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| Boilerpipe Text | Syrian civil war
Part of the
Syrian revolution
,
Arab Spring
,
Arab Winter
,
Islamic State war
,
Kurdish–Turkish
and
Arab–Israeli conflicts
,
Iran–Israel
and
Iran–Saudi proxy wars
From top to bottom, left to right:
Destroyed vehicles during the
Battle of Aleppo
, 2012
Kurdish
People's Protection Units
fighters during the
Battle of Ras al-Ayn
, 2013
Opposition rocket artillery bombards government positions during an
offensive on Hama
, 2017
A neighborhood in
Raqqa
after being
recaptured
from the
Islamic State
, 2017
Turkish
and
U.S.
troops on a joint patrol in
northern Syria
, 2018
Syrians celebrating the
Fall of Assad
, 2024
Date
15 March 2011
[
a
]
– 8 December 2024
[
b
]
(13 years, 8 months and 23 days)
Location
Syria
(with
spillovers in neighboring countries
, especially
Iraq
and
Lebanon
)
Result
Syrian opposition
and allied victory;
See
Aftermath
Belligerents
Full list of factions
Casualties and losses
Total deaths
656,493+
[
1
]
[
2
]
Civilian deaths
219,223–306,887+
[
c
]
Displaced people
6.7 million
internally
6.6 million
externally (refugees)
(March 2021)
[
3
]
See
Casualties of the Syrian civil war
for details
The
Syrian civil war
was an
armed conflict
that began with the
Syrian revolution
in March 2011, when popular discontent with the
Ba'athist regime
ruled by
Bashar al-Assad
triggered large-scale protests and
pro-democracy
rallies across
Syria
, as part of the wider
Arab Spring
. The Assad regime responded to the protests with lethal force, which led to a series of defections, the emergence of armed opposition groups, and the civilian uprising descending into a
civil war
. The war lasted almost 14 years and culminated in the
fall of the Assad regime
in December 2024. Many sources regard this as the end of the civil war.
[
4
]
Post-war clashes and disputes have
continued
into 2026.
The
Syrian opposition to Bashar al-Assad
began as
an insurgency
, forming groups such as the
Free Syrian Army
. Anti-Assad forces received arms and training from
Qatar
,
Turkey
, a
United States-led program
, and others. Pro-Assad forces received financial and military support from
Iran
,
Russia
, and
Hezbollah
: Iran
launched a military intervention
in support of the Syrian government in 2013, and
Russia followed in 2015
. By this time, rebels had established the
Syrian Interim Government
after capturing the regional capitals of
Raqqa
in 2013 and
Idlib
in 2015.
Use of chemical weapons
during the war, predominantly by Syrian government forces, was the deadliest since the
Iran–Iraq War
. The
Ghouta sarin attack
was followed by unsuccessful international attempts to
eliminate Syria's chemical weapons
through military action or diplomacy.
In 2014, the
Islamic State
(IS) seized control over
Eastern Syria
and
Western Iraq
, prompting a
United States
-led
coalition
to launch an aerial
bombing campaign against the IS
, while providing
ground support
and supplies to the
Syrian Democratic Forces
(SDF), a Kurdish-dominated coalition led by the
People's Defense Units
(YPG). In 2016,
Turkey
launched
an invasion
of
northern Syria
in response to the creation of the Kurdish-led
Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria
(Rojava), while also establishing the
Syrian National Army
(SNA) to help it
fight ISIS
and
pro-Assad forces
.
The 2016 victory of pro-Assad forces in the four-year
Battle of Aleppo
marked the recapture of what had been Syria's largest city before the war. In
Idlib Governorate
, the
Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham
(HTS) militia formed the
Syrian Salvation Government
, a technocratic,
Islamist
administration that governed the region from 2017 until 2024. Meanwhile, IS was territorially defeated in the
Raqqa
and
Deir ez-Zor
campaigns. In December 2019, regime forces launched an offensive on Idlib province,
which resulted in a ceasefire lasting from 2020 until November 2024
. During this period, there were
regular clashes between pro-Assad forces and HTS
.
HTS launched a
major offensive
in November 2024, joined by the SNA.
Aleppo
fell in three days, giving momentum to revolutionaries across the country. HTS soon captured
Hama
and began to advance south towards
Homs
.
Southern rebels
and the
Syrian Free Army
launched
their own offensive
, capturing
Daraa
,
Suwayda
, and
Palmyra
. On 8 December,
Bashar al-Assad
fled to
Moscow
as
Homs fell
to HTS while southern rebels entered
Damascus
.
Assad's prime minister
remained in Damascus and transferred power to
a provisional government
.
Israel
launched an
invasion
of Syria's
Quneitra Governorate
(including the
UN buffer zone
) from its
58-year occupation
of the Syrian
Golan Heights
.
At the
Syrian Revolution Victory Conference
held at the
Presidential Palace
in
Damascus
in January 2025, the new government announced the dissolution of several armed militias and their integration into the
Syrian Ministry of Defense
, as well as the appointment of former HTS leader
Ahmed al-Sharaa
as
president of Syria
. Later that year, a
Druze insurgency
formed in the southern
Suweida Governorate
following clashes with the government and alleged sectarian violence.
Overview
The war has been fought by several factions. From 2011 to December 2024, the
Syrian Arab Armed Forces
, alongside its domestic and foreign allies, represented the
Syrian Arab Republic
and
Assad's Ba'athist government
. Alternative governments rose in
opposition
to Assad's rule, including the
Syrian Interim Government
, a
big-tent
alliance of pro-democratic,
nationalist
opposition groups whose military forces consisted of the
Syrian National Army
(SNA) and allied
Free Syrian militias
. Another is the
Syrian Salvation Government
, whose armed forces were represented by a
coalition
of
Sunni
militias led by
Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham
(HTS). Independent of them is the
Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria
(AANES), also known as Rojava, whose military force is the
Syrian Democratic Forces
(SDF), a multi-ethnic, Arab-majority force led by the Kurdish
People's Defense Units
(YPG). Other competing factions include
jihadist
organizations such as
al-Qaeda
's Syrian branch
Hurras al-Din
(the successor of
Al-Nusra Front
) and the
Islamic State
(IS).
The civil war has also served as a
proxy war
[
5
]
as a number of foreign countries–including
Turkey
,
Iran
,
Russia
and the
United States
–have been
directly involved
in the conflict, providing support to opposing factions. Iran, Russia and
Hezbollah
supported Assad's government militarily, with Iran
intervening in 2013
and Russia conducting
airstrikes and ground operations
in the country beginning in September 2015. In 2014, the
US-led international coalition
officially began
conducting air and ground operations
–primarily against the Islamic State, al-Qaeda elements such as Hurras al-Din and the
Khorasan group
and occasionally
against pro-Assad forces
–and has been militarily and logistically supporting factions such as the
Syrian Free Army
and the SDF.
Turkish forces
occupied parts of northern Syria
and have fought the SDF, Assad government and Islamic State alike while actively supporting the SNA. Between 2011 and 2017, fighting from the Syrian civil war
spilled over
into
Lebanon
as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil. While officially neutral,
Israel
exchanged border fire
and
conducted repeated strikes
against Hezbollah and Iranian elements inside Syria, whose presence in the country it
viewed as a security threat
.
[
6
]
[
7
]
Violence in the war peaked during 2012–2017 amid rebel and government offensives and
sectarian
and Islamist violence.
[
8
]
[
9
]
International organizations had accused virtually all sides involved—the Assad government, the Islamic State, opposition groups, Iran, Russia,
[
10
]
Turkey
[
11
]
and the US-led coalition
[
12
]
—of severe
human rights violations
and
massacres
.
[
13
]
The conflict had caused
a major refugee crisis
, with millions of people fleeing to neighboring countries such as Turkey, Lebanon and
Jordan
;
[
14
]
[
15
]
however, a sizable minority also sought refuge in countries outside of the Middle East, with
Germany
alone accepting over half a million Syrians since 2011.
[
15
]
Beginning in 2011
a number of peace initiatives
were launched, including several ed by the
United Nations
, but fighting continued.
[
16
]
Background
Assad government
The
Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
government came to power through
a coup d'état in 1963
by overthrowing the
Second Syrian Republic
. A
second coup in 1966
ousted the old Baathist leadership of
Michel Aflaq
, replacing it with a militaristic, hard-left, pro-Soviet regime led by
Salah Jadid
, causing a split between the
Syrian branch of Ba'ath
, which supported Jadid, and the
Iraqi branch
, which remained loyal to Aflaq. Jadid was in turn
removed in November 1970
by General
Hafez al-Assad
, an
Alawite
who declared himself
President
in March 1971.
[
17
]
This marked the beginning of the domination of personality cults centred around the
Assad family
that pervaded all aspects of Syrian daily life and was accompanied by a systematic suppression of civil and political freedoms, becoming the central feature of state propaganda. Authority in Ba'athist Syria was monopolised by three power-centres: Alawite loyalist clans, the Ba'ath Party and the
Syrian Armed Forces
. All three united by their allegiance to the Assad family.
[
18
]
[
19
]
[
20
]
The Syrian Regional Branch remained the dominant political authority in what had been a
one-party state
until the first
multi-party
election
to the
People's Council of Syria
was held in 2012.
[
21
]
On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, leading to a national crisis. The
1973 Constitution
entrusted the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party with the distinctive role as the "leader of the state and society", empowering it to mobilise the civilians for party programmes, issue decrees to ascertain their loyalty and supervise all legal trade unions. Ba'athist ideology was imposed upon children as a compulsory part of school curricula as the Armed Forces became highly monitored by the Party. The constitution removed Islam from being recognised as the
state religion
and stripped existing provisions such as the requirement that the president of Syria be
Muslim
. These measures caused widespread furor amongst the public, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the
Muslim Brotherhood
and the
ulama
. The Assad regime violently crushed the
Islamic revolts
that occurred during 1976–1982, waged by revolutionaries from the
Syrian Muslim Brotherhood
.
[
22
]
The Ba'ath Party carefully constructed Assad as the guiding father figure of the party and modern Syrian nation, advocating the continuation of
Assad dynastic
rule of Syria. As part of the publicity efforts to brand the nation and Assad family as inseparable, slogans such as "Assad or we burn the country", "Assad or to hell with the country" and "
Hafez Assad
, forever" became an integral part of the state and party discourse during the 1980s. Eventually the party organisation itself became a rubber stamp and the power structures became deeply dependent on sectarian affiliation to the Assad family and the central role of armed forces needed to crack down on dissent in the society. Critics of the regime have pointed out that deployment of violence is central to the rule of
Ba'athist Syria
and describe it as "a dictatorship with
genocidal
tendencies".
[
23
]
Hafez al-Assad's nearly three-decade rule was marked by its methods, ranging from censorship to violent measures of
state terror
such as
mass murders
,
forced deportations
and brutal practices such as
torture
, which were unleashed collectively upon the civilian population.
[
20
]
Upon Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him as the president of Syria.
[
23
]
Bashar's wife
Asma
, a
Sunni Muslim
born and educated in Britain, was initially hailed in the Western press as a "rose in the desert".
[
24
]
[
25
]
The couple once raised hopes amongst Syrian intellectuals and outside Western observers, being seen as a path towards implementing economic and political reforms. However, Bashar failed to deliver on promised reforms, instead cracking down on the civil society groups, political reformists and democratic activists that emerged during the
Damascus Spring
in the 2000s.
[
26
]
Bashar Al-Assad claims that no 'moderate opposition' to his government exists, and that all opposition forces are
Islamists
focused on destroying his
secular leadership
; his view was that terrorist groups operating in Syria are "linked to the agendas of foreign countries".
[
27
]
Demographics
The total Syrian population in July 2018 was estimated at 19,454,263 people. By ethnic groups, Syria was approximately
Arab
50%,
Alawite
15%,
Kurd
10%,
Levantine
10% and 15% of other ethnic groups (includes
Druze
,
Ismaili
,
Imami
,
Assyrian
,
Turkmen
and
Armenian
). Its religious breakdown was:
Muslim
87% (official; includes
Sunni
74% and Alawi, Ismaili and
Shia
13%),
Christian
10% (mainly of
Eastern Christian churches
[
28
]
—may now be smaller as a result of Christians fleeing the country),
Druze
3% and
Jewish
(uncounted in the estimate, but with few remaining in Damascus and Aleppo).
[
29
]
Socioeconomic background
Socioeconomic
inequality increased significantly after
free market
policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the
service sector
, these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.
[
30
]
In 2010, Syria's nominal GDP per capita was only $2,834, comparable to
sub-Saharan African
countries such as
Nigeria
and far lower than its neighbors such as Lebanon, with an annual growth rate of 3.39%, below most other developing countries.
[
31
]
The country also faced particularly high
youth unemployment
rates.
[
32
]
At the start of the war, discontent with the government was strongest in Syria's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.
[
30
]
These included cities with high poverty rates, such as
Daraa
and
Homs
, and the poorer districts of large cities.
Drought
The unrest coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from 2006 to 2011 and resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in
food prices
and a mass migration of farming families to urban centers.
[
33
]
This migration strained infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5
million refugees from the
Iraq War
.
[
34
]
The drought has also been linked to
anthropogenic global warming
, with evidence that human-caused climate change influenced the severity and duration of the regional drought.
[
35
]
[
36
]
[
37
]
Some analysis, however, has challenged the relative contribution of climatic changes to the conflict, arguing that other factors played a more important role.
[
38
]
[
39
]
[
40
]
Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and is frequently the target of military action.
[
41
]
[
42
]
Human rights
The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations.
[
43
]
The rights of
free expression
,
association
and
assembly
were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.
[
44
]
The country remained under a
state of emergency
from 1963 until 2011 and public gatherings of more than five people were banned.
[
45
]
Security forces had sweeping powers of arrest and detention.
[
46
]
Despite hopes for democratic change with the 2000
Damascus Spring
, Bashar al-Assad was widely reported as having failed to implement any improvements. In 2010, he imposed a controversial national ban on female
Islamic dress codes
(such as
face veils
) across universities, where reportedly over a thousand primary school teachers that wore the niqab were reassigned to administrative jobs.
[
47
]
A
Human Rights Watch
report issued just before the beginning of the 2011 uprising stated that Assad had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power.
[
48
]
History
Protests, civil uprising, and armed insurgency (2011–2012)
In March 2011, popular discontent with President
Bashar al-Assad
's
Ba'athist government
led to large-scale protests and
pro-democracy
rallies across Syria, as part of the wider
Arab Spring
protests in the region.
[
49
]
[
50
]
Numerous protests were violently suppressed by security forces in
deadly crackdowns
ordered by Assad, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and
detentions
, many of whom were civilians.
[
49
]
[
50
]
The
Syrian revolution
transformed into an
insurgency
with the formation of
resistance militias
across the country, developing into a full civil war by 2012.
[
d
]
Escalation; Government clashes with rebels (2012–2013)
Military situation in August 2012.
Military situation in June 2013.
Rise of the Islamist groups (January–August 2014)
Military situation in July 2014.
Territorial changes from September 2014 to September 2015.
US intervention (September 2014 – August 2015)
Russian intervention; first partial ceasefire (September 2015 – August 2016)
Aleppo recaptured; Russian/Iranian/Turkish-backed ceasefire (September 2016 – April 2017)
Territorial changes from September 2015 to December 2016.
Territorial changes from December 2016 to December 2017.
Territorial changes from December 2017 to March 2019.
Territorial changes from April 2019 to March 2020.
