-70)
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-102)** Many within the US intelligence communityâespecially the CIAâwere initially sympathetic towards Castro.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjelten2009-101)
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-115)** These conversationsâdescribed by a federal prosecutor as "extremely personal, intimate, and potentially embarrassing"âwere reportedly the result of secretaries regarding Oliver's phone as the most private in the office. Ehrlichman said that Oliver himself frequently called "his girl friends all over the country lining up assignations". According to Lukas, these telephone conversations have fueled speculation that an [escort service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_agency "Escort agency") was operated out of the DNC office.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999201-114)
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-117)** After picking up the developed photographs in Miami, Hunt was shocked to notice the conspicuous shag rug of the Howard Johnson's motel in the background and not the floor of the DNC office. This led to suspicions that the photographed files may have been secretly swapped. McCord, who was responsible for the photographs, proclaimed innocence. The photographs no longer exist and were shredded.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995128-116)
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-127)** A 2012 article in the *[Washingtonian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washingtonian_\(magazine\) "Washingtonian (magazine)")* claimed that Baldwin was distracted by the film *[Attack of the Puppet People](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_of_the_Puppet_People "Attack of the Puppet People")* on the television. He denied this, saying the film was used to obscure the sound of his walkie-talkie from others in the hotel.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeelye2022-126)
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-131)** The five men were found to have rolls of [hundred-dollar bills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-dollar_bill "United States one-hundred-dollar bill"), intended as bribes for any security guards that found them.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168-125)
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-172)** Lukas writes that, beyond unsubstantiated reports of would-be-assassin [Arthur Bremer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Bremer "Arthur Bremer") meeting with Ulasewicz, nothing supports the theory that the Plumbers were involved in Wallace's attempted assassination. According to Hunt, Colson dispatched him to Bremer's Milwaukee apartment after the shooting to "take a look" and to evaluate whether he had leftist motives. Hunt said that Colson canceled the assignment as he was packing.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999150-168)[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022159-169) Colson called Hunt's claims "utterly preposterous".[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrewdson1973-170) As Vice President, Gerald Ford questioned Nixon lawyer [James St. Clair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_St._Clair "James St. Clair") as to whether the Nixon administration had been involved in the shooting. A *Washington Post* story one year after the shooting reported that Nixon had feared that the shooting was organized by members of his re-election campaign.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHersh1983-171)
13. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-220)** Commentator [Chris Matthews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Matthews "Chris Matthews") claims that this was fabricated by ghostwriter Joseph Dimona (Haldeman died shortly after publication). This was denied by the ghostwriter and *[The New York Times Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Books "Times Books")* editor, who said that Haldeman was a "control freak" who would not have allowed such an insertion.[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213)
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-223)** At the time, Hoover was feuding with assistant director [William C. Sullivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_C._Sullivan "William C. Sullivan"), the third-ranking FBI official. Hoover effectively demoted Sullivan by creating a new higher-ranking position, deputy associate director, and naming Felt to the position. Hoover's longtime number two, the Associate Director [Clyde Tolson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clyde_Tolson "Clyde Tolson"), was in poor health, rendering Felt as Hoover's desired and likely successor.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202271%E2%80%9373-222)
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-238)** Graff writes that other *Washington Post* journalists, like [Howard Simons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Simons "Howard Simons") and [Barry Sussman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Sussman "Barry Sussman"), are not given fair credit for their contributions to Watergate stories. Regarding Woodward and Bernstein, Sussman later said "I don't have anything good to say about either one of them."[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022234-237)
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-256)** Dean reportedly convinced [Herbert Kalmbach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_W._Kalmbach "Herbert W. Kalmbach") to provide the funds under the false pretense of legal support kept secret to avoid negative publicity.[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999250%E2%80%93251-254)
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-260)** Some \$10,000 was found on Dorothy Hunt's remains in the crash, possibly hush money. Hunt had also taken out a \$225,000 life insurance plan shortly before the crash, which E. Howard Hunt received. Speculation of assassination was unfounded, and the FBI and [National Transportation Safety Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board "National Transportation Safety Board") found no evidence of foul play.[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995230-259)
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-265)** These payments continued for months; by March 1973, the White House ran out of untraceable funds for hush money and secured funding from Greek grocery magnate Thomas Pappas by agreeing to not remove the [US ambassador to Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Greece "List of ambassadors of the United States to Greece").[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022327%E2%80%93328-264)
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-293)** Graff notes an "odd thread of Watergate" involving Chile and the [ITT Corporation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITT_Inc. "ITT Inc.") that may suggest "deeper connections or further, still-uncovered plots and geopolitical intrigue".[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022306-292)
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-373)** Richardson later said that, in an attempt to dissuade him from resigning, White House chief of staff [Alexander Haig](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Haig "Alexander Haig") suggested that the administration would help him secure the [1976 Republican nomination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries "1976 Republican Party presidential primaries") for president.[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992406-372)
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-447)** *The Los Angeles Times* exposed the revelation that Nixon was an unindicted co-conspirator on June 5.[\[426\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022609-446)
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-463)** The room was immediately evacuated after a false report of a pro-Nixon kamikaze plane about to crash into the Capitol.[\[440\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022640-461)[\[441\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992530-462)
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-481)** Ford [had succeeded](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_United_States_vice_presidential_confirmation "1973 United States vice presidential confirmation") Vice President Agnew after his resignation due to tax fraud.[\[458\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter1973-480)
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-486)** After Ford's swearing-in, Air Force One reverted to callsign "SAM 27000" for Special Active Mission, designating a non-presidential military flight.[\[461\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022664-484)
### Citations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=44 "Edit section: Citations")\]
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2019_1-0)** [Anderson 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFAnderson2019).
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_National_Archives_2-0)** [The National Archives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFThe_National_Archives).
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202240_3-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 40.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerman20011%E2%80%9310_4-0)** [Berman 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBerman2001), pp. 1â10.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202213_5-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 13.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202213%E2%80%9315_6-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 13â15.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992119_7-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 119.
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff20226,_13%E2%80%9315,_44_8-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 6, 13â15, 44.
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992119%E2%80%93120_9-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 119â120.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202245,_54%E2%80%9355_10-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 45, 54â55.
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxvii,_xxxii_11-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xxvii, xxxii.
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992108%E2%80%93109_12-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 108â109.
13. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202219_13-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 19.
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202217_14-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 17.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202217%E2%80%9318_15-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 17â18.
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff20226,_19_16-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 6, 19.
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199919,_68%E2%80%9369_17-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 19, 68â69.
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202220%E2%80%9321_18-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 20â21.
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199971_19-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 71.
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202221%E2%80%9322_20-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 21â22.
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992110_21-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 110.
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202222_22-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 22.
23. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202222%E2%80%9323_23-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202222%E2%80%9323_23-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 22â23.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoig-Franzia2022_24-0)** [Roig-Franzia 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRoig-Franzia2022).
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202227%E2%80%9337_25-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 27â37.
26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202236_26-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 36.
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurdum2003_27-0)** [Purdum 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFPurdum2003).
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202237_29-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 37.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202247%E2%80%9351_30-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 47â51.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202251%E2%80%9352_31-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 51â52.
31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199935%E2%80%9337_32-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 35â37.
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202252_33-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 52.
33. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176_35-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176_35-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 176.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202264%E2%80%9366_37-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 64â66.
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202267_38-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 67.
36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner2007_39-0)** [Weiner 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWeiner2007).
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202270_40-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 70.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202279%E2%80%9380_41-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 79â80.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202280%E2%80%9382_42-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 80â82.
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199557_43-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 57.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202282_45-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 82.
42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992113_46-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 113.
43. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202283%E2%80%9384,_90_47-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 83â84, 90.
44. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992114_48-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 114.
45. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202290%E2%80%9392_49-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 90â92.
46. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202291%E2%80%9393_50-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 91â93.
47. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199994%E2%80%9397_51-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 94â97.
48. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs202144_52-0)** [Dobbs 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDobbs2021), p. 44.
49. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202293_53-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 93.
50. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999100%E2%80%93101_54-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 100â101.
51. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202294_55-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202294_55-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202294_55-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 94.
52. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022101_57-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 101.
53. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202295_58-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 95.
54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199579_59-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 79.
55. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202282%E2%80%9383,_96_60-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 82â83, 96.
56. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199579%E2%80%9380_61-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 79â80.
57. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199981%E2%80%9383_62-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 81â83.
58. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022101%E2%80%93104_63-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 101â104.
59. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999104%E2%80%93106_64-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 104â106.
60. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999237_65-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999237_65-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 237.
61. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992200_66-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 200.
62. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202299%E2%80%93100_67-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 99â100.
63. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999107%E2%80%93108_68-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 107â108.
64. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022100%E2%80%93101_69-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 100â101.
65. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022100_70-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 100.
66. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022105,_110_72-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 105, 110.
67. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2012_73-0)** [Glass 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGlass2012).
68. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022105_74-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 105.
69. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999170_75-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 170.
70. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022109,_118%E2%80%93119_76-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 109, 118â119.
71. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199589%E2%80%9390_77-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 89â90.
72. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022119_78-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022119_78-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 119.
73. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199590%E2%80%9391_79-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 90â91.
74. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022120%E2%80%93121_80-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 120â121.
75. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999172%E2%80%93173_81-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 172â173.
76. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022128_82-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 128.
77. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999173%E2%80%93174_83-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 173â174.
78. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobenalt2022a_84-0)** [Robenalt 2022a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRobenalt2022a).
79. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999174%E2%80%93176_85-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 174â176.
80. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199597_86-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199597_86-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199597_86-2) [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 97.
81. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999177_87-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 177.
82. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeung2005_88-0)** [Leung 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLeung2005).
83. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999176%E2%80%93177_89-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 176â177.
84. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202259_90-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 59.
85. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202259%E2%80%9360_91-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 59â60.
86. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202260_92-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202260_92-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 60.
87. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESelverstone2017_93-0)** [Selverstone 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSelverstone2017).
88. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999194_94-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 194.
89. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022156_95-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022156_95-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 156.
90. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999194%E2%80%93195_96-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 194â195.
91. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999196_97-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 196.
92. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999196%E2%80%93197_98-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 196â197.
93. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999197_99-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999197_99-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999197_99-2) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 197.
94. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995119_100-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 119.
95. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGjelten2009_101-0)** [Gjelten 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGjelten2009).
96. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999193,_197%E2%80%93198_103-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 193, 197â198.
97. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999197%E2%80%93198_104-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 197â198.
98. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022162%E2%80%93163_105-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 162â163.
99. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995119%E2%80%93120_106-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 119â120.
100. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999198%E2%80%93199_107-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 198â199.
101. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999199_108-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999199_108-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 199.
102. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022163_109-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022163_109-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 163.
103. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999199%E2%80%93200_110-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 199â200.
104. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995121%E2%80%93122_111-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 121â122.
105. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999200_112-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 200.
106. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999200%E2%80%93201_113-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 200â201.
107. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999201_114-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 201.
108. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995128_116-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 128.
109. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999201%E2%80%93202_118-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 201â202.
110. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022164_119-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 164.
111. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999202_120-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 202.
112. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999203_121-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 203.
113. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999204_122-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999204_122-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 204.
114. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999205_123-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999205_123-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999205_123-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999205_123-3) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 205.
115. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206_124-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206_124-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206_124-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206_124-3) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 206.
116. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168_125-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168_125-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168_125-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 168.
117. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeelye2022_126-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeelye2022_126-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeelye2022_126-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeelye2022_126-3) [Seelye 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSeelye2022).
118. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206%E2%80%93207_128-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 206â207.
119. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999207_129-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999207_129-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999207_129-2) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 207.
120. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999208,_212_130-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 208, 212.
121. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999208%E2%80%93210_132-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 208â210.
122. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995136_133-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 136.
123. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022169_134-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 169.
124. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022169%E2%80%93170_135-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 169â170.
125. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999210_136-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 210.
126. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992187_137-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 187.
127. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995194_138-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 194.
128. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022170,_177%E2%80%93178_139-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 170, 177â178.
129. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995441_140-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995441_140-1) [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 441.
130. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a_141-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a_141-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a_141-2) [Graff 2022a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff_2022a).
131. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xix,_170,_178_142-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xix, 170, 178.
132. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171_143-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171_143-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 171.
133. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022173_144-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 173.
134. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171%E2%80%93172_145-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 171â172.
135. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022172_146-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022172_146-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 172.
136. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995125_147-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 125.
137. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992204%E2%80%93208_148-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 204â208.
138. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022174%E2%80%93175_149-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 174â175.
139. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199530_150-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 30.
140. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022173%E2%80%93174_151-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 173â174.
141. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwan2012_152-0)** [Swan 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSwan2012).
142. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoig-Franzia2001_153-0)** [Roig-Franzia 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRoig-Franzia2001).
143. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022174_154-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 174.
144. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociated_Press_2001_155-0)** [Associated Press 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFAssociated_Press_2001).
145. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHettena2001_156-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHettena2001_156-1) [Hettena 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHettena2001).
146. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-157)**
*Wells v. Liddy*
, [186 F.3d 505](https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F3/186/505/569298/) (4th Cir. 1999).
147. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-158)**
*Wells v. Liddy*
, [37 F. App'x 53](https://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinions/Unpublished/011266.U.pdf) (4th Cir. 2002).
148. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992209_159-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 209.
149. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176%E2%80%93177_160-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 176â177.
150. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''New_York_Times''_1976_161-0)** [*New York Times* 1976](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNew_York_Times_1976).
151. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992201%E2%80%93202,_204%E2%80%93205,_209,_492_162-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 201â202, 204â205, 209, 492.
152. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1984_163-0)** [Lukas 1984](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1984).
153. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992203_164-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 203.
154. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022177_165-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022177_165-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 177.
155. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992194,_200_166-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 194, 200.
156. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolotsky1992_167-0)** [Molotsky 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMolotsky1992).
157. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999150_168-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 150.
158. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022159_169-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 159.
159. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrewdson1973_170-0)** [Crewdson 1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCrewdson1973).
160. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHersh1983_171-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHersh1983_171-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHersh1983_171-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHersh1983_171-3) [Hersh 1983](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHersh1983).
161. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022179%E2%80%93180_173-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 179â180.
162. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200344_174-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 44.
163. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022181_175-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 181.
164. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999213_176-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 213.
165. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022183%E2%80%93184_177-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 183â184.
166. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022184_178-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 184.
167. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022184%E2%80%93185,_187_179-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 184â185, 187.
168. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992188_180-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 188.
169. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999217_181-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 217.
170. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999211_182-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 211.
171. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999223,_226_183-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 223, 226.
172. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022206_184-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 206.
173. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999222%E2%80%93223_185-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 222â223.
174. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999227_186-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 227.
175. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999227%E2%80%93228_187-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 227â228.
176. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999228_188-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 228.
177. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022291%E2%80%93292_189-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 291â292.
178. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022185%E2%80%93186_190-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 185â186.
179. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022186_191-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 186.
180. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022187_192-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022187_192-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 187.
181. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022191_193-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 191.
182. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022192_194-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022192_194-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 192.
183. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022193_195-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 193.
184. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022197%E2%80%93198_196-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022197%E2%80%93198_196-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 197â198.
185. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999272_197-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 272.
186. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022114_198-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 114.
187. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022188%E2%80%93189_199-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 188â189.
188. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142_200-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142_200-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142_200-2) [Dobbs 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDobbs2021), p. 142.
189. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999218%E2%80%93219_201-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999218%E2%80%93219_201-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 218â219.
190. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022215_202-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022215_202-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 215.
191. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022216_203-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022216_203-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 216.
192. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021143_204-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021143_204-1) [Dobbs 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDobbs2021), p. 143.
193. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217_205-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217_205-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217_205-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 217.
194. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999220_206-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 220.
195. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999237%E2%80%93238_207-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 237â238.
196. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999229%E2%80%93230_208-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 229â230.
197. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMemmott2011_209-0)** [Memmott 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMemmott2011).
198. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999230_210-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 230.
199. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999230%E2%80%93231_211-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999230%E2%80%93231_211-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 230â231.
200. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022209_212-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 209.
201. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-4) [Morley 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMorley2022).
202. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2018_214-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2018_214-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2018_214-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2018_214-3) [Glass 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGlass2018).
203. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999231_215-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 231.
204. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999231%E2%80%93233_216-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 231â233.
205. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992219%E2%80%93220_217-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 219â220.
206. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999233%E2%80%93234_218-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 233â234.
207. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrewdson1976_219-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrewdson1976_219-1) [Crewdson 1976](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCrewdson1976).
208. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner2008_221-0)** [Weiner 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWeiner2008).
209. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202271%E2%80%9373_222-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202271%E2%80%9373_222-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 71â73.
210. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022154%E2%80%93155_224-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 154â155.
211. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022158_225-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 158.
212. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005_226-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005_226-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005_226-2) [Buncombe 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBuncombe2005).
213. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs202166_227-0)** [Dobbs 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDobbs2021), p. 66.
214. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022268_228-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 268.
215. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolson2004_229-0)** [Holson 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHolson2004).
216. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022286%E2%80%93288_230-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 286â288.
217. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEByers2012_231-0)** [Byers 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFByers2012).
218. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022222,_245_232-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 222, 245.
219. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022265_233-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 265.
220. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell2012_234-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell2012_234-1) [Campbell 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCampbell2012).
221. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxi_235-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. xxi.
222. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022612%E2%80%93615_236-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 612â615.
223. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022234_237-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 234.
224. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999236_239-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 236.
225. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999235%E2%80%93239_240-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 235â239.
226. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999235_241-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 235.
227. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999237,_243_242-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 237, 243.
228. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999238%E2%80%93239_243-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 238â239.
229. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999239%E2%80%93240_244-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 239â240.
230. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995211%E2%80%93212_245-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 211â212.
231. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999240%E2%80%93241_246-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 240â241.
232. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999241_247-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 241.
233. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999241%E2%80%93242_248-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 241â242.
234. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999242_249-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 242.
235. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999246%E2%80%93249_250-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 246â249.
236. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999249_251-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 249.
237. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999249%E2%80%93250_252-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 249â250.
238. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022224_253-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 224.
239. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999250%E2%80%93251_254-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999250%E2%80%93251_254-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 250â251.
240. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200355_255-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 55.
241. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022225%E2%80%93226_257-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 225â226.
242. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999251%E2%80%93252_258-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 251â252.
243. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995230_259-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 230.
244. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999278%E2%80%93279_261-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 278â279.
245. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVolsky1977_262-0)** [Volsky 1977](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFVolsky1977).
246. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobenalt2022b_263-0)** [Robenalt 2022b](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRobenalt2022b).
247. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022327%E2%80%93328_264-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 327â328.
248. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022239%E2%80%93240_266-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022239%E2%80%93240_266-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 239â240.
249. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022240%E2%80%93244_267-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 240â244.
250. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022246_268-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 246.
251. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247_269-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247_269-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247_269-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 247.
252. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995216_270-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 216.
253. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022251%E2%80%93252,_262_271-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 251â252, 262.
254. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022249_272-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 249.
255. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200367_273-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 67.
256. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022249%E2%80%93250_274-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 249â250.
257. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200367%E2%80%9368_275-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), pp. 67â68.
258. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022258%E2%80%93260_276-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 258â260.
259. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022260%E2%80%93261_277-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 260â261.
260. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999256_278-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999256_278-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 256.
261. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022240_279-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 240.
262. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200365_280-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 65.
263. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2024_281-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2024_281-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2024_281-2) [Elving 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFElving2024).
264. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022304_282-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022304_282-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 304.
265. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200369_283-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 69.
266. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022299,_302,_309_284-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 299, 302, 309.
267. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022302%E2%80%93303_285-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022302%E2%80%93303_285-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 302â303.
268. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022303_286-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 303.
269. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022291,_305_287-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 291, 305.
270. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200368_288-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 68.
271. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999265_289-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 265.
272. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022305%E2%80%93306_290-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 305â306.
273. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999267%E2%80%93268_291-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 267â268.
274. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022306_292-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022306_292-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 306.
275. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022307_294-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 307.
276. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022308_295-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 308.
277. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022308%E2%80%93309_296-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 308â309.
278. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022309_297-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 309.
279. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999269_298-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999269_298-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 269.
280. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERugaber1972_299-0)** [Rugaber 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRugaber1972).
281. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022311_300-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 311.
282. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999277_301-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999277_301-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 277.
283. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022311%E2%80%93312_302-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 311â312.
284. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022313_303-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 313.
285. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022356_304-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 356.
286. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022319%E2%80%93320_305-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 319â320.
287. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022320%E2%80%93321_306-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 320â321.
288. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022321_307-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 321.
289. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992268_308-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 268.
290. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022325%E2%80%93326_309-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 325â326.
291. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999287%E2%80%93290_310-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 287â290.
292. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022325,_327_311-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 325, 327.
293. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022328%E2%80%93329_312-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 328â329.
294. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992265%E2%80%93266_313-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 265â266.
295. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022331_314-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 331.
296. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1974_315-0)** [*Time* 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFTime_1974).
297. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022333%E2%80%93334_316-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 333â334.
298. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022337%E2%80%93338_317-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 337â338.
299. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995270_318-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 270.
300. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022338_319-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 338.
301. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992262_320-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 262.
302. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022339%E2%80%93340_321-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 339â340.
303. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022340%E2%80%93341,_343_322-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 340â341, 343.
304. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022341_323-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 341.
305. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022344,_356,_366_324-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 344, 356, 366.
306. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022346%E2%80%93347,_349%E2%80%93350,_353_325-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 346â347, 349â350, 353.
307. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022347_326-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 347.
308. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995288_327-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 288.
309. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022366,_369,_371_328-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 366, 369, 371.
310. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''New_York_Times''_1974_329-0)** [*New York Times* 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNew_York_Times_1974).
311. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995352%E2%80%93353_330-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 352â353.
312. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022383%E2%80%93386,_422%E2%80%93423_331-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 383â386, 422â423.
313. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992349_332-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 349.
314. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022398_333-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 398.
315. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1973_334-0)** [*Time* 1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFTime_1973).
316. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022418_335-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022418_335-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 418.
317. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022392_336-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 392.
318. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022391_337-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 391.
319. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022392%E2%80%93393_338-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 392â393.
320. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022396%E2%80%93397_339-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 396â397.
321. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShafer2022_340-0)** [Shafer 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFShafer2022).
322. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022424%E2%80%93426,_443%E2%80%93444_341-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 424â426, 443â444.
323. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022393%E2%80%93394_342-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 393â394.
324. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022395_343-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 395.
325. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022401_344-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 401.
326. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992329%E2%80%93332_345-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 329â332.
327. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022456_346-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 456.
328. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022429%E2%80%93433_347-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 429â433.
329. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992368%E2%80%93369_348-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 368â369.
330. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022435_349-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 435.
331. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022436%E2%80%93437_350-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 436â437.
332. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999385_351-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 385.
333. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022434_352-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 434.
334. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999383,_385_353-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 383, 385.
335. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999386_354-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 386.
336. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999387_355-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 387.
337. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999389,_393%E2%80%93394_356-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999389,_393%E2%80%93394_356-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 389, 393â394.
338. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022455%E2%80%93456_357-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 455â456.
339. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022454%E2%80%93455_358-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 454â455.
340. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022462_359-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 462.
341. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022467,_483,_486_360-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 467, 483, 486.
342. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022481_361-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 481.
343. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992416_362-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 416.
344. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022490_363-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 490.
345. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992434%E2%80%93435_364-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 434â435.
346. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022497_365-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 497.
347. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022487_366-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022487_366-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 487.
348. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022488%E2%80%93489,_494_367-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 488â489, 494.
349. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022502%E2%80%93504_368-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 502â504.
350. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992413_369-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 413.
351. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022507%E2%80%93509_370-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 507â509.
352. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2018_371-0)** [Elving 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFElving2018).
353. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992406_372-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992406_372-1) [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 406.
354. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022509%E2%80%93510_374-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 509â510.
355. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022510%E2%80%93511_375-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022510%E2%80%93511_375-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 510â511.
356. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoble1987_376-0)** [Noble 1987](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNoble1987).
357. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992409%E2%80%93411,_413_377-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 409â411, 413.
358. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022513,_516%E2%80%93517_378-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 513, 516â517.
359. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022516_379-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 516.
360. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022516%E2%80%93517_380-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 516â517.
361. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022517_381-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 517.
362. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022518_382-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 518.
363. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022521%E2%80%93522_383-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 521â522.
364. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995408%E2%80%93409_384-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 408â409.
365. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992408_385-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 408.
366. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992412_386-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992412_386-1) [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 412.
367. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022525_387-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022525_387-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 525.
368. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992429_388-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 429.
369. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022526_389-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 526.
370. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022526%E2%80%93527,_529_390-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 526â527, 529.
371. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022531%E2%80%93532_391-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 531â532.
372. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022532%E2%80%93533_392-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 532â533.
373. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022536%E2%80%93537,_552_393-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 536â537, 552.
374. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992432%E2%80%93433_394-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 432â433.
375. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022538%E2%80%93539_395-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 538â539.
376. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx,_539%E2%80%93540_396-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xx, 539â540.
377. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPope2016_397-0)** [Pope 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFPope2016).
378. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENPR_2013_398-0)** [NPR 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNPR_2013).
379. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022540%E2%80%93541_399-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 540â541.
380. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson2003127_400-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 127.
381. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022541_401-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 541.
382. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022542_402-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 542.
383. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022543,_547_403-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 543, 547.
384. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022544%E2%80%93545_404-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 544â545.
385. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABC_2017_405-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABC_2017_405-1) [ABC 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFABC_2017).
386. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999458%E2%80%93459,_462_406-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 458â459, 462.
387. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022545_407-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 545.
388. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995417_408-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995417_408-1) [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 417.
389. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022545%E2%80%93546_409-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 545â546.
390. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992429%E2%80%93430_410-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 429â430.
391. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546_411-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546_411-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546_411-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 546.
392. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995418_412-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 418.
393. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992430_413-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 430.
394. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2016_414-0)** [Glass 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGlass2016).
395. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022566_415-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 566.
396. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022567%E2%80%93568_416-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 567â568.
397. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022553_417-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 553.
398. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022558,_570_418-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 558, 570.
399. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022563%E2%80%93564_419-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 563â564.
400. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022565_420-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022565_420-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 565.
401. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022572%E2%80%93573_421-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 572â573.
402. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022583%E2%80%93584_422-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 583â584.
403. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022578%E2%80%93579_423-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 578â579.
404. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022578_424-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 578.
405. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022580%E2%80%93581_425-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 580â581.
406. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022584%E2%80%93585_426-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 584â585.
407. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999475_427-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 475.
408. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022586%E2%80%93587_428-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 586â587.
409. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022592_429-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 592.
410. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022592%E2%80%93593_430-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 592â593.
411. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022593,_597_431-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 593, 597.
412. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Los_Angeles_Times''_1990_432-0)** [*Los Angeles Times* 1990](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLos_Angeles_Times_1990).
413. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597_433-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597_433-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 597.
414. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022594_434-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 594.
415. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022595_435-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 595.
416. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022596_436-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022596_436-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 596.
417. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022595%E2%80%93596_437-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 595â596.
418. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597%E2%80%93598_438-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 597â598.
419. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022598_439-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 598.
420. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999494%E2%80%93495_440-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 494â495.
421. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022599_441-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 599.
422. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022600_442-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022600_442-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 600.
423. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESullivan2004_443-0)** [Sullivan 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSullivan2004).
424. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022606%E2%80%93607_444-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 606â607.
425. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022602_445-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 602.
426. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022609_446-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 609.
427. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022603_448-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 603.
428. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999495_449-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 495.
429. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2024_450-0)** [Allen 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFAllen2024).
430. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022611_451-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 611.
431. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022615_452-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 615.
432. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022620,_623_453-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 620, 623.
433. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022623_454-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 623.
434. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022629%E2%80%93630_455-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 629â630.
435. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022631,_654_456-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 631, 654.
436. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992513%E2%80%93514_457-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 513â514.
437. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022642_458-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 642.
438. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022639%E2%80%93640_459-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 639â640.
439. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992525%E2%80%93526_460-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 525â526.
440. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022640_461-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 640.
441. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992530_462-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 530.
442. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022641_464-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022641_464-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 641.
443. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992531_465-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 531.
444. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022642%E2%80%93644,_649_466-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 642â644, 649.
445. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992527_467-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 527.
446. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022647_468-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 647.
447. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022635_469-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 635.
448. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodwardBernstein1976309_470-0)** [Woodward & Bernstein 1976](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWoodwardBernstein1976), p. 309.
449. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992536,_537_471-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 536, 537.
450. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes2003_472-0)** [Barnes 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBarnes2003).
451. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022653_473-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022653_473-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 653.
452. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999560_474-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 560.
453. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022655%E2%80%93656_475-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 655â656.
454. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022658_476-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 658.
455. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992539_477-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 539.
456. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992539%E2%80%93540_478-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 539â540.
457. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022661,_663_479-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 661, 663.
458. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter1973_480-0)** [Hunter 1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHunter1973).
459. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022663_482-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022663_482-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 663.
460. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWooten1974_483-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWooten1974_483-1) [Wooten 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWooten1974).
461. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022664_484-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022664_484-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 664.
462. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995481_485-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 481.
463. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022665_487-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 665.
464. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter1981_488-0)** [Hunter 1981](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHunter1981).
465. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667_489-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667_489-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 667.
466. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1974b_490-0)** [*Time* 1974b](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFTime_1974b).
467. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667%E2%80%93668_491-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 667â668.
468. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022668_492-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022668_492-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 668.
469. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992568_493-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992568_493-1) [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 568.
470. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992567_494-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992567_494-1) [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 567.
471. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolson2018_495-0)** [Holson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHolson2018).
472. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992566_496-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 566.
473. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992569_497-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 569.
474. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669_498-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669_498-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669_498-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 669.
475. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022646_499-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 646.
476. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992560%E2%80%93561_500-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 560â561.
477. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992562_501-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 562.
478. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992572_502-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 572.
479. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes2016_503-0)** [Grimes 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGrimes2016).
480. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022676_504-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022676_504-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 676.
481. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENagourneyShane2011_505-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENagourneyShane2011_505-1) [Nagourney & Shane 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNagourneyShane2011).
482. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETotenberg2011_506-0)** [Totenberg 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFTotenberg2011).
483. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022674_507-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 674.
484. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022674%E2%80%93675_508-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 674â675.
485. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022675_509-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 675.
486. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg2021_510-0)** [Greenberg 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGreenberg2021).
487. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClymer2002_511-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClymer2002_511-1) [Clymer 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFClymer2002).
488. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2020_512-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2020_512-1) [Bennett 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBennett2020).
489. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2022_513-0)** [Elving 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFElving2022).
490. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFadulu2025_514-0)** [Fadulu 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFFadulu2025).
491. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''New_Straits_Times''_1975_515-0)** [*New Straits Times* 1975](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNew_Straits_Times_1975).
492. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022670_516-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 670.
493. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaughton1977_517-0)** [Naughton 1977](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNaughton1977).
494. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStelter2013_518-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStelter2013_518-1) [Stelter 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFStelter2013).
495. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERanahan2025_519-0)** [Ranahan 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRanahan2025).
496. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeve2017_520-0)** [Reeve 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFReeve2017).
497. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchulman2024_521-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchulman2024_521-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchulman2024_521-2) [Schulman 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSchulman2024).
498. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShane2006_522-0)** [Shane 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFShane2006).
499. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992586%E2%80%93587_523-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 586â587.
500. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022672%E2%80%93673_524-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 672â673.
501. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992589_525-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 589.
502. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022673_526-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 673.
503. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992591_527-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 591.
504. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022324_528-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 324.
505. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2000673_529-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2000673_529-1) [Clark 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFClark2000), p. 673.
506. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleveland_State_University_530-0)** [Cleveland State University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCleveland_State_University).
507. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_531-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_531-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_531-2) [The Library of Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFThe_Library_of_Congress).
508. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneider1999_532-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneider1999_532-1) [Schneider 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSchneider1999).
509. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalz2022_533-0)** [Balz 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBalz2022).
510. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xvii%E2%80%93xviii_534-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xvii%E2%80%93xviii_534-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xviiâxviii.
511. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDerry2010153_535-0)** [Derry 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDerry2010), p. 153.
512. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoyne200879%E2%80%9380_536-0)** [Coyne 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCoyne2008), pp. 79â80.
513. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENPR_2022_537-0)** [NPR 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNPR_2022).
514. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScovell2024_538-0)** [Scovell 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFScovell2024).
515. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffman2024_539-0)** [Hoffman 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHoffman2024).
516. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxiii_540-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. xxiii.
517. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx,_676_541-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xx, 676.
518. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalesky2012_542-0)** [Malesky 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMalesky2012).
519. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx_543-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. xx.
520. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer2019_544-0)** [Zimmer 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFZimmer2019).
521. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce2013_545-0)** [Pierce 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFPierce2013).
522. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinraub1995_546-0)** [Weinraub 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWeinraub1995).
523. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDargis2008_547-0)** [Dargis 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDargis2008).
524. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGrath2008_548-0)** [McGrath 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMcGrath2008).
### Works cited
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=45 "Edit section: Works cited")\]
#### Books
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=46 "Edit section: Books")\]
- Berman, Larry (2001). *No Peace, No Honor: Nixon, Kissinger, and Betrayal in Vietnam*. Free Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780743223492](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780743223492 "Special:BookSources/9780743223492")
.
- Coyne, Michael (2008). *Hollywood Goes to Washington: American Politics on Screen*. London: Reaktion Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9781861895776](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781861895776 "Special:BookSources/9781861895776")
.
- Derry, Charles (2010). *The Suspense Thriller: Films in the Shadow of Alfred Hitchcock*. New York: McFarland. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780786462407](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786462407 "Special:BookSources/9780786462407")
.
- [Dobbs, Michael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dobbs_\(journalist\) "Michael Dobbs (journalist)") (2021). *King Richard: Nixon and Watergate, an American Tragedy*. Knopf. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9781913348731](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781913348731 "Special:BookSources/9781913348731")
.
- [Emery, Fred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Emery_\(journalist\) "Fred Emery (journalist)") (1995). *Watergate*. Simon & Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780684813233](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780684813233 "Special:BookSources/9780684813233")
.
- [Graff, Garret M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_Graff "Garrett Graff") (2022). *Watergate: A New History*. Avid Reader Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9781982139162](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781982139162 "Special:BookSources/9781982139162")
.
- [Kutler, Stanley I.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Kutler "Stanley Kutler") (1992). *The Wars of Watergate*. W. W. Norton & Company. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780393308273](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393308273 "Special:BookSources/9780393308273")
.
- [Lukas, J. Anthony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Anthony_Lukas "J. Anthony Lukas") (1999). *Nightmare: The Underside of the Nixon Years*. Ohio University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0821412876](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0821412876 "Special:BookSources/0821412876")
.
- [Olson, Keith W.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_W._Olson "Keith W. Olson") (2003). *Watergate: The Presidential Scandal that Shook America*. University Press of Kansas. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780700612512](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780700612512 "Special:BookSources/9780700612512")
.
- [Woodward, Bob](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Woodward "Bob Woodward"); [Bernstein, Carl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Bernstein "Carl Bernstein") (1976). *The Final Days*. Simon & Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780671222987](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780671222987 "Special:BookSources/9780671222987")
.
#### Journal articles
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=47 "Edit section: Journal articles")\]
- Clark, Kathleen (January 2000). ["The Legacy of Watergate for Legal Ethics Instruction"](https://repository.uclawsf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3398&context=hastings_law_journal). *UC Law Journal*. **51** (4): 673â682\.
#### News articles
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=48 "Edit section: News articles")\]
- Allen, Mike (June 24, 2024). [""All the President's Men" at 50: Woodward, Bernstein share backstory"](https://www.axios.com/2024/06/24/watergate-woodward-bernstein-all-presidents-men-anniversary). *Axios*. Retrieved November 11, 2025.
- Anderson, Sam (February 13, 2019). ["When Roger Stone Flashed Nixon's 'V-for-Victory'"](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/13/magazine/when-roger-stone-flashed-nixons-v-for-victory.html). *The New York Times Magazine*. Retrieved September 8, 2025.
- Balz, Dan (June 12, 2022). ["Watergate Happened 50 years ago. Its legacies are still with us"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/06/12/watergate-trust-government-reforms/). *The Washington Post*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230622014958/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/06/12/watergate-trust-government-reforms/) from the original on June 22, 2023. Retrieved August 23, 2025.
- Barnes, Bart (August 26, 2003). ["John J. Rhodes Dies; Led GOP In House During Watergate"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/john-j-rhodes-dies-led-gop-in-house-during-watergate/2012/06/05/gJQA84nSGV_story.html). *The Washington Post*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190306045011/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/john-j-rhodes-dies-led-gop-in-house-during-watergate/2012/06/05/gJQA84nSGV_story.html) from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
- Bennett, Cory (July 5, 2020). ["How Donald Trump Has Redefined Watergate"](https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/07/05/trump-nixon-watergate-344769). *Politico*. Retrieved October 8, 2025.
- Buncombe, Andrew (June 3, 2005). ["How Woodward met Deep Throat"](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/how-woodward-met-deep-throat-492854.html). *The Independent*. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
- Byers, Dylan (April 30, 2012). ["Woodward rejects new Watergate claims"](https://www.politico.com/story/2012/04/woodward-rejects-new-watergate-claims-075732). *Politico*. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
- Campbell, Joseph (June 17, 2012). ["Five media myths of Watergate"](https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18215048). *BBC*. Retrieved August 26, 2025.
- Clymer, Adam (June 17, 2002). ["Watergate Legacy: More Than a Tired Suffix"](https://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/17/us/watergate-legacy-more-than-a-tired-suffix.html). *The New York Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240818191900/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/17/us/watergate-legacy-more-than-a-tired-suffix.html) from the original on August 18, 2024. Retrieved August 23, 2025.
- Clymer, Adam (May 9, 2003). ["National Archives Has Given Up on Filling the Nixon Tape Gap"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150527231832/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/09/us/national-archives-has-given-up-on-filling-the-nixon-tape-gap.html). *The New York Times*. Archived from [the original](https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/09/us/national-archives-has-given-up-on-filling-the-nixon-tape-gap.html) on May 27, 2015. Retrieved January 17, 2007.
- Crewdson, John M. (June 21, 1973). ["Hunt Reportedly Says Colson Wanted Him to Search Bremer Home"](https://www.nytimes.com/1973/06/21/archives/hunt-reportedly-says-colson-wanted-him-to-search-bremer-home.html). *The New York Times*. Retrieved August 27, 2025.
- Crewdson, John M. (March 12, 1976). ["Nixon Explains His Taped Cryptic Remark About Helms"](https://www.nytimes.com/1976/03/12/archives/nixon-explains-his-taped-cryptic-remark-about-helms.html). *The New York Times*. Retrieved August 27, 2025.
- Dargis, Manohla (December 5, 2008). ["Mr. Frost, Meet Mr. Nixon"](https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/movies/05fros.html). *The New York Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240418115132/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/movies/05fros.html) from the original on April 18, 2024. Retrieved August 23, 2025.
- Elving, Ron (October 21, 2018). ["A Brief History Of Nixon's 'Saturday Night Massacre'"](https://www.npr.org/2018/10/21/659279158/a-brief-history-of-nixons-saturday-night-massacre). *NPR*. Retrieved October 7, 2025.
- Elving, Ron (September 25, 2022). ["Trump and his lawyers keep ghosts of Nixon and Watergate alive and haunting"](https://www.npr.org/2022/09/25/1124784756/trump-and-his-lawyers-keep-ghosts-of-nixon-and-watergate-alive-and-haunting). *NPR*. Retrieved October 8, 2025.
- Elving, Ron (August 9, 2024). ["Half a century ago, Nixon became the only president to resign"](https://www.npr.org/2024/08/09/nx-s1-5068704/nixon-resign). *NPR*. Retrieved November 11, 2025.
- Fadulu, Lola (February 14, 2025). ["Recent Resignations Recall Nixon-Era Saturday Night Massacre"](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/14/nyregion/nixon-saturday-night-massacre-adams-sassoon.html). *The New York Times*. Retrieved November 1, 2025.
- Gjelten, Tom (January 1, 2009). ["Recalling Castro's Ascension â And CIA Reaction"](https://www.npr.org/2009/01/01/98921086/recalling-castros-ascension-and-cia-reaction). *NPR*. Retrieved December 28, 2025.
- Glass, Andrew (February 8, 2012). ["A special committee is created to investigate Watergate, Feb. 8, 1973"](https://www.politico.com/story/2012/02/this-day-in-politics-072577). *Politico*. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
- Glass, Andrew (November 10, 2016). ["Gap on key Watergate tape revealed: Nov. 21, 1973"](https://www.politico.com/story/2016/11/gap-on-key-watergate-tape-revealed-nov-21-1973-231651). *Politico*. Retrieved November 3, 2025.
- Graff, Garrett M. (February 17, 2022). ["Watergate's Central Mystery: Why Did Nixon's Team Order the Break-In in the First Place?"](https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2022/02/why-did-nixons-team-order-watergate-break-in-in-the-first-place). *Vanity Fair*. Retrieved August 19, 2025.
- Greenberg, David (May 25, 2021). ["Was Richard Nixon a Tragic Hero?"](https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/25/books/review/michael-dobbs-king-richard.html). *The New York Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240709194715/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/25/books/review/michael-dobbs-king-richard.html) from the original on July 9, 2024. Retrieved August 23, 2025.
- Grimes, William (December 28, 2016). ["Ed Reinecke, Lieutenant Governor Ensnared by Watergate, Dies at 92"](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/28/us/politics/edward-reinecke-died-watergate-perjury-case.html). *The New York Times*. Retrieved November 10, 2025.
- Glass, Andrew (August 5, 2018). ["Watergate 'smoking gun' tape released, Aug. 5, 1974"](https://www.politico.com/story/2018/08/05/watergate-smoking-gun-tape-released-aug-5-1974-753086). *Politico*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221206050908/https://www.politico.com/story/2018/08/05/watergate-smoking-gun-tape-released-aug-5-1974-753086) from the original on December 6, 2022. Retrieved August 25, 2025.
- ["Haldeman Wonders if C.I.A. Used Watergate 'to Get' Nixon"](https://www.nytimes.com/1976/06/23/archives/haldeman-wonders-if-cia-used-watergate-to-get-nixon.html). *The New York Times*. June 23, 1976. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
- Hersh, Seymour (August 1983). ["The Pardon"](https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1983/08/the-pardon/305571/). *The Atlantic*. Retrieved November 12, 2025.
- Hettena, Seth (January 26, 2001). ["Nixon's ex-aide: Prostitution link to Watergate possible"](https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20010126/liddy26/nixons-ex-aide-prostitution-link-to-watergate-possible). *The Seattle Times*. Associated Press. Retrieved August 17, 2025.
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#### Web sources
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=49 "Edit section: Web sources")\]
- ["Richard M. Nixon"](https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/richard-m-nixon/). *The White House*. The National Archives. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250524090738/https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/richard-m-nixon/) from the original on May 24, 2025. Retrieved July 23, 2025.
- ["Richard Nixon's Political Scandal: Researching Watergate in the Manuscript Collections at the Library of Congress"](https://guides.loc.gov/watergate-manuscripts). *LOC*. Library of Congress. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250619172519/https://guides.loc.gov/watergate-manuscripts) from the original on June 19, 2025. Retrieved August 23, 2025.
- ["Watergate at 40: John Dean and the Ethics of Lawyers"](https://www.law.csuohio.edu/newsevents/watergate-40-john-dean-and-ethics-lawyers#:~:text=Watergate's%20legacy%20directly%20led%20to,Education%20in%20ethics%20and%20professionalism.). *CSU Law*. Cleveland State University. Retrieved September 24, 2025.
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| [Presidency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon "Presidency of Richard Nixon") | [Transition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Richard_Nixon "Presidential transition of Richard Nixon") [First inauguration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Richard_Nixon "First inauguration of Richard Nixon") [Second inauguration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Richard_Nixon "Second inauguration of Richard Nixon") [Nixon Doctrine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine "Nixon Doctrine") "[Bring Us Together](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bring_Us_Together "Bring Us Together")" [Economic policies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixonomics "Nixonomics") [Nixon shock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_shock "Nixon shock") [Tar Baby option](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_Baby_option "Tar Baby option") [Environmental Protection Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency") [creation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reorganization_Plan_No._3_of_1970 "Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970") [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration") [Space exploration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Nixon_administration "Space policy of the United States") [1971 National Cancer Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_on_cancer "War on cancer") [Vietnam War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") [Cambodian bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Menu "Operation Menu") [Paris Peace Accords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Accords "Paris Peace Accords") "[Peace with Honor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_with_Honor "Peace with Honor")" [Vietnamization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamization "Vietnamization") [Silent majority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_majority "Silent majority") [Cold War period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War_\(1962%E2%80%931979\) "Cold War (1962â1979)") [Linkage policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linkage_\(policy\) "Linkage (policy)") [Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_Drug_Abuse_Prevention_and_Control_Act_of_1970 "Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970") [1970 Lincoln Memorial visit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_visit_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial "Richard Nixon's visit to the Lincoln Memorial") [1972 visit to China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China "1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China") [Shanghai CommuniquĂŠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Communiqu%C3%A9 "Shanghai CommuniquĂŠ") [DĂŠtente](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9tente "DĂŠtente") [1972 Moscow Summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Summit_\(1972\) "Moscow Summit (1972)") [Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty "Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty") [SALT I Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks "Strategic Arms Limitation Talks") [Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_on_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War "Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War") [Threshold Test Ban Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_Test_Ban_Treaty "Threshold Test Ban Treaty") [Endangered Species Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_Species_Act_of_1973 "Endangered Species Act of 1973") [National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafer_Commission "Shafer Commission") [War on drugs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_on_drugs "War on drugs") [Drug Enforcement Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration#History_and_mandate "Drug Enforcement Administration") [Cannabis policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_policy_of_the_Nixon_administration "Cannabis policy of the Nixon administration") [Enemies list](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_enemies_list "Richard Nixon's enemies list") [list of opponents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_list_of_Nixon%27s_political_opponents "Master list of Nixon's political opponents") [Operation CHAOS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_CHAOS "Operation CHAOS") [Watergate]() [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Watergate_scandal "Timeline of the Watergate scandal") [White House tapes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes "Nixon White House tapes") *[United States v. Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon "United States v. Nixon")* [Senate Watergate Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate_Watergate_Committee "United States Senate Watergate Committee") [impeachment process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachment_process_against_Richard_Nixon "Impeachment process against Richard Nixon") "[I am not a crook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_am_not_a_crook "I am not a crook")" [Resignation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Resignation) [speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_resignation_speech "Richard Nixon's resignation speech") [Pardon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon_of_Richard_Nixon "Pardon of Richard Nixon") [State of the Union Address](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_the_Union "State of the Union") [1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970_State_of_the_Union_Address "1970 State of the Union Address") [1971](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_State_of_the_Union_Address "1971 State of the Union Address") [1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_State_of_the_Union_Address "1972 State of the Union Address") [1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_State_of_the_Union_Address "1973 State of the Union Address") [1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_State_of_the_Union_Address "1974 State of the Union Address") [Wilson desk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson_desk "Wilson desk") [Judicial appointments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Richard_Nixon "List of federal judges appointed by Richard Nixon") [Supreme Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_Supreme_Court_candidates "Richard Nixon Supreme Court candidates") [controversies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_judicial_appointment_controversies "Richard Nixon judicial appointment controversies") [Executive Orders](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Richard_Milhous_Nixon/Executive_orders "wikisource:Author:Richard Milhous Nixon/Executive orders") [Presidential Proclamations](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Richard_Milhous_Nixon/Presidential_Proclamations "wikisource:Author:Richard Milhous Nixon/Presidential Proclamations") |
| Life and politics | [Richard Nixon Foundation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_Foundation "Richard Nixon Foundation") [Presidential Library and Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_Presidential_Library_and_Museum "Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum") [Birthplace and boyhood home](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthplace_of_Richard_Nixon "Birthplace of Richard Nixon") [Checkers speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checkers_speech "Checkers speech") [1958 motorcade attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Richard_Nixon%27s_motorcade "Attack on Richard Nixon's motorcade") [Kitchen Debate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchen_Debate "Kitchen Debate") [Operation 40](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_40 "Operation 40") ["Last press conference"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_November_1962_press_conference "Richard Nixon's November 1962 press conference") [Florida White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon%27s_Florida_White_House "Nixon's Florida White House") "[La Casa Pacifica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Casa_Pacifica "La Casa Pacifica")" [Nixon Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_National_Interest "Center for the National Interest") *[Nixon v. General Services Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_v._General_Services_Administration "Nixon v. General Services Administration")* [Death and state funeral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Richard_Nixon "Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon") |
| Books | [*Six Crises* (1962)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Crises "Six Crises") [Bibliography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_Richard_Nixon "Bibliography of Richard Nixon") |
| [Elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Richard_Nixon "Electoral history of Richard Nixon") | U.S. House of Representatives: [1946](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946_California%27s_12th_congressional_district_election "1946 California's 12th congressional district election") [1948](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_California%27s_12th_congressional_district_election "1948 California's 12th congressional district election") U.S. Senate: [1950](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950_United_States_Senate_election_in_California "1950 United States Senate election in California") California gubernatorial election: [1962](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_California_gubernatorial_election "1962 California gubernatorial election") GOP presidential primaries: [1960](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries "1960 Republican Party presidential primaries") [1964](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries "1964 Republican Party presidential primaries") [1968](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries "1968 Republican Party presidential primaries") [1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries "1972 Republican Party presidential primaries") GOP national conventions: [1952](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention "1952 Republican National Convention") [1956](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention "1956 Republican National Convention") [1960](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_Republican_National_Convention "1960 Republican National Convention") [campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1960_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign") [1968](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention "1968 Republican National Convention") [campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1968_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign") [1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Republican_National_Convention "1972 Republican National Convention") [campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1972_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign") Presidential elections: [1952](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election "1952 United States presidential election") [transition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Presidential transition of Dwight D. Eisenhower") [1956](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election "1956 United States presidential election") [1960](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election "1960 United States presidential election") [debates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_debates "1960 United States presidential debates") [Kennedy transition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy "Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy") [1968](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election "1968 United States presidential election") [1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election "1972 United States presidential election") |
| [Popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Richard_Nixon "Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon") | "[Nixon goes to China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_goes_to_China "Nixon goes to China")" [*Millhouse* (1971 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millhouse_\(film\) "Millhouse (film)") *[An Evening with Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Evening_with_Richard_Nixon "An Evening with Richard Nixon")* (1972 play) *[Richard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_\(film\) "Richard (film)")* (1972 film) *[Another Nice Mess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Another_Nice_Mess "Another Nice Mess")* (1972 film) [*Four More Years* (1972 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_More_Years "Four More Years") [*Impeach the President* (1973 song)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeach_the_President "Impeach the President") *[The Werewolf of Washington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Werewolf_of_Washington "The Werewolf of Washington")* (1973 film) [*White House Madness* (1975 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Madness "White House Madness") [*All the President's Men* (1976 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_the_President%27s_Men_\(film\) "All the President's Men (film)") *[The Public Burning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Public_Burning "The Public Burning")* (1977 novel) *[Washington: Behind Closed Doors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington:_Behind_Closed_Doors "Washington: Behind Closed Doors")* (1977 miniseries) [*Secret Honor* (1984 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Honor "Secret Honor") [*Nixon in China* (1987 opera)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_in_China "Nixon in China") *[The Final Days](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Final_Days_\(1989_film\) "The Final Days (1989 film)")* (1989 film) [*Nixon* (1995 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_\(film\) "Nixon (film)") [*Elvis Meets Nixon* (1997 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_Meets_Nixon "Elvis Meets Nixon") *[Futurama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Futurama_characters#Richard_Nixon "List of Futurama characters")* (1999 TV series) [*Dick* (1999 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_\(film\) "Dick (film)") *[Nixon's China Game](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon%27s_China_Game "Nixon's China Game")* (2000 film) *[Dark Side of the Moon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Side_of_the_Moon_\(2002_film\) "Dark Side of the Moon (2002 film)")* (2002 film) *[The Assassination of Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Assassination_of_Richard_Nixon "The Assassination of Richard Nixon")* (2004 film) [FrostâNixon interviews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Frost%27s_interviews_with_Richard_Nixon "David Frost's interviews with Richard Nixon") ([2006 play](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost/Nixon_\(play\) "Frost/Nixon (play)"), [2008 film](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost/Nixon_\(film\) "Frost/Nixon (film)")) *[Black Dynamite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Dynamite "Black Dynamite")* (2009 film) "[The Impossible Astronaut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Impossible_Astronaut "The Impossible Astronaut")" (2011 TV episode) [*Our Nixon* (2013 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Nixon "Our Nixon") *[X-Men: Days of Future Past](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men:_Days_of_Future_Past "X-Men: Days of Future Past")* (2014 film) *[Crooked](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crooked_\(novel\) "Crooked (novel)")* (2015 novel) [*Elvis & Nixon* (2016 film)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_%26_Nixon "Elvis & Nixon") *[The Post](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Post_\(film\) "The Post (film)")* (2017 film) *[Watergate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_\(board_game\) "Watergate (board game)")* (2019 board game) [U.S. postage stamp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Richard_M._Nixon "Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps") |
| Related | [Committee to Boycott Nixon's Memoirs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_to_Boycott_Nixon%27s_Memoirs "Committee to Boycott Nixon's Memoirs") [Nixon diamond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_diamond "Nixon diamond") [Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Recordings_and_Materials_Preservation_Act "Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act") [Presidential Townhouse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Townhouse "Presidential Townhouse") [Richard Nixon mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_mask "Richard Nixon mask") |
| Staff | [Jack Brennan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Brennan "Jack Brennan") (aide de camp) [Murray Chotiner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Chotiner "Murray Chotiner") (early campaign manager) [Manolo Sanchez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manolo_Sanchez_\(valet\) "Manolo Sanchez (valet)") (valet) [Rose Mary Woods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Mary_Woods "Rose Mary Woods") (secretary) |
| Family | [Thelma "Pat" Ryan Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_Nixon "Pat Nixon") (wife) [Tricia Nixon Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricia_Nixon_Cox "Tricia Nixon Cox") (daughter) [Julie Nixon Eisenhower](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Nixon_Eisenhower "Julie Nixon Eisenhower") (daughter) [Christopher Nixon Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nixon_Cox "Christopher Nixon Cox") (grandson) [Jennie Eisenhower](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennie_Eisenhower "Jennie Eisenhower") (granddaughter) [Francis A. Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_A._Nixon "Francis A. Nixon") (father) [Hannah Milhous Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah_Milhous_Nixon "Hannah Milhous Nixon") (mother) [Donald Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Nixon "Donald Nixon") (brother) [Edward Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Nixon "Edward Nixon") (brother) |
| **[â Lyndon B. Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson")** **[Gerald Ford â](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford "Gerald Ford")** ** [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Richard_Nixon "Category:Richard Nixon")** | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox "Template:History of the United States navbox") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_navbox "Template talk:History of the United States navbox") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox "Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States navbox")[History of the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States "History of the United States") | |
|---|---|
| [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history "Timeline of United States history") [Outline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history "Outline of United States history") | |
| Events | |
| | |
| Pre-Colonial | **[Geological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America "Geological history of North America")** **[Pre-Columbian era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era "Pre-Columbian era")** |
| [Colonial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States "Colonial history of the United States") | [Exploration of North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America "Exploration of North America") [European colonization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas "European colonization of the Americas") [Native American epidemics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics "Native American disease and epidemics") [Settlement of Jamestown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_\(1607%E2%80%931699\) "History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607â1699)") [Thirteen Colonies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies "Thirteen Colonies") [Atlantic slave trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade "Atlantic slave trade") [King William's War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_William%27s_War "King William's War") [Queen Anne's War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War "Queen Anne's War") [Dummer's War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dummer%27s_War "Dummer's War") [First Great Awakening](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Great_Awakening "First Great Awakening") [War of Jenkins' Ear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear "War of Jenkins' Ear") [King George's War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_George%27s_War "King George's War") [Prelude to Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin "American Revolution") [American Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Enlightenment "American Enlightenment") [French and Indian War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War "French and Indian War") [Proclamation of 1763](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763 "Royal Proclamation of 1763") [Sugar Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_Act "Sugar Act") [Stamp Act Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress "Stamp Act Congress") [Sons of Liberty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty "Sons of Liberty") [Virginia Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Association "Virginia Association") [Boston Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Massacre "Boston Massacre") [Boston Tea Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party "Boston Tea Party") [Intolerable Acts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intolerable_Acts "Intolerable Acts") [First Continental Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Continental_Congress "First Continental Congress") [Continental Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Association "Continental Association") |