Syrian-American conflict; de-escalation zones (April–August 2017)
ISIL siege of Deir ez-Zor broken; CIA program halted; Russian forces permanent (September–December 2017)
Government forces advance in Hama province and Ghouta; Turkish intervention in Afrin (January–March 2018)
Douma chemical attack; US-led missile strikes; southern Syria offensive (April–August 2018)
Idlib demilitarization; Partial US withdrawal; Iraq strikes ISIL targets (September–December 2018)
ISIL attacks continue; US states conditions of withdrawal; fifth inter-rebel conflict (January–April 2019)
New outbreaks of civil war; northwestern offensive; northern buffer zone established (May–August 2019)
US forces withdraw from buffer zone; Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria (September–December 2019)
In October 2019, Kurdish leaders of the AANES announced they had reached a major deal with the Assad government, allowing for Syrian Army forces to enter Kurdish-held towns along the
Syria–Turkey border
. The deal was part of an effort to resist Turkey's
cross-border incursion
into AANES territory after US forces
withdrew
from the area after the collapse of the
Northern Syria Buffer Zone
.
[
51
]
[
52
]
[
53
]
In November 2019, Russia, Turkey and the Assad government established a
new buffer zone
in northern Syria that deescalated the Kurdish-Turkish clashes.
[
54
]
US-led coalition forces regrouped in eastern Syria in continued support of the SDF against the
Islamic State insurgency
, amid tensions with local Russian forces and Iranian elements in the region.
[
55
]
[
56
]
By the end of the decade, the war had resulted in an estimated 470,000–610,000 violent deaths, making it the second-deadliest conflict of the 21st century, after the
Second Congo War
.
[
57
]
Stalemate and frozen conflict (2020–2024)
Following the March 2020
Idlib ceasefire
, frontline fighting between the Syrian government under Assad and opposition groups had mostly subsided. By 2021, the Assad government controlled about two-thirds of the country and was consolidating power.
[
58
]
[
59
]
Although, regular flare-ups occurred among factions in northwestern Syria, and
large-scale protests
emerged in southern Syria and spread nationwide in response to extensive autocratic policies and the economic situation. The protests were noted at the time as resembling the 2011 revolution that preceded the civil war.
[
60
]
[
61
]
[
62
]
[
63
]
[
64
]
The civil war had largely settled into a stalemate by early 2023. The
United States Institute of Peace
said:
Twelve years into Syria's devastating civil war, the conflict appears to have settled into a frozen state. Although roughly 30% of the country is controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting has largely ceased and there is a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad. Over the last decade, the conflict erupted into one of the most complicated in the world, with a dizzying array of international and regional powers, opposition groups, proxies, local militias and extremist groups all playing a role. The Syrian population has been brutalized, with nearly a half a million killed, 12 million fleeing their homes to find safety elsewhere, and widespread poverty and hunger. Meanwhile, efforts to broker a political settlement have gone nowhere, leaving the Assad regime firmly in power.
[
65
]
The US
Council on Foreign Relations
said:
The war whose brutality once dominated headlines has settled into an uncomfortable stalemate. Hopes for regime change have largely died out, peace talks have been fruitless, and some regional governments are reconsidering their opposition to engaging with Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad. The government has regained control of most of the country, and Assad's hold on power seems secure.
[
66
]
However, major clashes continued between Turkish forces and factions within Syria. In late 2023, Turkish forces continued to attack Kurdish forces in northern Syria.
[
67
]
Starting on 5 October 2023, the
Turkish Armed Forces
launched a series of air and ground strikes targeting the Syrian Democratic Forces in northeastern Syria (AANES territory). The airstrikes were launched in response to the
2023 Ankara bombing
, which the Turkish government alleged was carried out by attackers originating from northeastern Syria.
[
68
]
Fall of the Assad regime (2024)
On 27 November 2024, a coalition of opposition groups called the
Military Operations Command
,
[
69
]
led by
Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham
, launched
a major offensive
[
70
]
against the Syrian Army and other pro-government forces in
Aleppo
,
Idlib
,
Hama
and
Homs Governorates
.
[
71
]
This was followed by other rebel offensives from the
Southern Operations Room
, the SDF and the Syrian Free Army which all began seizing Syrian government territory in the country's south and east.
[
72
]
[
73
]
[
74
]
[
75
]
On 29 November, rebel forces
entered Aleppo
as Syrian Army positions collapsed across the country.
[
76
]
On 7 December, rebel forces
entered Damascus
and the next day, on 8 December, Bashar al-Assad was reported to have fled the capital.
[
77
]
The Syrian Army confirmed Assad was no longer in power and had fled the country,
[
78
]
[
79
]
[
80
]
resulting in the
collapse of his regime
and ending over 60 years of Ba'athist rule under the
Assad dynasty
.
[
81
]
[
82
]
[
83
]
[
84
]
[
85
]
Assad and his family fled to
Moscow
and were granted asylum in Russia.
[
78
]
[
86
]
[
87
]
[
88
]
The fall of Assad has been said to mark the end of the Syrian civil war.
[
4
]
Syrian prime minister
Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali
recognized the transfer of power to the
Syrian Salvation Government
, which established
a caretaker government
in Damascus with
Mohammed al-Bashir
serving as the prime minister.
[
89
]
Ahmed al-Sharaa
, the leader of the Syrian Salvation Government and
emir
of Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, became
de facto
leader of Syria.
[
90
]
Belligerents
Local, regional and international actors involved in the Syrian civil war prior to the fall of the Assad regime.
Syrian factions
There are numerous factions, both foreign and domestic, involved in the Syrian civil war. These can be divided into four main groups.
First,
Ba'athist Syria
led by
Bashar al-Assad
and backed by his
Russian
and
Iranian
allies.
Second, the
Syrian opposition
consisting of two alternative governments:
i) the
Syrian Interim Government
backed by the
Syrian National Coalition
, a
big-tent
coalition of
democratic
,
Syrian nationalist
and
Islamic political
groups whose defense forces consist of the
Syrian National Army
[
91
]
and
Free Syrian Army
, and
ii) the
Syrian Salvation Government
, a
Sunni Islamist
coalition led by
Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham
.
[
92
]
Third, the Kurdish-dominated
Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria
and its military wing, the
Syrian Democratic Forces
, supported by the
United States
,
France
and other
coalition allies
.
[
93
]
Fourth, the
global jihadist
camp consisting of
al-Qaeda
affiliate
Guardians of Religion Organisation
and its rival
Islamic State
.
[
94
]
The Syrian government, the opposition and the SDF all received support—militarily, logistically and diplomatically—from foreign countries, leading the conflict to often be described as a
proxy war
.
[
95
]
Foreign involvement
Map of states with military/paramilitary forces deployed in Syria.
Syria
Supported the Assad government with troops
Supported the Assad government with militia
Supporting Syrian rebels or a non-government faction with troops
The major parties that supported the Assad government were
Iran
,
[
96
]
Russia
[
97
]
and Lebanese
militia
Hezbollah
. Syrian rebel groups received political, logistic and military support from the
United States
,
[
98
]
[
99
]
Turkey
,
[
100
]
Saudi Arabia
,
[
101
]
Qatar
,
[
102
]
Britain, France,
[
103
]
Israel
[
104
]
[
105
]
and the
Netherlands
.
[
106
]
Under the aegis of operation
Timber Sycamore
and other clandestine activities,
CIA operatives
and
US special operations troops
have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel fighters at a cost of $1
billion a year since 2012.
[
107
]
[
108
]
Iraq
had also been involved in supporting the Syrian government, but mostly against
ISIL
.
[
109
]
Hezbollah
, the Lebanese Shia militant group, was significantly involved in the Syrian Civil War. Starting from the 2011 Syrian revolution, Hezbollah provided active support to the Ba'athist government forces.
[
110
]
[
111
]
By 2012, the group escalated its involvement, deploying troops across Syria.
[
112
]
In 2013, Hezbollah publicly acknowledged its presence in Syria, intensifying its ground commitment. This involvement included an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 fighters at any given time, comprising
Special Forces
, standing forces from all units, part-time fighters and new recruits with accelerated combat training. Hezbollah's presence, supported by Iranian weaponry and training, further complicated the conflict dynamics, drawing Israeli airstrikes against Hezbollah and Iranian targets in Syria.
[
113
]
Spillover
In June 2014, members of the
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
(ISIL) crossed the border from Syria into northern Iraq, and
took control
of large swaths of Iraqi territory as the
Iraqi Army
abandoned its positions. Fighting between rebels and government forces also spilled over into Lebanon on several occasions. There were repeated incidents of sectarian violence in the
North Governorate
of Lebanon between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, as well as armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in
Tripoli
.
[
114
]
Starting on 5 June 2014, ISIL seized swathes of territory in Iraq. As of 2014, the
Syrian Arab Air Force
used airstrikes targeted against ISIL in
Raqqa
and
al-Hasakah
in coordination with the Iraqi government.
[
115
]
Weaponry and warfare
'Hell cannon'
Improvised artillery
found after the
battle of Aleppo
in 2016
Syrian Army
T-72
tank during the
2018 Rif Dimashq offensive
Chemical weapons
Sarin
,
mustard agent
and
chlorine gas
have been used during the conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction, especially the 2013
Ghouta chemical attack
. The attack was the deadliest use of chemical weapons since the
Iran–Iraq War
.
[
116
]
[
117
]
A UN fact-finding mission
was requested to investigate reported chemical weapons attacks. In four cases, UN inspectors confirmed the use of
sarin
gas.
[
118
]
In August 2016, a confidential report by the UN and the
OPCW
explicitly blamed the Syrian military of Bashar al-Assad for dropping chemical weapons (chlorine bombs) on the towns of Talmenes in April 2014 and Sarmin in March 2015 and ISIL for using sulfur mustard on the town of Marea in August 2015.
[
119
]
The United States and the European Union have said the Syrian government has conducted several chemical attacks. Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the
destruction of Syria's chemical weapons
began. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds at a "military research site".
[
120
]
After the April 2017
Khan Shaykhun chemical attack
, the United States launched its first intentional attack against Syrian government forces. An investigation conducted by Tobias Schneider and Theresa Lutkefend of the
GPPi
research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total chemical attacks to the Assad regime. Almost 90% of the attacks occurred after Ghouta chemical attack in August 2013.
[
121
]
[
122
]
In April 2020, the UN Security Council briefing was held on the findings of a global chemical weapons watchdog,
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
(OPCW), which found that the
Syrian Air Force
used sarin and chlorine during multiple attacks in 2017. Syria's close allies, Russia, and other European countries debated the issue, during which Moscow dismissed the OPCW findings while many Western European countries called for accountability for the government's
war crimes
.
[
123
]
The UN Deputy ambassador from Britain, Jonathan Allen, stated that the report by the OPCW's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) claimed that the Syrian regime is responsible for using
chemical weapons
in the war on at least four occasions. The information was also noted in two UN-mandated investigations.
[
124
]
In April 2021, Syria was suspended from the OPCW through the public vote of member states for not cooperating with the IIT and for violating the
Chemical Weapons Convention
.
[
125
]
[
126
]
[
127
]
Findings of another OPCW investigation report published in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the 77 reported incidents of chemical weapons usage attributed to
Assadist
forces.
[
128
]
[
129
]
Cluster bombs
Syria is not a party to the
Convention on Cluster Munitions
and does not recognize the ban on the use of
cluster bombs
. The Syrian Army is reported to have begun using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms Division at
Human Rights Watch
, said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs." He adds of the weapons that "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward."
[
130
]
Thermobaric weapons
Russian
thermobaric weapons
, also known as "fuel-air bombs", were used by the government's side during the war. On 2 December 2015,
The National Interest
reported that Russia was deploying the
TOS-1
Buratino multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas".
[
131
]
One
Buratino thermobaric rocket launcher
"can obliterate a roughly 200 by 400 metres (660 by 1,310 feet) area with a single salvo".
[
131
]
Since 2012, rebels have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the
Battle of Aleppo
and also in
Kafr Batna
.
[
132
]
A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013.
[
133
]
In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of napalm-like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria.
[
134
]
Missiles
An
Army of Glory
fighter launches a
BGM-71 TOW
anti-tank missile at a Syrian government position during the
2017 Hama offensive
.
Several types of
anti-tank missiles
are in use in Syria. Russia has sent
9M133 Kornet
, third-generation anti-tank guided missiles to the Syrian government whose forces have used them extensively against armour and other ground targets to fight jihadists and rebels.
[
135
]
US-made
BGM-71 TOW
missiles are one of the primary weapons of rebel groups and have been primarily provided by the United States and Saudi Arabia.
[
136
]
The US has also supplied many Eastern European sourced
9K111 Fagot
launchers and warheads to Syrian rebel groups under its
Timber Sycamore
program.
[
137
]
In June 2017, Iran attacked ISIL targets in the
Deir ez-Zor
area in eastern Syria with
Zolfaghar
ballistic missiles
fired from western Iran,
[
138
]
in the first use of mid-range missiles by Iran in 30 years.
[
139
]
According to
Jane's Defence Weekly
, the missiles travelled 650–700 kilometres.
[
138
]
Sectarianism
Map of Syria's ethno-religious composition in 1976
The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority Alawite religious group, an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the population, and most of the opposition, is Sunni. This resulted in calls for persecution of the Alawites by parts of the opposition.
[
140
]
A third of 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in the Syrian civil war.
[
141
]
In May 2013,
SOHR
stated that out of 94,000 killed during the war, 41,000 of which being Alawites.
[
142
]
As militias and non-Syrian Shia—motivated by pro-Shia sentiment rather than loyalty to the Assad government—have taken over fighting the anti-government forces from the weakened Syrian Army, fighting has taken on a more sectarian nature. One opposition leader has said that the Shia militias often "try to occupy and control the religious symbols in the Sunni community to achieve not just a territorial victory but a sectarian one as well"—reportedly occupying mosques and replacing Sunni icons with pictures of Shia leaders. According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights, human rights abuses have been committed by the militias including "a series of sectarian massacres between March 2011 and January 2014 that left 962 civilians dead".
[
143
]
In 2025 after the defeat of Assad and the rise of the transitional government, a series of
mass killings and massacres against Alawites
occurred in Syria, largely in March 2025. The UK-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) reported that 1,614 civilians were killed by armed militias supporting the Syrian government. The observatory estimated actual numbers to be much higher.
[
144
]
Kurdish autonomy in northeastern Syria
The
Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria
(AANES), also known as Rojava,
[
e
]
is a
de facto
autonomous region
in northeastern Syria.
[
148
]
[
149
]
The region does not claim to pursue full independence but autonomy within a federal and democratic Syria.
[
150
]
Rojava consists of self-governing
sub-regions
in the areas of
Afrin
,
Jazira
,
Euphrates
,
Raqqa
,
Tabqa
,
Manbij
and
Deir Ez-Zor
.
[
151
]
[
152
]
The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing
Rojava conflict
, in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part.
[
153
]
[
154
]
While entertaining
some foreign relations
, the region is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state except for the
Catalan Parliament
.
[
155
]
[
156
]
The AANES has widespread support for its universal
democratic
,
sustainable
,
autonomous
pluralist
,
equal
and
feminist
policies in dialogues with other political parties and organizations.
[
157
]
[
158
]
[
159
]
[
160
]
Northeastern Syria is
polyethnic
and home to sizeable ethnic Kurdish, Arab and Assyrian populations, with smaller communities of ethnic Turkmen, Armenians,
Circassians
and
Yazidis
.
[
161
]
[
162
]
[
163
]
The supporters of the region's administration state that it is an officially
secular
polity
[
164
]
[
165
]
with
direct democratic
ambitions based on an
anarchistic
, feminist and
libertarian socialist ideology
promoting
decentralization
,
gender equality
,
[
166
]
[
167
]
environmental
sustainability
, social
ecology
and pluralistic tolerance for religious, cultural and
political diversity
, and that these values are mirrored in
its constitution
, society and politics, stating it to be a model for a
federalized Syria
as a whole, rather than outright independence.
[
150
]
[
168
]
[
169
]
[
170
]
[
171
]
The region's administration has also been accused by some
partisan
and nonpartisan sources of
authoritarianism
, support of the Syrian government,
[
172
]
Kurdification
and displacement.
[
173
]
However, despite this the AANES has been the most
democratic
system in Syria, with direct open elections,
universal equality
, respecting
human rights
within the region, as well as defense of
minority
and
religious rights
within Syria.
[
157
]
[
174
]
[
175
]
[
176
]
[
177
]
[
178
]
[
179
]
In March 2015, the Syrian Information Minister announced that his government considered recognizing Kurdish autonomy "within the law and constitution".
[
180
]
While the region's administration was not invited to the
Geneva III peace talks on Syria
,
[
181
]
or any of the earlier talks, Russia in particular called for the region's inclusion and did to some degree carry the region's positions into the talks, as documented in Russia's May 2016 draft for a new constitution for Syria.
[
182
]
[
183
]
The Kurdish-led
Syrian Democratic Forces
announcing the
Deir ez-Zor campaign
in 2017
An analysis released in June 2017 described the region's "relationship with the government fraught but functional" and a "semi-cooperative dynamic".
[
184
]
In late September 2017, Syria's foreign minister said that Damascus would consider granting Kurds more autonomy in the region once ISIL was defeated.
[
185
]
On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of Manbij and Kobani in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.
[
186
]
The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.
[
187
]
[
188
]
Following the creation of the
Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone
, the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.
[
189
]
As of 2022, the main military threat and conflict faced by Rojava's official defense force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), are firstly, an ongoing conflict with ISIS; and secondly, ongoing concerns of possible invasion of the northeast regions of Syria by Turkish forces, in order to strike Kurdish groups in general, and Rojava in particular.
[
190
]
[
191
]
[
192
]
An official report by the Rojava government noted Turkey-backed militias as the main threat to the region of Rojava and its government.
[
193
]
On 5 June 2022, the leader of the SDF,
Mazloum Abdi
, said that forces of the Kurdish government in the AANES were willing to work with Syrian government forces to defend against Turkey, saying "Damascus should use its air defense systems against Turkish planes." Abdi said that Kurdish groups would be able to cooperate with the Syrian government, and still retain their autonomy.
[
194
]
[
195
]
[
196
]
[
197
]
[
198
]
The joint discussions were a result of the negotiation processes that had begun in October 2019.
[
199
]
In early 2023, reports indicated that the forces of Islamic State in Syria had mostly been defeated, with only a few cells remaining in various remote locations.
[
200
]
[
201
]
[
202
]
As of 2023, Turkey was continuing its support for various militias within Syria, consisting mostly of the Syrian National Army, which periodically attempted some operations against Kurdish groups.
[
203
]
[
204
]
[
205
]
One stated goal was to create "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, according to a statement by Turkish president Erdoğan.
[
206
]
[
better source needed
]
The operations were generally aimed at the
Tal Rifaat
and
Manbij
regions west of the
Euphrates
and other areas further east. President Erdoğan openly stated his support for the operations, in talks with Moscow in mid-2022.
[
207
]
Humanitarian impact
Human toll of the
Syrian civil war
Rest
Displaced
Refugees
Casualities
Rest
Displaced
Refugees
Casualities
Human toll of Syrian civil war
Pre-war population
22
±.5
;
Internally displaced 6
±.5
,
Refugees 5.5
±.5
,
Fatalities 0.5
±.1
(millions)
[
citation needed
]
Syrian refugees
By country
Turkey
,
Lebanon
,
Egypt
,
Jordan
Settlements
Camps
:
Jordan
Internally displaced Syrians
Casualties of the war
Crimes
War crimes
,
massacres
,
rape
Return of refugees
,
Refugees as weapons
,
Prosecution of war criminals
v
t
e
Refugees
Syrian refugees in Lebanon living in cramped quarters (6 August 2012)
This section needs to be
updated
.
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
(
December 2024
)
As of December 2022, an estimated 6.7 million refugees have been forced to flee Syria,
[
208
]
with approximately 5.5 million Syrian refugees residing across the five nearby countries of Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and
Egypt
. Germany hosts the largest refugee population out of any non-neighboring nation with more than 850,000 Syrian refugees.
[
209
]
Over 3.7 million Syrian refugees are in Turkey.
[
210
]
Many refugees are housed in a system of a dozen
Syrian refugee camps
placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs and Hama were besieged.
[
211
]
The massive sustained presence of Syrian refugees has fueled resentment from Turkish citizens and figures across the country's political spectrum. They have been employed as scapegoats during periods of crisis within the country. Measures have been put in place to "drive them out" including raised fees on utilities such as water and services such as marriage licences. There has been an increase on attacks targeting Syrian refugees in the country.
[
212
]
In 2013, one in three of Syrian refugees (about 667,000 people) sought safety in Lebanon, which had a population of 5.2 million in 2012.
[
213
]
[
214
]
In September 2014, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded three
million.
[
215
]
According to the
Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
, Sunnis are leaving for Lebanon and undermining Hezbollah's status. The Syrian refugee crisis has caused the "Jordan is Palestine" threat to be diminished due to the onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. Greek Catholic Patriarch
Gregorios III Laham
claimed in 2014 that more than 450,000
Syrian Christians
have been displaced by the conflict.
[
216
]
As of September 2016
, the European Union has reported that there are 13.5
million refugees in need of assistance in the country.
[
217
]
As of 2024
, it is estimated that around 1,000 European citizens are still in the Syrian internally displaced persons camps, located almost exclusively in Al-Hawl, of whom more than 600 are children.
[
218
]
A report from NGO
ACT Alliance
found that refugees in camps in north-eastern Syria have tripled in 2019.
[
219
]
Numerous refugees remain in local refugee camps. Conditions there are reported to be severe, especially during the winter.
[
220
]
[
221
]
In 2019, 4,000 people were housed at the Washokani Camp. The Kurdish Red Cross was the only organization known to have helped the camp's refugees. Numerous camp residents called for assistance from international groups.
[
222
]
[
223
]
Internally displaced refugees
The violence in Syria caused millions to flee their homes. As of March 2015, Al-Jazeera estimated 10.9
million Syrians, or almost half the population, have been displaced.
[
224
]
Violence in the ongoing crisis in northwest Syria had forced 6,500 children to flee every day over the last week of January 2020. The recorded count of displaced children in the area has reached more than 300,000 since December 2019.
[
225
]
As of 2022, there are 6.2 million internally displaced persons in Syria according to the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
. 2.5 million of those are children. 2017 alone saw the displacement of at least 1.8 million people, many of them being displaced for the second and third time.
[
226
]
Casualties
Annual deaths 2011 to 2024
Estimates of the total number of deaths in the
Syrian Civil War
were approximately 656,493 as of March 2025.
[
227
]
In late September 2021, the
United Nations
stated it had documented the deaths of at least 350,209 "identified individuals" in the conflict between March 2011 and March 2021, but cautioned the figure was "certainly an under-count" that specified only a "minimum verifiable number".
[
228
]
[
229
]
[
230
]
The most violent year of the conflict was 2014, when around 110,000 people were killed.
[
231
]
In April 2016, UN envoy to Syria
Staffan de Mistura
stated that more than 400,000 people were killed in the Syrian civil war.
[
232
]
By mid-March 2025, opposition activist group the
Syrian Observatory for Human Rights
(SOHR) reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 26,282, and that 16,181 women had also been killed.
[
227
]
On 28 June 2022, the
United Nations Human Rights Office
(OHCHR) stated that at least 306,887
civilians
had been killed in Syria during the conflict between March 2011 and March 2021, representing about 1.5% of the country's pre-war population. This figure did not include indirect and non-civilian deaths.
[
233
]
[
234
]
UN's
Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic
estimated that between 2011 and May 2021, more than 580,000 people were killed; with 13 million
Syrians
being displaced and 6.7 million
refugees forced to flee Syria
.
Ba'athist
government forces reportedly arrested and tortured numerous repatriated refugees, subjecting them to
forced disappearances
and
extrajudicial executions
.
[
235
]
In 2015, the
UNHCR
designated the conflict as the "world's worst humanitarian crisis", while the head of the
UNHRC
's
Commission of Inquiry on Syria
stated that the Ba'athist government was responsible for the majority of civilian casualties up to that point.
[
236
]
The
Syrian Network for Human Rights
estimated that between 2011 and 2024, the Ba'athist government and its foreign allies were responsible for approximately 91% of the total civilian casualties.
[
237
]
[
238
]
[
239
]
Human rights violations and war crimes
Victims of the
Ghouta chemical attack
perpetrated by Syrian regime forces in August 2013
United Nations
and
human rights organizations
have documented that human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebel forces, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been committed by the Syrian government".
[
240
]
[
241
]
Numerous
human rights abuses
,
political repression
,
war crimes
and
crimes against humanity
perpetrated by the
Assad government
throughout the course of the conflict led to international condemnation and widespread calls to convict Bashar al-Assad in European courts and in the
International Criminal Court
(ICC).
[
f
]
According to three international lawyers,
[
247
]
Syrian government officials could face war crimes charges in the light of a huge cache of evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic killing" of about
11,000 detainees
. Most of the victims were young men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution.
[
248
]
Experts said this evidence was more detailed and on a far larger scale than anything else that had emerged from the then 34-month crisis.
[
249
]
Atrocities committed by the Assad regime have been described as the "greatest war crimes of the 21st century", with chilling revelations of
torture
,
rapes
,
massacres
and extermination being leaked through the
2014 Caesar Report
, which contained photographic evidence gathered by a dissident
army photographer
who worked in Ba'athist
military prisons
.
[
241
]
According to
international lawyer
Stephen Rapp
:
We've got better evidence—against Assad and his clique—than we had against
Milosevic
in
Yugoslavia
, or we had in any of the war crimes tribunals in which I've involved in, some extent, even better than we had against the
Nazis
at
Nuremberg
, because the Nazis didn't actually take individual pictures of each of their victims with identifying information on them.
[
241
]
The UN reported in 2014 that "
siege warfare
is employed in a context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their acts". Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access to humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the government forces:
Muadamiyah
,
Daraya
, Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama.
[
250
]
[
251
]
In
Yarmouk Camp
20,000 residents faced death by starvation due to blockade by the Syrian government forces and fighting between the army and
Jabhat al-Nusra
, which prevents food distribution by UNRWA.
[
250
]
[
252
]
In July 2015, the UN removed Yarmouk from its list of besieged areas in Syria, despite not having been able deliver aid there for four months, and declined to say why it had done so.
[
253
]
After intense fighting in April/May 2018, Syrian government forces finally took the camp, its population now reduced to 100–200.
[
254
]
ISIS forces have also been criticized by the UN of using public executions and
killing of captives
, amputations and lashings in a campaign to instill fear. "Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham have committed torture, murder, acts tantamount to enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part of attacks on the civilian population in Aleppo and Raqqa governorates, amounting to crimes against humanity", said the report from 27 August 2014.
[
255
]
ISIS also
persecuted gay and bisexual men
.
[
256
]
Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising began.
[
257
]
An
Amnesty International
report, published in November 2015, stated the Syrian government has forcibly disappeared more than 65,000 people since the beginning of the Syrian civil war.
[
258
]
According to a report in May 2016 by the
Syrian Observatory for Human Rights
, at least 60,000 people have been killed since March 2011 through torture or from poor humanitarian conditions in Syrian government prisons.
[
259
]
In February 2017, Amnesty International published a report which stated the Syrian government murdered an estimated 13,000 persons, mostly civilians, at the
Saydnaya military prison
. They stated the killings began in 2011 and were still ongoing. Amnesty International described this as a "policy of deliberate extermination" and also stated that "These practices, which amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, are authorised at the highest levels of the Syrian government".
[
260
]
Three months later, the United States State Department stated a
crematorium
had been identified near the prison. According to the US, it was being used to burn thousands of bodies of those killed by the government's forces and to cover up evidence of atrocities and war crimes.
[
261
]
Amnesty International expressed surprise at the reports about the crematorium, as the photographs used by the US are from 2013 and they did not see them as conclusive, and fugitive government officials have stated that the government buries those its executes in cemeteries on military grounds in Damascus.
[
262
]
The Syrian government said the reports were not true.
[
263
]
By July 2012, the human rights group
Women Under Siege
had documented over 100 cases of rape and
sexual assault
during the conflict, with many of these crimes reported to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women and children, with about 80% of the known victims being women and girls.
[
264
]
[
better source needed
]
Protest in Berlin, showing image of murdered Syrian-Kurdish politician
Hevrin Khalaf
In late 2019, as the violence intensified in northwest Syria, thousands of women and children were reportedly kept under "inhumane conditions" in a remote camp, said UN-appointed investigators.
[
265
]
In October 2019,
Amnesty International
stated that it had gathered evidence of war crimes and other violations committed by Turkish and Turkey-backed Syrian forces who are said to "have displayed a shameful disregard for civilian life, carrying out serious violations and war crimes, including summary killings and unlawful attacks that have killed and injured civilians".
[
11
]
According to a 2020 report by UN-backed investigators into the Syrian civil war, young girls aged nine and above have been raped and inveigled into sexual slavery, while boys have been put through torture and forcefully trained to execute killings in public. Children have been attacked by sharpshooters and lured to be bargaining chips for ransoms.
[
266
]
On 6 April 2020, the United Nations published its investigation into the attacks on humanitarian sites in Syria. In its reports, the UN said it had examined six sites of attacks and concluded that the airstrikes had been carried out by the "Government of Syria and/or its allies." However, the report was criticized for being partial towards Russia and not naming it, despite proper evidence. "The refusal to explicitly name Russia as a responsible party working alongside the Syrian government ... is deeply disappointing", the HRW quoted.
[
267
]
Crime wave
Doctors and medical staff treating injured rebel fighters and civilians in Aleppo
As the conflict expanded across Syria, cities were engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating.
[
268
]
Local
National Defense Forces
commanders often engaged "in
war profiteering
through protection rackets, looting and organized crime". NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings and extortions throughout government-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013", as reported by the Institute for the Study of War.
[
269
]
Criminal networks were used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and engaging in kidnappings.
[
270
]
Rebel forces sometimes relied on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies.
Black market weapon prices
in Syria's neighboring countries significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups turned towards extortion, theft and kidnapping.
[
270
]
Syria became the chief location for manufacturing
Captagon
, an illegal
amphetamine
. Drugs manufactured in Syria found their way across the Gulf, Jordan and Europe but were at times intercepted.
[
271
]
Epidemics
The
World Health Organization
has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service. Fighting makes it impossible to undertake the normal vaccination programs. The displaced refugees may also pose a disease risk to countries to which they have fled.
[
272
]
Four hundred thousand civilians were isolated by the
Siege of Eastern Ghouta
from April 2013 to April 2018, resulting in acutely malnourished children according to the United Nations Special Advisor,
Jan Egeland
, who urged the parties for medical evacuations. 55,000 civilians are also isolated in the
Rukban
refugee camp between Syria and Jordan, where humanitarian relief access is difficult due to the harsh desert conditions. Humanitarian aid reaches the camp only sporadically, sometimes taking three months between shipments.