| [1776â1789](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1776%E2%80%931789\) "History of the United States (1776â1789)") | [American Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution") [War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") [Second Continental Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress "Second Continental Congress") [Virginia Declaration of Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights "Virginia Declaration of Rights") [Lee Resolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Resolution "Lee Resolution") [Declaration of Independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence "United States Declaration of Independence") [Treaty of Paris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_\(1783\) "Treaty of Paris (1783)") [Confederation period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_United_States_of_America "Confederation of United States of America") [Articles of Confederation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation "Articles of Confederation") [and Perpetual Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_Union "Perpetual Union") [Pennsylvania Mutiny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783 "Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783") [Shays' Rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion "Shays' Rebellion") [Northwest Ordinance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance "Northwest Ordinance") [Constitutional Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_\(United_States\) "Constitutional Convention (United States)") [Drafting and ratification of the Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution "History of the United States Constitution") |
| [1789â1815](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1789%E2%80%931815\) "History of the United States (1789â1815)") | [Bill of Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights "United States Bill of Rights") [Federalist Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_Era "Federalist Era") [Whiskey Rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion "Whiskey Rebellion") [Quasi-War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-War "Quasi-War") [Jeffersonian era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy "Jeffersonian democracy") [Louisiana Purchase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase "Louisiana Purchase") [War of 1812](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812") |
| [1815â1849](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1815%E2%80%931849\) "History of the United States (1815â1849)") | [Era of Good Feelings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings "Era of Good Feelings") [Missouri Compromise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri_Compromise "Missouri Compromise") [Monroe Doctrine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine "Monroe Doctrine") [Jacksonian era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy "Jacksonian democracy") [Trail of Tears](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears "Trail of Tears") [Nat Turner's slave rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion "Nat Turner's slave rebellion") [Nullification crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nullification_crisis "Nullification crisis") [Westward expansion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifest_destiny "Manifest destiny") [MexicanâAmerican War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War "MexicanâAmerican War") [Seneca Falls Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention "Seneca Falls Convention") [First Industrial Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States "Industrial Revolution") [Second Great Awakening](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening "Second Great Awakening") |
| [1849â1865](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1849%E2%80%931865\) "History of the United States (1849â1865)") | [Antebellum Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antebellum_South "Antebellum South") [California Gold Rush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Gold_Rush "California Gold Rush") [Greater Reconstruction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Reconstruction "Greater Reconstruction") [Prelude to War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War "Origins of the American Civil War") [Compromise of 1850](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compromise_of_1850 "Compromise of 1850") [Fugitive Slave Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850 "Fugitive Slave Act of 1850") [KansasâNebraska Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act "KansasâNebraska Act") [Bleeding Kansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas "Bleeding Kansas") [Dred Scott decision](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford "Dred Scott v. Sandford") [Election of Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election "1860 United States presidential election") [Secession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession "Confederate States of America") [Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") [Emancipation Proclamation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation "Emancipation Proclamation") [Assassination of Abraham Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln "Assassination of Abraham Lincoln") |
| [1865â1917](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1865%E2%80%931917\) "History of the United States (1865â1917)") | [Reconstruction era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era "Reconstruction era") [Amendments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments "Reconstruction Amendments") [First transcontinental railroad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad "First transcontinental railroad") [Ku Klux Klan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") [Enforcement Acts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enforcement_Acts "Enforcement Acts") [Compromise of 1877](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compromise_of_1877 "Compromise of 1877") [End](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_Reconstruction "End of Reconstruction") [Second Industrial Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States "Second Industrial Revolution") [Gilded Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilded_Age "Gilded Age") [The Gospel of Wealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth "The Gospel of Wealth") [Assassination of James A. Garfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield "Assassination of James A. Garfield") [Chinese Exclusion Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act "Chinese Exclusion Act") [Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act "Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act") [Haymarket affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haymarket_affair "Haymarket affair") [Sherman Antitrust Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act "Sherman Antitrust Act") [Progressive Era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Era "Progressive Era") [SpanishâAmerican War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "SpanishâAmerican War") [Imperialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_imperialism "American imperialism") [Assassination of William McKinley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley "Assassination of William McKinley") [Square Deal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_Deal "Square Deal") [Nadir of American race relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations "Nadir of American race relations") |
| [1917â1945](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1917%E2%80%931945\) "History of the United States (1917â1945)") | [World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I "United States in World War I") [Paris Peace Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_\(1919%E2%80%931920\)#American_approach "Paris Peace Conference (1919â1920)") [First Red Scare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Red_Scare "First Red Scare") [Roaring Twenties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roaring_Twenties "Roaring Twenties") [Prohibition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States "Prohibition in the United States") [Women's suffrage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States "Women's suffrage in the United States") [Tulsa race massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre "Tulsa race massacre") [Second Klan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915%E2%80%931944 "Ku Klux Klan") [Bath School disaster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath_School_disaster "Bath School disaster") [Harlem Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance "Harlem Renaissance") [Great Depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States "Great Depression in the United States") [Wall Street crash of 1929](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_crash_of_1929 "Wall Street crash of 1929") [Dust Bowl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl "Dust Bowl") [New Deal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal "New Deal") [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II "Military history of the United States during World War II") [Pearl Harbor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor "Attack on Pearl Harbor") [home front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II "United States home front during World War II") [Manhattan Project](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project "Manhattan Project") [Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki") |
| [1945â1964](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1945%E2%80%931964\) "History of the United States (1945â1964)") | [Strike wave of 1945â1946](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946 "United States strike wave of 1945â1946") [Start of Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War_\(1947%E2%80%931948\) "Cold War (1947â1948)") [Truman Doctrine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_Doctrine "Truman Doctrine") [Early Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War_\(1948%E2%80%931953\) "Cold War (1948â1953)") [North Atlantic Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty "North Atlantic Treaty") [Korean War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") [Ivy Mike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy_Mike "Ivy Mike") [McCarthyism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCarthyism "McCarthyism") [Post-war boom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion "PostâWorld War II economic expansion") [Project Mercury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Mercury "Project Mercury") [Civil Rights Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement") [Earlyâmid Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War_\(1953%E2%80%931962\) "Cold War (1953â1962)") [Cuban Missile Crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis "Cuban Missile Crisis") [Assassination of John F. Kennedy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy "Assassination of John F. Kennedy") |
| [1964â1980](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1964%E2%80%931980\) "History of the United States (1964â1980)") | [Great Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Society "Great Society") [Space Race](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race "Space Race") [Project Gemini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gemini "Project Gemini") [Apollo program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program "Apollo program") [Mid Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War_\(1962%E2%80%931979\) "Cold War (1962â1979)") [DĂŠtente](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9tente "DĂŠtente") [Vietnam War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") [Fall of Saigon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon "Fall of Saigon") [Assassination of Malcolm X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Malcolm_X "Assassination of Malcolm X") [Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr. "Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.") [Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Robert_F._Kennedy "Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy") [Counterculture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s "Counterculture of the 1960s") [Second-wave feminism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-wave_feminism "Second-wave feminism") [Gay liberation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay_liberation "Gay liberation") [Stonewall riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonewall_riots "Stonewall riots") [Kent State massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_State_massacre "Kent State massacre") [Roe v. Wade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe_v._Wade "Roe v. Wade") [Watergate scandal]() [Pardon of Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon_of_Richard_Nixon "Pardon of Richard Nixon") [Assassinations of George Moscone and Harvey Milk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassinations_of_George_Moscone_and_Harvey_Milk "Assassinations of George Moscone and Harvey Milk") [Iran hostage crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis "Iran hostage crisis") [Moral Majority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_Majority "Moral Majority") |
| [1980â1991](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1980%E2%80%931991\) "History of the United States (1980â1991)") | [Reagan era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagan_era "Reagan era") Presidential elections [1980](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election "1980 United States presidential election") [1984](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election "1984 United States presidential election") [1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election "1988 United States presidential election") [Reaganomics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaganomics "Reaganomics") [IranâContra affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair "IranâContra affair") [Crack epidemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States "Crack epidemic in the United States") [Late Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War_\(1979%E2%80%931985\) "Cold War (1979â1985)") [Invasion of Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada "United States invasion of Grenada") [Reagan Doctrine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine "Reagan Doctrine") [End of the Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War_\(1985%E2%80%931991\) "Cold War (1985â1991)") [Space Shuttle program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program "Space Shuttle program") [War on drugs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_on_drugs "War on drugs") [Invasion of Panama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama "United States invasion of Panama") |
| [1991â2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(1991%E2%80%932016\) "History of the United States (1991â2016)") | [Gulf War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War") [NAFTA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement "North American Free Trade Agreement") [Los Angeles riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots "1992 Los Angeles riots") [WTC bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing "1993 World Trade Center bombing") [Waco siege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waco_siege "Waco siege") [Republican Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Revolution "Republican Revolution") [Oklahoma City bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing "Oklahoma City bombing") [Columbine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre "Columbine High School massacre") *[Bush v. Gore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_v._Gore "Bush v. Gore")* [September 11 attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") [War on terror](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_on_terror "War on terror") [War in Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_\(2001%E2%80%932021\) "War in Afghanistan (2001â2021)") [Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War") [2005 Atlantic Hurricane Season](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Atlantic_Hurricane_Season "2005 Atlantic Hurricane Season") [Hurricane Katrina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina "Hurricane Katrina") [Virginia Tech shooting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting "Virginia Tech shooting") [Great Recession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States "Great Recession in the United States") [Killing of Osama bin Laden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden "Killing of Osama bin Laden") [2012 Benghazi attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Benghazi_attack "2012 Benghazi attack") [Rise in mass shootings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States "List of mass shootings in the United States") [Tucson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting "2011 Tucson shooting") [Aurora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting "2012 Aurora theater shooting") [Sandy Hook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting "Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting") [Orlando](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting "Pulse nightclub shooting") [Hurricane Sandy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy "Hurricane Sandy") [Black Lives Matter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter "Black Lives Matter") *[Obergefell v. Hodges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges "Obergefell v. Hodges")* |
| [2016âpresent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_\(2016%E2%80%93present\) "History of the United States (2016âpresent)") | [2016 presidential election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election "2016 United States presidential election") [Trumpism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpism "Trumpism") [Unite the Right rally](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally "Unite the Right rally") [Continued rise in mass shootings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States "List of mass shootings in the United States") [Las Vegas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting "2017 Las Vegas shooting") [Parkland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting "Parkland high school shooting") [El Paso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_El_Paso_Walmart_shooting "2019 El Paso Walmart shooting") [Uvalde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting "Uvalde school shooting") [2017 Atlantic Hurricane Season](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Atlantic_Hurricane_Season "2017 Atlantic Hurricane Season") [Harvey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Harvey "Hurricane Harvey") [Irma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Irma "Hurricane Irma") [Maria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Maria "Hurricane Maria") [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [recession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_recession "COVID-19 recession") [George Floyd protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Floyd_protests "George Floyd protests") [Murder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd "Murder of George Floyd") [Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election "Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election") [January 6 attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack "January 6 United States Capitol attack") [Afghanistan withdrawal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_U.S._troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan "2020â2021 U.S. troop withdrawal from Afghanistan") *[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization")* [Support of Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine") [2023 labor strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_strikes_in_2023 "Timeline of strikes in 2023") [2023 banking crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_United_States_banking_crisis "2023 United States banking crisis") [Indictments of Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits "Donald Trump") [Attempted assassination of Donald Trump in Pennsylvania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Donald_Trump_in_Pennsylvania "Attempted assassination of Donald Trump in Pennsylvania") [2025 shootings of Minnesota legislators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_shootings_of_Minnesota_legislators "2025 shootings of Minnesota legislators") [Assassination of Charlie Kirk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Charlie_Kirk "Assassination of Charlie Kirk") |
| Topics | |
| **[American Century](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Century "American Century")** **[Antisemitism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States "History of antisemitism in the United States")** **[Cultural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States "Cultural history of the United States")** [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States "History of cinema in the United States") [Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States "Music history of the United States") [Newspapers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers "History of American newspapers") [Sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States "History of sports in the United States") **[Demography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States "Demographic history of the United States")** [Immigration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States "History of immigration to the United States") **[Economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States "Economic history of the United States")** [Banking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States "History of banking in the United States") **[Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States "History of education in the United States")** [Higher education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States "History of higher education in the United States") **[Flag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States "List of flags of the United States")** **[Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government "History of the United States government")** [Abortion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States "History of abortion in the United States") [Capital punishment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States "History of capital punishment in the United States") [Civil Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States "History of civil rights in the United States") [Corruption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States "History of corruption in the United States") [The Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution "History of the United States Constitution") [Debt ceiling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling "History of the United States debt ceiling") [Direct democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States "History of direct democracy in the United States") [Foreign policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy "History of United States foreign policy") [Law enforcement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States "History of law enforcement in the United States") [Postal service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States "Postage stamps and postal history of the United States") [Taxation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States "History of taxation in the United States") [Voting rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States "Voting rights in the United States") **[Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_American_journalism "History of American journalism")** **[Merchant Marine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine "History of the United States Merchant Marine")** **[Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States "Military history of the United States")** [Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army "History of the United States Army") [Marine Corps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps "History of the United States Marine Corps") [Navy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy "History of the United States Navy") [Air Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force "History of the United States Air Force") [Space Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force "History of the United States Space Force") [Coast Guard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard "History of the United States Coast Guard") **[Party Systems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States "Political eras of the United States")** [First](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Party_System "First Party System") [Second](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Party_System "Second Party System") [Third](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Party_System "Third Party System") [Fourth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Party_System "Fourth Party System") [Fifth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Party_System "Fifth Party System") [Sixth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_Party_System "Sixth Party System") [Seventh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_Party_System "Seventh Party System") **[Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States "History of religion in the United States")** **[Genocide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States "Native American genocide in the United States")** **[Slavery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States")** [Sexual slavery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States "History of sexual slavery in the United States") **[Technology and industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States "Technological and industrial history of the United States")** [Agriculture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States "History of agriculture in the United States") [Labor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States "Labor history of the United States") [Lumber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States "History of the lumber industry in the United States") [Medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States "History of medicine in the United States") [Railway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States "History of rail transportation in the United States") | |
| Groups | |
| **[African American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American_history "African-American history")** **[Asian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans "History of Asian Americans")** [Chinese American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans "History of Chinese Americans") [Filipino American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans "History of Filipino Americans") [Indian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian-American_history "Indian-American history") [Japanese American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans "History of Japanese Americans") [Korean American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans "History of Korean Americans") [Thai American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans "History of Thai Americans") [Vietnamese American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans "History of Vietnamese Americans") **[European American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_American#History "European American")** [Albanian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans "History of Albanian Americans") [English American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_English_Americans "History of English Americans") [Estonian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans "History of Estonian Americans") [Finnish American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans "History of Finnish Americans") [Irish American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Americans#History "Irish Americans") [Italian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_American#History "Italian American") [Lithuanian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans "History of Lithuanian Americans") [Polish American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States "History of Poles in the United States") [Serbian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans "History of Serbian Americans") **[Hispanic and Latino American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "History of Hispanic and Latino Americans")** [Mexican American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans "History of Mexican Americans") **[Jewish American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States "History of the Jews in the United States")** **[Middle Eastern American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans "History of Middle Eastern Americans")** [Egyptian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans "History of Egyptian Americans") [Iranian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans "History of Iranian Americans") [Iraqi American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans "History of Iraqi Americans") [Lebanese American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans "History of Lebanese Americans") [Palestinian American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans "History of Palestinian Americans") [Saudi American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans "History of Saudi Americans") **[Native Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "History of Native Americans in the United States")** [Cherokee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee_history "Cherokee history") [Comanche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comanche_history "Comanche history") **[Women](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States "History of women in the United States")** **[LGBTQ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States "LGBTQ history in the United States")** [Gay men](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States "History of gay men in the United States") [Lesbians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States "History of lesbianism in the United States") [Transgender people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States "Transgender history in the United States") | |
| Places | |
| | |
| [Territorial evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States "Territorial evolution of the United States") | [Admission to the Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union "List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union") [Historical regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States "Historical regions of the United States") [American frontier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_frontier "American frontier") [Manifest destiny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifest_destiny "Manifest destiny") [Indian removal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_removal "Indian removal") |
| Regions | [New England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_England "History of New England") [The South](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States "History of the Southern United States") [The West Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America "History of the west coast of North America") |
| States | [Alabama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Alabama "History of Alabama") [Alaska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Alaska "History of Alaska") [Arizona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Arizona "History of Arizona") [Arkansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Arkansas "History of Arkansas") [California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_California "History of California") [Colorado](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Colorado "History of Colorado") [Connecticut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Connecticut "History of Connecticut") [Delaware](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Delaware "History of Delaware") [Florida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Florida "History of Florida") [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Georgia_\(U.S._state\) "History of Georgia (U.S. state)") [Hawaii](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Hawaii "History of Hawaii") [Idaho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Idaho "History of Idaho") [Illinois](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Illinois "History of Illinois") [Indiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiana "History of Indiana") [Iowa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iowa "History of Iowa") [Kansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kansas "History of Kansas") [Kentucky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kentucky "History of Kentucky") [Louisiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Louisiana "History of Louisiana") [Maine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Maine "History of Maine") [Maryland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Maryland "History of Maryland") [Massachusetts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts "History of Massachusetts") [Michigan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Michigan "History of Michigan") [Minnesota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Minnesota "History of Minnesota") [Mississippi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Mississippi "History of Mississippi") [Missouri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Missouri "History of Missouri") [Montana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Montana "History of Montana") [Nebraska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Nebraska "History of Nebraska") [Nevada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Nevada "History of Nevada") [New Hampshire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire "History of New Hampshire") [New Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey "History of New Jersey") [New Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico "History of New Mexico") [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_York_\(state\) "History of New York (state)") [North Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina "History of North Carolina") [North Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota "History of North Dakota") [Ohio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ohio "History of Ohio") [Oklahoma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma "History of Oklahoma") [Oregon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Oregon "History of Oregon") [Pennsylvania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania "History of Pennsylvania") [Rhode Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island "History of Rhode Island") [South Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina "History of South Carolina") [South Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota "History of South Dakota") [Tennessee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tennessee "History of Tennessee") [Texas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Texas "History of Texas") [Utah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Utah "History of Utah") [Vermont](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Vermont "History of Vermont") [Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Virginia "History of Virginia") [Washington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Washington_\(state\) "History of Washington (state)") [West Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia "History of West Virginia") [Wisconsin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin "History of Wisconsin") [Wyoming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Wyoming "History of Wyoming") |
| Federal District | [Washington, D.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C. "History of Washington, D.C.") |
| Insular areas | [American Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa "History of American Samoa") [Guam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Guam "History of Guam") [Northern Mariana Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands "History of the Northern Mariana Islands") [Puerto Rico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico "History of Puerto Rico") [U.S. Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands "History of the United States Virgin Islands") |
| Outlying islands | [Baker Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island "History of Baker Island") [Howland Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island "History of Howland Island") [Jarvis Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island "History of Jarvis Island") [Johnston Atoll](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll "History of Johnston Atoll") [Kingman Reef](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef "History of Kingman Reef") [Midway Atoll](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll "History of Midway Atoll") [Navassa Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island "History of Navassa Island") [Palmyra Atoll](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll "History of Palmyra Atoll") [Wake Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island "History of Wake Island") |
| Cities | [Urban history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_urban_history "American urban history")  [Cities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States "Category:Histories of cities in the United States") |
| [List of years](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States "List of years in the United States") [Historiography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States "Historiography of the United States")  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States "Category:History of the United States") [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg "Portal") [Portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_States "Portal:United States") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Special_prosecutors_and_independent_counsels_of_the_US "Template:Special prosecutors and independent counsels of the US") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Special_prosecutors_and_independent_counsels_of_the_US "Template talk:Special prosecutors and independent counsels of the US") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Special_prosecutors_and_independent_counsels_of_the_US "Special:EditPage/Template:Special prosecutors and independent counsels of the US")[Special prosecutors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_prosecutor "Special prosecutor") and [independent counsels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Office_of_Special_Counsel "United States Department of Justice Office of Special Counsel") of the US |
|---|
| [John B. Henderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Henderson "John B. Henderson") and [James Broadhead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Broadhead "James Broadhead") [Whiskey Ring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey_Ring "Whiskey Ring") [William Cook](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Cook_\(lawyer\)&action=edit&redlink=1 "William Cook (lawyer) (page does not exist)") [Star Route scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Route_scandal "Star Route scandal") [Holmes Conrad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holmes_Conrad "Holmes Conrad") and [Charles Bonaparte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Bonaparte "Charles Joseph Bonaparte") [Post Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department "United States Post Office Department") bribery [Francis J. Heney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_J._Heney "Francis J. Heney") [Oregon land fraud scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_land_fraud_scandal "Oregon land fraud scandal") [Atlee Pomerene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlee_Pomerene "Atlee Pomerene") and [Owen Roberts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen_Roberts "Owen Roberts") [Teapot Dome scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teapot_Dome_scandal "Teapot Dome scandal") [Newbold Morris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newbold_Morris "Newbold Morris") [DOJ corruption allegations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newbold_Morris#Special_prosecutor "Newbold Morris") [Archibald Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Cox "Archibald Cox"), [Leon Jaworski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Jaworski "Leon Jaworski"), [Henry S. Ruth Jr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_S._Ruth_Jr. "Henry S. Ruth Jr."), and [Charles Ruff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ruff "Charles Ruff") [Watergate scandal]() [Arthur Christy](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arthur_Christy&action=edit&redlink=1 "Arthur Christy (page does not exist)") [Jordan drug allegations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_Jordan "Hamilton Jordan") [Paul J. Curran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_J._Curran "Paul J. Curran") [Carter business loans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bert_Lance "Bert Lance") [Gerald Gallinghouse](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gerald_Gallinghouse&action=edit&redlink=1 "Gerald Gallinghouse (page does not exist)") [Kraft drug allegations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Kraft "Timothy Kraft") [Leon Silverman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Silverman "Leon Silverman") [Donovan organized crime allegations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_J._Donovan "Raymond J. Donovan") [Jacob Stein](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacob_Stein&action=edit&redlink=1 "Jacob Stein (page does not exist)") [Bechtel scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Meese "Edwin Meese") [James C. McKay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_C._McKay "James C. McKay") and [Alexia Morrison](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexia_Morrison&action=edit&redlink=1 "Alexia Morrison (page does not exist)") [Olson perjury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Olson "Theodore Olson") [Mike Seymour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_North_Seymour_Jr. "Whitney North Seymour Jr.") [Deaver perjury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Deaver "Michael Deaver") *[Morrison v. Olson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morrison_v._Olson "Morrison v. Olson")* [Lawrence Walsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Walsh "Lawrence Walsh") [IranâContra affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair "IranâContra affair") [Carl Rauh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rauh "Carl Rauh") and [James Harper](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Harper_\(lawyer\)&action=edit&redlink=1 "James Harper (lawyer) (page does not exist)") [Lawrence Wallace](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=W._Lawrence_Wallace&action=edit&redlink=1 "W. Lawrence Wallace (page does not exist)")'s taxes [James C. McKay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_C._McKay "James C. McKay") [Wedtech scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedtech_scandal "Wedtech scandal") *Unknown* *sealed* [Arlin Adams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlin_Adams "Arlin Adams") and [Larry Thompson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Thompson_\(lawyer\) "Larry Thompson (lawyer)") [Pierce HUD mismanagement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Pierce "Samuel Pierce") *Unknown* *sealed* [Nicholas John Bua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_John_Bua "Nicholas John Bua") [Inslaw scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inslaw "Inslaw") [Malcolm Richard Wilkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Richard_Wilkey "Malcolm Richard Wilkey") [House banking scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_banking_scandal "House banking scandal") [Frederick Bernard Lacey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Bernard_Lacey "Frederick Bernard Lacey") [Iraqgate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqgate "Iraqgate") [Joseph diGenova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_diGenova "Joseph diGenova") and [Michael Zeldin](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_Zeldin&action=edit&redlink=1 "Michael Zeldin (page does not exist)") [1992 Bush administration search of Clinton passport files](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_diGenova "Joseph diGenova") [Robert B. Fiske](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_B._Fiske "Robert B. Fiske"), [Ken Starr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Starr "Ken Starr"), [Robert Ray](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Ray_\(prosecutor\) "Robert Ray (prosecutor)"), and [Julie Thomas](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julie_Thomas_\(prosecutor\)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Julie Thomas (prosecutor) (page does not exist)") [Whitewater controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitewater_controversy "Whitewater controversy") *[Starr Report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starr_Report "Starr Report")* [Donald Smaltz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Smaltz "Donald Smaltz") [Espy trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Espy#Corruption_trial_and_acquittal "Mike Espy") [David Barrett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Barrett_\(prosecutor\) "David Barrett (prosecutor)") [Cisneros payments controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cisneros_payments_controversy "Henry Cisneros payments controversy") *[Barrett Report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrett_Report "Barrett Report")* [Daniel Pearson](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Pearson_\(attorney\)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Daniel Pearson (attorney) (page does not exist)") [DOC trade mission controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce_Department_trade_mission_controversy "Commerce Department trade mission controversy") [Curtis von Kann](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Curtis_von_Kann&action=edit&redlink=1 "Curtis von Kann (page does not exist)") [Segal conflict of interest investigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Segal "Eli Segal") [Carol Elder Bruce](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carol_Elder_Bruce&action=edit&redlink=1 "Carol Elder Bruce (page does not exist)") [Wampumgate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wampumgate "Wampumgate") [Ralph Lancaster](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Lancaster_\(lawyer\)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Ralph Lancaster (lawyer) (page does not exist)") [Herman corruption allegations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Herman "Alexis Herman") [John Danforth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Danforth "John Danforth") [Waco siege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waco_siege "Waco siege") [Patrick Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Fitzgerald "Patrick Fitzgerald") [Plame affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plame_affair "Plame affair") [Robert Mueller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mueller "Robert Mueller") [2016 election interference allegations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mueller_special_counsel_investigation "Mueller special counsel investigation") [topics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topics_of_the_Mueller_special_counsel_investigation "Topics of the Mueller special counsel investigation") *[Mueller Report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mueller_Report "Mueller Report")* [John Durham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Durham "John Durham") [Crossfire Hurricane FBI origins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham_special_counsel_investigation "Durham special counsel investigation") [Jack Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Smith_\(lawyer\) "Jack Smith (lawyer)") [2020 election obstruction efforts and Trump classified materials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_special_counsel_investigation "Smith special counsel investigation") [Robert Hur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hur "Robert Hur") [Biden classified materials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Biden_classified_documents_incident "Joe Biden classified documents incident") [David C. Weiss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_C._Weiss "David C. Weiss") [Hunter Biden investigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weiss_special_counsel_investigation "Weiss special counsel investigation") |
| [Authority control databases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control "Help:Authority control") [](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42761#identifiers "Edit this at Wikidata") | |
|---|---|
| International | [GND](https://d-nb.info/gnd/4189311-6) [FAST](https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1172679) |
| National | [United States](https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85145735) [France](https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11948745h) [BnF data](https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11948745h) [Japan](https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00574170) [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph187632&CON_LNG=ENG) [Spain](https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX530780) [Israel](https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007553509405171) |
| Other | [IdRef](https://www.idref.fr/027448428) [NARA](https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10642088) [Yale LUX](https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/activity/1b32bc50-d413-41d7-931e-36bde881d205) |
Retrieved from "<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&oldid=1345902091>"
[Categories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category "Help:Category"):
- [Watergate scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Watergate_scandal "Category:Watergate scandal")
- [1972 scandals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:1972_scandals "Category:1972 scandals")
- [1973 scandals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:1973_scandals "Category:1973 scandals")
- [1974 scandals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:1974_scandals "Category:1974 scandals")
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Watergate scandal
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A view of the [Watergate complex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_complex "Watergate complex") in Washington, D.C., with the [Howard Johnson's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Johnson%27s "Howard Johnson's") motel to the left, with legal notation from the trial of the [White House Plumbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Plumbers "White House Plumbers")
The **Watergate scandal**, or simply **Watergate**, was a [political scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_scandal "Political scandal") in the United States involving the [administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon "Presidency of Richard Nixon") of President [Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon "Richard Nixon"). On June 17, 1972, operatives associated with Nixon's [1972 re-election campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1972_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign") were caught burglarizing and planting listening devices in the [Democratic National Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee "Democratic National Committee") headquarters at Washington, D.C.'s [Watergate complex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_complex "Watergate complex"). Nixon's efforts to conceal his administration's involvement led to an [impeachment process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachment_process_against_Richard_Nixon "Impeachment process against Richard Nixon") and [his resignation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_resignation_speech "Richard Nixon's resignation speech") in August 1974\.