[
273
]
[
274
]
Formerly rare
infectious diseases
have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor
sanitation
and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include
measles
,
typhoid
,
hepatitis
,
dysentery
,
tuberculosis
,
diphtheria
,
whooping cough
and the disfiguring
skin disease
leishmaniasis
. Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling
poliomyelitis
. As of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed to the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to
vaccination
, sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic".
[
275
]
In June 2020, the United Nations reported that after more than nine years of war, Syria was falling into an even deeper crisis and economic deterioration as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. As of 26 June, a total of 248 people were infected by COVID-19, out of which nine people died. Restrictions on the importation of medical supplies, limited access to essential equipment, reduced outside support and ongoing attacks on medical facilities left Syria's health infrastructure in peril, and unable to meet the needs of its population. Syrian communities were additionally facing unprecedented levels of
hunger crisis
.
[
276
]
In September 2022, the UN representative in Syria reported that several regions in the country were witnessing a
cholera
outbreak. UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator Imran Riza called for an urgent response to contain the outbreak, saying that it posed "a serious threat to people in Syria". The outbreak was linked to the use of contaminated water for growing crops and the reliance of people on unsafe water sources.
[
277
]
Humanitarian aid
US aid to Syrian opposition forces, May 2013
The conflict holds the record for the largest sum ever requested by UN agencies for a single humanitarian emergency, $6.5
billion worth of requests of December 2013.
[
278
]
The international humanitarian response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(UNOCHA) in accordance with
General Assembly
Resolution 46/182.
[
279
]
The primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for US$1.41
billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by the conflict.
[
280
]
Official United Nations data on the humanitarian situation and response is available at an official website managed by UNOCHA Syria (Amman).
[
281
]
UNICEF is also working alongside these organizations to provide vaccinations and care packages to those in need. Financial information on the response to the SHARP and assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations can be found on UNOCHA's Financial Tracking Service. As of 19 September 2015, the top ten donors to Syria were United States, European Commission, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, UAE and Norway.
[
282
]
The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January 2015: of the estimated 212,000 people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, 304 were reached with food.
[
283
]
USAID
and other government agencies in US delivered nearly $385
million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States has provided food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies.
[
284
]
Islamic Relief
has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.
[
285
]
Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria.
[
286
]
Israel supplied aid through
Operation Good Neighbor
, providing medical treatment to 750 Syrians in a field hospital located in
Golan Heights
where rebels say that 250 of their fighters were treated.
[
287
]
Israel established two medical centers inside Syria. Israel also delivered
heating fuel
,
diesel fuel
, seven electric
generators
, water pipes, educational materials, flour for bakeries, baby food,
diapers
, shoes and clothing.
Syrian refugees in Lebanon
make up one quarter of
Lebanon's population
, mostly consisting of women and children.
[
288
]
In addition, Russia has said it created six humanitarian aid centers within Syria to support 3000 refugees in 2016.
[
289
]
On 30 April 2020, Human Rights Watch condemned the Syrian authorities for their longstanding restriction on the entry of aid supplies.
[
290
]
It also demanded the World Health Organization to keep pushing the UN to allow medical aid and other essentials to reach Syria via the Iraq border crossing, to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in the war-torn nation. The aid supplies, if allowed, will allow the Syrian population to protect themselves from contracting the COVID-19 virus.
[
291
]
Cultural impact
The
Temple of Bel
in Palmyra, which was destroyed by ISIL in August 2015
As of March 2015
, the war has affected 290 heritage sites, severely damaged 104, and completely destroyed 24.
[
needs update
]
Five of the six UNESCO
World Heritage Sites
in Syria have been damaged.
[
224
]
Destruction of antiquities has been caused by
shelling
, army entrenchment, and
looting
at various
tells
, museums and monuments.
[
292
]
A group called
Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat
is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and to gain global support for the protection and preservation of
Syrian archaeology
and architecture.
[
293
]
UNESCO listed all six Syria's World Heritage Sites as endangered but direct assessment of damage is not possible. It is known that the
Old City of Aleppo
was heavily damaged during battles being fought within the district, while
Palmyra
and
Krak des Chevaliers
suffered minor damage. Illegal digging is said to be a grave danger, and hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to have been looted; in Raqqa some artifacts seem to have been destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections.
[
294
]
In 2014 and 2015, following the rise of the Islamic State, several sites in Syria were destroyed by the group as part of a
deliberate destruction of cultural heritage sites
. In Palmyra, the group destroyed many ancient statues, the
Temples of Baalshamin
and
Bel
, many tombs including the
Tower of Elahbel
and part of the
Monumental Arch
.
[
295
]
The 13th-century
Palmyra Castle
was extensively damaged by retreating militants during the
Palmyra offensive
in March 2016.
[
296
]
IS also destroyed ancient statues in
Raqqa
,
[
297
]
and a number of churches, including the
Armenian Genocide Memorial Church
in
Deir ez-Zor
.
[
298
]
In January 2018 Turkish airstrikes seriously damaged an ancient Neo-
Hittite
temple in Syria's Kurdish-held
Afrin
region. It was built by the
Arameans
in the first millennium BC.
[
299
]
According to a September 2019 report published by the
Syrian Network for Human Rights
, more than 120 Christian churches have been destroyed or damaged in Syria since 2011.
[
300
]
The war has inspired its own particular artwork, done by Syrians. A late summer 2013 exhibition in London at the
P21 Gallery
showed some of this work, which had to be smuggled out of Syria.
[
301
]
As a result of the war many children's books have been published surrounding themes and stories of Syrian children of war. Some examples of this would be
Tomorrow
by Nadine Kaadan,
My Beautiful Birds
by Suzanne del Rizzo and
Nowhere Boy
by
Katherine Marsh
.
[
302
]
The Syrian civil war is one of the most heavily documented wars in history, despite the extreme dangers that journalists face while in Syria.
[
303
]
ISIL executions
On 19 August 2014, American journalist
James Foley
was executed by ISIL, who said it was in retaliation for the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 by
Shabiha
militia.
[
304
]
ISIL also threatened to execute
Steven Sotloff
, who was kidnapped at the Syrian–Turkish border in August 2013.
[
305
]
There were reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national as well.
[
306
]
Sotloff was later executed in September 2014. At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the
Committee to Protect Journalists
.
[
307
]
On 22 August 2014, the
al-Nusra Front
released a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded Hezbollah withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.
[
308
]
International reactions and diplomacy
Esther Brimmer
(US) speaks at a
United Nations Human Rights Council
urgent debate on Syria, February 2012
During the early period of the civil war, the
Arab League
,
European Union
, the United Nations
[
309
]
and many Western governments quickly condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise
free speech
.
[
310
]
Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but as the death toll mounted, they switched to a more balanced approach by criticizing violence from both government and protesters. Both the Arab League and the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
suspended Syria's membership. Russia and China vetoed Western-drafted
United Nations Security Council
resolutions in 2011 and 2012, which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors.
[
311
]
Economic sanctions
The
US Congress
has enacted punitive sanctions on the Syrian government for its actions during the Civil War. These sanctions would penalize any entities lending support to the Syrian government, and any companies operating in Syria.
[
312
]
[
313
]
[
314
]
[
315
]
US president Donald Trump tried to protect the Turkish president Erdogan from the effects of such sanctions.
[
316
]
Some activists welcomed this legislation.
[
317
]
Some critics contend that these punitive sanctions are likely to backfire or have unintended consequences; they argue that ordinary Syrian people will have fewer economic resources due to these sanctions (and will thus need to rely more the Syrian government and its economic allies and projects), while the sanctions' impact on ruling political elites will be limited.
[
312
]
[
318
]
[
319
]
Mohammad al-Abdallah, executive director of
Syria Justice and Accountability Center
(SJAC), said that the sanctions will likely hurt ordinary Syrian people, saying, "it is an almost unsolvable unfeasible equation. If they are imposed, they will indirectly harm the Syrian people, and if they are lifted, they will indirectly revive the Syrian regime;" he attributed the sanctions to "political considerations, as the United States does not have weapons and tools in the Syrian file, and sanctions are its only means."
[
320
]
In June, US Secretary of State
Mike Pompeo
announced new economic sanctions on Syria targeting foreign business relations with the Syrian government. Under the
Caesar Act
, the latest sanctions were to be imposed on 39 individuals and entities, including
Asma al-Assad
, wife of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad.
[
321
]
On 17 June 2020, James F. Jeffrey, Special Representative for Syria Engagement, signalled that the
UAE
could be hit with sanctions under the Caesar Act if it pushed ahead with normalisation efforts with the Syrian regime.
[
322
]
2019 negotiations
Syria peace talks in Vienna, 30 October 2015
During the course of the war, there have been several international peace initiatives, undertaken by the Arab League, the United Nations and other actors.
[
16
]
The Syrian government has refused efforts to negotiate with what it describes as armed terrorist groups.
[
323
]
On 1 February 2016, the UN announced the formal start of the UN-mediated Geneva Syria peace talks
that had been agreed on by the
International Syria Support Group
(ISSG) in Vienna. On 3 February 2016, the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks.
On 14 March 2016, Geneva peace talks resumed. The Syrian government stated that discussion of Bashar-al-Assad's presidency "is a red line", however Syria's president Bashar al-Assad said he hoped
peace talks in Geneva
would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a political process in Syria.
[
326
]
A
new round of talks
between the Syrian government and some groups of Syrian rebels concluded on 24 January 2017 in
Astana
, Kazakhstan, with Russia, Iran and Turkey supporting the
ceasefire agreement
brokered in late December 2016.
[
327
]
The Astana Process talks was billed by a Russian official as a complement to, rather than replacement, of the United Nations-led Geneva Process talks.
[
327
]
On 4 May 2017, at the fourth round of the Astana talks, representatives of Russia, Iran and Turkey signed a memorandum whereby four "
de-escalation
zones" in Syria would be established, effective of 6 May 2017.
[
328
]
[
329
]
Buffer zone with Turkey
In October 2019, in response to the Turkish offensive, Russia arranged for negotiations between the Syrian government and the Kurdish-led forces.
[
330
]
Russia also negotiated a renewal of a cease-fire between Kurds and Turkey that was about to expire.
[
331
]
Russia and Turkey agreed via the
Sochi Agreement of 2019
to set up a
Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone
. Syrian president Assad expressed full support for the deal, as various terms of the agreement also applied to the Syrian government.
[
332
]
[
54
]
The SDF stated that they considered themselves as "Syrian and a part of Syria", adding that they would agree to work with the Syrian Government.
[
333
]
The SDF officially announced their support for the deal on 27 October.
[
173
]
[
334
]
[
335
]
The agreement reportedly included the following terms:
[
332
]
[
336
]
[
337
]
[
338
]
[
339
]
[
340
]
A buffer zone would be established in northern Syria. The zone would be around 30 kilometres (19 mi) deep,
[
g
]
stretching from
Euphrates River
to
Tall Abyad
and from
Ras al-Ayn
to the Iraq-Syria border, but excluding the town of
Qamishli
, the Kurds' de facto capital.
[
341
]
The buffer zone would be controlled jointly by the
Syrian Army
and
Russian Military Police
.
All
YPG
forces, which constitute the majority of the SDF, must withdraw from the buffer zone entirely, along with their weapons, within 150 hours from the announcement of the deal. Their withdrawal would be overseen by Russian Military Police and the Syrian Border Guards, which would then enter the zone.
Syrian Constitutional Committee
In late 2019, a new
Syrian Constitutional Committee
began operating in order to discuss a new settlement and to draft a new constitution for Syria.
[
342
]
This committee comprises about 150 members. It includes representatives of the Syrian government, opposition groups and countries serving as guarantors of the process, such as Russia. However, this committee has faced strong opposition from the Assad government. Fifty of the committee members represent the government, and 50 members represent the opposition.
[
343
]
In December 2019, the EU held an international conference which condemned any suppression of the Kurds, and called for the self-declared Autonomous Administration in Rojava to be preserved and to be reflected in any new Syrian Constitution. The Kurds are concerned that the independence of their declared Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) in Rojava might be severely curtailed.
[
344
]
Rojava officials condemned the fact that they were excluded from the peace talks and stated that "having a couple of Kurds" in the committee did not mean that the Syrian Kurds were properly represented in it.
[
345
]
The co-chair of the
Syrian Democratic Council
accused Turkey of vetoing the representation of Syrian Kurds within the committee.
[
346
]
The Kurdish administration also organized demonstrations in front of the UN office in
Qamishli
to protest their exclusion from the committee.
[
347
]
Arab League
On 13 April 2023, Syrian foreign minister
Faisal Mekdad
arrived in
Jeddah
to meet Saudi foreign minister, Prince
Faisal bin Farhan
. After frayed relations during the Syrian civil war, both nations now seek "a political solution to the Syrian crisis that preserves the unity, security and stability of Syria", according to the Saudi foreign ministry. The high level talks are "facilitating the
return of Syrian refugees
to their homeland, and securing humanitarian access to the affected areas in Syria". Al-Assad previously visited the UAE, Oman as well as Saudi Arabia. The discussion also included the possible resumption of consular services between the two countries. This is the first visit to Saudi Arabia by a Syrian foreign minister since the onset of the civil war in 2011. The same week all foreign ministers of the
Arab League
would meet again to discuss the return of Syria to the regional organisation.
[
348
]
[
349
]
Scale of destruction
United Nations authorities have estimated that the war in Syria has caused destruction amounting to about $400 billion.
[
350
]
The
SNHR
reported in 2017 that the war has rendered around 39% of
Syrian mosques
unserviceable for worship. More than 13,500
mosques
were destroyed in Syria between 2011 and 2017. Around 1,400 were dismantled by 2013, while 13,000 mosques were demolished between 2013 and 2017.
[
351
]
According to a Syrian war monitor,
over 120 churches have been damaged or demolished
by during the course of Syrian war since 2011, 60% of which attacks were perpetrated by pro-Assad forces.
[
352
]
During the course of the war, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad said that Syria would be able to rebuild the war-torn country on its own. As of July 2018
, the reconstruction is estimated to cost a minimum of US$400
billion. Assad said he would be able to loan this money from friendly countries, Syrian diaspora and the state treasury.
[
353
]
Iran has expressed interest in helping rebuild Syria.
[
354
]
One year later this seemed to be materializing, Iran and the Syrian government signed a deal where Iran would help rebuild the Syrian energy grid, which has taken damage to 50% of the grid.
[
355
]
International donors have been suggested as one financier of the reconstruction.
[
356
]
As of November 2018
, reports emerged that rebuilding efforts had already started. It was reported that the biggest issue facing the rebuilding process is the lack of building material and a need to make sure the resources that do exist are managed efficiently. The rebuilding effort have so far remained at a limited capacity and has often been focused on certain areas of a city, thus ignoring other areas inhabited by disadvantaged people.
[
357
]
Various efforts are proceeding to rebuild infrastructure in Syria. Russia says it will spend $500
million to modernize Syria's port of
Tartus
. Russia also said it will build a railway to link Syria with the Persian Gulf.
[
358
]
[
359
]
Russia will also contribute to recovery efforts by the UN.
[
360
]
Syria awarded oil exploration contracts to two Russian firms.
[
361
]
Syria announced it is in serious dialogue with China to join China's "
Belt and Road Initiative
" designed to foster investment in infrastructure in over one-hundred developing nations worldwide.