Emerging from the [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House "White House")'s efforts to stop [leaks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_leak "News leak"), the break-in was an implementation of [Operation Gemstone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Gemstone "Operation Gemstone"), enacted by mostly Cuban burglars led by former intelligence agents [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt") and [G. Gordon Liddy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Gordon_Liddy "G. Gordon Liddy"). After the arrests, investigators and reporters like *[The Washington Post](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")*'s [Bob Woodward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Woodward "Bob Woodward") and [Carl Bernstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Bernstein "Carl Bernstein")âguided by the source "[Deep Throat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Throat_\(Watergate\) "Deep Throat (Watergate)")"âexposed a White House political espionage program illegally funded by donor contributions. Nixon denied involvement but his administration destroyed evidence, obstructed investigators, and bribed the burglars. This cover-up initially worked, helping Nixon win a [landslide re-election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election "1972 United States presidential election"), until revelations from the burglars' 1973 trial led to a [Senate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") investigation.
Mounting pressure led Attorney General [Elliot Richardson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Richardson "Elliot Richardson") to appoint [Archibald Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Cox "Archibald Cox") as Watergate [special prosecutor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_prosecutor "Special prosecutor"). Cox [subpoenaed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoenaed "Subpoenaed") Nixon's [Oval Office tapes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes "Nixon White House tapes")âsuspected to include Watergate conversationsâbut Nixon invoked [executive privilege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_privilege "Executive privilege") to block their release, triggering a [constitutional crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_crisis "Constitutional crisis"). In the "[Saturday Night Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Massacre "Saturday Night Massacre")", Nixon fired Cox, forcing the resignations of the attorney general and his deputy and fueling suspicions of Nixon's involvement. Nixon released select tapes, although one was [partially erased](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18_minute_gap "18 minute gap") and two others disappeared. In April 1974, Cox's replacement [Leon Jaworski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Jaworski "Leon Jaworski") reissued the subpoena, but Nixon provided only redacted transcripts. In July, the [Supreme Court ordered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon "United States v. Nixon") the tapes' release, and the House Judiciary Committee recommended impeachment for obstructing justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress. The White House released the "Smoking Gun" tape, showing that Nixon ordered the CIA to stop the FBI's investigation. Facing impeachment, on August 9, 1974, Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign. In total, 69 people were charged for Watergateâincluding two [cabinet members](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States "Cabinet of the United States")âand most pleaded guilty or were convicted. [Nixon was pardoned](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon_of_Richard_Nixon "Pardon of Richard Nixon") by his successor, [Gerald Ford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford "Gerald Ford").
Watergate, often considered the greatest presidential scandal, tarnished Nixon's legacy and had electoral ramifications for the [Republican Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_\(United_States\) "Republican Party (United States)"): heavy losses in the [1974 midterm elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_United_States_elections "1974 United States elections") and [Ford's failed 1976 reelection bid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election"). Despite significant coverage, no consensus exists on the motive for the break-in or who specifically ordered it. Theories range from an incompetent break-in by rogue campaign officials to a [sexpionage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexpionage "Sexpionage") operation or CIA plot. The scandal generated over 30 memoirs and left such an impression that it is common for scandals, even outside politics or the United States, to be named with the suffix *[\-gate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-gate "-gate")*.
### Leaks and early wiretapping
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Leaks and early wiretapping")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NIXONcampaigns.jpg)
Nixon giving his staple [V sign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_sign "V sign") in Pennsylvania during his [1968 campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1968_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign")[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson2019-1)
[Richard Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon "Richard Nixon") was elected the 37th [president of the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") in 1968.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_National_Archives-2)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202240-3) He inherited [American involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_in_the_Vietnam_War "United States in the Vietnam War") in the [Vietnam War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), which he promised to [end honorably](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_with_Honor "Peace with Honor").[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerman20011%E2%80%9310-4) Seeking to force a diplomatic resolution, he secretly [expanded bombing to Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Menu "Operation Menu").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202213-5) When *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* exposed the bombing in May 1969, Nixon ordered the [wiretapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_listening_device "Covert listening device") of reporters and suspected [leakers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_leak "News leak").[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202213%E2%80%9315-6)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992119-7) After the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") (FBI) could not bug some targets, Nixon's domestic policy chief [John Ehrlichman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ehrlichman "John Ehrlichman") directly arranged the wiretapping.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff20226,_13%E2%80%9315,_44-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992119%E2%80%93120-9) Nixon's discontent with the FBI also led him to hire [New York Police Department](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Police_Department "New York Police Department") detectives [Jack Caulfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Caulfield "Jack Caulfield") and [Anthony Ulasewicz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Ulasewicz "Anthony Ulasewicz") as private investigators.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202245,_54%E2%80%9355-10)
In June 1971, *The New York Times* started publishing the *[Pentagon Papers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon_Papers "Pentagon Papers")*: a leaked 7,000-page study of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned in 1967.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxvii,_xxxii-11)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992108%E2%80%93109-12) Leaked by analyst [Daniel Ellsberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Ellsberg "Daniel Ellsberg"),[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202219-13) the papers exposed government deception about the war's progress.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202217-14) Nixon was initially unworried, as the *Pentagon Papers* predated his presidency,[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202217%E2%80%9318-15) but [National Security Advisor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Advisor "National Security Advisor") [Henry Kissinger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Kissinger "Henry Kissinger")âfurious as Ellsberg was his menteeâpushed Nixon into what [White House chief of staff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff "White House Chief of Staff") [H. R. Haldeman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._R._Haldeman "H. R. Haldeman") called a "frenzy".[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff20226,_19-16)[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199919,_68%E2%80%9369-17) Attorney General [John Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Mitchell "John N. Mitchell") filed a restraining order against the *Times*, halting the papers' publication.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202220%E2%80%9321-18)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199971-19) *[The Washington Post](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* began to [publish the papers instead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon_Papers#The_Nixon_administration's_restraint_of_the_media "Pentagon Papers"), and the *Times* case traveled to the [Supreme Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Supreme_Court "US Supreme Court"), which [ruled against Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States "New York Times Co. v. United States").[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202221%E2%80%9322-20)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992110-21) The episode was, according to journalist [Garrett Graff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_Graff "Garrett Graff"), a "self-inflicted ... disaster".[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202222-22)
### The White House Plumbers
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: The White House Plumbers")\]
> "We've got a damn counter-government here and we've got to fight it. I don't give a damn how it is done, do whatever has to be done to stop these leaks. I don't want to be told why it can't be done. This government cannot survive, it cannot function if anyone can run out and leak."
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:G._Gordon_Liddy_c_1964.jpg)
Retired CIA officer [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt") and former FBI agent [G. Gordon Liddy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Gordon_Liddy "G. Gordon Liddy") (pictured 1964) were the [handlers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_handling "Agent handling") of the five Watergate burglars.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoig-Franzia2022-24)
After the Supreme Court's ruling, Nixon told aide [Chuck Colson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Colson "Chuck Colson") to stop all leaks by any means.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202222%E2%80%9323-23) Nixon fixated on files at the [Brookings Institution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution "Brookings Institution") on the [Chennault Affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Chennault#Vietnam_and_the_"Chennault_Affair" "Anna Chennault"), which implicated him in the sabotage of 1968 Vietnam peace talks,[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202227%E2%80%9337-25)[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-28) and urged aides to "get in and get those filesâblow the safe and get it".[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202237-29) Nixon advisors had previously drafted the [Huston Plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huston_Plan "Huston Plan"), which proposed expanded domestic surveillance and tactics like "surreptitious entry" (burglary).[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202247%E2%80%9351-30)[\[b\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-34)
For the Brookings burglary, Colson recruited retired[\[c\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-36) [Central Intelligence Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency") (CIA) agent [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt"),[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202264%E2%80%9366-37) who had helped arrange the [1954 Guatemalan coup d'ĂŠtat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1954 Guatemalan coup d'ĂŠtat") and the failed 1961 [Bay of Pigs Invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion "Bay of Pigs Invasion") of Cuba.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202267-38)[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner2007-39) The plot escalated into a planned [firebombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firebombing "Firebombing") with burglars posing as firefighters: [White House Counsel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Counsel "White House Counsel") [John Dean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dean "John Dean") halted the operation.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202270-40) Their focus shifted to leaker Ellsberg: Hunt was teamed with aides [Egil Krogh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egil_Krogh "Egil Krogh") and [David Young](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Young_\(Watergate\) "David Young (Watergate)") in the new "Special Investigations Unit".[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202279%E2%80%9380-41) Former FBI agent [G. Gordon Liddy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Gordon_Liddy "G. Gordon Liddy") also joined the group, which he dubbed "[ODESSA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ODESSA "ODESSA")" after a rumored [Nazi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi "Nazi") *[Schutzstaffel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schutzstaffel "Schutzstaffel")* group.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202280%E2%80%9382-42)[\[d\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-44) Young's grandmother, misunderstanding leaks, suggested another name: the "[Plumbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Plumbers "White House Plumbers")".[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202282-45)[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992113-46)
Seeking compromising material, the Plumbers targeted Ellsberg's psychiatrist, Lewis Fielding.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202283%E2%80%9384,_90-47)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992114-48) Krogh approved a burglary of his Los Angeles office: "Hunt/Liddy Project \#1".[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202290%E2%80%9392-49) Hunt enlisted Cuban collaborators from the Bay of Pigs: CIA veteran [Bernard Barker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Barker "Bernard Barker")âwho had served under Cuban dictator [Fulgencio Batista](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista "Fulgencio Batista")âand anti-[Castro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Castro "Fidel Castro") exiles [Eugenio MartĂnez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio_Mart%C3%ADnez "Eugenio MartĂnez") and Felipe De Diego.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202291%E2%80%9393-50)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199994%E2%80%9397-51)[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs202144-52) The September 3 burglary reportedly failed, the Cubans finding no Ellsberg files and staging an addict's rampage after accidentally damaging the safe.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202293-53)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999100%E2%80%93101-54) De Diego said that they found and photographed Ellsberg's records, and Fielding reported that Ellsberg's health files were in his office and appeared to have been "fingered". Liddy later suspected that Hunt had deceived him, photographing the files and sending them instead to the CIA.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202294-55)[\[e\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-56) Hunt and Liddy then planned to burglarize Fielding's home but were stopped by Ehrlichman.[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022101-57)
The Plumbers next plotted to discredit Ellsberg by drugging him with [LSD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSD "LSD") at a Washington gala, but White House approval came too late.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202295-58) They revived the Brookings firebombing scheme, proposing to buy a fire engine for firefighterâdisguised Cubans, which the White House ultimately deemed too costly.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202294-55)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199579-59) Other projects included investigating [Ted Kennedy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Kennedy "Ted Kennedy")'s [Chappaquiddick accident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chappaquiddick_incident "Chappaquiddick incident"), assessing whether [Hoover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover "J. Edgar Hoover") should be made to leave the FBI, and forging a cable to link John F. Kennedy to the [1963 assassination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrest_and_assassination_of_Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Di%E1%BB%87m "Arrest and assassination of NgĂ´ ÄĂŹnh Diáťm") of South Vietnamese president [NgĂ´ ÄĂŹnh Diáťm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Di%E1%BB%87m "NgĂ´ ÄĂŹnh Diáťm").[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202282%E2%80%9383,_96-60)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199579%E2%80%9380-61)[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199981%E2%80%9383-62) The Plumbers also helped discover that the [Pentagon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pentagon "The Pentagon") was [surveilling the White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorer-Radford_Affair "Moorer-Radford Affair") via a leaker on the [National Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council "United States National Security Council"), outraging an increasingly paranoid Nixon.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022101%E2%80%93104-63)[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999104%E2%80%93106-64) Collectively, the Plumbers' schemes are often called the "White House horrors", a phrase coined by Attorney General Mitchell.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999237-65)[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992200-66)
### Committee for the Re-Election of the President
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Committee for the Re-Election of the President")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Interview_with_Atty._Gen._John_Mitchell_01_copy.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_McCord_Jr.jpg)
Attorney General [John Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Mitchell "John N. Mitchell") (left) resigned to lead the [CRP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_the_Re-Election_of_the_President "Committee for the Re-Election of the President"), which also hired former CIA officer [James McCord](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._McCord_Jr. "James W. McCord Jr.") (right) as its head of security.
As Nixon prepared for his [1972 re-election campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1972_presidential_campaign "Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign"), Caulfield proposed [Operation Sandwedge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Sandwedge "Operation Sandwedge"): a private-sector intelligence operation against the Democrats.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202299%E2%80%93100-67)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999107%E2%80%93108-68) White House officials deemed the plan too moderate and doubted Caulfield's competence: Liddy was selected to head the project before it was scrapped.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022100%E2%80%93101-69)[\[f\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-71) In December 1971, Liddy instead became [general counsel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_counsel "General counsel") for the [Committee for the Re-Election of the President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_the_Re-Election_of_the_President "Committee for the Re-Election of the President") (CRP)âthe fundraising arm of Nixon's re-election campaignâintroduced by deputy campaign manager [Jeb Stuart Magruder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeb_Stuart_Magruder "Jeb Stuart Magruder") as "our man in charge of dirty tricks".[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022105,_110-72)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2012-73) The CRP also recruited retired CIA officer [James McCord](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._McCord_Jr. "James W. McCord Jr.") as its security chief.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022105-74)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999170-75)
With Hunt, Liddy devised [Operation Gemstone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Gemstone "Operation Gemstone"), a set of covert campaign schemes pitched to Attorney General Mitchell on January 27.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022109,_118%E2%80%93119-76) These included Operation Diamond: kidnapping, drugging, and detaining in Mexico likely protesters during the [1972 Republican National Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Republican_National_Convention "1972 Republican National Convention"). The plan, nicknamed *[Nacht und Nebel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacht_und_Nebel "Nacht und Nebel")* after an [Adolf Hitler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") directive, would be enacted by an "*[Einsatzgruppe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsatzgruppen "Einsatzgruppen")*" of [mobsters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mafia "American Mafia") that Hunt said had committed 22 murders.[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199589%E2%80%9390-77)[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022119-78) Other plots included Operation Emerald, a [spy airliner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft "Reconnaissance aircraft") to trail the Democratic [nominee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_nominee "Presidential nominee"); Operation Turquoise, Cuban commandos sabotaging air-conditioning at the Democrats' [1972 Miami convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Democratic_National_Convention "1972 Democratic National Convention"); and Operation Sapphire, a boat with [sex workers to entrap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_trapping "Honey trapping") Democrats at the convention.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022119-78)[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199590%E2%80%9391-79) Mitchell rejected the plots as unrealistic and expensive, requesting a simpler Gemstone.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022120%E2%80%93121-80)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999172%E2%80%93173-81)
In February, Mitchell resigned to become CRP director.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022128-82) Although disputed by Graff and biographer [James Rosen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Rosen_\(journalist\) "James Rosen (journalist)"), Mitchell is generally believed to have approved Liddy's next version of Gemstone, which proposed burglarizing and bugging the office of [Larry O'Brien](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_O%27Brien "Larry O'Brien") at the [Democratic National Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee "Democratic National Committee")'s (DNC) headquarters within D.C.'s [Watergate Complex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Complex "Watergate Complex"), the [Fontainebleau Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fontainebleau_Hotel "Fontainebleau Hotel") suites of top Democrats during their Miami convention, and the campaign headquarters of the eventual nominee.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999173%E2%80%93174-83)[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobenalt2022a-84) As another break-in target, Mitchell or Magruder suggested *[Las Vegas Sun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas_Sun "Las Vegas Sun")* publisher [Hank Greenspun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Greenspun "Hank Greenspun")'s office.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999174%E2%80%93176-85)[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199597-86) The desired material may have involved possible Democratic nominee [Edmund Muskie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Muskie "Edmund Muskie") or the financial dealings of reclusive billionaire [Howard Hughes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Hughes "Howard Hughes") with Nixon or his brother [Donald Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Nixon "Donald Nixon").[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199597-86)[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999177-87)[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeung2005-88) Althoughâaccording to Hunt and Liddyâthe burglary was abandoned after Hughes would not provide a getaway plane, Greenspun's office showed evidence of forced entry, and Ehrlichman told Nixon in 1973 that Hunt and Liddy "flew out \[to Las Vegas\], broke his safe, got something out" \[*[sic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic "Sic")*\].[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199597-86)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999176%E2%80%93177-89)
### Oval Office taping system
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Oval Office taping system")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tape_recorder_from_President_Nixon%27s_Oval_Office.jpg)
A Sony tape-recorder used by Nixon to record all conversations in the Oval Office
After his election, Nixon made the [Army Signal Corps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Signal_Corps "United States Army Signal Corps") remove a taping system used by predecessor [Lyndon B. Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson") in the [Oval Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oval_Office "Oval Office").[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202259-90) By 1971, Nixon worried that his presidency would not be sufficiently preserved for posterity and had the [Secret Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service "United States Secret Service") install microphones in his desk and throughout the room. The system was deliberately kept secret from those close to Nixon, including his secretary, [Rose Mary Woods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Mary_Woods "Rose Mary Woods").[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202259%E2%80%9360-91) From February 16, 1971 to July 12, 1973, the system recorded 3,432 hours of conversation.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202260-92) According to Graff, the tapes were ultimately "the root cause of \[Nixon's\] downfall".[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202260-92) No president since Nixon is known to have taped White House conversations, although President [Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") suggested that he did.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESelverstone2017-93)
## Watergate break-ins
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Watergate break-ins")\]
### Assembling the crew
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Assembling the crew")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eugenio_Martinez.jpg)
[Eugenio MartĂnez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio_Mart%C3%ADnez "Eugenio MartĂnez"), one of the Cuban burglars
Following the May 1972 death of FBI director Hoover, Colson asked the CRP to send counterprotestors to a protest at Hoover's [state funeral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_funerals_in_the_United_States "State funerals in the United States") in the [Capitol rotunda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol_rotunda "United States Capitol rotunda").[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999194-94)[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022156-95) Hunt and Liddy again recruited Bay of Pigs collaborators: Barker flew to D.C. with nine men from Miami.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999194%E2%80%93195-96) After the counterprotest, according to Lukas, Barker's team may have committed two unsolved burglaries in Washington, those of the Chilean Embassy and of a major Democratic law firm within the Watergate Complex on May 16.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999196-97) The counterprotest may also have been a ruse to bring the Cubans to D.C. to burglarize Hoover's home in search of alleged *[kompromat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompromat "Kompromat")* used to [blackmail politicians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover#Sexuality_and_gender_identity "J. Edgar Hoover").[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022156-95)
After meeting with Hunt in Miami, Barker selected the men for the DNC break-in planned for [Memorial Day](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Day "Memorial Day") weekend: MartĂnez, as photographer; [Virgilio Gonzalez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgilio_Gonzalez "Virgilio Gonzalez"), as lockpicker; and De Diego, Reinaldo Pico, and [Frank Sturgis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sturgis "Frank Sturgis") as guards.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999196%E2%80%93197-98) Sturgis was the only non-Cuban member, but he had fought alongside Castro during the [Cuban Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Revolution "Cuban Revolution").[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999197-99)[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995119-100)[\[g\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-102) Pico and De Diego were dropped because McCord forgot two walkie-talkies.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999197-99) After a planning session with McCord and Hunt at the [Hamilton Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_Hotel_\(Washington,_D.C.\) "Hamilton Hotel (Washington, D.C.)") near the White House, Barker's team checked into the [Watergate Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Hotel "Watergate Hotel") on May 26.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999197-99) McCord recruited former FBI agent [Alfred Baldwin III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_C._Baldwin_III "Alfred C. Baldwin III") to perform the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward; he was booked at the [Howard Johnson's motel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Johnson%27s "Howard Johnson's") opposite the Watergate.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999193,_197%E2%80%93198-103)
### Initial attempts and May 28 break-in
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Initial attempts and May 28 break-in")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Watergate_Complex,_Office_Buildings_\(1982\).jpg)
The Watergate Complex and its parking garage entrance (pictured 1982), through which the Plumbers first broke into the [Democratic National Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee "Democratic National Committee") office on May 28, 1972
The Plumbers attempted a break-in on the night of May 26, when Hunt and seven others posed as executives in a banquet room located beneath the Watergate office building and connected to the office's stairwell. This effort failed when Hunt and MartĂnez, after hiding in a closet to evade a night guard, were unable to pick the lock and were stuck in the banquet room overnight.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999197%E2%80%93198-104)[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022162%E2%80%93163-105)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995119%E2%80%93120-106) A concurrent, spontaneous plot led by Liddy with the Cubansâthe bugging of [George McGovern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McGovern "George McGovern")'s D.C. [campaign headquarters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McGovern_1972_presidential_campaign "George McGovern 1972 presidential campaign")âfailed on two nights when a lone volunteer was seen working late.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999198%E2%80%93199-107) On May 27, a second DNC break-in failed after Gonzalez lacked proper tools for the DNC office's door; he flew back to Miami to retrieve them.[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999199-108)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022163-109)
On May 28, Gonzalez and Sturgis entered the office on their third attempt, approaching via the garage.[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999199-108)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022163-109) They were joined by Barker, who sought files on Cuban contributions and had MartĂnez photograph convention security files, and McCord, who bugged the phones of both staffer [R. Spencer Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Spencer_Oliver "R. Spencer Oliver") and O'Brien's secretary.[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999199%E2%80%93200-110)[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995121%E2%80%93122-111) After the team left the office, McCord was unable to pick up one of the wiretap transmittersâthat of O'Brien's secretaryâwith his remote receiver.[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999200-112) In the following weeks, Baldwin recorded hundreds of calls on Oliver's wiretap, including many sexual conversations from secretaries using his phone.[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999200%E2%80%93201-113)[\[h\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-115) Liddy delivered the phone transcripts and developed photos[\[i\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-117) to Magruder and a disappointed Mitchell, who dismissed them as "shitty".[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999201%E2%80%93202-118)
On June 12, Magruder asked Liddy to photograph all documents in the office.[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022164-119) Later that day, Baldwin, directed by Liddy, visited the Watergate DNC office under the guise of a nephew of former DNC chairman [John Bailey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Moran_Bailey "John Moran Bailey") and was given a tour of the floor.[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999202-120) Two days later, Liddy told Hunt that the DNC break-in would be reattempted. On June 16, Barker's team returned to D.C. and checked into the Watergate.[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999203-121)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Government_Exhibit_133,_Chapstick_Tubes_with_Hidden_Microphones_-_NARA_-_304967.jpg)
Chapstick radio microphones discovered in [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt")'s White House safe after the burglary
For the May 28 break-in, Sturgis and Gonzalez had used tape to cover [latches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latch "Latch") and prevent doors locking. On the night of June 17, McCord volunteered to tape the doors but did so horizontally such that excess tape was visible on the sides.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999204-122) He then returned to Baldwin's listening post at the Howard Johnson's,[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999204-122) where Hunt called him to ask if the DNC office was empty. McCord reported a lone staffer: [Bruce Givner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Givner "Bruce Givner"), an intern calling friends.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999205-123) At around 12:45, Givner left the office, and security guard [Frank Wills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Wills_\(security_guard\) "Frank Wills (security guard)") began his shift.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999205-123) At 1 a.m., Wills removed the garage door tape, assuming a worker left it.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999205-123) Stumbling upon Givner, Wills left to eat with him at the Howard Johnson's.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999205-123)
Accounts differ on which burglar decided to proceed with the operation after the tape removal was found.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206-124) Regardless, McCord rejoined the burglars, and Gonzalez repicked and retaped the door.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206-124) Reaching the DNC office, the burglars abandoned picking the lock and removed the door from the hinges instead.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206-124) At around 1:50 a.m., Wills returned and discovered the new tape and called the police. An unmarked [Metropolitan Police](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Police_Department_of_the_District_of_Columbia "Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia") cruiser, belonging to a special [undercover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_operation "Covert operation") vice squad disguised as [hippies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippies "Hippies"), arrived within three minutes.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206-124)[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168-125) Baldwin, acting as spotter, saw the car but ignored it.[\[j\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-127) He contacted Hunt, however, when the officers turned on the eighth floor lights.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999206%E2%80%93207-128) Hunt dismissed it as the night guard, and the team continued installing a new bug disguised as a smoke detector.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999207-129)
The three Metropolitan officers swept the ninth floor and, after finding a taped door on the sixth floor, began searching the DNC offices.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999207-129)[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168-125) Baldwin radioed Hunt that three armed men were approaching.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999207-129) McCord and the four others, hiding behind a partition, surrendered to the officers under false names.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999208,_212-130)[\[k\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-131) Hunt and Liddy escaped their hotel room in a Jeep, leaving behind traceable items in the team's two hotel suites, and told Baldwin to flee.[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999208%E2%80%93210-132)[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995136-133)[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022169-134) Hunt drove to the White House, where he dumped electronic equipment in a safe and took \$10,000: the three men then slept at their respective homes.[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022169%E2%80%93170-135)[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999210-136) The arrested burglars' listening devices led the Metropolitan police to involve the FBI under the presumption of a federal [intercepted communications violation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission "Federal Communications Commission");[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992187-137) by June 23, a federal [grand jury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_juries_in_the_United_States "Grand juries in the United States") of 23 D.C. residents began hearing testimony.[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995194-138)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Dean_photo_portrait_as_White_House_Counsel_black_and_white_sitting.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Howard_Hughes_TIME_Magazine_cover,_July_19,_1948.jpg)
Theories on motive range from files on an [escort ring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_agency "Escort agency") allegedly linked to the CIA or White House Counsel [John Dean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dean "John Dean")'s (left) partner to illicit [Howard Hughes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Hughes "Howard Hughes") contributions (seen right, on a 1948 *Time* cover).
The purpose of the Watergate break-in and who ultimately ordered the operation has never been established and has spawned [conspiracist literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_theory "Conspiracy theory") akin to [that](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories "John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories") on the [Kennedy assassination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy "Assassination of John F. Kennedy").[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022170,_177%E2%80%93178-139)[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995441-140) No one was ever charged for ordering the burglary, and the Plumbers' accounts conflict.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a-141) According to Graff, the burglars may have had "two or even three distinct and separate motives" and deceived even each other.[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xix,_170,_178-142)
The simplest theory is that Watergate was an incompetent break-in to bug O'Brien, emerging from White House paranoia, and that Hunt, Liddy, and McCord were overzealous and acted without proper oversight.[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171-143) Alternative theories often focus on the bugging of the relatively minor staffer Oliver, which investigators could not explain. Although Dean said that Oliver was accidentally bugged, the FBI found that Martinez carried a key matching the locked desk of Oliver's secretary.[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022173-144)
A common theory argues that the burglars sought "dirt" on the Democrats, specifically involving illegal Democratic finances or sexual scandals.[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171-143) Both Dean and Magruder said that the break-in sought to expose the Democrats for "cutting deals" with donors to fund their convention.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171%E2%80%93172-145) Hunt testified that he told the Cubans to photograph files on finances and contributions:[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022172-146) the Cubans believed they were looking for files linking the Democrats to funding from Castro.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a-141)
In 1980, Liddy conversely wrote that the break-in's purpose "was to find out what O'Brien had of a derogatory nature about us",[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022172-146)[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995125-147) often suggested to be files on illegal contributions to Nixon, possibly CIA-linked, from the [Greek junta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_junta "Greek junta") or Howard Hughes.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992204%E2%80%93208-148)[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022174%E2%80%93175-149)[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199530-150) A [sexual blackmail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexpionage "Sexpionage") theory, as advanced in *[Secret Agenda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Hougan "Jim Hougan")* (1984) and *[Silent Coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Coup "Silent Coup")* (1992), alleges a link either between Oliver and a high-end [escort service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_agency "Escort agency"), or that Dean feared Democrat-held files linking his partner to a D.C. escort ring run by lawyer Phillip Mackin Bailley, or both.[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022173%E2%80%93174-151)[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwan2012-152)[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoig-Franzia2001-153) Liddy and Ehrlichman endorsed this theory, and Colson called it "one of the most plausible explanations".[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022174-154)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociated_Press_2001-155)[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHettena2001-156) Dean rejected it as "baloney", and Oliver's secretary sued Liddy regarding the claims.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHettena2001-156) Wells subsequently lost the lawsuit; following a mistrial due to a hung jury in 2001 and a successful appeal, a 2004 retrial resulted in a unanimous jury verdict in Liddy's favor.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-157)[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-158)
### CIA involvement and other theories
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: CIA involvement and other theories")\]
> "Even if we should learn the Administration was victimized by a CIA plotâeven if we should learn the motive for the burglaryâthat would change nothing regarding our understanding of John Mitchell's 'White House horrors.' Nor would it mitigate the resulting inter-institutional conflicts and encounters, which raised profound constitutional and political questions, or the constitutional crisis generated by the Administration's behavior in the wake of the burglary. That behavior resulted in the special crimes of cover-up and obstruction by high Administration officialsâup to and including the President of the United States."
A prominent theory, supported by Colson and Haldeman, alleges that the CIA sabotaged the break-in or the cover-up to smear Nixonâwith whom it had a tense relationshipâor to conceal ties to the Bailley escort ring or [ally Howard Hughes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Hughes#Glomar_Explorer_and_the_taking_of_K-129 "Howard Hughes").[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176%E2%80%93177-160)[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_York_Times''_1976-161)[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992201%E2%80%93202,_204%E2%80%93205,_209,_492-162)[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1984-163) In January 1974, according to Colson, Nixon nearly removed CIA director [William Colby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Colby "William Colby") over such suspicions; that June, Senator [Howard Baker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Baker "Howard Baker") released an inconclusive report on CIA complicity.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995441-140) Beyond the burglars' past roles in CIA plots, both McCord and Hunt had been CIA agents, Hunt continued to work for a firm that was a CIA cover, and MartĂnez was on the CIA's payroll throughout Watergate. The CIA also had unexplained insight into the plot, helped Hunt develop the Fielding photographs, and did not cooperate with investigators.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176-35)[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992203-164)
A "sixth man" theory links McCord's periodic absences to the possible presence of Lou Russell, a CRP security guard allegedly linked to the escort ring and CIA.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022177-165) Another theory noted by [Stanley Kutler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Kutler "Stanley Kutler") suggests that Colson and Hunt were rogue operatives and proceeded with a version of Gemstone that also targeted election rival [George Wallace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wallace "George Wallace") and, after Wallace's [attempted assassination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wallace#Assassination_attempt "George Wallace"), sought to [plant leftist literature at the shooter's home](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Bremer#Break-in_plot "Arthur Bremer")âa story broken by [Seymour Hersh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Hersh "Seymour Hersh").[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992194,_200-166)[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolotsky1992-167)[\[l\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-172)
The final major theory, according to Graff, is that the Democrats or Metropolitan Police had foreknowledge of the burglary and "sprung a trap" or were somehow alerted by McCord or Hunt. Proponents note that the responding Metropolitan squad were coincidentally vice officers with experience dismantling D.C. sex work.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022177-165)
## Cover-up and investigations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: Cover-up and investigations")\]
### Reactions and destruction of evidence
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=14 "Edit section: Reactions and destruction of evidence")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Address_Book_of_Watergate_Burglar_Bernard_Barker,_Discovered_in_a_Room_at_the_Watergate_Hotel,_June_18,_1972_-_NARA_-_304966.tif)
Address book of [Bernard Barker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Barker "Bernard Barker"), discovered in a room at the Watergate Hotel, June 18, 1972
On the morning of June 18, Liddy visited the CRP, destroyed Gemstone files, and reported the arrests to Magruder.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022179%E2%80%93180-173)[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200344-174) Nixon was informed shortly thereafter.[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022181-175) Later that day, federal prosecutors [Earl Silbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_J._Silbert "Earl J. Silbert") and [Chuck Work](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chuck_Work&action=edit&redlink=1 "Chuck Work (page does not exist)") searched the burglars' hotel rooms: they found spying gear, \$100 bills, papers mentioning Hunt, Barker's address books (listing "WH"), and MartĂnez's telephone directory (listing "W. House").[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999213-176)[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022183%E2%80%93184-177) Investigators learned that the burglars had given pseudonyms, that McCord worked for the CRP, and that the White House had conducted a background check on Hunt.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022184-178) The burglars did not cooperate with the FBI or in court.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022184%E2%80%93185,_187-179)[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992188-180) Visited by FBI agents, Hunt admitted that a check found at Watergate was his but refused further comment.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999217-181)
On June 19, CIA agent Lee Pennington Jr. destroyed incriminating material at McCord's home.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999211-182) The CRP conducted a "massive housecleaning": Magruder burned Gemstone files at his home, and Colson destroyed pages in the White House phone directory listing Hunt.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999223,_226-183) Nixon made his first public statement on Watergate on June 22, denying White House involvement.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022206-184)
Following Ehrlichman's orders, Dean had Hunt's White House safe drilled open;[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999222%E2%80%93223-185) Ehrlichman told Dean to "[deep six](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deep_six "wikt:deep six")" incriminating files in the [Potomac River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potomac_River "Potomac River").[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999227-186) As a Secret Service agent and two aides had seen the files' removal, Dean feared perjuring himself in future testimony. On June 27, he instead gave nonsensitive files to the FBI and sensitive filesâon the Fielding burglary and other Plumber activitiesâdirectly to acting FBI director [L. Patrick Gray](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Patrick_Gray "L. Patrick Gray").[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999227%E2%80%93228-187) Dean personally destroyed two Hunt notebooks and an address book, and Gray burned the surrendered files around Christmas 1972.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999228-188)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022291%E2%80%93292-189)
### Early press investigations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=15 "Edit section: Early press investigations")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LBJ_Foundation_and_More_Perfect_conference_called_Trust_News_Democracy,_at_the_LBJ_Presidential_Library_in_Austin,_Texas_on_9_April_2024_-_13.jpg)
*Washington Post* reporters [Bob Woodward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Woodward "Bob Woodward") and [Carl Bernstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Bernstein "Carl Bernstein"), 2024
Shortly after the break-in, DNC counsel [Joseph Califano Jr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Califano_Jr. "Joseph A. Califano Jr.") notified *The Washington Post*: editor [Barry Sussman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Sussman "Barry Sussman") assigned veteran journalist [Alfred Lewis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_E._Lewis "Alfred E. Lewis") and the novices [Bob Woodward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Woodward "Bob Woodward") and [Carl Bernstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Bernstein "Carl Bernstein") to the story.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022185%E2%80%93186-190) The team found that four of the burglars were Cuban exiles;[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022186-191) Woodward attended the burglars' preliminary hearing, where McCord admitted to being former CIA.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022187-192) *The Washington Post*'s next issue contained three stories on Watergate, but the scandal received negligible coverage from papers like *The New York Times*.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022187-192)
Based on the address book and letters found in the burglar's suite, Woodward and Bernstein contacted the White House [switchboard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchboard_operator "Switchboard operator") and asked for Hunt. They were connected to "Mr. Colson's office" and then referred to Hunt's office at the Mullen Company PR Firm. They were able to reach Hunt, who hung up.[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022191-193)
Contacting acquaintances, they learned that Hunt was "with the CIA" and that McCord had created a presidential list of "domestic radicals" and a censorship plan in case of a national emergency.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022192-194) Based on Sussman's research on Colson, the trio published a headline implicating the White House: "White House Consultant Linked to Bugging Suspects".[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022193-195) Press attention on the "Watergate caper" grew from other outlets.[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022197%E2%80%93198-196) *The New York Times*' Latin-American specialist [Tad Szulc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tad_Szulc "Tad Szulc") connected the Cuban burglars to past CIA plots and Hunt to the Bay of Pigs.[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022197%E2%80%93198-196)[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999272-197)
### Kidnapping of Martha Mitchell
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=16 "Edit section: Kidnapping of Martha Mitchell")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Martha_Mitchell_1969_-_NARA_-_194649_\(cropped\).jpg)
After the burglary, [Martha Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Mitchell "Martha Mitchell") was kidnapped and sedated.
[Martha Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Mitchell "Martha Mitchell"), the wife of CRP head John Mitchell, was a vocal Nixon supporter and, according to Graff, "perhaps the first national [conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States "Conservatism in the United States") celebrity pundit".[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022114-198) After the arrests, John Mitchell distanced the CRP from McCordâwho had previously been assigned to guard Marthaâclaiming he was just an outside security contractor.[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022188%E2%80%93189-199)[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142-200) Through aides, he unsuccessfully tried to prevent Martha from seeing news about McCord.[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999218%E2%80%93219-201) Furious at the deception, Martha had a [nervous episode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_breakdown "Nervous breakdown").[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142-200)[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022215-202) If her husband would not leave politics, she threatened to permanently leave D.C. and contact [UPI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International "United Press International") reporter [Helen Thomas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Thomas "Helen Thomas").[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022215-202) In a locked bedroom of a [Newport Beach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newport_Beach,_California "Newport Beach, California") villa, Martha's call to Thomas was interrupted when bodyguard [Steve King](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_B._King "Stephen B. King") broke down the door, destroyed the phone, and restrained her.[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142-200)[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999218%E2%80%93219-201)[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022216-203)
A thwarted morning escape attempt from King resulted in Martha slicing her hand on a broken glass door. A doctor visited the house and forcibly sedated Martha, who was restrained and had her pants removed by FBI and Secret Service agents. Other escape attempts also failed.[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022216-203) Her concerned husband had her flown to the [Westchester Country Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westchester_Country_Club "Westchester Country Club") in New York, where she called Thomas, stating that "I'm black and blue. I'm a political prisoner".[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021143-204)[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217-205) She was then interviewed by the *[New York Daily News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Daily_News "New York Daily News")*.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217-205) John and his team denied Martha's account and blocked the FBI from interviewing her.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217-205)[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999220-206) On June 30, less than two weeks after the break-in, John Mitchell resigned to tend to his wife and because he had become a liability for Nixon.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021143-204)[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999237%E2%80%93238-207)
### "Smoking Gun" conversation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=17 "Edit section: \"Smoking Gun\" conversation")\]
Part of the "Smoking Gun" tape of Nixon and Haldeman discussing how to pressure the CIA into stopping the FBI investigation
The FBI traced \$4,500 from the burglars' suite to Barker's account, which had received \$89,000 in four Mexican checks and a \$25,000 check from the CRP's [Midwest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States") finance chairman [Kenneth Dahlberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_H._Dahlberg "Kenneth H. Dahlberg"), closing in on the "money trail" source: CRP contributions.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999229%E2%80%93230-208)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMemmott2011-209) The FBI's progressâincluding a hypothesis by the Washington field office head that Watergate was "in furtherance of the White House efforts to locate and identify 'leaks'"âalarmed the White House.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999230-210) As Gray was considering CIA involvement, Dean, Haldeman, and Mitchell plotted to have the CIA pressure the FBI to drop its probe under the pretense of national security.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999230%E2%80%93231-211)[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022209-212) On June 23, Nixon approved the plan and instructed Haldeman in a recorded conversation known as the ["Smoking Gun" tape](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes#"Smoking_Gun"_tape "Nixon White House tapes"):[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999230%E2%80%93231-211)[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2018-214)
> "... When you get in (inaudible) people, say 'Look, the problem is that this will open the whole, the whole Bay of Pigs thing, and the President just feels that ah, without going into the details â don't, don't lie to them to the extent to say no involvement, but just say this is a comedy of errors, without getting into it, the President believes that it is going to open the whole Bay of Pigs thing up again. And, ah, because these people are plugging for (inaudible) and that they should call the FBI in and (inaudible) don't go any further into this case period!'"[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999231-215)
Haldeman and Ehrlichman relayed this message to CIA director [Richard Helms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Helms "Richard Helms") and deputy director [Vernon Walters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon_A._Walters "Vernon A. Walters") in a White House meeting: Helms agreed to pressure the FBI to end their investigation by claiming that it might reveal CIA [money laundering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_laundering "Money laundering").[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999231%E2%80%93233-216)[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992219%E2%80%93220-217) Although he threatened to resign, Walters reluctantly repeated this message to Gray; he refused to halt the investigation unless the CIA put the request in writing, which it rebuffed.[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999233%E2%80%93234-218)
The meaning of "the whole Bay of Pigs thing" has drawn much attention.[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213)[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrewdson1976-219) Helms deemed it "incoherent";[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213) investigators for the [Senate Select Committee on Intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate_Select_Committee_on_Intelligence "United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence") suspected it referred to the [then-secret CIA assassination attempts on Cuban leader Castro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_assassination_attempts_on_Fidel_Castro "CIA assassination attempts on Fidel Castro") but did not raise the subject with Nixon during 1975 testimony.[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrewdson1976-219) Haldeman's memoir said it was Nixon's "way of reminding Helms, not so gently, of the cover-up of the CIA assassination attempts on the hero of the Bay of Pigs, Fidel Castro, a CIA operation that [may have triggered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory#E._Howard_Hunt "CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory") the Kennedy tragedy and which Helms desperately wanted to hide."[\[m\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-220) Journalist [Jefferson Morley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_Morley "Jefferson Morley") cites another tape in which Nixon mentions "[the 'Who shot John?' angle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy#Conspiracy_theories "Assassination of John F. Kennedy")" to support Haldeman's interpretation.[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FBI_photo_of_Mark_Felt.jpg)
FBI associate director [Mark Felt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Felt "Mark Felt"), revealed to be "[Deep Throat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Throat_\(Watergate\) "Deep Throat (Watergate)")" in 2005, was labeled by *The New York Times* as "the most famous anonymous source in American history".[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner2008-221)
In 1971, Hoover made [Mark Felt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Felt "Mark Felt") deputy associate director and his apparent successor.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202271%E2%80%9373-222)[\[n\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-223) Felt was spurned after Hoover's 1972 death when Nixon selected L. Patrick Gray as acting director (avoiding a pre-election [Senate confirmation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_of_the_Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation#Nominations "Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation")).[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022154%E2%80%93155-224) Gray named Felt as acting associate director. Hoping to become director, Felt sought to undermine Gray through leaks.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022158-225)
Woodward first met Felt in 1970, and he became a key anonymous source.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022192-194)[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005-226)[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobbs202166-227) No one else at the *Post* knew his identity; editor [Howard Simons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Simons "Howard Simons") dubbed him "Deep Throat", referencing both his [deep background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_\(journalism\)#Speaking_terms "Source (journalism)") status and the 1972 pornographic film *[Deep Throat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Throat_\(film\) "Deep Throat (film)")*.[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022268-228)[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolson2004-229) Woodward and Bernstein also relied on the anonymous "Z": a female grand juror.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022286%E2%80%93288-230)[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEByers2012-231)
Felt gave Woodward many early Watergate leads but soon avoided the telephone. According to Woodward, Felt created a covert protocol to schedule 2 a.m. rendezvous in an underground garage in [Rosslyn, Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosslyn,_Virginia "Rosslyn, Virginia"). The system involved Woodward placing a flag on his sixth floor apartment's balcony and Felt intercepting and notating Woodward's daily *The New York Times*.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005-226) Felt also leaked to *[The Washington Daily News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Daily_News "The Washington Daily News")* and *[Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_\(magazine\) "Time (magazine)")*'s Sandy Smith;[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022222,_245-232) other FBI agents, like the Washington field office head, were also likely leakers.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022265-233)
Woodward and Bernstein's role in Watergate is often exaggerated,[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2012-234)[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxi-235) and some, including *Post* managing editor [Ben Bradlee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Bradlee "Ben Bradlee") and biographer [Adrian Havill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Havill "Adrian Havill"), have criticized their account as overly cinematic and have identified inaccuracies.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005-226)[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022612%E2%80%93615-236)[\[o\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-238) [Edward Jay Epstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jay_Epstein "Edward Jay Epstein") wrote that their reporting was derivative or the mere presentation of leaks. Woodward has said that "the mythologizing of our role in Watergate has gone to the point of absurdity, where journalists write ... that I, single-handedly, brought down Richard Nixon. Totally absurd."[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2012-234)
### Obstruction and bribery
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=19 "Edit section: Obstruction and bribery")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robert_King_High.jpg)
Following the death of [E. Howard Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Howard_Hunt "E. Howard Hunt")'s wife Dorothy on [United Air Lines Flight 553](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Air_Lines_Flight_553 "United Air Lines Flight 553"), Bay of Pigs invasion leader [Manuel Artime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Artime "Manuel Artime") (seen far left with President Kennedy in 1962) dispersed the hush money.
By July, Baldwin was granted immunity by the FBI and provided their first major insight into Watergate.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeelye2022-126)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999236-239) The administration grew concerned over \$250,000 in CRP funds authorized for Liddy's operations, of which \$199,000 was used.[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999235%E2%80%93239-240) That month, Magruder pressed CRP treasurer [Hugh Sloan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_W._Sloan_Jr. "Hugh W. Sloan Jr.") to fabricate a narrative of CRP payments to Liddy, suggesting perjury.[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999235-241) Sloan, conflicted, confided to two lawyers, fled to California, and then returned to D.C. a week later to resign from the CRP.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999237-65) He confessed to the U.S. attorney's office and gave truthful grand jury testimony.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999237,_243-242)
Alarmed, Mitchell convened with Magruder, Dean, and Nixon advisor [Fred LaRue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_LaRue "Fred LaRue") to concoct a cover.[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999238%E2%80%93239-243) They decided to inflate funding for Liddy's less illicit activities, such as campus surveillance of radicals, and convinced aide [Herbert Porter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Porter "Herbert Porter") to perjure himself.[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999239%E2%80%93240-244)[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995211%E2%80%93212-245) Their motto became "[The buck stops with Liddy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_passing#"The_buck_stops_here" "Buck passing")", who was fired from the CRP to create distance.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999240%E2%80%93241-246) Other efforts including delaying FBI interviews on "national security" grounds, coaching witnesses,[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999241-247) and having Dean and assistant [Fred Fielding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_F._Fielding "Fred F. Fielding") sit in on FBI interviews of White House staff.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999241%E2%80%93242-248) They also disrupted the grand jury by making staffers testify privately at the DOJ, rather than before jurors that could assess their credibility.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999242-249) Throughout the grand jury investigation, prosecutors Silbert and especially [Henry Petersen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_E._Petersen "Henry E. Petersen") were overly deferent to Nixon.[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999246%E2%80%93249-250)
Before the burglary, an unknown official had assured Liddy that the Plumbers would be "taken care of" financially if caught.[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999249-251) Liddy reminded Mitchell of this, leading Dean to unsuccessfully ask CIA deputy director Walters to front [hush money](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hush_money "Hush money").[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999249%E2%80%93250-252)[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022224-253) Dean then convinced Nixon's former deputy campaign finance manager [Herbert Kalmbach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_W._Kalmbach "Herbert W. Kalmbach") to provide the bribes.[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999250%E2%80%93251-254)[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200355-255)[\[p\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-256) Ulasewicz delivered \$180,000 in cash to the Plumbers, dispersed by Hunt's wife and,[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022225%E2%80%93226-257)[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999251%E2%80%93252-258) after her death on [United Air Lines Flight 553](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Air_Lines_Flight_553 "United Air Lines Flight 553"),[\[q\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-260) by Bay of Pigs invasion leader [Manuel Artime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Artime "Manuel Artime").[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999278%E2%80%93279-261)[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolsky1977-262)[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobenalt2022b-263)[\[r\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-265)
### Patman probe and indictment of the Plumbers
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=20 "Edit section: Patman probe and indictment of the Plumbers")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Nation_needs_coolness_more_than_clarion_calls;_intelligence_more_than_charisma;_a_sense_of_history_more_than_a_sense_of_histrionics_LCCN2015649989.jpg)
The cover-up enabled Nixon to [win re-election in 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election "1972 United States presidential election") in the largest landslide in American history.