[
362
]
[
363
]
On Wednesday 12 January 2022, China and Syria signed a
memorandum of understanding
in Damascus. The memorandum was signed by Fadi al-Khalil, the Head of Planning and International Cooperation Commission for the Syrian Side and Feng Biao, the Chinese ambassador in Damascus for the Chinese side. The memorandum sees Syria join the initiative whose aim is to help expand cooperation with China and other partner countries in areas such as trade, technology, capital, human movement and cultural exchange. Among other things, it aims to define the future of this cooperation with partner states.
[
364
]
Aftermath
Syrian transitional government and peace process
On 8 December 2024, hours after the
fall of Damascus
,
Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali
, the outgoing prime minister and last head of government of the Ba'athist regime, agreed to lead the transitional government in a
caretaking capacity
.
[
365
]
He then transferred power to Mohammed al-Bashir, prime minister of the
Syrian Salvation Government
(SSG), two days later.
[
366
]
On 10 December, the transitional administration announced that it would remain in place until 1 March 2025
[
needs update
]
, with all ministers from the SSG taking up their same posts in the new provisional government.
[
367
]
A few days prior to the
fall of the Assad regime
, the
Syrian American Council
(SAC) successfully
lobbied
for the
Caesar Act
sanctions to be renewed via the US
National Defense Authorization Act 2025
(NDAA 2025). However, after the fall of Assad on 8 December 2024 and establishment of the
Syrian caretaker government
, the SAC failed to have the sanctions clause removed from the bill in time.
[
368
]
On 23 December, the
Biden administration
signed NDAA 2025 into law,
[
369
]
renewing the sanctions for another five years, with
Reason
magazine labeling the sanctions "a serious obstacle to Syria's reconstruction" post-Assad.
[
370
]
On 29 January 2025, Syrian
de facto
leader
Ahmed al-Sharaa
was appointed President of Syria by the Syrian General Command for the transitional period and held the
Syrian Revolution Victory Conference
.
[
371
]
In his first address as president, al-Sharaa said that he would hold a "national dialogue conference" and issue a "constitutional declaration" to serve as a "legal reference" during the political transition following the dissolution of the
2012 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria
.
[
372
]
[
373
]
Al-Sharaa promised to go after
war criminals
belonging to the former regime.
[
374
]
[
375
]
Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) leader
Mazloum Abdi
congratulated al-Sharaa on assuming the Syrian presidency and invited him to visit northeast Syria. The SDF agreed to integrate into state institutions on 10 March 2025 and the
Suwayda Military Council
agreed to the same on 12 March 2025, marking the unification of all Syrian revolutionary factions into the transitional government.
[
376
]
[
377
]
On 29 March 2025, the
Syrian transitional government
was announced by al-Sharaa at a ceremony at the
Presidential Palace
in
Damascus
,
[
378
]
in which the new ministers were sworn in and delivered speeches outlining their agendas.
[
379
]
The government replaced the Syrian caretaker government which had been formed following the fall of the Assad regime.
[
380
]
Clashes
On the day that the Assad regime fell, Israel
invaded southern Syria
, subsuming the
Golan Heights
buffer zone
and capturing
Quneitra
,
Mount Hermon
, and surrounding towns and villages, while also carrying out a bombing campaign against Syrian military bases. Israel has since maintained a military occupation of the buffer zone.
[
381
]
[
382
]
The Turkish-backed SNA launched
an offensive
against the SDF, which ended with the capture of
Manbij
on 11 December.
Meanwhile, the SDF
crashed
against the government in northeast Syria over the control of Manbij as well as the minorities' rights.
See also
Notes
^
a
b
Large-scale demonstrations
in Syria began on 15 March 2011 and were subsequently suppressed by force by the Assad regime,
[
383
]
it eventually led to an all-out civil war.
[
384
]
[
385
]
In July 2011, defectors from the Assad regime's security apparatus formed an organized rebel group called the
Free Syrian Army
to protect protesters and strike back at Assad.
[
384
]
The
International Committee of the Red Cross
said the violence in Syria had become so widespread that it was in a state of civil war in July 2012.
[
386
]
^
a
b
With the Ba'athist regime prevailing, the hostilities were mostly put on hold
[
59
]
[
387
]
from
6 March 2020
until
27 November 2024
, after which the Syrian opposition launched a campaign of quick successful military offensives in Northwestern Syria,
toppling the Assad regime
on 8 December.
[
4
]
^
According to the
Syrian Observatory for Human Rights
(which gave an estimate of 199,068 civilian deaths) and
Syrian Network for Human Rights
(which gave an estimate of 231,000 civilian deaths), 88–91% of these deaths were caused by the Assad regime and its allies.
[
388
]
However, the methodology of both organisations has been criticised for being unreliable.
[
389
]
[
390
]
[
391
]
^
Sources:
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:
10.3389/fpos.2023.1100446
.
ISSN
2673-3145
.
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Archived
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21 June
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"Syrian Troops Open Fire on Protestors in Several Cities"
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Archived
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23 May
2018
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"Mid-East unrest: Syrian protests in Damascus and Aleppo"
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Archived
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15 March
2013
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^
The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's
PYD
-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016.
[
145
]
[
146
]
[
147
]
Since then, the name is still used by some locals and international observers.
^
Sources:
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242
]
[
243
]
[
244
]
[
245
]
[
246
]
^
Starting from the
Syria–Turkey border
and going south into Syria
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list-defined reference
has no name (see the
help page
).
References
^
"14th anniversary of Syrian Revolution | Nearly 657,000 persons killed since the onset of the revolution in March 2011"
. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 20 March 2025
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20 March
2025
.
^
"Syria"
.
GCR2P
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the original
on 28 January 2023.
^
"Syria emergency"
.
UNHCR
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29 June
2025
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^
a
b
c
*
"The end of Syria's forever war"
.
Al Jazeera
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Rapid advances by Syrian opposition forces end a war that began with peaceful protests before spiralling out of control.
"Monday briefing: How the decade-long war in Syria ended almost overnight"
.
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"FACTBOX – Syria: the war in numbers"
.
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Further reading
Cordesman, Anthony H.; Markusen, Max (23 March 2016).
"Part Three: Stability and Conflict in Syria"
(PDF)
.
The Comparative Metrics of ISIS and 'Failed State Wars' in Syria and Iraq
(Report). Washington, DC:
Center for Strategic and International Studies
.
Hinnebusch, Raymond (2012). "Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution?".
International Affairs
.
88
(1):
95–
113.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x
.
Landis, Joshua (2012).
"The Syrian Uprising of 2011: Why the Asad Regime Is Likely to Survive to 2013"
.
Middle East Policy
.
19
(1):
72–
84.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00524.x
.
Malek, Alia
(2017).
The Home That Was Our Country: A Memoir of Syria
.
PublicAffairs
.
ISBN
978-1-56858-532-1
.
Pearlman, Wendy (2017).
We Crossed a Bridge and It Trembled: Voices from Syria
.
HarperCollins
.
ISBN
978-0-06-265445-8
.
Sorenson, David S. (2016).
Syria in Ruins: The Dynamics of the Syrian Civil War
. ABC-CLIO.
ISBN
978-1-4408-3837-8
.
van Dam, Nikolaos
(2017).
Destroying a Nation: The Civil War in Syria
. I. B. Tauris.
ISBN
978-1-78672-248-5
.
External links
Ecowatch – Syria: Another Pipeline War |
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## Contents
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- [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war)
- [1 Overview](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Overview)
- [2 Background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Background)
Toggle Background subsection
- [2\.1 Assad government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Assad_government)
- [2\.2 Demographics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Demographics)
- [2\.3 Socioeconomic background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Socioeconomic_background)
- [2\.4 Drought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Drought)
- [2\.5 Human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Human_rights)
- [3 History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#History)
Toggle History subsection
- [3\.1 Protests, civil uprising, and armed insurgency (2011–2012)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Protests,_civil_uprising,_and_armed_insurgency_\(2011%E2%80%932012\))
- [3\.2 Stalemate and frozen conflict (2020–2024)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Stalemate_and_frozen_conflict_\(2020%E2%80%932024\))
- [3\.3 Fall of the Assad regime (2024)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Fall_of_the_Assad_regime_\(2024\))
- [4 Belligerents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Belligerents)
Toggle Belligerents subsection
- [4\.1 Syrian factions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Syrian_factions)
- [4\.2 Foreign involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Foreign_involvement)
- [4\.3 Spillover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Spillover)
- [5 Weaponry and warfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Weaponry_and_warfare)
Toggle Weaponry and warfare subsection
- [5\.1 Chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Chemical_weapons)
- [5\.2 Cluster bombs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Cluster_bombs)
- [5\.3 Thermobaric weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Thermobaric_weapons)
- [5\.4 Missiles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Missiles)
- [6 Sectarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Sectarianism)
- [7 Kurdish autonomy in northeastern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Kurdish_autonomy_in_northeastern_Syria)
- [8 Humanitarian impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Humanitarian_impact)
Toggle Humanitarian impact subsection
- [8\.1 Refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Refugees)
- [8\.2 Internally displaced refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Internally_displaced_refugees)
- [8\.3 Casualties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Casualties)
- [8\.4 Human rights violations and war crimes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Human_rights_violations_and_war_crimes)
- [8\.5 Crime wave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Crime_wave)
- [8\.6 Epidemics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Epidemics)
- [8\.7 Humanitarian aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Humanitarian_aid)
- [9 Cultural impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Cultural_impact)
- [10 Media coverage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Media_coverage)
Toggle Media coverage subsection
- [10\.1 ISIL executions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#ISIL_executions)
- [11 International reactions and diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#International_reactions_and_diplomacy)
Toggle International reactions and diplomacy subsection
- [11\.1 Economic sanctions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Economic_sanctions)
- [11\.2 2019 negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#2019_negotiations)
- [11\.3 Buffer zone with Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Buffer_zone_with_Turkey)
- [11\.4 Syrian Constitutional Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Syrian_Constitutional_Committee)
- [11\.5 Arab League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Arab_League)
- [12 Scale of destruction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Scale_of_destruction)
- [13 Aftermath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Aftermath)
Toggle Aftermath subsection
- [13\.1 Syrian transitional government and peace process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Syrian_transitional_government_and_peace_process)
- [13\.2 Clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Clashes)
- [14 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#See_also)
Toggle See also subsection
- [14\.1 Events within Syrian society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Events_within_Syrian_society)
- [14\.2 Historical aspects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Historical_aspects)
- [14\.3 Lists and statistical records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Lists_and_statistical_records)
- [14\.4 Peace efforts and civil society groups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Peace_efforts_and_civil_society_groups)
- [14\.5 History of other local conflicts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#History_of_other_local_conflicts)
- [15 Notes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Notes)
- [16 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#References)
- [17 Further reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Further_reading)
- [18 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#External_links)
Toggle the table of contents
# Syrian civil war
94 languages
- [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriese_Burgeroorlog "Siriese Burgeroorlog – Afrikaans")
- [العربية](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9 "الحرب الأهلية السورية – Arabic")
- [الدارجة](https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%81_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7 "لحرب ف سوريا – Moroccan Arabic")
- [مصرى](https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7 "حرب اهليه سوريا – Egyptian Arabic")
- [Asturianu](https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civil_siria "Guerra civil siria – Asturian")
- [Azərbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriyada_v%C9%99t%C9%99nda%C5%9F_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99si "Suriyada vətəndaş müharibəsi – Azerbaijani")
- [تۆرکجه](https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%86_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C "سوریه ایچ ساواشی – South Azerbaijani")
- [Башҡортса](https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B8%D3%99%D0%BB%D3%99_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D2%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8B "Сүриәлә граждандар һуғышы – Bashkir")
- [Boarisch](https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biagakriag_in_Syrien "Biagakriag in Syrien – Bavarian")
- [Беларуская (тарашкевіца)](https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%9E_%D0%A1%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96 "Грамадзянская вайна ў Сырыі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)")
- [Беларуская](https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%9E_%D0%A1%D1%96%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96 "Грамадзянская вайна ў Сірыі – Belarusian")
- [Български](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F "Гражданска война в Сирия – Bulgarian")
- [বাংলা](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7 "সিরীয় গৃহযুদ্ধ – Bangla")
- [Brezhoneg](https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_diabarzh_Siria "Brezel diabarzh Siria – Breton")
- [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gra%C4%91anski_rat_u_Siriji "Građanski rat u Siriji – Bosnian")
- [Català](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_siriana "Guerra Civil siriana – Catalan")
- [کوردی](https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AE%DB%86%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7 "شەڕی ناوخۆییی سووریا – Central Kurdish")
- [Čeština](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C4%8Dansk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka_v_S%C3%BDrii "Občanská válka v Sýrii – Czech")
- [Cymraeg](https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfel_Cartref_Syria "Rhyfel Cartref Syria – Welsh")
- [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgerkrigen_i_Syrien "Borgerkrigen i Syrien – Danish")
- [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrischer_B%C3%BCrgerkrieg "Syrischer Bürgerkrieg – German")
- [Ελληνικά](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%95%CE%BC%CF%86%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82 "Συριακός Εμφύλιος Πόλεμος – Greek")
- [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria_enlanda_milito "Siria enlanda milito – Esperanto")
- [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civil_siria "Guerra civil siria – Spanish")
- [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BC%C3%BCria_kodus%C3%B5da "Süüria kodusõda – Estonian")
- [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriako_gerra_zibila "Siriako gerra zibila – Basque")
- [فارسی](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87 "جنگ داخلی سوریه – Persian")
- [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syyrian_sis%C3%A4llissota "Syyrian sisällissota – Finnish")
- [Føroyskt](https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgarakr%C3%ADggi%C3%B0_%C3%AD_S%C3%BDria "Borgarakríggið í Sýria – Faroese")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_civile_syrienne "Guerre civile syrienne – French")
- [Gaeilge](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogadh_Cathartha_na_Siria "Cogadh Cathartha na Siria – Irish")
- [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civil_siria "Guerra civil siria – Galician")
- [עברית](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94 "מלחמת האזרחים בסוריה – Hebrew")
- [हिन्दी](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7 "सीरियाई गृहयुद्ध – Hindi")
- [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gra%C4%91anski_rat_u_Siriji "Građanski rat u Siriji – Croatian")
- [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%ADriai_polg%C3%A1rh%C3%A1bor%C3%BA "Szíriai polgárháború – Hungarian")
- [Հայերեն](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B3%D5%A3%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B4 "Սիրիական ճգնաժամ – Armenian")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Saudara_Suriah "Perang Saudara Suriah – Indonesian")
- [Íslenska](https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDrlenska_borgarastyrj%C3%B6ldin "Sýrlenska borgarastyrjöldin – Icelandic")
- [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civile_siriana "Guerra civile siriana – Italian")
- [日本語](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E5%86%85%E6%88%A6 "シリア内戦 – Japanese")
- [ქართული](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98 "სირიის სამოქალაქო ომი – Georgian")
- [Қазақша](https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B "Сирия азаматтық соғысы – Kazakh")
- [ಕನ್ನಡ](https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7 "ಸಿರಿಯನ್ ಅಂತರ್ಯುದ್ಧ – Kannada")
- [한국어](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EB%82%B4%EC%A0%84 "시리아 내전 – Korean")
- [کٲشُر](https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%81%D9%95_%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%9B%DA%AF%DB%8C "شامی خانہٕ جنٛگی – Kashmiri")
- [Kurdî](https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eer%C3%AA_navxwey%C3%AE_y%C3%AA_S%C3%BBriy%C3%AA "Şerê navxweyî yê Sûriyê – Kurdish")
- [Коми](https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D3%A7%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0 "Сирияын гражданскӧй война – Komi")
- [Limburgs](https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrische_B%C3%B6rgeroorlog "Syrische Börgeroorlog – Limburgish")
- [Lietuvių](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirijos_pilietinis_karas "Sirijos pilietinis karas – Lithuanian")
- [Latviešu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%ABrijas_pilso%C5%86u_kar%C5%A1 "Sīrijas pilsoņu karš – Latvian")
- [Македонски](https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0 "Граѓанска војна во Сирија – Macedonian")
- [മലയാളം](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82 "സിറിയൻ ആഭ്യന്തരയുദ്ധം – Malayalam")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Saudara_Syria "Perang Saudara Syria – Malay")
- [Malti](https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwerra_%C4%8Bivili_Sirjana "Gwerra ċivili Sirjana – Maltese")
- [مازِرونی](https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF "سوریه جنگ – Mazanderani")
- [नेपाली](https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7 "सिरियाली गृहयुद्ध – Nepali")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrische_Burgeroorlog "Syrische Burgeroorlog – Dutch")
- [Norsk nynorsk](https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_syriske_borgarkrigen "Den syriske borgarkrigen – Norwegian Nynorsk")
- [Norsk bokmål](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgerkrigen_i_Syria "Borgerkrigen i Syria – Norwegian Bokmål")
- [Occitan](https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Siriana "Guèrra Civila Siriana – Occitan")
- [ਪੰਜਾਬੀ](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%88_%E0%A8%98%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97 "ਸੀਰੀਆਈ ਘਰੇਲੂ ਜੰਗ – Punjabi")
- [Papiamentu](https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guera_Sivil_Sirio "Guera Sivil Sirio – Papiamento")
- [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_domowa_w_Syrii "Wojna domowa w Syrii – Polish")
- [پنجابی](https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%84%DA%91%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C "شامی دیسی لڑائی – Western Punjabi")
- [پښتو](https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%90_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87 "سوریې کورنۍ جګړه – Pashto")
- [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_S%C3%ADria "Guerra Civil Síria – Portuguese")
- [Română](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_Civil_Sirian "Războiul Civil Sirian – Romanian")
- [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8 "Гражданская война в Сирии – Russian")
- [Саха тыла](https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8D "Сирия гражданскай сэриитэ – Yakut")
- [Sicilianu](https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civili_siriana "Guerra civili siriana – Sicilian")
- [Scots](https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien_civil_war "Syrien civil war – Scots")
- [Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски](https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gra%C4%91anski_rat_u_Siriji "Građanski rat u Siriji – Serbo-Croatian")
- [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war "Syrian civil war – Simple English")
- [Slovenčina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C4%8Dianska_vojna_v_S%C3%BDrii "Občianska vojna v Sýrii – Slovak")
- [Slovenščina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirska_dr%C5%BEavljanska_vojna "Sirska državljanska vojna – Slovenian")
- [Soomaaliga](https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagaalki_Suuriya "Dagaalki Suuriya – Somali")
- [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_civile_n%C3%AB_Siri "Lufta civile në Siri – Albanian")
- [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%92%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B8 "Грађански рат у Сирији – Serbian")
- [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriska_inb%C3%B6rdeskriget "Syriska inbördeskriget – Swedish")
- [தமிழ்](https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D "சிரிய உள்நாட்டுப் போர் – Tamil")
- [ไทย](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2 "สงครามกลางเมืองซีเรีย – Thai")
- [Türkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriye_%C4%B0%C3%A7_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1 "Suriye İç Savaşı – Turkish")
- [Татарча / tatarça](https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCri%C3%A4_watanda%C5%9Flar_su%C4%9F%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1 "Süriä watandaşlar suğışı – Tatar")
- [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97 "Громадянська війна в Сирії – Ukrainian")
- [اردو](https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%81_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C "سوری خانہ جنگی – Urdu")
- [Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya_fuqarolar_urushi "Suriya fuqarolar urushi – Uzbek")
- [Tiếng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%E1%BB%99i_chi%E1%BA%BFn_Syria "Nội chiến Syria – Vietnamese")
- [Walon](https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guere_civile_siryinne "Guere civile siryinne – Walloon")
- [吴语](https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%99%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%86%85%E6%88%98 "叙利亚内战 – Wu")
- [Zeêuws](https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrische_Burhero%C3%B4rlog "Syrische Burheroôrlog – Zeelandic")
- [閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí](https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su-l%C4%AB-a_L%C5%8De-chi%C3%A0n "Su-lī-a Lōe-chiàn – Minnan")
- [粵語](https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0 "敘利亞內戰 – Cantonese")
- [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%99%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%86%85%E6%88%98 "叙利亚内战 – Chinese")
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
2011–2024 armed conflict in Syria
For the ongoing clashes since the [fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime"), see [Syrian conflict (2024–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_conflict_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Syrian conflict (2024–present)").
| Syrian civil war | |
|---|---|
| Part of the [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution"), [Arab Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring"), [Arab Winter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Winter "Arab Winter"), [Islamic State war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State "War against the Islamic State"), [Kurdish–Turkish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish%E2%80%93Turkish_conflict "Kurdish–Turkish conflict") and [Arab–Israeli conflicts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict "Arab–Israeli conflict"), [Iran–Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Iran–Israel proxy conflict") and [Iran–Saudi proxy wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_conflict "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict") | |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bombed_out_vehicles_Aleppo.jpg) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:People%27s_Defense_Units_defending_Ras_al-Ayn_against_al-Nusra_Front_terrorists_\(8\).jpg) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rebel_rocket_artillery_\(Hama_March_2017\).png) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Combined_Joint_U.S.,_Turkey_Patrols.jpg) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrians_celebrate_the_fall_of_Assad_at_the_Umayyad_mosque,_14_December_2024.jpg) From top to bottom, left to right: Destroyed vehicles during the [Battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)"), 2012 Kurdish [People's Protection Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Protection_Units "People's Protection Units") fighters during the [Battle of Ras al-Ayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ras_al-Ayn_\(2012%E2%80%9313\) "Battle of Ras al-Ayn (2012–13)"), 2013 Opposition rocket artillery bombards government positions during an [offensive on Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Hama offensive (March–April 2017)"), 2017 A neighborhood in [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa") after being [recaptured](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2017\) "Battle of Raqqa (2017)") from the [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State"), 2017 [Turkish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") and [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_intervention_in_Syria "United States intervention in Syria") troops on a joint patrol in [northern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria"), 2018 Syrians celebrating the [Fall of Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Assad "Fall of Assad"), 2024 | |
| | |
| Date | 15 March 2011 (2011-03-15)[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-InfoboxStartDate-1) – 8 December 2024 (2024-12-08)[\[b\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-InfoboxEndDate-2) (13 years, 8 months and 23 days) |
| Location | [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria "Syria") (with [spillovers in neighboring countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Spillover of the Syrian civil war"), especially [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") and [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon")) |
| Result | [Syrian opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") and allied victory; *See [Aftermath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Aftermath)* |
| Belligerents | |
| [Full list of factions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_armed_factions_during_the_Syrian_civil_war#Opposing_forces_during_the_civil_war "List of armed factions during the Syrian civil war") | |
| Casualties and losses | |
| **Total deaths** 656,493+[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SOHR2025-3)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-4) **Civilian deaths** 219,223–306,887+[\[c\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-InfoboxCivilianDeaths-5) **Displaced people** 6\.7 million [internally](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internally_displaced_person "Internally displaced person") 6\.6 million [externally (refugees)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Refugees of the Syrian civil war") (March 2021)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-6) *See [Casualties of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Casualties of the Syrian civil war") for details* | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Syrian civil war")[Syrian civil war]() |
|---|
| [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Timeline of the Syrian civil war") *[Background and causes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution "Background and causes of the Syrian revolution")* *[Casualties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Casualties of the Syrian civil war")* *[Cities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_of_cities_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Control of cities during the Syrian civil war")* *[Terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_terrorist_incidents_in_Syria "List of terrorist incidents in Syria")* *[Massacres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_massacres_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of massacres during the Syrian civil war")* |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_civil_uprising_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_civil_uprising_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_civil_uprising_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war")[Civil uprising in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_uprising_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war") (March–August 2011) |
| [Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Daraa "Siege of Daraa") [Baniyas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Baniyas "Siege of Baniyas") [Homs (May–August 2011)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Homs "Siege of Homs") [Talkalakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Talkalakh_\(May_2011\) "Siege of Talkalakh (May 2011)") [Rastan and Talbiseh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Rastan_and_Talbiseh "Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh") [1st Jisr ash-Shughur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2011_Jisr_ash-Shughur_clashes "June 2011 Jisr ash-Shughur clashes") [Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Hama_\(2011\) "Siege of Hama (2011)") [Latakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Latakia_\(2011\) "Siege of Latakia (2011)") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_early_insurgency_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_early_insurgency_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_early_insurgency_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war")[Start of insurgency in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_insurgency_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war") (Sept. 2011 – April 2012) |
| **[Siege of Homs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Homs "Siege of Homs")** [1st Homs offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Homs_offensive "2012 Homs offensive") **[1st Idlib Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(September_2011_%E2%80%93_March_2012\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012)")** [Syrian–Turkish border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2011_Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_border_clash "December 2011 Syrian–Turkish border clash") [Jabal al-Zawiya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2011_Jabal_al-Zawiya_massacres "December 2011 Jabal al-Zawiya massacres") [1st Idlib City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_\(2012\) "Battle of Idlib (2012)") [Saraqib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Saraqib "Battle of Saraqib") [1st Rastan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rastan_\(2011\) "Battle of Rastan (2011)") [Hama Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_Governorate_clashes_\(2011%E2%80%932012\) "Hama Governorate clashes (2011–2012)") **[Daraa Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_Governorate_clashes_\(2011%E2%80%932013\) "Daraa Governorate clashes (2011–2013)")** **[Rif Dimashq Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate_campaign "Rif Dimashq Governorate campaign")** [1st Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_clashes_\(November_2011%E2%80%93March_2012\) "Rif Dimashq clashes (November 2011–March 2012)") [1st Zabadani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zabadani_\(2012\) "Battle of Zabadani (2012)") [Douma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Douma "Battle of Douma") **[1st Deir ez-Zor Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_clashes_\(2011%E2%80%932014\) "Deir ez-Zor clashes (2011–2014)")** [Hatla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatla_massacre "Hatla massacre") **[Aleppo Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Aleppo_Governorate_clashes "2012 Aleppo Governorate clashes")** [Azaz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Azaz_\(2012\) "Battle of Azaz (2012)") [2nd Rastan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rastan_\(January%E2%80%93February_2012\) "Battle of Rastan (January–February 2012)") [1st al-Qusayr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Qusayr_\(2012\) "Battle of al-Qusayr (2012)") [2nd Idlib Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2012_Idlib_Governorate_Operation "April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation") [Taftanaz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Taftanaz "Battle of Taftanaz") [Idlib bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_April_2012_Idlib_bombings "30 April 2012 Idlib bombings") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_cease-fire_period_and_start_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox cease-fire period and start of the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_cease-fire_period_and_start_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox cease-fire period and start of the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_cease-fire_period_and_start_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox cease-fire period and start of the Syrian civil war")[UN ceasefire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofi_Annan_Syrian_peace_plan "Kofi Annan Syrian peace plan"); [Rebel advances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%E2%80%932013_escalation_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "2012–2013 escalation of the Syrian civil war") (May 2012 – Dec. 2013) |
| [3rd Rastan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rastan_\(May_2012\) "Battle of Rastan (May 2012)") [Houla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houla_massacre "Houla massacre") **[1st Northern Homs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Northern_Homs "Siege of Northern Homs")** [Al-Haffah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Haffah "Battle of al-Haffah") [Al-Qubeir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qubeir_massacre "Al-Qubeir massacre") [Al-Tremseh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tremseh "Battle of Tremseh") **[3rd Idlib Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(June_2012%E2%80%93April_2013\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2012–April 2013)")** **[1st Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Damascus_\(2012\) "Battle of Damascus (2012)")** [Bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18_July_2012_Damascus_bombing "18 July 2012 Damascus bombing") **[1st Aleppo city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)")** [Anadan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Anadan "Battle of Anadan") [Menagh Air Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Menagh_Air_Base "Siege of Menagh Air Base") [Base 46](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Base_46 "Siege of Base 46") [Khan al-Assal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_al-Assal_massacre "Khan al-Assal massacre") **[1st Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93December_2013\) "Aleppo offensive (October–December 2013)")** [2nd Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Canopus_Star "Operation Canopus Star") *[Syrian Kurdistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava_conflict "Rojava conflict")* and *[Kurdish–Islamist conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava%E2%80%93Islamist_conflict "Rojava–Islamist conflict")* [Hasaka campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate_campaign_\(2012%E2%80%932014\) "Al-Hasakah Governorate campaign (2012–2014)") [Ras al-Ayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ras_al-Ayn_\(2012%E2%80%9313\) "Battle of Ras al-Ayn (2012–13)") [al-Yaarubiyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Yaarubiyah "Battle of al-Yaarubiyah") [Tell Hamis and Tell Brak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tell_Hamis_and_Tell_Brak_\(2013%E2%80%932014\) "Battle of Tell Hamis and Tell Brak (2013–2014)") [Tell Abyad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tell_Abyad_\(2013\) "Battle of Tell Abyad (2013)") [Nubl & Al-Zahraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Nubl_and_al-Zahraa "Siege of Nubl and al-Zahraa") [2nd Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(August%E2%80%93October_2012\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (August–October 2012)") ([1st Darayya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darayya_massacre "Darayya massacre")) [Abu al-Duhur Airbase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Abu_al-Duhur_Airbase "Siege of Abu al-Duhur Airbase") [Quneitra Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_Governorate_clashes_\(2012%E2%80%932014\) "Quneitra Governorate clashes (2012–2014)") [3rd Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(November_2012%E2%80%93February_2013\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (November 2012–February 2013)") [1st Yarmouk camp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk_Camp_\(December_2012\) "Battle of Yarmouk Camp (December 2012)") [2nd Darayya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Darayya_\(November_2012%E2%80%93February_2013\) "Battle of Darayya (November 2012–February 2013)") **[Darayya & Muadamiyat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Darayya_and_Muadamiyat "Siege of Darayya and Muadamiyat")** [Aqrab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqrab_massacre "Aqrab massacre") [1st Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Hama_offensive "2012 Hama offensive") [Halfaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfaya_massacre_\(2012\) "Halfaya massacre (2012)") [1st Safira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Safira "Battle of Safira") [Shadadeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shaddadi_\(2013\) "Battle of Shaddadi (2013)") **[2nd Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_offensive_\(2013\) "Damascus offensive (2013)")** **[1st Raqqa Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_\(2012%E2%80%932013\) "Raqqa campaign (2012–2013)")** **[1st Raqqa city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2013\) "Battle of Raqqa (2013)")** [1st Daraa offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Daraa_offensive "2013 Daraa offensive") **[4th Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93August_2013\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (March–August 2013)")** [Jdaidet al-Fadl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jdaidet_al-Fadl "Battle of Jdaidet al-Fadl") [Tadamon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadamon_massacre "Tadamon massacre") **[Ghouta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack")** [2nd al-Qusayr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Qusayr_\(2013\) "Battle of al-Qusayr (2013)") **[3rd al-Qusayr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qusayr_offensive "Al-Qusayr offensive")** **[Eastern Ghouta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Eastern_Ghouta "Siege of Eastern Ghouta")** [2nd Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Hama_offensive "2013 Hama offensive") [Bayda and Baniyas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayda_and_Baniyas_massacres "Bayda and Baniyas massacres") [1st Latakia offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Latakia_offensive "2013 Latakia offensive") [Ma'loula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maaloula "Battle of Maaloula") [Sadad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sadad "Battle of Sadad") [5th Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(September%E2%80%93November_2013\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (September–November 2013)") **[1st Qalamoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Qalamoun_\(2013%E2%80%932014\) "Battle of Qalamoun (2013–2014)")** [Adra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adra_massacre "Adra massacre") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_rise_of_the_Islamists_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox rise of the Islamists in the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_rise_of_the_Islamists_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox rise of the Islamists in the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_rise_of_the_Islamists_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox rise of the Islamists in the Syrian civil war")[Rise of ISIS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition%E2%80%93Islamic_State_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Opposition–Islamic State conflict during the Syrian civil war") in [2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_in_Syria "2014 in Syria") |