In August 1972, the [Government Accountability Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Government_Accountability_Office "United States Government Accountability Office") released an audit of Nixon's re-election campaign, referring \$350,000 in questionable transactions to the DOJ for prosecution.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022239%E2%80%93240-266) The DOJ did not pursue these, and Nixon declined to appoint a special prosecutor.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022239%E2%80%93240-266) [Wright Patman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Patman "Wright Patman"), the Democrat [House Banking Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Financial_Services "United States House Committee on Financial Services") chair, initiated his own probe. Like the FBI, his committee was stonewalled by the White House.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022240%E2%80%93244-267)
In September, O'Brien's legal teamâall of whom also worked for the *Post*âinterviewed Baldwin, yielding a front-page story for Woodward and Bernstein. Felt used the story to shift leaking suspicion to other FBI staffers,[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022246-268) and Silbert made the FBI search his office and the grand jury room for bugs: none were found.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247-269) Another wiretap of unclear origin was found in Oliver's DNC office.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247-269)[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995216-270) On September 13, the Patman probe released a confidential report on the Mexican transactions: the findings were leaked to the *Post*.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247-269) Fearing more revelations, Nixon used [House Republican leader](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives "Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives") [Gerald Ford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford "Gerald Ford") to stop the probe from gaining [subpoena power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena#United_States "Subpoena").[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022251%E2%80%93252,_262-271)
On September 15, Hunt, Liddy, and the five burglars were indicted on eight counts, none relating to the misuse of campaign funds.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022249-272)[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200367-273) The limited indictment, sparing Nixon officials, was a White House victory, and Eisenhower appointee [John Sirica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sirica "John Sirica") assigned himself as judge.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022249%E2%80%93250-274)[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200367%E2%80%9368-275) Baldwin then gave his complete account of Watergate to the *[Los Angeles Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*' [Jack Nelson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Nelson_\(journalist\) "Jack Nelson (journalist)") and [Ronald Ostrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Ostrow&action=edit&redlink=1 "Ronald Ostrow (page does not exist)").[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeelye2022-126)[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022258%E2%80%93260-276) Although Hunt's lawyers and Silbert convinced Sirica to issue a gag order and advise the *Times* against publication, the paper printed the storyâthe first directly linking the break-in to the White Houseâon October 5.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeelye2022-126)[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022260%E2%80%93261-277) The cover-up proved effective, and Democrats could not make Watergate a campaign issue.[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999256-278)[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022240-279) Although most Americans knew of the break-in, few associated it with Nixon,[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200365-280) and in November he won re-election in the largest landslide in American history, winning 49 of 50 states.[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999256-278)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2024-281)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:George_Washington_Parkway_04_2012_1403.JPG)
[Jack Caulfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Caulfield "Jack Caulfield") thrice met with [James McCord](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._McCord_Jr. "James W. McCord Jr.") alongside the [George Washington Parkway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Parkway "George Washington Memorial Parkway") to dissuade him from cooperating with prosecutors.
On January 6, 1973, Dean promised Liddy \$30,000 annually, legal fees, and a 1975 pardon if he stayed silent;[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022304-282) as early as January 8, Nixon discussed "Goddamn hush money" with Colson.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022304-282) Two days later, the trial began, the Silbert-led prosecution arguing that McCord and Liddy were rogue agents and that Hunt and the other burglars acted on Liddy's payments.[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200369-283)[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022299,_302,_309-284) Hunt and the Cubans unexpectedly pleaded guilty.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022302%E2%80%93303-285) Using Sturgis as a source, *The New York Times*' Seymour Hershâwho had exposed the [My Lai massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Lai_massacre "My Lai massacre")ârevealed that the burglars were receiving hush money and were pressured to plead guilty.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022302%E2%80%93303-285) Questioned by Sirica, the Cubans refused to say who sent the payments.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022303-286)
The White House learned that McCord, who had expressed concerns that he or the CIA might be scapegoated, was considering cooperating with prosecutors.[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022291,_305-287)[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson200368-288)[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999265-289) Through Ulasewicz, Dean promised McCord an eventual government job and his family's financial security. To calm McCord, Caulfield thrice met with him alongside the [George Washington Parkway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Parkway "George Washington Memorial Parkway"). McCord proposed that the trial could be dismissed if prosecutors introduced telephone conversations regarding Watergate that he had made to the [Israeli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_Israel,_Washington,_D.C. "Embassy of Israel, Washington, D.C.") and [Chilean embassies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_Chile,_Washington,_D.C. "Embassy of Chile, Washington, D.C.")âboth of which were illegally wiretapped.[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022305%E2%80%93306-290)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999267%E2%80%93268-291)[\[s\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-293) Dean rejected this approach.[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022306-292)
In the trial's only interruption, Oliver's lawyer [Charles Morgan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Morgan_Jr. "Charles Morgan Jr.") convinced Sirica and Silbert to suspend the trial to stop Baldwin from describing the conversations from Oliver's wiretap: an appeals court sealed the transcripts. As of 2022, these remain secret and are, according to Graff, "the last and potentially only chance to \[know\] whether... the burglary and wiretapping plot included a sexual motive."[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022307-294) In resumed testimony, administration officials denied involvement in the break-in.[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022308-295) Dissatisfied with Silbert's examination, Sirica made the unusual move to interrogate the officials privately.[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022308%E2%80%93309-296) On January 30, the jury found the last two defendantsâLiddy and McCordâguilty on all counts, and Sirica scheduled sentencing for March 23.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022309-297)[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999269-298)[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERugaber1972-299) After setting bail at \$100,000 each on February 2, he declared that he was "still not satisfied that all pertinent facts that might be available... have been produced before an American jury".[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999269-298)
### Ervin Committee and the "Dean Report"
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=22 "Edit section: Ervin Committee and the \"Dean Report\"")\]
In addition to the trial's perceived failure, a multi-month, secret inquiry by Senator Ted Kennedy raised Congress' suspicions about Watergate.[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022311-300)[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999277-301) On February 7, 1973, the Senate voted 77â0 to establish a [select committee to investigate Watergate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate_Watergate_Committee "United States Senate Watergate Committee"), naming Senator [Sam Ervin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Ervin "Sam Ervin") of [North Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina") as chairman.[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999277-301)[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022311%E2%80%93312-302) Ervin in turn selected [Samuel Dash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Dash "Samuel Dash") as chief counsel.[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022313-303) The Ervin Committee took over files created by both Ted Kennedy and the Patman probe.[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022356-304)
Due to his loyalty, Nixon nominated Gray as FBI director.[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022319%E2%80%93320-305) During his confirmation proceedings, Gray admitted that he had given the bureau's investigative Watergate reports to John Dean, alarming both his own agents and the senators.[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022320%E2%80%93321-306) In a bid to save his nomination, Gray offered the reports to Congress, which was vetoed by an infuriated Nixon.[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022321-307)[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992268-308) In late February, Nixon devised two ways to stop the committee: [executive privilege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_privilege "Executive privilege")âa then-vague doctrine that the [Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States "Constitution of the United States")'s [separation of powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution "Separation of powers under the United States Constitution") prevented presidential disclosure to Congressâand the release of an exonerative "Dean Report".[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022325%E2%80%93326-309)[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999287%E2%80%93290-310) The report was, according to Graff, "mythic" as Dean had never conducted a real investigation of Watergate and was himself involved.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022325,_327-311)
On March 21, Dean told Nixon that "I have the impression that you don't know everything I know" and gave a full account of Watergateâwhich he called "a cancer within"âparticularly blaming Liddy and Magruder.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022328%E2%80%93329-312)[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992265%E2%80%93266-313) Although Nixon seemed largely ignorant and asked over 150 questions, Dean was sometimes surprised by Nixon's knowledge of the plot, including the hush money and Fielding break-in.[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022331-314)[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1974-315) At another confirmation hearing the following day, Gray testified that Dean had lied about his ignorance of the opening of Hunt's safe, damaging Dean's credibility and leading Gray to withdraw his nomination.[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022333%E2%80%93334-316)
### McCord, Dean, and Magruder cooperate
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=23 "Edit section: McCord, Dean, and Magruder cooperate")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Jeb_Magruder_-_NARA_-_194667.tif)
By the end of April, both [Jeb Magruder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeb_Magruder "Jeb Magruder") (pictured) and [John Dean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dean "John Dean") were cooperating with prosecutors.
At the March 23 sentencing, Judge Sirica read a confession from McCord that the Plumbers were told to plead guilty; perjury occurred; others were involved; and the Cubans were misled to think that Watergate was a CIA operation.[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022337%E2%80%93338-317)[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995270-318) Sirica tabled McCord's sentencing and gave maximum sentences to Liddy, Hunt, and the Cubans.[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022338-319)[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992262-320) McCord identified false testimony to the Ervin Committee, implicating Magruder and Dean,[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022339%E2%80%93340-321) and leaked his accountâmostly [hearsay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearsay "Hearsay") through Liddyâto the *Los Angeles Times*.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022340%E2%80%93341,_343-322) Press attention on Watergate exploded,[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022341-323) and the Ervin Committee uncovered Gemstone, the destruction of evidence, and the Liddy payments.[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022344,_356,_366-324)
In April, Dean and Magruder began cooperating with prosecutors, exposing the Fielding break-in and the cover-up complicity of Magruder, Mitchell, Haldeman, and Ehrlichmanâbut not Nixon.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022346%E2%80%93347,_349%E2%80%93350,_353-325) Liddy refused to testify before the grand jury and was held in contempt.[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022347-326)[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995288-327) By the end of April, Nixonâto save faceâmade Ehrlichman, Haldeman, Magruder, and Attorney General [Richard Kleindienst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Kleindienst "Richard Kleindienst") resign; Dean was fired on April 30.[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022366,_369,_371-328)[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_York_Times''_1974-329)[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995352%E2%80%93353-330)
Watergate scrutiny spawned probes into other abuses, including a "dirty tricks" campaign by [Donald Segretti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Segretti "Donald Segretti"); Kissinger-ordered wiretaps that led to Felt's resignation; B-52 bombings in Cambodia; illegal CRP donations from firms like [American Airlines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines "American Airlines"); and an off-record \$200,000 from investor [Robert Vesco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Vesco "Robert Vesco") that led to the May 10 indictment of Mitchell and CRP finance chairman [Maurice Stans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Stans "Maurice Stans").[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022383%E2%80%93386,_422%E2%80%93423-331)[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992349-332) Later that month, Congressman [William Mills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oswald_Mills "William Oswald Mills") committed suicide after it emerged that he had taken an unreported \$25,000 from a CRP slush fund.[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022398-333) In July, Nixon was hospitalized with [pneumonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia "Pneumonia"), possibly caused by the stress of Watergate;[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1973-334) acting White House Counsel [Leonard Garment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Garment "Leonard Garment") wrote that "The organizing objective of these investigations was to bleed Nixon to death".[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022418-335)
### Ervin hearings and Special Prosecutor Cox
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=24 "Edit section: Ervin hearings and Special Prosecutor Cox")\]
> "If the many allegations to this date are true, then the burglars who broke into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate were, in effect, breaking into the home of every citizen of the United States. And if these allegations prove true, what they were seeking to steal were not the jewels, money, or other property of American citizens, but something more valuableâtheir most precious heritage: the right to vote in a free election."
â Senator [Sam Ervin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Ervin "Sam Ervin") on the first day of hearings[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022392-336)
The Ervin Committee's public hearings began on May 17.[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022391-337) Testimony from McCord, Caulfield, Ulasewicz, and others suggested White House involvement in the break-in and cover-up,[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022392%E2%80%93393-338) which Nixon vehemently denied.[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022396%E2%80%93397-339) The hearingsâwhich also included testimony from Dean, Magruder, and Mitchellâdrew immense publicity: three in four American households watched live testimony, an average of 30 hours per home.[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShafer2022-340)[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022424%E2%80%93426,_443%E2%80%93444-341)
In concurrent Senate proceedings, Attorney General nominee [Elliot Richardson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Richardson "Elliot Richardson") agreed to appoint a [special prosecutor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_counsel "Special counsel") on Watergate.[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022393%E2%80%93394-342) After rejecting Nixon's suggestions, Richardson chose [Archibald Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Cox "Archibald Cox")âPresident Kennedy's [solicitor general](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States "Solicitor General of the United States"). They negotiated that Cox could only be fired by Richardson and only due to "extraordinary improprieties".[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022395-343) Cox built a legal team he called the Watergate Special Prosecution Force.[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022401-344)[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992329%E2%80%93332-345) As early as July 4, Nixon expressed a desire to fire Cox after the Force considered investigating the financial impropriety of his California estate, [La Casa Pacifica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Casa_Pacifica "La Casa Pacifica").[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022418-335) In August, the Force empaneled a second grand jury to pursue crimes beyond the break-in, such as campaign finance irregularities.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022456-346)
### Struggle for the tapes
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=25 "Edit section: Struggle for the tapes")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archibald_Cox_04989v_\(cropped\).jpg)
Special prosecutor on Watergate [Archibald Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Cox "Archibald Cox") in 1973
On July 13, Haldeman assistant [Alexander Butterfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butterfield "Alexander Butterfield") revealed the existence of the Oval Office tapes to the Ervin Committee.[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022429%E2%80%93433-347)[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992368%E2%80%93369-348) In urgent meetings, White House counsel [J. Fred Buzhardt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Fred_Buzhardt "J. Fred Buzhardt") and Vice President [Spiro Agnew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiro_Agnew "Spiro Agnew") suggested the tapes be destroyed.[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022435-349) Nixon did not destroy the tapes for unclear reasons, possibly to preserve his legacy, protect himself against perjury or Kissinger's aggrandizement, or because he did not believe he would ever have to surrender them.[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022436%E2%80%93437-350)[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999385-351)
Following Butterfield's revelation, Cox and the Ervin Committee formally subpoenaed tapes corresponding to meetings suspected to involve Watergate.[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022434-352)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999383,_385-353) Nixon rejected both subpoenas, leading to objections in court.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999386-354) Due to stronger [standing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_\(law\) "Standing (law)") under the separation of powers, Sirica prioritized the executive branch Cox over the legislative Ervin committee.[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999387-355)
Nixon's legal teamâled by [Charles Alan Wright](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alan_Wright "Charles Alan Wright")âinvoked executive privilege and argued that releasing the tapes would create a precedent allowing judicial access to all sensitive presidential material.[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999389,_393%E2%80%93394-356)[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022455%E2%80%93456-357) Cox asserted that executive privilege did not apply when criminality was suspected,[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999389,_393%E2%80%93394-356) and also cited [*United States v. Burr*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burr_conspiracy#Trial "Burr conspiracy"), in which Chief Justice [John Marshall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall "John Marshall") ruled that President [Thomas Jefferson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson") could be subpoenaed.[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022454%E2%80%93455-358) In a decision that upset both parties, Sirica ordered the tapes be submitted to him to determine if any were protected by executive privilege.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022462-359) This was appealed, and on October 12 the appeals court ruled 5â2 to force Nixon to surrender the tapes to Sirica, or to make a deal with Cox.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022467,_483,_486-360)
### Saturday Night Massacre
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=26 "Edit section: Saturday Night Massacre")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elliot_Richardson_talks_with_John_Stennis.jpg)
Attorney General [Elliot Richardson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Richardson "Elliot Richardson") (right)âseen with Senator [John Stennis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stennis "John Stennis") (left)âresigned when ordered by Nixon to fire Special Prosecutor Cox.
During October, Cox and the Force made progress on Watergate-related investigations, including securing a grand jury indictment of Krogh for [false declarations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Making_false_statements "Making false statements") on the Fielding break-in,[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022481-361)[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992416-362) and guilty pleas from American Airlines, [Goodyear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company "Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company"), and the [3M Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3M_Company "3M Company") for illegal contributions to the CRP.[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022490-363)[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992434%E2%80%93435-364) Cox also began investigating Nixon's closest friend [Bebe Rebozo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebe_Rebozo "Bebe Rebozo") for mediating an illicit \$100,000 campaign contribution from Howard Hughes.[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022497-365)
After weighing the appellate decision, Nixon proposed giving Sirica the tapes and then firing Cox to negate the appeals court case; Attorney General Richardson rejected the scheme.[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022487-366) Negotiations with Cox to drop the subpoena and have Senator [John Stennis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stennis "John Stennis") review the tapes also collapsed.[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022488%E2%80%93489,_494-367) On October 19âciting the need for stability in the [Middle East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") amid the [Yom Kippur War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War "Yom Kippur War")âNixon unexpectedly announced that Stennis would review the tapes: a deal not approved by Stennis, the Ervin Committee, Cox, or Richardson.[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022502%E2%80%93504-368)[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992413-369)
On October 20, in what became known as the [Saturday Night Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Massacre "Saturday Night Massacre"), Nixon ordered Richardson to fire Cox. He refused and resigned in protest.[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022507%E2%80%93509-370)[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2018-371)[\[t\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-373) Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General [William Ruckelshaus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ruckelshaus "William Ruckelshaus") to fire Cox, but Ruckelshaus declined and was fired after offering his resignation.[\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022509%E2%80%93510-374) The next acting attorney general, Solicitor General [Robert Bork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bork "Robert Bork"), agreed to fire Cox.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022510%E2%80%93511-375) FBI agents sealed the Force's office and blocked the entry of Cox's staff.[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992406-372) Though Bork believed Nixon's order was legal and justified, he considered resigning to avoid being "perceived as a man who did the President's bidding to save my job".[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022510%E2%80%93511-375)[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoble1987-376)
## Impeachment process and resignation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=27 "Edit section: Impeachment process and resignation")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Impeach_Nixon_retouched.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Rodino_1974.jpg)
The Saturday Night Massacre triggered a [constitutional crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_crisis "Constitutional crisis") and drew wide condemnation and calls for Nixon's resignation or impeachment.[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992409%E2%80%93411,_413-377)[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022513,_516%E2%80%93517-378) Congress received an unprecedented near-500,000 [mailgrams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mailgrams "Mailgrams") and [telegrams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegrams "Telegrams"),[\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022516-379) and protests were held outside the White House.[\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022516%E2%80%93517-380) Nixon's [approval rating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_presidential_approval_rating "United States presidential approval rating") fell to 24 percent;[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022517-381) 98 representatives and 57 senators introduced bills calling for another special prosecutor.[\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022518-382) Nixon, under severe stress, withdrew from engagements and drank: in his absence, Kissinger briefly declared [DEFCON 3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEFCON_3 "DEFCON 3") when Soviet deployment in the Yom Kippur War seemed imminent.[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022521%E2%80%93522-383)[\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995408%E2%80%93409-384)
At an October 26 press conference, Nixon denounced the "hysterical reporting" and promised to appoint another special prosecutor, although with limited access to presidential material.[\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992408-385) Representatives introduced over 20 impeachment and impeachment-inquiry resolutions;[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992412-386) the [House Judiciary Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_the_Judiciary "United States House Committee on the Judiciary") launched an impeachment inquiry on October 30 and granted Chairman [Peter Rodino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Rodino "Peter Rodino") subpoena power.[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992412-386)
### Missing tapes and building pressure
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=29 "Edit section: Missing tapes and building pressure")\]
On October 30, Buzhardt informed Sirica that two of the nine subpoenaed tapesâa June 20, 1972 Nixon-Mitchell call and an April 15, 1973 NixonâDean meetingâwere "missing".[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022525-387)[\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992429-388) Secret Service agents and aides testified that the tapes had been signed out and not returned; aides like Buzhardt inconsistently said they never existed due to recorder malfunctions or insufficient tape.[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022525-387) Investigators discovered a tape labeled "April 15 Part I", implying a missing "Part II".[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022526-389)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Disney%27s_Contemporary_Resort_Arriving_Monorail_Teal.jpg)
Nixon's "I am not a crook" defense (recording below) was delivered at the [Contemporary Resort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%27s_Contemporary_Resort "Disney's Contemporary Resort") at [Walt Disney World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_World "Walt Disney World").
On November 1, Nixon and Haig selected as special prosecutor [Leon Jaworski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Jaworski "Leon Jaworski"), a former [Nuremberg prosecutor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_trials "Nuremberg trials") presumed to be sympathetic to the president.[\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022526%E2%80%93527,_529-390) Impeachment calls grew, including from the editors of *The New York Times* and *Time* andâfor the first timeâfrom a Republican Senator, [Edward Brooke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Brooke "Edward Brooke").[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022531%E2%80%93532-391) Buzhardt and Garment flew to Miami to urge a vacationing Nixon to resign; he refused to see them.[\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022532%E2%80%93533-392)
Tipped off by Dean, Senator [Lowell Weicker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell_Weicker "Lowell Weicker") and investigators uncovered likely tax fraud: Nixon had claimed deductions for an illegally backdated document donation to the [National Archives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives "National Archives")âa loophole outlawed in 1969 after President Johnson exploited it.[\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022536%E2%80%93537,_552-393)[\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992432%E2%80%93433-394) The investigation expanded to Nixon's other finances, including publicly funded renovations to his private homes in California and Florida.[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022538%E2%80%93539-395) On November 17, addressing Associated Press editors at [Walt Disney World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_World "Walt Disney World")'s [Contemporary Resort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%27s_Contemporary_Resort "Disney's Contemporary Resort"), Nixon denied wrongdoing and, in a defense considered the most iconic line from Watergate, declared, "I am not a crook."[\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx,_539%E2%80%93540-396)[\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPope2016-397)[\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENPR_2013-398)
### The eighteen-minute gap
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=30 "Edit section: The eighteen-minute gap")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rose_Mary_Woods.jpg)
Nixon's secretary [Rose Mary Woods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Mary_Woods "Rose Mary Woods") demonstrating the implausible "Rose Mary Stretch" that the White House said erased the 18½ minute gap
On November 21, Buzhardt told Jaworski that an 18-minute, 15-second segment was missing from a June 20, 1972 tape: a Nixon-Haldeman conversation thought to be Nixon's first on Watergate after the break-in.[\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022540%E2%80%93541-399)[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson2003127-400) Buzhardt believed the erasure was intentional and blamed Nixon's secretary, Rose Mary Woods, who could not explain the gap;[\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022541-401) Sirica ordered all tapes be surrendered within five days.[\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022542-402) Nixon complied, and they were placed in a [National Security Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency "National Security Agency")\-installed safeâguarded by [U.S. Marshals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Marshals "U.S. Marshals")âin Sirica's chambers; the seven extant tapes were given to the Force on December 12.[\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022543,_547-403)
In December hearings, Force lawyer [Jill Volner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Wine-Banks "Jill Wine-Banks") interrogated Woods, who now claimed that, while transcribing the tape on October 1, she accidentally hit "record" instead of "off" while reaching for the telephone and also kept her foot on the "forward" pedal throughout the call.[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022544%E2%80%93545-404)[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_2017-405)[\[386\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999458%E2%80%93459,_462-406) In a reenactment, Woods could not keep her foot on the pedal.[\[387\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022545-407)[\[388\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995417-408) Photos of the recreation generated the mocking label of the "Rose Mary Stretch".[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_2017-405)[\[388\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995417-408)
Woods' five-minute call also did not match the erasure's 18-minute duration.[\[389\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022545%E2%80%93546-409)[\[390\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992429%E2%80%93430-410) Questioned on the discrepancy, Haig suggested the "devil theory", that "some sinister force had come in and applied the other energy source and taken care of the information."[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546-411)[\[392\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995418-412) Volner theorized that Woods and Nixon had listened to the tape (the first subpoenaed) and that Nixon had panicked and made Woods erase it before realizing that the other subpoenaed tapes were equally incriminating.[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546-411) Sirica deemed the erasure "more symbolic than substantive", and Jaworski and the FBI declined to prosecute.[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546-411)[\[393\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992430-413) In January 1974, an expert panel appointed by Sirica concluded that the tape had been erased in five to nine separate segments using the hand keysânot the pedal.[\[394\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2016-414)[\[395\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022566-415) Other tapes had apparent seconds-long deletionsâobscuring key wordsâbut Sirica decided that further analysis was tangential.[\[396\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022567%E2%80%93568-416)
### Investigations advance
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=31 "Edit section: Investigations advance")\]
Pushed by Speaker [Tip O'Neill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_O%27Neill "Tip O'Neill") to accelerate the impeachment inquiry, Rodino's Judiciary Committee selected [John Doar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Doar "John Doar") as special counsel.[\[397\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022553-417) In December, Nixon withdrew from engagementsâsometimes for daysâamid drinking bouts. On New Year's Eve, he resolved to "fight it all out", selecting trial lawyer [James St. Clair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._St._Clair "James D. St. Clair") to resist and delay all investigations.[\[398\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022558,_570-418)
In January, Sirica's scientific panel began deciphering the muffled and compressed tapes, which were recorded at a fast 15/16th inch per second speed to save tape.[\[399\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022563%E2%80%93564-419) Transcription was arduous, 100 hours of labor needed for just one hour of tape.[\[400\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022565-420) The contents were damning, and Sirica finally concluded that the White House had obstructed justice.[\[400\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022565-420) Concurrently, the Judiciary Committee debated charging Nixon with specific offenses or more ambiguous Constitutional crimes.[\[401\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022572%E2%80%93573-421)
Prosecutors focused on the cover-upâan explicit White House conspiracyârather than the break-in, a more nebulous campaign conspiracy.[\[402\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022583%E2%80%93584-422) Although Jaworski identified at least 15 instances where Nixon acknowledged or advanced the hush money scheme,[\[403\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022578%E2%80%93579-423) he hesitated to indict the president [due to lack of precedent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_immunity_in_the_United_States "Presidential immunity in the United States").[\[404\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022578-424) The Force instead designated Nixon an unindicted co-conspirator, allowing jurors to hear him on the tape and empowering Jaworksi to send incriminating evidence to the impeachment inquiry.[\[405\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022580%E2%80%93581-425) On March 1, the Force indicted the "[Watergate Seven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Seven "Watergate Seven")": Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Colson, [Gordon Strachan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_C._Strachan "Gordon C. Strachan"), [Robert Mardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mardian "Robert Mardian"), and [Kenneth Parkinson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Parkinson "Kenneth Parkinson") on 24 counts of conspiracy, lying, and obstructing justice.[\[406\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022584%E2%80%93585-426)[\[407\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999475-427) On March 26, Sirica transferred a 55-page report on presidential criminality, compiled by Jaworski and the grand jury, to the Judiciary Committee.[\[408\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022586%E2%80%93587-428)
### Nixon releases tape transcripts
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=32 "Edit section: Nixon releases tape transcripts")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nixon_edited_transcripts.jpg)
President Nixon announcing the release of edited transcripts, April 29, 1974
In mid-April, Jaworski subpoenaed another 64 taped conversations, with a May 2 deadline.[\[409\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022592-429) Nixon then spent his days listening to the tapes, taking notes, and brooding in what Graff calls "one of the oddest weeks in all of modern presidential history".[\[410\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022592%E2%80%93593-430) Instead of releasing the tapes, Nixon's staff produced edited transcripts; Nixon himself excised "unpresidential" language,[\[411\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022593,_597-431) namely replacing profanity and vulgarity with hundreds of "[expletive deleted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expletive_deleted "Expletive deleted")".[\[412\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Los_Angeles_Times''_1990-432)[\[413\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597-433) On April 29, Nixon released 1,300 pages of transcripts spanning 46 tapes.[\[414\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022594-434)
House investigators discovered that only 20 of the 64 subpoenaed conversations had been transcribed.[\[415\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022595-435) Comparison with tapes already acquired by investigators showed pervasive misrepresentations and intelligible dialogue marked "unintelligible".[\[416\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022596-436) The edited transcripts still showed Nixon's apparent acceptance of the cover-up.[\[417\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022595%E2%80%93596-437)
The House Judiciary Committee informed Nixon that the transcripts did not fulfill the subpoena.[\[418\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597%E2%80%93598-438) St. Clair moved to block Jaworski's subpoena, calling the tapes "inadmissible hearsay" as Nixon was not a conspirator.[\[419\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022598-439) Jaworski revealed that Nixon was an unindicted co-conspirator and offered, as a compromise, to keep this secret and drop the subpoena if the White House released just 38 of the 64 tapes.[\[420\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999494%E2%80%93495-440) St. Clair rejected this as blackmail.[\[421\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022599-441)
On May 9, the pro-Nixon *Chicago Tribune* abandoned the president in an editorial: "He is humorless to the point of being inhumane. He is devious. He is vacillating. He is profane."[\[422\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022600-442)[\[423\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan2004-443) Senate Republican leader [Hugh Scott](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Scott "Hugh Scott") called the transcripts "deplorable, disgusting, shabby, and immoral".[\[416\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022596-436) Nixon's miscalculation yielded the first poll showing that a majority of Americans supported impeachment.[\[413\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597-433)
### Impeachment hearings and *United States v. Nixon*
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=33 "Edit section: Impeachment hearings and United States v. Nixon")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opening_day_of_the_Nixon_impeachment_inquiry.jpg)
First day of impeachment proceedings, May 9, 1974
On May 9, impeachment hearings began.[\[422\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022600-442) Over ten weeks, Doar and colleagues presented representatives with a complete account of Watergate from the break-in through to the cover-up, highlighting likely constitutional crimes.[\[424\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022606%E2%80%93607-444) On May 10, Jaworski released a 39-page brief naming Nixon an unindicted co-conspirator; Sirica concluded that "the president was doomed".[\[425\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022602-445)[\[u\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-447) To avoid protracted appeals, Jaworski requested the Supreme Court [directly review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certiorari "Certiorari") the subpoena's legality, to which it agreed on May 31.[\[427\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022603-448)[\[428\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999495-449)
On June 15, Woodward and Bernstein published *All the President's Men*, which became a bestseller.[\[429\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2024-450)[\[430\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022611-451) Later that month, the Ervin Committee released its 1,094-page final report, outlining White House misconduct without explicitly accusing Nixon.[\[431\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022615-452) After the Fourth of July recess, the inquiry presented "seminars" synthesizing the information to the House and began releasing evidential "Statements of Information", beginning with a 4,133-page installment.[\[432\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022620,_623-453) Aiming to remain neutral, Rodino presented no analysis of the evidence, frustrating readers.[\[433\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022623-454)
Conservative [Southern Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Democrats "Southern Democrats") began abandoning Nixon, and on July 23 [Lawrence Hogan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Hogan "Lawrence Hogan") became the first Republican representative to support impeachment.[\[434\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022629%E2%80%93630-455) The following day, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously (8â0) that the subpoenaed tapes were admissible while also affirming executive privilege.[\[435\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022631,_654-456)[\[436\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992513%E2%80%93514-457) Nixon complied and released the first 20 subpoenaed tapes on July 30.[\[437\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022642-458)
### 'Smoking gun' tape released
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=34 "Edit section: 'Smoking gun' tape released")\]
On July 27, 1974, the [House Judiciary Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_Judiciary_Committee "House Judiciary Committee") voted 27-to-11 to recommend the first [article of impeachment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_of_impeachment "Article of impeachment"): [obstruction of justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice "Obstruction of justice").[\[438\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022639%E2%80%93640-459)[\[439\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992525%E2%80%93526-460)[\[v\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-463) On July 29, the committee recommended a second article, [abuse of power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_power "Abuse of power"),[\[442\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022641-464) and, on the following day, approved a thirdâobstruction of Congressâand rejected two related to the Cambodian bombings and tax fraud.[\[442\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022641-464) Ninety percent of Americans listened to the proceedings on radio or television.[\[443\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992531-465) As Congressional support for Nixon collapsed and the release of the June 23 "smoking gun" tape loomed, Nixon weighed resigning to preserve his federal benefits and those of his staff and limit liability.[\[444\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022642%E2%80%93644,_649-466)[\[445\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992527-467) If impeached by the House, Nixon needed the support of 34 Senators for acquittal.[\[446\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022647-468)
On August 5, the White House released the "smoking gun" tape.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2018-214) The Haldeman-Nixon conversation showed that the president had lied and had been involved in the cover-up from its inception.[\[447\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022635-469)[\[448\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodwardBernstein1976309-470) Its release extinguished most Congressional support for Nixon, particularly among Republicans who felt betrayed.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2018-214)[\[449\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992536,_537-471) Republican House minority leader [John Rhodes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_Rhodes "John Jacob Rhodes") and ten Republican House Judiciary Committee members who had opposed the articles now backed impeachment.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlass2018-214)[\[450\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes2003-472) The following day, California governor [Ronald Reagan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") and [RNC chairman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chairs_of_the_Republican_National_Committee "List of chairs of the Republican National Committee") [George H. W. Bush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") both urged Nixon to resign.[\[451\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022653-473)[\[452\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999560-474) Senator [Barry Goldwater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Goldwater "Barry Goldwater") told Haig that Nixon only had 12 votes in the Senate and said "He has lied to me for the last time".[\[451\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022653-473) Fearing a "berserk" Nixon might unilaterally trigger [nuclear armageddon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_armageddon "Nuclear armageddon"), Defense Secretary [James R. Schlesinger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_R._Schlesinger "James R. Schlesinger"), according to Graff, alerted military leaders to confirm any presidential launch orders with himself or Kissinger.[\[453\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022655%E2%80%93656-475)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Informal_press_conference_following_a_meeting_between_Congressmen_and_the_President_to_discuss_Watergate_matters._-_NARA_-_194590.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nixon-depart_crop.png)
Following an August 7 meeting with Senate minority leader [Hugh Scott](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Scott "Hugh Scott"), Senator [Barry Goldwater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Goldwater "Barry Goldwater"), and House minority leader [John Rhodes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_Rhodes "John Jacob Rhodes") (pictured left), Nixon decided to resign. He left the White House on August 9 (right).
On August 7, House minority leader Rhodes, Senate minority leader Hugh Scott, and Senator Goldwaterâa respected Republican statesmanâvisited Nixon in the Oval Office and, although not explicitly urging his resignation, informed him that he did not have enough support to be acquitted.[\[454\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022658-476)[\[455\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992539-477) Faced with the inevitability of his impeachment and removal, Nixon resolved to resign.[\[456\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992539%E2%80%93540-478)
In an August 8 [Oval Office address](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Oval_Office_Address "United States Oval Office Address"), Nixon announced his resignationâthe first of any U.S. presidentâeffective at noon the following day, and his succession by then-Vice President Ford.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2024-281)[\[457\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022661,_663-479)[\[w\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-481) Although he declared that he was not a "quitter", Nixon explained that he lacked support in Congress and had to "put the interest of America first".[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2024-281) Jaworski noted that the farewell speech expressed no remorse.[\[459\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022663-482)
In the morning, Nixon and his family bid farewell to the White House staff in the [East Room](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Room "East Room").[\[460\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWooten1974-483) They left on the presidential helicopter, [Army One](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_One "Army One"), for Maryland's [Andrews Air Force Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews_Air_Force_Base "Andrews Air Force Base"), where they boarded [Air Force One](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_One "Air Force One") for California.[\[460\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWooten1974-483)[\[461\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022664-484)[\[462\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995481-485)[\[x\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-486) Ford delivered an 8-minute inauguration speech, also in the East Room, declaring that "our long national nightmare is over".[\[463\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022665-487)[\[464\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter1981-488) *Time*'s resignation special sold 527,000 copiesâthe most of any newsweekly ever.[\[465\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667-489)
### Ford's pardon of Nixon
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=37 "Edit section: Ford's pardon of Nixon")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:President_Ford_announces_his_decision_to_pardon_former_President_Richard_Nixon_-_NARA_-_7140608.jpg)
President Ford announcing his pardon of Nixon on September 8, 1974
With Nixon's resignation, Congress dropped its impeachment proceedings, though federal prosecution remained a possibility.[\[466\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1974b-490) In its final report, the House Judiciary identified 36 instances of obstruction of justice by Nixon,[\[465\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667-489) and Jaworski and the Watergate Special Prosecution Force weighed indicting Nixon.[\[467\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667%E2%80%93668-491) On September 8, President Ford issued Nixon a full pardon for all acts committed as president.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHersh1983-171)[\[468\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022668-492) Ford may have feared the damage of a long, divisive trial, or a technical acquittal that might delegitimize his own presidency.[\[469\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992568-493)
Ford was criticized for the unilateral pardon's suddenness, granted without consultation with Congressional leaders.[\[468\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022668-492)[\[469\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992568-493) Senator Ervin called it "incompatible with good government",[\[470\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992567-494) and Ford's press secretary [Jerald terHorst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerald_terHorst "Jerald terHorst") resigned in protest.[\[471\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolson2018-495) The president's approval rating fell by 22 percentage points.[\[472\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992566-496) Although some argued that the Force could still prosecute Nixon, Jaworski resigned in October.[\[473\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992569-497) According to Hersh, Jaworski was in financial distress at the time and could no longer be absent from his Texan law practice.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHersh1983-171)
Many, including O'Neill, suspected a secret pardon deal between Ford and Nixon.[\[474\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669-498) No tapes or documentation suggest an explicit agreement,[\[470\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992567-494)[\[474\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669-498) but biographer Jay Farrell concluded that implicit suggestions may have "greased his departure".[\[474\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669-498) When Haig approached him about Nixon's possible choices, then-Vice President Ford reportedly refused to offer advice as he was an "interested party."[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHersh1983-171)[\[475\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022646-499) Starting September 4, Fordâthrough aidesâsought a formal apology from Nixon in exchange for a pardon. The former president refused to make any admission of guilt, and Ford abandoned the effort.[\[476\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992560%E2%80%93561-500) According to Kutler, Nixon correctly assumed that Ford would pardon him regardless.[\[477\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992562-501) Hersh argues that a recorded September 7 call shows Nixon threatening to expose Ford's prior promises of a pardon if he was not pardoned.[\[478\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992572-502)
### Final legal actions
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=38 "Edit section: Final legal actions")\]
In total, 69 people were charged with crimes in conjunction with Watergate, including two of Nixon's Cabinet secretaries. Most were convicted or pleaded guilty.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a-141) A Watergate-related probe on the [ITT corporation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITT_Inc. "ITT Inc.") resulted in the conviction of [Ed Reinecke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Reinecke "Ed Reinecke"), [Lieutenant Governor of California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_California "Lieutenant Governor of California") under Ronald Reagan.[\[479\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes2016-503) Of the Watergate Seven, Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman were convicted. Parkinson was acquitted, and Mardian's conviction was overturned.[\[459\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022663-482) Mitchell remains the highest-ranking US government official to be imprisoned. Upon his sentencing, he quipped: "It could have been worse. They could have sentenced me to spend the rest of my life with Martha Mitchell."[\[480\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022676-504)
In June 1975, Nixon gave secret testimony to a grand jury.[\[481\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENagourneyShane2011-505)[\[482\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTETotenberg2011-506) He evaded questions on the 18-minute gap and tax fraud and praised "hardball" tactics used by Kennedy in contrast to the Watergate "bunglers".[\[481\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENagourneyShane2011-505) In 1978, FBI directors Gray and Felt and FBI Domestic Intelligence head Edward Miller were indicted for their approval of "surreptitious entries".[\[483\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022674-507) Nixon voluntarily testified in their defense in 1980, his only appearance in any Watergate-related trial.[\[484\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022674%E2%80%93675-508) Felt and Miller were found guilty.[\[485\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022675-509)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Watergate_complex,_2025.jpg)
The Watergate Complex in September, 2025
Watergate is regarded as the greatest scandal in presidential history and a successful demonstration of the separation of powers.[\[486\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg2021-510)[\[487\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClymer2002-511)[\[488\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2020-512) It is frequently invoked during presidential scandals and impeachments, particularly [those of President Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Donald_Trump "Efforts to impeach Donald Trump").[\[488\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2020-512)[\[489\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElving2022-513)[\[490\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFadulu2025-514) Haig and Kissinger respectively blamed Watergate for the Yom Kippur War (1973) and the [Fall of Saigon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon "Fall of Saigon") (1975).[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022487-366)[\[491\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_Straits_Times''_1975-515)
In 1977, Nixonâfinancially distressed and also hoping to improve his legacyâaccepted \$600,000 for [a series of interviews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nixon_Interviews "The Nixon Interviews") with British journalist [David Frost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Frost "David Frost").[\[492\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022670-516) Nixon expected Frost to be amenable and was surprised by his combative questions, leading Nixon to declare "When the President does it, that means that it is not illegal."[\[493\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaughton1977-517)[\[494\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStelter2013-518) Although Nixon formally apologized for Watergate after the interview, his legacy remained tarnished.[\[494\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStelter2013-518) The Watergate Hotel has conversely embraced the scandal, incorporating it into its theming and converting Hunt and Liddy's room into the "scandal suite".[\[495\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanahan2025-519)[\[496\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeve2017-520)
### Political and professional
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=40 "Edit section: Political and professional")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1976_campaign_button_f.JPG)
An anti-Ford button referencing Watergate from the [1976 presidential election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election")
Watergate led to legislation limiting the powers of the "[imperial presidency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_presidency "Imperial presidency")", including the designation of all presidential records as publicly owned (the [Presidential Records Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Records_Act "Presidential Records Act")) and a mechanism for counsel investigations of executive scandals (the [Ethics in Government Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_in_Government_Act "Ethics in Government Act")).[\[497\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulman2024-521) These reforms were partly achieved by "[Watergate Babies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_Babies "Watergate Babies")", new Democratic legislators who swept the post-Watergate [November 1974 Senate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_United_States_Senate_elections "1974 United States Senate elections") and [House elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections "1974 United States House of Representatives elections").[\[497\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulman2024-521) Ford's pardon of Nixon effectively caused his loss to [Jimmy Carter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter") in the [1976 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election "1976 United States presidential election"); seven percent of voters decided against Ford explicitly due to the pardon.[\[480\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022676-504)[\[498\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShane2006-522)
Seeking to restore public trust after Watergate and the release of the CIA's "[Family Jewels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Jewels_\(Central_Intelligence_Agency\) "Family Jewels (Central Intelligence Agency)")", Congress organized the [Church Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Committee "Church Committee") to investigate illegal activities by the CIA and other agencies, as did President Ford with the [Rockefeller Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_President%27s_Commission_on_CIA_Activities_within_the_United_States "United States President's Commission on CIA Activities within the United States").[\[499\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992586%E2%80%93587-523)[\[500\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022672%E2%80%93673-524) Concerns emerging from the burglaries and wiretappings resulted in the [Privacy Act of 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_Act_of_1974 "Privacy Act of 1974") and the [Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act "Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act"), which limited the ability of federal agencies to collect, maintain, and share information on Americans.[\[501\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992589-525)[\[502\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022673-526) Congress also strengthened the [Freedom of Information Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_\(United_States\) "Freedom of Information Act (United States)"),[\[503\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992591-527) and created intelligence oversight committees with access to classified material.[\[497\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulman2024-521)
As nearly all involved in Watergate crimes were lawyers,[\[504\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022324-528)[\[505\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2000673-529) the [American Bar Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Bar_Association "American Bar Association") mandated ethics courses at law schools.[\[506\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleveland_State_University-530)[\[505\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2000673-529) Watergate also revived [investigative reporting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigative_journalism "Investigative journalism"), popularizing the use of anonymous sources and displacing "[New Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Journalism "New Journalism")" approaches.[\[507\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress-531)
### Cultural impact and depictions
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=41 "Edit section: Cultural impact and depictions")\]
Watergate is often regarded as the climactic moment in the loss of American trust in government following the Vietnam War.[\[508\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneider1999-532)[\[509\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalz2022-533) Journalist [Bill Schneider](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Schneider_\(journalist\) "Bill Schneider (journalist)") writes that although American political cynicism did not "start with Watergate... Watergate turned an erosion of public confidence into a collapse".[\[508\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneider1999-532) It left such an impression that post-Watergate scandals are often named with the [suffix "-gate"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scandals_with_%22-gate%22_suffix "List of scandals with \"-gate\" suffix").[\[487\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClymer2002-511)[\[510\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xvii%E2%80%93xviii-534) These range from genuine political scandals like [Koreagate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreagate "Koreagate") to the sports scandal [Deflategate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflategate "Deflategate") and the discredited [Pizzagate conspiracy theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizzagate_conspiracy_theory "Pizzagate conspiracy theory").[\[510\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xvii%E2%80%93xviii-534) The paranoia of the "Watergate era" is often associated with a subgenre of 1970s conspiracy thrillers, such as cinematic releases such as [Francis Ford Coppola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Ford_Coppola "Francis Ford Coppola")'s *[The Conversation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Conversation "The Conversation")* (1974) or *[Three Days of the Condor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Days_of_the_Condor "Three Days of the Condor")* (1975), and *[Washington: Behind Closed Doors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington:_Behind_Closed_Doors "Washington: Behind Closed Doors")* (1977), which depicts the lead up to Watergate, on television.[\[511\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerry2010153-535)[\[512\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne200879%E2%80%9380-536) In some cases, production had begun before the scandal's zenith and are partly a reflection of the period's [zeitgeist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeist "Zeitgeist").[\[513\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTENPR_2022-537)[\[514\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScovell2024-538)[\[515\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffman2024-539)
Over thirty Watergate participants have written memoirs.[\[516\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxiii-540) Woodward and Bernstein's 1974 book *All the President's Men* was adapted into a [1976 film of the same name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_the_President%27s_Men_\(film\) "All the President's Men (film)") by [Alan J. Pakula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_J._Pakula "Alan J. Pakula")âin which Watergate guard Frank Wills played himself.[\[517\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx,_676-541) Although not used in the book, the phrase "[follow the money](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follow_the_money "Follow the money")" became part of the American lexicon after its use in the movie: Graff calls it the second most famous Watergate quote after "I am not a crook".[\[518\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalesky2012-542)[\[519\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx-543) The book also popularized the term "[ratfucking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratfucking "Ratfucking")" to describe covert political espionage.[\[520\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer2019-544)[\[521\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce2013-545) Other depictions include [Oliver Stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Stone "Oliver Stone")'s *[Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_\(film\) "Nixon (film)")* (1996) and *[Frost/Nixon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost/Nixon_\(film\) "Frost/Nixon (film)")* (2008),[\[507\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress-531)[\[522\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinraub1995-546)[\[523\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDargis2008-547) adapted from a [Tony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Awards "Tony Awards")\-winning [play of the same name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost/Nixon_\(play\) "Frost/Nixon (play)").[\[507\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress-531)[\[524\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath2008-548)
## Notes and references
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watergate_scandal&action=edit§ion=42 "Edit section: Notes and references")\]
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-28)** In 1973, [Walt Rostow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Rostow "Walt Rostow")âJohnson's former national security advisorâwrote that the affair was a clear precedent for Watergate: "They got away with \[the Chennault Affair\]. As the same men faced the election of 1972 there was nothing in their previous experience with an operation of doubtful propriety (or, even, legality) to warn them off; and there were memories of [how close an election could get](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election#Results "1960 United States presidential election") and the possible utility of pressing to the limit â or beyond."[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202236-26)[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurdum2003-27)
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-34)** Although approved by Nixon, a worried Hoover had the plan officially withdrawn.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202251%E2%80%9352-31)[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas199935%E2%80%9337-32) Senator [Richard Schweiker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Schweiker "Richard Schweiker") noted that "Even though the Huston plan was dead, I believe it had nine lives."[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202252-33)
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-36)** Hunt continued to work for a firm that was a CIA cover.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176-35)
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-44)** The White House was apparently oblivious to the Nazi association. Liddy told them that it was an acronym for "our Organization has been Directed to Eliminate Subversion of the Secrets of our Administration". Liddy displayed a strong interest in Nazi paraphernalia, even arranging the screening of a [Leni Riefenstahl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leni_Riefenstahl "Leni Riefenstahl") film at the White House.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery199557-43)
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-56)** Hunt conspicuously celebrated the failed burglary with a champagne toast.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202294-55)
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-71)** White House Chief of Staff [John Dean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dean "John Dean") later said regarding Caulfield: "I sensed that an Irish cop without a college education would not be entrusted with such a sensitive assignment in an administration of [WASP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestants "White Anglo-Saxon Protestants") professional men.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022100-70)
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-102)** Many within the US intelligence communityâespecially the CIAâwere initially sympathetic towards Castro.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjelten2009-101)
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-115)** These conversationsâdescribed by a federal prosecutor as "extremely personal, intimate, and potentially embarrassing"âwere reportedly the result of secretaries regarding Oliver's phone as the most private in the office. Ehrlichman said that Oliver himself frequently called "his girl friends all over the country lining up assignations". According to Lukas, these telephone conversations have fueled speculation that an [escort service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_agency "Escort agency") was operated out of the DNC office.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999201-114)
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-117)** After picking up the developed photographs in Miami, Hunt was shocked to notice the conspicuous shag rug of the Howard Johnson's motel in the background and not the floor of the DNC office. This led to suspicions that the photographed files may have been secretly swapped. McCord, who was responsible for the photographs, proclaimed innocence. The photographs no longer exist and were shredded.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995128-116)
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-127)** A 2012 article in the *[Washingtonian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washingtonian_\(magazine\) "Washingtonian (magazine)")* claimed that Baldwin was distracted by the film *[Attack of the Puppet People](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_of_the_Puppet_People "Attack of the Puppet People")* on the television. He denied this, saying the film was used to obscure the sound of his walkie-talkie from others in the hotel.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeelye2022-126)
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-131)** The five men were found to have rolls of [hundred-dollar bills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-dollar_bill "United States one-hundred-dollar bill"), intended as bribes for any security guards that found them.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168-125)
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-172)** Lukas writes that, beyond unsubstantiated reports of would-be-assassin [Arthur Bremer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Bremer "Arthur Bremer") meeting with Ulasewicz, nothing supports the theory that the Plumbers were involved in Wallace's attempted assassination. According to Hunt, Colson dispatched him to Bremer's Milwaukee apartment after the shooting to "take a look" and to evaluate whether he had leftist motives. Hunt said that Colson canceled the assignment as he was packing.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999150-168)[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022159-169) Colson called Hunt's claims "utterly preposterous".[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrewdson1973-170) As Vice President, Gerald Ford questioned Nixon lawyer [James St. Clair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_St._Clair "James St. Clair") as to whether the Nixon administration had been involved in the shooting. A *Washington Post* story one year after the shooting reported that Nixon had feared that the shooting was organized by members of his re-election campaign.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHersh1983-171)
13. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-220)** Commentator [Chris Matthews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Matthews "Chris Matthews") claims that this was fabricated by ghostwriter Joseph Dimona (Haldeman died shortly after publication). This was denied by the ghostwriter and *[The New York Times Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Books "Times Books")* editor, who said that Haldeman was a "control freak" who would not have allowed such an insertion.[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorley2022-213)
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-223)** At the time, Hoover was feuding with assistant director [William C. Sullivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_C._Sullivan "William C. Sullivan"), the third-ranking FBI official. Hoover effectively demoted Sullivan by creating a new higher-ranking position, deputy associate director, and naming Felt to the position. Hoover's longtime number two, the Associate Director [Clyde Tolson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clyde_Tolson "Clyde Tolson"), was in poor health, rendering Felt as Hoover's desired and likely successor.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff202271%E2%80%9373-222)
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-238)** Graff writes that other *Washington Post* journalists, like [Howard Simons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Simons "Howard Simons") and [Barry Sussman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Sussman "Barry Sussman"), are not given fair credit for their contributions to Watergate stories. Regarding Woodward and Bernstein, Sussman later said "I don't have anything good to say about either one of them."[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022234-237)
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-256)** Dean reportedly convinced [Herbert Kalmbach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_W._Kalmbach "Herbert W. Kalmbach") to provide the funds under the false pretense of legal support kept secret to avoid negative publicity.[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELukas1999250%E2%80%93251-254)
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-260)** Some \$10,000 was found on Dorothy Hunt's remains in the crash, possibly hush money. Hunt had also taken out a \$225,000 life insurance plan shortly before the crash, which E. Howard Hunt received. Speculation of assassination was unfounded, and the FBI and [National Transportation Safety Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board "National Transportation Safety Board") found no evidence of foul play.[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmery1995230-259)
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-265)** These payments continued for months; by March 1973, the White House ran out of untraceable funds for hush money and secured funding from Greek grocery magnate Thomas Pappas by agreeing to not remove the [US ambassador to Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Greece "List of ambassadors of the United States to Greece").[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022327%E2%80%93328-264)
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-293)** Graff notes an "odd thread of Watergate" involving Chile and the [ITT Corporation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITT_Inc. "ITT Inc.") that may suggest "deeper connections or further, still-uncovered plots and geopolitical intrigue".[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022306-292)
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-373)** Richardson later said that, in an attempt to dissuade him from resigning, White House chief of staff [Alexander Haig](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Haig "Alexander Haig") suggested that the administration would help him secure the [1976 Republican nomination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries "1976 Republican Party presidential primaries") for president.[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992406-372)
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-447)** *The Los Angeles Times* exposed the revelation that Nixon was an unindicted co-conspirator on June 5.[\[426\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022609-446)
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-463)** The room was immediately evacuated after a false report of a pro-Nixon kamikaze plane about to crash into the Capitol.[\[440\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022640-461)[\[441\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutler1992530-462)
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-481)** Ford [had succeeded](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_United_States_vice_presidential_confirmation "1973 United States vice presidential confirmation") Vice President Agnew after his resignation due to tax fraud.[\[458\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter1973-480)
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-486)** After Ford's swearing-in, Air Force One reverted to callsign "SAM 27000" for Special Active Mission, designating a non-presidential military flight.[\[461\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraff2022664-484)
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson2019_1-0)** [Anderson 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFAnderson2019).
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_National_Archives_2-0)** [The National Archives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFThe_National_Archives).
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202240_3-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 40.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerman20011%E2%80%9310_4-0)** [Berman 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBerman2001), pp. 1â10.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202213_5-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 13.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202213%E2%80%9315_6-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 13â15.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992119_7-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 119.
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff20226,_13%E2%80%9315,_44_8-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 6, 13â15, 44.
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992119%E2%80%93120_9-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 119â120.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202245,_54%E2%80%9355_10-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 45, 54â55.
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxvii,_xxxii_11-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xxvii, xxxii.
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992108%E2%80%93109_12-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 108â109.
13. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202219_13-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 19.
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202217_14-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 17.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202217%E2%80%9318_15-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 17â18.
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff20226,_19_16-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 6, 19.
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199919,_68%E2%80%9369_17-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 19, 68â69.
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202220%E2%80%9321_18-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 20â21.
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199971_19-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 71.
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202221%E2%80%9322_20-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 21â22.
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992110_21-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 110.
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202222_22-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 22.
23. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202222%E2%80%9323_23-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202222%E2%80%9323_23-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 22â23.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoig-Franzia2022_24-0)** [Roig-Franzia 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRoig-Franzia2022).
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202227%E2%80%9337_25-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 27â37.
26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202236_26-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 36.
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurdum2003_27-0)** [Purdum 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFPurdum2003).
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202237_29-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 37.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202247%E2%80%9351_30-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 47â51.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202251%E2%80%9352_31-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 51â52.