| [Opposition–Islamic State conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition%E2%80%93Islamic_State_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Opposition–Islamic State conflict during the Syrian civil war") [Northern Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Aleppo_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93July_2014\) "Northern Aleppo offensive (February–July 2014)") [Markada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Markada "Battle of Markada") [1st Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93July_2014\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (April–July 2014)") [al-Otaiba ambush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Otaiba_ambush "Al-Otaiba ambush") [Maan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maan_massacre "Maan massacre") [Hosn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hosn "Battle of Hosn") [Morek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Morek "Battle of Morek") [2nd Daraa offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93May_2014\) "Daraa offensive (February–May 2014)") [2nd Latakia offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Latakia_offensive "2014 Latakia offensive") [4th Idlib Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Idlib_offensive "2014 Idlib offensive") [Al-Malihah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Malihah "Battle of Al-Malihah") [2nd Wadi Deif](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Wadi_Deif_\(2014\) "Siege of Wadi Deif (2014)") [2nd Qalamoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalamoun_offensive_\(2014\) "Qalamoun offensive (2014)") [Arsal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Arsal_\(2014\) "Battle of Arsal (2014)") **[2nd Deir ez-Zor Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Deir_ez-Zor_\(2014%E2%80%932017\) "Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017)")** [1st Shaer gas field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Shaer_gas_field_\(July_2014\) "Battle of the Shaer gas field (July 2014)") [1st Eastern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Eastern_Syria_offensive "2014 Eastern Syria offensive") [Tabqa Airbase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tabqa_Airbase "Battle of Tabqa Airbase") [3rd Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Hama_offensive "2014 Hama offensive") [Dama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dama "Battle of Dama") [6th Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(August%E2%80%93November_2014\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (August–November 2014)") [1st Quneitra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Quneitra_offensive "2014 Quneitra offensive") **[1st Kobanî](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Koban%C3%AE "Siege of Kobanî")** |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_intervention_against_ISIS_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox intervention against ISIS in the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_intervention_against_ISIS_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox intervention against ISIS in the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_intervention_against_ISIS_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox intervention against ISIS in the Syrian civil war")[U.S.-led intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "American-led intervention in the Syrian civil war"), [Rebel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93June_2015\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–June 2015)") and [ISIL advances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(May_2015\) "Palmyra offensive (May 2015)") (Sept. 2014 – Sept. 2015) |
| *[U.S.-led intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "American-led intervention in the Syrian civil war")* [Homs school bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs_school_bombing "Homs school bombing") [3rd Daraa offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(October_2014\) "Daraa offensive (October 2014)") [2nd Safira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Al-Safira_offensive "2014 Al-Safira offensive") [2014 Idlib city raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_raid_on_Idlib_city "2014 raid on Idlib city") [Nusra–FSA conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front%E2%80%93SRF/Hazzm_Movement_conflict "Al-Nusra Front–SRF/Hazzm Movement conflict") [2nd Shaer gas field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Shaer_gas_field_\(October%E2%80%93November_2014\) "Battle of the Shaer gas field (October–November 2014)") [1st Al-Shaykh Maskin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Shaykh_Maskin_\(2014\) "Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin (2014)") [2nd Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(December_2014\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (December 2014)") [3rd Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Rainbow_\(Syrian_civil_war\) "Operation Rainbow (Syrian civil war)") [An-26 crash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Syrian_Air_Force_An-26_crash "2015 Syrian Air Force An-26 crash") [4th Daraa offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(January_2015\) "Daraa offensive (January 2015)") [Southern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Southern_Syria_offensive "2015 Southern Syria offensive") [Eastern al-Hasakah offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_al-Hasakah_offensive "Eastern al-Hasakah offensive") [1st Sarrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sarrin_\(March%E2%80%93April_2015\) "Battle of Sarrin (March–April 2015)") [Hama/Homs offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_and_Homs_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93April_2015\) "Hama and Homs offensive (March–April 2015)") [Bosra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bosra_\(2015\) "Battle of Bosra (2015)") **[5th Idlib Gov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Idlib_offensive "2015 Idlib offensive")** [2nd Idlib city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_\(2015\) "Battle of Idlib (2015)") [Al-Fu'ah-Kafriya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_al-Fu%27ah_and_Kafriya "Siege of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya") [Nasib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nasib_Border_Crossing "Battle of Nasib Border Crossing") [2nd Yarmouk camp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk_Camp_\(2015\) "Battle of Yarmouk Camp (2015)") **[1st Northwestern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93June_2015\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–June 2015)")** [3rd Qalamoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalamoun_offensive_\(May%E2%80%93June_2015\) "Qalamoun offensive (May–June 2015)") **[1st Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(May_2015\) "Palmyra offensive (May 2015)")** [Western al-Hasakah offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_al-Hasakah_offensive "Western al-Hasakah offensive") [1st Al-Hasakah city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hasakah_city_offensive "Al-Hasakah city offensive") **[Tell Abyad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_Abyad_offensive "Tell Abyad offensive")** [Daraa/As-Suwayda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_and_As-Suwayda_offensive_\(June_2015\) "Daraa and As-Suwayda offensive (June 2015)") [2nd Quneitra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_offensive_\(June_2015\) "Quneitra offensive (June 2015)") [2nd Sarrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sarrin_\(June%E2%80%93July_2015\) "Battle of Sarrin (June–July 2015)") [5th Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(June%E2%80%93July_2015\) "Daraa offensive (June–July 2015)") [2nd Al-Hasakah city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Hasakah_\(2015\) "Battle of al-Hasakah (2015)") [2nd Kobanî](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koban%C3%AE_massacre "Kobanî massacre") [4th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(July_2015\) "Aleppo offensive (July 2015)") [2nd Zabadani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zabadani_\(2015\) "Battle of Zabadani (2015)") [2nd Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(July%E2%80%93August_2015\) "Palmyra offensive (July–August 2015)") **[Al-Ghab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghab_offensive_\(July%E2%80%93August_2015\) "Al-Ghab offensive (July–August 2015)")** [1st al-Qaryatayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Qaryatayn_\(2015\) "Battle of al-Qaryatayn (2015)") [Douma market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douma_massacre_\(2015\) "Douma massacre (2015)") [7th Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(September_2015\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (September 2015)") [Kuweires offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuweires_offensive "Kuweires offensive") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war")[Russian intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war") (Sept. 2015 – March 2016) |
| *[Russian intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war")* [3rd Quneitra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_offensive_\(October_2015\) "Quneitra offensive (October 2015)") [2nd Northwestern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93November_2015\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (October–November 2015)") **[3rd Latakia offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_Latakia_offensive "2015–2016 Latakia offensive")** **[Su-24 shootdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Russian_Sukhoi_Su-24_shootdown "2015 Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown")** **[5th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93December_2015\) "Aleppo offensive (October–December 2015)")** [al-Hawl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_al-Hawl_offensive "2015 al-Hawl offensive") [2nd Homs offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs_offensive_\(November%E2%80%93December_2015\) "Homs offensive (November–December 2015)") **[6th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Aleppo_offensive_\(2015%E2%80%932016\) "East Aleppo offensive (2015–2016)")** [4th Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Hama_offensive "2015 Hama offensive") [Tell Tamer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_Tamer_bombings "Tell Tamer bombings") [Tishrin Dam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tishrin_Dam_offensive "Tishrin Dam offensive") [2nd Al-Shaykh Maskin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Shaykh_Maskin_\(2015%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin (2015–2016)") [al-Qamishli bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Qamishli_bombings "2015 Qamishli bombings") [Orontes River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orontes_River_offensive "Orontes River offensive") [3rd Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(2016\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (2016)") [1st Sayyidah Zaynab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Sayyidah_Zaynab_attacks "2016 Sayyidah Zaynab attacks") **[7th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Aleppo_offensive_\(February_2016\) "Northern Aleppo offensive (February 2016)")** [1st Ithriyah-Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithriyah-Raqqa_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93March_2016\) "Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (February–March 2016)") [Al-Shaddadi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Shaddadi_offensive_\(2016\) "Al-Shaddadi offensive (2016)") [Homs bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2016_Homs_bombings "February 2016 Homs bombings") [2nd Sayyidah Zaynab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Sayyidah_Zaynab_attacks "2016 Sayyidah Zaynab attacks") [Khanasir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Khanasir_offensive "2016 Khanasir offensive") [2nd Tel Abyad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tell_Abyad_\(2016\) "Battle of Tell Abyad (2016)") [Al-Tanf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Tanf_offensive_\(2016\) "Al-Tanf offensive (2016)") [2nd Al-Qaryatayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Qaryatayn_\(2016\) "Battle of al-Qaryatayn (2016)") [3rd Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(March_2016\) "Palmyra offensive (March 2016)") [2nd Maarat al-Nu'man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maarat_al-Numan_\(2016\) "Battle of Maarat al-Numan (2016)") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Aleppo_escalation_period_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox Aleppo escalation period in the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Aleppo_escalation_period_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox Aleppo escalation period in the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Aleppo_escalation_period_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Aleppo escalation period in the Syrian civil war")[Aleppo escalation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") and [*Euphrates Shield*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Euphrates_Shield "Operation Euphrates Shield") (March 2016 – February 2017) |
| [8th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Aleppo_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93June_2016\) "Northern Aleppo offensive (March–June 2016)") [6th Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93April_2016\) "Daraa offensive (March–April 2016)") [9th–11th Aleppo offensives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Southern_Aleppo_campaign "2016 Southern Aleppo campaign") [Al-Dumayr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Dumayr_offensive_\(April_2016\) "Al-Dumayr offensive (April 2016)") [1st East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Ghouta_inter-rebel_conflict_\(April%E2%80%93May_2016\) "East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (April–May 2016)") [1st Qamishli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Qamishli_\(2016\) "Battle of Qamishli (2016)") [Aleppo bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_bombings_\(April%E2%80%93July_2016\) "Aleppo bombings (April–July 2016)") [8th Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93May_2016\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (April–May 2016)") [3rd Shaer gas field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Shaer_gas_field_\(2016\) "Battle of the Shaer gas field (2016)") [Northern Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Raqqa_offensive "Northern Raqqa offensive") [Jableh & Tartus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2016_Jableh_and_Tartus_bombings "May 2016 Jableh and Tartus bombings") **[1st Manbij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij_offensive_\(2016\) "Manbij offensive (2016)")** [Tokhar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokhar_airstrike "Tokhar airstrike") [2nd Ithriyah-Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithriyah-Raqqa_offensive_\(June_2016\) "Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (June 2016)") [9th Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(June%E2%80%93October_2016\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (June–October 2016)") **[12th–14th Aleppo offensives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Aleppo_summer_campaign "2016 Aleppo summer campaign")** [12th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(June%E2%80%93July_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (June–July 2016)") [13th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(July%E2%80%93August_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (July–August 2016)") [14th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(August%E2%80%93September_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (August–September 2016)") [4th Latakia offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Latakia_offensive "2016 Latakia offensive") [1st Abu Kamal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Abu_Kamal_offensive "2016 Abu Kamal offensive") [3rd Qamishli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_2016_Qamishli_bombings "July 2016 Qamishli bombings") [Atmeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Atmeh_attack "2016 Atmeh attack") [al-Rai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Rai_\(August_2016\) "Battle of al-Rai (August 2016)") [3rd Al-Hasakah City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Hasakah_\(2016\) "Battle of al-Hasakah (2016)") **[Operation Euphrates Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Euphrates_Shield "Operation Euphrates Shield")** [Northern al-Bab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_al-Bab_offensive_\(September_2016\) "Northern al-Bab offensive (September 2016)") [Dabiq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Dabiq_offensive "2016 Dabiq offensive") [al-Bab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Bab "Battle of al-Bab") **[5th Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Hama_offensive "2016 Hama offensive")** [1st Western al-Bab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_al-Bab_offensive_\(September_2016\) "Western al-Bab offensive (September 2016)") [1st Eastern Qalamoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Qalamoun_offensive_\(September%E2%80%93October_2016\) "Eastern Qalamoun offensive (September–October 2016)") [September bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_September_2016_Syria_bombings "5 September 2016 Syria bombings") [4th Quneitra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_offensive_\(September_2016\) "Quneitra offensive (September 2016)") [Deir ez-Zor airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_2016_Deir_ez-Zor_air_raid "September 2016 Deir ez-Zor air raid") [Aleppo aid convoy attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_2016_Urum_al-Kubra_aid_convoy_attack "September 2016 Urum al-Kubra aid convoy attack") [15th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(September%E2%80%93October_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (September–October 2016)") [Khan al-Shih](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_al-Shih_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93November_2016\) "Khan al-Shih offensive (October–November 2016)") [1st Idlib inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_2016_Idlib_Governorate_clashes "October 2016 Idlib Governorate clashes") [2nd Western al-Bab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_al-Bab_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93November_2016\) "Western al-Bab offensive (October–November 2016)") [16th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93November_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (October–November 2016)") **[2nd Raqqa Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_\(2016%E2%80%932017\) "Raqqa campaign (2016–2017)")** **[17th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(November%E2%80%93December_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (November–December 2016)")** [4th Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(December_2016\) "Palmyra offensive (December 2016)") [Wadi Barada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Barada_offensive_\(2016%E2%80%932017\) "Wadi Barada offensive (2016–2017)") [1st Syrian Desert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Desert_campaign_\(December_2016%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Syrian Desert campaign (December 2016–April 2017)") [Azaz bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_2017_Azaz_bombing "January 2017 Azaz bombing") [5th Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(2017\) "Palmyra offensive (2017)") [4th Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(January%E2%80%93February_2017\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (January–February 2017)") [18th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Aleppo_offensive_\(2017\) "East Aleppo offensive (2017)") [2nd Idlib inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(January%E2%80%93March_2017\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017)") [7th Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93June_2017\) "Daraa offensive (February–June 2017)") [Qaboun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaboun_offensive_\(2017\) "Qaboun offensive (2017)") [8th Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_Daraa_offensive_\(February_2017\) "Southwestern Daraa offensive (February 2017)") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Collapse_of_Islamic_State_in_Syria "Template:Campaignbox Collapse of Islamic State in Syria") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Collapse_of_Islamic_State_in_Syria "Template talk:Campaignbox Collapse of Islamic State in Syria") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Collapse_of_Islamic_State_in_Syria "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Collapse of Islamic State in Syria")Collapse of the [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State") in Syria (Feb. – Nov. 2017) |