31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199935%E2%80%9337_32-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 35â37.
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202252_33-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 52.
33. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176_35-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176_35-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 176.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202264%E2%80%9366_37-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 64â66.
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202267_38-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 67.
36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner2007_39-0)** [Weiner 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWeiner2007).
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202270_40-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 70.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202279%E2%80%9380_41-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 79â80.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202280%E2%80%9382_42-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 80â82.
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199557_43-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 57.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202282_45-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 82.
42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992113_46-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 113.
43. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202283%E2%80%9384,_90_47-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 83â84, 90.
44. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992114_48-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 114.
45. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202290%E2%80%9392_49-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 90â92.
46. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202291%E2%80%9393_50-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 91â93.
47. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199994%E2%80%9397_51-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 94â97.
48. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs202144_52-0)** [Dobbs 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDobbs2021), p. 44.
49. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202293_53-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 93.
50. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999100%E2%80%93101_54-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 100â101.
51. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202294_55-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202294_55-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202294_55-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 94.
52. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022101_57-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 101.
53. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202295_58-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 95.
54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199579_59-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 79.
55. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202282%E2%80%9383,_96_60-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 82â83, 96.
56. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199579%E2%80%9380_61-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 79â80.
57. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas199981%E2%80%9383_62-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 81â83.
58. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022101%E2%80%93104_63-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 101â104.
59. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999104%E2%80%93106_64-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 104â106.
60. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999237_65-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999237_65-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 237.
61. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992200_66-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 200.
62. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202299%E2%80%93100_67-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 99â100.
63. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999107%E2%80%93108_68-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 107â108.
64. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022100%E2%80%93101_69-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 100â101.
65. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022100_70-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 100.
66. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022105,_110_72-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 105, 110.
67. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2012_73-0)** [Glass 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGlass2012).
68. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022105_74-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 105.
69. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999170_75-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 170.
70. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022109,_118%E2%80%93119_76-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 109, 118â119.
71. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199589%E2%80%9390_77-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 89â90.
72. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022119_78-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022119_78-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 119.
73. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199590%E2%80%9391_79-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 90â91.
74. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022120%E2%80%93121_80-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 120â121.
75. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999172%E2%80%93173_81-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 172â173.
76. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022128_82-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 128.
77. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999173%E2%80%93174_83-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 173â174.
78. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobenalt2022a_84-0)** [Robenalt 2022a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRobenalt2022a).
79. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999174%E2%80%93176_85-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 174â176.
80. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199597_86-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199597_86-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199597_86-2) [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 97.
81. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999177_87-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 177.
82. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeung2005_88-0)** [Leung 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLeung2005).
83. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999176%E2%80%93177_89-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 176â177.
84. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202259_90-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 59.
85. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202259%E2%80%9360_91-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 59â60.
86. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202260_92-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202260_92-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 60.
87. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESelverstone2017_93-0)** [Selverstone 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSelverstone2017).
88. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999194_94-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 194.
89. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022156_95-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022156_95-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 156.
90. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999194%E2%80%93195_96-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 194â195.
91. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999196_97-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 196.
92. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999196%E2%80%93197_98-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 196â197.
93. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999197_99-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999197_99-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999197_99-2) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 197.
94. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995119_100-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 119.
95. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGjelten2009_101-0)** [Gjelten 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGjelten2009).
96. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999193,_197%E2%80%93198_103-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 193, 197â198.
97. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999197%E2%80%93198_104-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 197â198.
98. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022162%E2%80%93163_105-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 162â163.
99. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995119%E2%80%93120_106-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 119â120.
100. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999198%E2%80%93199_107-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 198â199.
101. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999199_108-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999199_108-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 199.
102. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022163_109-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022163_109-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 163.
103. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999199%E2%80%93200_110-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 199â200.
104. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995121%E2%80%93122_111-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 121â122.
105. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999200_112-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 200.
106. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999200%E2%80%93201_113-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 200â201.
107. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999201_114-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 201.
108. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995128_116-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 128.
109. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999201%E2%80%93202_118-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 201â202.
110. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022164_119-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 164.
111. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999202_120-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 202.
112. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999203_121-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 203.
113. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999204_122-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999204_122-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 204.
114. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999205_123-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999205_123-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999205_123-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999205_123-3) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 205.
115. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206_124-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206_124-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206_124-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206_124-3) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 206.
116. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168_125-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168_125-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022168_125-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 168.
117. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeelye2022_126-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeelye2022_126-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeelye2022_126-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeelye2022_126-3) [Seelye 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSeelye2022).
118. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999206%E2%80%93207_128-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 206â207.
119. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999207_129-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999207_129-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999207_129-2) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 207.
120. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999208,_212_130-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 208, 212.
121. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999208%E2%80%93210_132-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 208â210.
122. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995136_133-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 136.
123. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022169_134-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 169.
124. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022169%E2%80%93170_135-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 169â170.
125. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999210_136-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 210.
126. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992187_137-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 187.
127. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995194_138-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 194.
128. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022170,_177%E2%80%93178_139-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 170, 177â178.
129. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995441_140-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995441_140-1) [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 441.
130. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a_141-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a_141-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff_2022a_141-2) [Graff 2022a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff_2022a).
131. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xix,_170,_178_142-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xix, 170, 178.
132. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171_143-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171_143-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 171.
133. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022173_144-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 173.
134. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022171%E2%80%93172_145-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 171â172.
135. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022172_146-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022172_146-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 172.
136. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995125_147-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 125.
137. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992204%E2%80%93208_148-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 204â208.
138. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022174%E2%80%93175_149-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 174â175.
139. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery199530_150-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 30.
140. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022173%E2%80%93174_151-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 173â174.
141. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwan2012_152-0)** [Swan 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSwan2012).
142. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoig-Franzia2001_153-0)** [Roig-Franzia 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRoig-Franzia2001).
143. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022174_154-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 174.
144. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociated_Press_2001_155-0)** [Associated Press 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFAssociated_Press_2001).
145. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHettena2001_156-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHettena2001_156-1) [Hettena 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHettena2001).
146. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-157)**
*Wells v. Liddy*
, [186 F.3d 505](https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F3/186/505/569298/) (4th Cir. 1999).
147. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-158)**
*Wells v. Liddy*
, [37 F. App'x 53](https://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinions/Unpublished/011266.U.pdf) (4th Cir. 2002).
148. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992209_159-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 209.
149. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022176%E2%80%93177_160-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 176â177.
150. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''New_York_Times''_1976_161-0)** [*New York Times* 1976](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNew_York_Times_1976).
151. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992201%E2%80%93202,_204%E2%80%93205,_209,_492_162-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 201â202, 204â205, 209, 492.
152. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1984_163-0)** [Lukas 1984](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1984).
153. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992203_164-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 203.
154. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022177_165-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022177_165-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 177.
155. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992194,_200_166-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 194, 200.
156. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolotsky1992_167-0)** [Molotsky 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMolotsky1992).
157. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999150_168-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 150.
158. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022159_169-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 159.
159. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrewdson1973_170-0)** [Crewdson 1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCrewdson1973).
160. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHersh1983_171-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHersh1983_171-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHersh1983_171-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHersh1983_171-3) [Hersh 1983](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHersh1983).
161. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022179%E2%80%93180_173-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 179â180.
162. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200344_174-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 44.
163. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022181_175-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 181.
164. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999213_176-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 213.
165. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022183%E2%80%93184_177-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 183â184.
166. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022184_178-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 184.
167. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022184%E2%80%93185,_187_179-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 184â185, 187.
168. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992188_180-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 188.
169. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999217_181-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 217.
170. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999211_182-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 211.
171. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999223,_226_183-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 223, 226.
172. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022206_184-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 206.
173. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999222%E2%80%93223_185-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 222â223.
174. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999227_186-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 227.
175. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999227%E2%80%93228_187-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 227â228.
176. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999228_188-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 228.
177. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022291%E2%80%93292_189-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 291â292.
178. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022185%E2%80%93186_190-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 185â186.
179. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022186_191-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 186.
180. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022187_192-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022187_192-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 187.
181. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022191_193-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 191.
182. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022192_194-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022192_194-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 192.
183. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022193_195-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 193.
184. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022197%E2%80%93198_196-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022197%E2%80%93198_196-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 197â198.
185. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999272_197-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 272.
186. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022114_198-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 114.
187. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022188%E2%80%93189_199-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 188â189.
188. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142_200-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142_200-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021142_200-2) [Dobbs 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDobbs2021), p. 142.
189. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999218%E2%80%93219_201-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999218%E2%80%93219_201-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 218â219.
190. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022215_202-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022215_202-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 215.
191. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022216_203-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022216_203-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 216.
192. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021143_204-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs2021143_204-1) [Dobbs 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDobbs2021), p. 143.
193. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217_205-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217_205-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022217_205-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 217.
194. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999220_206-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 220.
195. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999237%E2%80%93238_207-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 237â238.
196. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999229%E2%80%93230_208-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 229â230.
197. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMemmott2011_209-0)** [Memmott 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMemmott2011).
198. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999230_210-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 230.
199. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999230%E2%80%93231_211-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999230%E2%80%93231_211-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 230â231.
200. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022209_212-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 209.
201. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorley2022_213-4) [Morley 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMorley2022).
202. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2018_214-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2018_214-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2018_214-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2018_214-3) [Glass 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGlass2018).
203. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999231_215-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 231.
204. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999231%E2%80%93233_216-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 231â233.
205. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992219%E2%80%93220_217-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 219â220.
206. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999233%E2%80%93234_218-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 233â234.
207. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrewdson1976_219-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrewdson1976_219-1) [Crewdson 1976](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCrewdson1976).
208. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner2008_221-0)** [Weiner 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWeiner2008).
209. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202271%E2%80%9373_222-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff202271%E2%80%9373_222-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 71â73.
210. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022154%E2%80%93155_224-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 154â155.
211. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022158_225-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 158.
212. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005_226-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005_226-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuncombe2005_226-2) [Buncombe 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBuncombe2005).
213. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobbs202166_227-0)** [Dobbs 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDobbs2021), p. 66.
214. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022268_228-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 268.
215. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolson2004_229-0)** [Holson 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHolson2004).
216. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022286%E2%80%93288_230-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 286â288.
217. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEByers2012_231-0)** [Byers 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFByers2012).
218. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022222,_245_232-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 222, 245.
219. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022265_233-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 265.
220. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell2012_234-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell2012_234-1) [Campbell 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCampbell2012).
221. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxi_235-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. xxi.
222. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022612%E2%80%93615_236-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 612â615.
223. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022234_237-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 234.
224. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999236_239-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 236.
225. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999235%E2%80%93239_240-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 235â239.
226. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999235_241-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 235.
227. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999237,_243_242-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 237, 243.
228. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999238%E2%80%93239_243-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 238â239.
229. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999239%E2%80%93240_244-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 239â240.
230. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995211%E2%80%93212_245-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 211â212.
231. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999240%E2%80%93241_246-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 240â241.
232. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999241_247-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 241.
233. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999241%E2%80%93242_248-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 241â242.
234. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999242_249-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 242.
235. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999246%E2%80%93249_250-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 246â249.
236. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999249_251-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 249.
237. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999249%E2%80%93250_252-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 249â250.
238. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022224_253-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 224.
239. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999250%E2%80%93251_254-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999250%E2%80%93251_254-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 250â251.
240. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200355_255-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 55.
241. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022225%E2%80%93226_257-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 225â226.
242. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999251%E2%80%93252_258-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 251â252.
243. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995230_259-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 230.
244. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999278%E2%80%93279_261-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 278â279.
245. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVolsky1977_262-0)** [Volsky 1977](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFVolsky1977).
246. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobenalt2022b_263-0)** [Robenalt 2022b](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRobenalt2022b).
247. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022327%E2%80%93328_264-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 327â328.
248. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022239%E2%80%93240_266-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022239%E2%80%93240_266-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 239â240.
249. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022240%E2%80%93244_267-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 240â244.
250. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022246_268-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 246.
251. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247_269-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247_269-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022247_269-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 247.
252. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995216_270-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 216.
253. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022251%E2%80%93252,_262_271-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 251â252, 262.
254. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022249_272-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 249.
255. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200367_273-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 67.
256. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022249%E2%80%93250_274-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 249â250.
257. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200367%E2%80%9368_275-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), pp. 67â68.
258. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022258%E2%80%93260_276-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 258â260.
259. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022260%E2%80%93261_277-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 260â261.
260. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999256_278-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999256_278-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 256.
261. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022240_279-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 240.
262. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200365_280-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 65.
263. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2024_281-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2024_281-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2024_281-2) [Elving 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFElving2024).
264. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022304_282-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022304_282-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 304.
265. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200369_283-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 69.
266. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022299,_302,_309_284-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 299, 302, 309.
267. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022302%E2%80%93303_285-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022302%E2%80%93303_285-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 302â303.
268. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022303_286-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 303.
269. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022291,_305_287-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 291, 305.
270. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson200368_288-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 68.
271. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999265_289-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 265.
272. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022305%E2%80%93306_290-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 305â306.
273. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999267%E2%80%93268_291-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 267â268.
274. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022306_292-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022306_292-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 306.
275. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022307_294-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 307.
276. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022308_295-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 308.
277. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022308%E2%80%93309_296-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 308â309.
278. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022309_297-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 309.
279. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999269_298-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999269_298-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 269.
280. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERugaber1972_299-0)** [Rugaber 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRugaber1972).
281. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022311_300-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 311.
282. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999277_301-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999277_301-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 277.
283. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022311%E2%80%93312_302-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 311â312.
284. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022313_303-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 313.
285. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022356_304-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 356.
286. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022319%E2%80%93320_305-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 319â320.
287. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022320%E2%80%93321_306-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 320â321.
288. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022321_307-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 321.
289. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992268_308-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 268.
290. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022325%E2%80%93326_309-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 325â326.
291. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999287%E2%80%93290_310-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 287â290.
292. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022325,_327_311-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 325, 327.
293. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022328%E2%80%93329_312-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 328â329.
294. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992265%E2%80%93266_313-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 265â266.
295. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022331_314-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 331.
296. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1974_315-0)** [*Time* 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFTime_1974).
297. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022333%E2%80%93334_316-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 333â334.
298. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022337%E2%80%93338_317-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 337â338.
299. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995270_318-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 270.
300. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022338_319-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 338.
301. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992262_320-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 262.
302. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022339%E2%80%93340_321-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 339â340.
303. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022340%E2%80%93341,_343_322-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 340â341, 343.
304. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022341_323-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 341.
305. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022344,_356,_366_324-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 344, 356, 366.
306. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022346%E2%80%93347,_349%E2%80%93350,_353_325-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 346â347, 349â350, 353.
307. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022347_326-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 347.
308. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995288_327-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 288.
309. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022366,_369,_371_328-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 366, 369, 371.
310. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''New_York_Times''_1974_329-0)** [*New York Times* 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNew_York_Times_1974).
311. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995352%E2%80%93353_330-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 352â353.
312. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022383%E2%80%93386,_422%E2%80%93423_331-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 383â386, 422â423.
313. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992349_332-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 349.
314. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022398_333-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 398.
315. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1973_334-0)** [*Time* 1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFTime_1973).
316. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022418_335-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022418_335-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 418.
317. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022392_336-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 392.
318. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022391_337-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 391.
319. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022392%E2%80%93393_338-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 392â393.
320. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022396%E2%80%93397_339-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 396â397.
321. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShafer2022_340-0)** [Shafer 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFShafer2022).
322. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022424%E2%80%93426,_443%E2%80%93444_341-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 424â426, 443â444.
323. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022393%E2%80%93394_342-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 393â394.
324. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022395_343-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 395.
325. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022401_344-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 401.
326. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992329%E2%80%93332_345-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 329â332.
327. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022456_346-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 456.
328. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022429%E2%80%93433_347-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 429â433.
329. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992368%E2%80%93369_348-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 368â369.
330. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022435_349-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 435.
331. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022436%E2%80%93437_350-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 436â437.
332. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999385_351-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 385.
333. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022434_352-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 434.
334. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999383,_385_353-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 383, 385.
335. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999386_354-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 386.
336. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999387_355-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 387.
337. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999389,_393%E2%80%93394_356-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999389,_393%E2%80%93394_356-1) [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 389, 393â394.
338. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022455%E2%80%93456_357-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 455â456.
339. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022454%E2%80%93455_358-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 454â455.
340. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022462_359-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 462.
341. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022467,_483,_486_360-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 467, 483, 486.
342. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022481_361-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 481.
343. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992416_362-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 416.
344. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022490_363-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 490.
345. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992434%E2%80%93435_364-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 434â435.
346. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022497_365-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 497.
347. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022487_366-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022487_366-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 487.
348. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022488%E2%80%93489,_494_367-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 488â489, 494.
349. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022502%E2%80%93504_368-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 502â504.
350. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992413_369-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 413.
351. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022507%E2%80%93509_370-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 507â509.
352. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2018_371-0)** [Elving 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFElving2018).
353. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992406_372-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992406_372-1) [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 406.
354. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022509%E2%80%93510_374-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 509â510.
355. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022510%E2%80%93511_375-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022510%E2%80%93511_375-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 510â511.
356. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoble1987_376-0)** [Noble 1987](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNoble1987).
357. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992409%E2%80%93411,_413_377-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 409â411, 413.
358. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022513,_516%E2%80%93517_378-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 513, 516â517.
359. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022516_379-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 516.
360. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022516%E2%80%93517_380-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 516â517.
361. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022517_381-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 517.
362. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022518_382-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 518.
363. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022521%E2%80%93522_383-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 521â522.
364. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995408%E2%80%93409_384-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), pp. 408â409.
365. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992408_385-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 408.
366. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992412_386-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992412_386-1) [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 412.
367. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022525_387-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022525_387-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 525.
368. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992429_388-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 429.
369. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022526_389-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 526.
370. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022526%E2%80%93527,_529_390-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 526â527, 529.
371. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022531%E2%80%93532_391-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 531â532.
372. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022532%E2%80%93533_392-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 532â533.
373. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022536%E2%80%93537,_552_393-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 536â537, 552.
374. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992432%E2%80%93433_394-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 432â433.
375. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022538%E2%80%93539_395-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 538â539.
376. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx,_539%E2%80%93540_396-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xx, 539â540.
377. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPope2016_397-0)** [Pope 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFPope2016).
378. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENPR_2013_398-0)** [NPR 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNPR_2013).
379. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022540%E2%80%93541_399-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 540â541.
380. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlson2003127_400-0)** [Olson 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFOlson2003), p. 127.
381. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022541_401-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 541.
382. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022542_402-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 542.
383. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022543,_547_403-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 543, 547.
384. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022544%E2%80%93545_404-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 544â545.
385. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABC_2017_405-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABC_2017_405-1) [ABC 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFABC_2017).
386. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999458%E2%80%93459,_462_406-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 458â459, 462.
387. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022545_407-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 545.
388. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995417_408-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995417_408-1) [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 417.
389. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022545%E2%80%93546_409-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 545â546.
390. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992429%E2%80%93430_410-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 429â430.
391. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546_411-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546_411-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022546_411-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 546.
392. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995418_412-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 418.
393. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992430_413-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 430.
394. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlass2016_414-0)** [Glass 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGlass2016).
395. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022566_415-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 566.
396. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022567%E2%80%93568_416-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 567â568.
397. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022553_417-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 553.
398. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022558,_570_418-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 558, 570.
399. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022563%E2%80%93564_419-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 563â564.
400. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022565_420-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022565_420-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 565.
401. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022572%E2%80%93573_421-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 572â573.
402. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022583%E2%80%93584_422-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 583â584.
403. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022578%E2%80%93579_423-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 578â579.
404. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022578_424-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 578.
405. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022580%E2%80%93581_425-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 580â581.
406. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022584%E2%80%93585_426-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 584â585.
407. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999475_427-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 475.
408. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022586%E2%80%93587_428-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 586â587.
409. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022592_429-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 592.
410. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022592%E2%80%93593_430-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 592â593.
411. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022593,_597_431-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 593, 597.
412. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Los_Angeles_Times''_1990_432-0)** [*Los Angeles Times* 1990](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLos_Angeles_Times_1990).
413. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597_433-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597_433-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 597.
414. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022594_434-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 594.
415. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022595_435-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 595.
416. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022596_436-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022596_436-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 596.
417. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022595%E2%80%93596_437-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 595â596.
418. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022597%E2%80%93598_438-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 597â598.
419. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022598_439-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 598.
420. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999494%E2%80%93495_440-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), pp. 494â495.
421. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022599_441-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 599.
422. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022600_442-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022600_442-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 600.
423. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESullivan2004_443-0)** [Sullivan 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSullivan2004).
424. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022606%E2%80%93607_444-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 606â607.
425. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022602_445-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 602.
426. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022609_446-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 609.
427. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022603_448-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 603.
428. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999495_449-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 495.
429. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2024_450-0)** [Allen 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFAllen2024).
430. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022611_451-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 611.
431. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022615_452-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 615.
432. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022620,_623_453-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 620, 623.
433. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022623_454-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 623.
434. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022629%E2%80%93630_455-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 629â630.
435. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022631,_654_456-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 631, 654.
436. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992513%E2%80%93514_457-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 513â514.
437. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022642_458-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 642.
438. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022639%E2%80%93640_459-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 639â640.
439. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992525%E2%80%93526_460-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 525â526.
440. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022640_461-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 640.
441. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992530_462-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 530.
442. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022641_464-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022641_464-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 641.
443. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992531_465-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 531.
444. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022642%E2%80%93644,_649_466-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 642â644, 649.
445. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992527_467-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 527.
446. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022647_468-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 647.
447. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022635_469-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 635.
448. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodwardBernstein1976309_470-0)** [Woodward & Bernstein 1976](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWoodwardBernstein1976), p. 309.
449. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992536,_537_471-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 536, 537.
450. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes2003_472-0)** [Barnes 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBarnes2003).
451. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022653_473-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022653_473-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 653.
452. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELukas1999560_474-0)** [Lukas 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFLukas1999), p. 560.
453. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022655%E2%80%93656_475-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 655â656.
454. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022658_476-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 658.
455. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992539_477-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 539.
456. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992539%E2%80%93540_478-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 539â540.
457. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022661,_663_479-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 661, 663.
458. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter1973_480-0)** [Hunter 1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHunter1973).
459. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022663_482-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022663_482-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 663.
460. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWooten1974_483-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWooten1974_483-1) [Wooten 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWooten1974).
461. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022664_484-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022664_484-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 664.
462. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmery1995481_485-0)** [Emery 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFEmery1995), p. 481.
463. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022665_487-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 665.
464. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter1981_488-0)** [Hunter 1981](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHunter1981).
465. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667_489-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667_489-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 667.
466. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Time''_1974b_490-0)** [*Time* 1974b](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFTime_1974b).
467. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022667%E2%80%93668_491-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 667â668.
468. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022668_492-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022668_492-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 668.
469. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992568_493-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992568_493-1) [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 568.
470. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992567_494-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992567_494-1) [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 567.
471. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolson2018_495-0)** [Holson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHolson2018).
472. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992566_496-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 566.
473. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992569_497-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 569.
474. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669_498-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669_498-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022669_498-2) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 669.
475. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022646_499-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 646.
476. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992560%E2%80%93561_500-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 560â561.
477. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992562_501-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 562.
478. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992572_502-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 572.
479. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes2016_503-0)** [Grimes 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGrimes2016).
480. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022676_504-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022676_504-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 676.
481. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENagourneyShane2011_505-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENagourneyShane2011_505-1) [Nagourney & Shane 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNagourneyShane2011).
482. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETotenberg2011_506-0)** [Totenberg 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFTotenberg2011).
483. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022674_507-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 674.
484. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022674%E2%80%93675_508-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 674â675.
485. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022675_509-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 675.
486. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg2021_510-0)** [Greenberg 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGreenberg2021).
487. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClymer2002_511-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClymer2002_511-1) [Clymer 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFClymer2002).
488. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2020_512-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2020_512-1) [Bennett 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBennett2020).
489. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElving2022_513-0)** [Elving 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFElving2022).
490. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFadulu2025_514-0)** [Fadulu 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFFadulu2025).
491. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''New_Straits_Times''_1975_515-0)** [*New Straits Times* 1975](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNew_Straits_Times_1975).
492. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022670_516-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 670.
493. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaughton1977_517-0)** [Naughton 1977](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNaughton1977).
494. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStelter2013_518-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStelter2013_518-1) [Stelter 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFStelter2013).
495. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERanahan2025_519-0)** [Ranahan 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFRanahan2025).
496. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeve2017_520-0)** [Reeve 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFReeve2017).
497. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchulman2024_521-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchulman2024_521-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchulman2024_521-2) [Schulman 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSchulman2024).
498. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShane2006_522-0)** [Shane 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFShane2006).
499. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992586%E2%80%93587_523-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), pp. 586â587.
500. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022672%E2%80%93673_524-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. 672â673.
501. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992589_525-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 589.
502. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022673_526-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 673.
503. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutler1992591_527-0)** [Kutler 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFKutler1992), p. 591.
504. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022324_528-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. 324.
505. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2000673_529-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2000673_529-1) [Clark 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFClark2000), p. 673.
506. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECleveland_State_University_530-0)** [Cleveland State University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCleveland_State_University).
507. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_531-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_531-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_531-2) [The Library of Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFThe_Library_of_Congress).
508. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneider1999_532-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneider1999_532-1) [Schneider 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFSchneider1999).
509. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalz2022_533-0)** [Balz 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFBalz2022).
510. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xvii%E2%80%93xviii_534-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xvii%E2%80%93xviii_534-1) [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xviiâxviii.
511. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDerry2010153_535-0)** [Derry 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDerry2010), p. 153.
512. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoyne200879%E2%80%9380_536-0)** [Coyne 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFCoyne2008), pp. 79â80.
513. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENPR_2022_537-0)** [NPR 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFNPR_2022).
514. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScovell2024_538-0)** [Scovell 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFScovell2024).
515. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffman2024_539-0)** [Hoffman 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFHoffman2024).
516. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xxiii_540-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. xxiii.
517. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx,_676_541-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), pp. xx, 676.
518. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalesky2012_542-0)** [Malesky 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMalesky2012).
519. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraff2022xx_543-0)** [Graff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFGraff2022), p. xx.
520. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer2019_544-0)** [Zimmer 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFZimmer2019).
521. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce2013_545-0)** [Pierce 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFPierce2013).
522. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinraub1995_546-0)** [Weinraub 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFWeinraub1995).
523. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDargis2008_547-0)** [Dargis 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFDargis2008).
524. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGrath2008_548-0)** [McGrath 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_scandal#CITEREFMcGrath2008).
- Berman, Larry (2001). *No Peace, No Honor: Nixon, Kissinger, and Betrayal in Vietnam*. Free Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/Watergate_scandal s443 |