| [Eastern Homs offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Homs_offensive_\(2017\) "Eastern Homs offensive (2017)") [al-Jina mosque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_al-Jinah_airstrike "2017 al-Jinah airstrike") **[6th Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Hama offensive (March–April 2017)")** **[Tabqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tabqa "Battle of Tabqa")** [Khan Shaykhun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack "Khan Shaykhun chemical attack") **[US Shayrat strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike "2017 Shayrat missile strike")** [Aleppo bus bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Aleppo_suicide_car_bombing "2017 Aleppo suicide car bombing") [April 2017 Turkish airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2017_Turkish_airstrikes_in_Syria_and_Iraq "April 2017 Turkish airstrikes in Syria and Iraq") [2nd East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Ghouta_inter-rebel_conflict_\(April%E2%80%93May_2017\) "East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (April–May 2017)") [2nd Syrian Desert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Desert_campaign_\(May%E2%80%93July_2017\) "Syrian Desert campaign (May–July 2017)") [Maskanah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskanah_Plains_offensive "Maskanah Plains offensive") [East Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Hama_offensive_\(2017\) "East Hama offensive (2017)") **[2nd Raqqa city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2017\) "Battle of Raqqa (2017)")** [9th Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(June_2017\) "Daraa offensive (June 2017)") [Southern Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Southern_Raqqa_offensive "2017 Southern Raqqa offensive") [Iranian Deir ez-Zor strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Laylat_al-Qadr "Operation Laylat al-Qadr") [Ja'din](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ja%27Din_shootdown_incident "Ja'Din shootdown incident") [Jobar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Jobar_offensive "2017 Jobar offensive") [5th Quneitra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_offensive_\(June_2017\) "Quneitra offensive (June 2017)") **[Central Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Syria_campaign "Central Syria campaign")** [3rd Idlib inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(July_2017\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)") **[4th Qalamoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalamoun_offensive_\(2017\) "Qalamoun offensive (2017)")** **[3rd Deir ez-Zor Gov.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_campaign_\(2017%E2%80%932019\) "Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017–2019)")** **[2nd Eastern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Syria_campaign_\(September%E2%80%93December_2017\) "Eastern Syria campaign (September–December 2017)")** [5th Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(September%E2%80%93November_2017\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (September–November 2017)") [Euphrates Crossing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates_Crossing_offensive_\(2017\) "Euphrates Crossing offensive (2017)") [Mayadin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Mayadin_offensive "2017 Mayadin offensive") [2nd Abu Kamal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Abu_Kamal_offensive "2017 Abu Kamal offensive") [7th Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_offensive_\(September_2017\) "Hama offensive (September 2017)") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Idlib_escalation_period_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox Idlib escalation period in the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Idlib_escalation_period_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox Idlib escalation period in the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Idlib_escalation_period_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Idlib escalation period in the Syrian civil war")Rebels in retreat and *[Operation Olive Branch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch "Operation Olive Branch")* (Nov. 2017 – Sep. 2018) |
| **[3rd Northwestern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_campaign_\(October_2017%E2%80%93February_2018\) "Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017–February 2018)")** *[Eastern Syria insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Syria_insurgency "Eastern Syria insurgency")* [Atarib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atarib_market_massacre "Atarib market massacre") [Harasta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Harasta_\(2017%E2%80%932018\) "Battle of Harasta (2017–2018)") [Beit Jinn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beit_Jinn_offensive "Beit Jinn offensive") **[3rd Syrian Desert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Desert_campaign_\(2017%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian Desert campaign (2017–2024)")** [6th Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(2018\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (2018)") [1st Southern Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Damascus_offensive_\(January%E2%80%93February_2018\) "Southern Damascus offensive (January–February 2018)") **[Olive Branch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch "Operation Olive Branch")** [Afrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrin_offensive_\(January%E2%80%93March_2018\) "Afrin offensive (January–March 2018)") *[SDF insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDF_insurgency_in_Northern_Aleppo "SDF insurgency in Northern Aleppo")* [Khasham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Khasham "Battle of Khasham") [Feb 2018 Israel–Syria incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2018_Israel%E2%80%93Syria_incident "February 2018 Israel–Syria incident") **[10th Rif Dimashq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93April_2018\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)")** ([Douma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douma_chemical_attack "Douma chemical attack")) [4th Idlib inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Liberation_Front%E2%80%93Tahrir_al-Sham_conflict "Syrian Liberation Front–Tahrir al-Sham conflict") [2nd Southern Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Damascus_offensive_\(March_2018\) "Southern Damascus offensive (March 2018)") **[U.S.-led missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2018_missile_strikes_against_Syria "April 2018 missile strikes against Syria")** **[2nd Northern Homs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Homs_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93May_2018\) "Northern Homs offensive (April–May 2018)")** **[2nd Eastern Qalamoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Qalamoun_offensive_\(April_2018\) "Eastern Qalamoun offensive (April 2018)")** **[3rd Southern Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Damascus_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93May_2018\) "Southern Damascus offensive (April–May 2018)")** [Deir ez-Zor SAA-SDF clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate_clashes "Deir ez-Zor Governorate clashes") [House of Cards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_House_of_Cards "Operation House of Cards") [1st As-Suwayda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-Suwayda_offensive_\(June_2018\) "As-Suwayda offensive (June 2018)") **[2nd Southern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Southern_Syria_offensive "2018 Southern Syria offensive")** [2nd As-Suwayda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_As-Suwayda_attacks "2018 As-Suwayda attacks") [3rd As-Suwayda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-Suwayda_offensive_\(August%E2%80%93November_2018\) "As-Suwayda offensive (August–November 2018)") [2nd Qamishli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamishli_clashes_\(2018\) "Qamishli clashes (2018)") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Idlib_demilitarization_and_frozen_conflict "Template:Campaignbox Idlib demilitarization and frozen conflict") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Idlib_demilitarization_and_frozen_conflict "Template talk:Campaignbox Idlib demilitarization and frozen conflict") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Idlib_demilitarization_and_frozen_conflict "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Idlib demilitarization and frozen conflict")[Idlib demilitarization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_\(2018%E2%80%932019\) "Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)") (Sep. 2018 – April 2019) |
| [Idlib demilitarization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_\(2018%E2%80%932019\) "Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)") [5th Idlib inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation%E2%80%93Tahrir_al-Sham_conflict "National Front for Liberation–Tahrir al-Sham conflict") [1st Israeli missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(September_2018\) "Syria missile strikes (September 2018)") [2nd Iranian strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahvaz_military_parade_attack#Retaliatory_missile_and_drone_strikes "Ahvaz military parade attack") [Northern border clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Syrian-Turkish_border_clashes "2018 Syrian-Turkish border clashes") [Daraa insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_insurgency "Daraa insurgency") [Manbij bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Manbij_bombing "2019 Manbij bombing") **[Baghuz Fawqani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Baghuz_Fawqani "Battle of Baghuz Fawqani")** [U.S. airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_U.S._airstrike_in_Baghuz "2019 U.S. airstrike in Baghuz") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Failure_of_the_demilitarization_and_renewed_fighting "Template:Campaignbox Failure of the demilitarization and renewed fighting") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Failure_of_the_demilitarization_and_renewed_fighting "Template talk:Campaignbox Failure of the demilitarization and renewed fighting") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Failure_of_the_demilitarization_and_renewed_fighting "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Failure of the demilitarization and renewed fighting")[First Idlib offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93August_2019\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)"), *[Operation Peace Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria")*, & [Second Idlib offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(December_2019%E2%80%93March_2020\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019–March 2020)") (April 2019 – March 2020) |
| **[4th Northwestern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93August_2019\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)")** [Tell Rifaat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Tell_Rifaat_clashes "2019 Tell Rifaat clashes") [Raqqa & Azaz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2019_Syria_bombings "June 2019 Syria bombings") [Hass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hass_refugee_camp_bombing "Hass refugee camp bombing") [2nd Israeli missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(August_2019\) "Syria missile strikes (August 2019)") **[Peace Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria")** ([2nd Ras al-Ayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ras_al-Ayn_\(2019\) "Battle of Ras al-Ayn (2019)")) [Kayla Mueller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi "Death of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi") [Northern bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_2019_Syria_bombings "November 2019 Syria bombings") [3rd Israeli missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_2019_Israeli_missile_strikes_in_Syria "November 2019 Israeli missile strikes in Syria") [Qah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qah_missile_strike "Qah missile strike") **[5th Northwestern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(2019%E2%80%932020\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (2019–2020)")** [Balyun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Balyun_airstrikes "2020 Balyun airstrikes") **[Spring Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Spring_Shield "Operation Spring Shield")** [2nd U.S. missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2019_United_States_airstrikes_in_Iraq_and_Syria "December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria") [10th Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2020_Daraa_clashes "March 2020 Daraa clashes") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Idlib_ceasefire "Template:Campaignbox Idlib ceasefire") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Idlib_ceasefire "Template talk:Campaignbox Idlib ceasefire") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Idlib_ceasefire "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Idlib ceasefire")Idlib ceasefire (March 2020 – Nov. 2024) |
| [6th Idlib inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(June_2020\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2020)") [Ayn Issa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Ayn_Issa_clashes "2020–2021 Ayn Issa clashes") [Qamishli & Al-Hasakah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Qamishli_and_Al-Hasakah "Siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah") [4th Israeli missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(January_2021\) "Syria missile strikes (January 2021)") [3rd Qamishli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Qamishli_\(2021\) "Battle of Qamishli (2021)") [11th Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Daraa_offensive "2021 Daraa offensive") [7th Idlib inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahrir_al-Sham%E2%80%93Junud_al-Sham_conflict "Tahrir al-Sham–Junud al-Sham conflict") [3rd Al-Hasakah city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Hasakah_\(2022\) "Battle of al-Hasakah (2022)") [1st Aleppo inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Ahrar_al-Sham%E2%80%93Levant_Front_clashes "2022 Ahrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes") [Jabal al-Bishrī](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Jabal_al-Bishr%C4%AB_clashes "2022 Jabal al-Bishrī clashes") [2nd Aleppo inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Aleppo_clashes_\(October_2022\) "Northern Aleppo clashes (October 2022)") [Claw-Sword](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Claw-Sword "Operation Claw-Sword") [Northwestern clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_clashes_\(December_2022%E2%80%93November_2024\) "Northwestern Syria clashes (December 2022–November 2024)") [3rd U.S. missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2023_northeastern_Syria_clashes "March 2023 northeastern Syria clashes") [2nd Northern clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2023_Northeastern_Syria_clashes "June 2023 Northeastern Syria clashes") [Deir ez-Zor clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_clashes_\(2023\) "Deir ez-Zor clashes (2023)") [3rd Northern clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_2023_Northern_Syria_clashes "October 2023 Northern Syria clashes") [Homs drone strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Homs_drone_strike "2023 Homs drone strike") *[Israel–Hezbollah conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel-Hezbollah_conflict_\(2023%E2%80%93present\) "Israel-Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)")* ([Iranian consulate airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_consulate_airstrike_in_Damascus "Iranian consulate airstrike in Damascus")) [February 2024 airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2024_United_States_airstrikes_in_Iraq_and_Syria "February 2024 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria") [Anti-Turkish riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_anti-Turkish_riots_in_Syria "2024 anti-Turkish riots in Syria") [Masyaf raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Masyaf_raid "2024 Masyaf raid") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "Template:Campaignbox 2024 Syrian opposition offensives") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "Template talk:Campaignbox 2024 Syrian opposition offensives") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox 2024 Syrian opposition offensives")[Opposition offensives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives") and [Assad overthrown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") (Nov. – Dec. 2024) |
| **[Opposition offensives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives")** **[6th Northwestern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(2024\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (2024)")** [2nd Aleppo city](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2024\) "Battle of Aleppo (2024)") [Hospital strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Aleppo_University_Hospital_airstrike "2024 Aleppo University Hospital airstrike") [8th Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Hama_offensive "2024 Hama offensive") [19th Aleppo offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dawn_of_Freedom "Operation Dawn of Freedom") [7th Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(2024\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (2024)") [3rd Homs offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Homs_offensive "2024 Homs offensive") [6th Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(2024\) "Palmyra offensive (2024)") [Al-Mustariha strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Al-Mustariha_massacre "2024 Al-Mustariha massacre") [3rd Southern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Syria_offensive_\(2024\) "Southern Syria offensive (2024)") [3rd Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_\(2024\) "Fall of Damascus (2024)") **[Fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime")** |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox Spillover of the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox Spillover of the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Spillover of the Syrian civil war")[Syrian War spillover and international incidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Spillover of the Syrian civil war") |
| [Lebanon spillover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon "Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon") [Lebanese–Syrian border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%E2%80%932017_Lebanon%E2%80%93Syria_border_clashes "2012–2017 Lebanon–Syria border clashes") [Sidon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Sidon_clash "2013 Sidon clash") [Iranian embassy bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Iranian_embassy_bombing_in_Beirut "2013 Iranian embassy bombing in Beirut") [North Lebanon clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Lebanon_clashes_\(2014\) "North Lebanon clashes (2014)") [Syrian–Turkish border incidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_border_clashes_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian civil war") [Turkish F4 shootdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Turkish_F-4_Phantom_shootdown "2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown") [Reyhanlı bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Reyhanl%C4%B1_car_bombings "2013 Reyhanlı car bombings") [Turkish occupation of northern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria") [Kurdish riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Koban%C3%AE_protests "2014 Kobanî protests") [Jordanian–Syrian border incidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanian%E2%80%93Syrian_border_incidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Jordanian–Syrian border incidents during the Syrian civil war") [Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Syrian_ceasefire_line_incidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line incidents during the Syrian civil war") [February 2018 incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2018_Israel%E2%80%93Syria_incident "February 2018 Israel–Syria incident") [May 2018 incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_House_of_Cards "Operation House of Cards") [Iraqi–Syrian border incidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Iraq_\(2013%E2%80%932017\) "War in Iraq (2013–2017)") [Akashat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akashat_ambush "Akashat ambush") [al-Shabah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_al-Shabah "Operation al-Shabah") [Western Nineveh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Nineveh_offensive_\(2017\) "Western Nineveh offensive (2017)") [Western Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Western_Iraq_campaign "2017 Western Iraq campaign") Spillover in Iran [2017 Tehran attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Tehran_attacks "2017 Tehran attacks") [2017 Deir ez-Zor missile strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Laylat_al-Qadr "Operation Laylat al-Qadr") [2024 Iranian airstrikes in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Erbil_attack "2024 Erbil attack") [Spillover in Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey%E2%80%93Islamic_State_conflict "Turkey–Islamic State conflict") [Russian Su-24 shootdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Russian_Sukhoi_Su-24_shootdown "2015 Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown") [Andrei Karlov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Andrei_Karlov "Assassination of Andrei Karlov") [Balyun airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Balyun_airstrikes "2020 Balyun airstrikes") [Kafr Takharim airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Kafr_Takharim_airstrike "2020 Kafr Takharim airstrike") [Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war") [Spillover in Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_terrorism_in_Europe "Islamic terrorism in Europe") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template:Campaignbox Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Campaignbox Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war")[Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") |
| Foreign intervention on behalf of Syrian Arab Republic [Russian involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war") [2015 intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Iranian intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [2017 missile strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Laylat_al-Qadr "Operation Laylat al-Qadr") [2012 Hezbollah involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war") Foreign intervention on behalf of Syrian rebels [Foreign rebel fighters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_fighters_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign fighters in the Syrian civil war") [Turkish involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Turkey–Islamic State conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey%E2%80%93Islamic_State_conflict "Turkey–Islamic State conflict") [Tomb of Suleyman Shah relocation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Suleyman_Shah#Events_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Tomb of Suleyman Shah") [Euphrates Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Euphrates_Shield "Operation Euphrates Shield") [2017 airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2017_Turkish_airstrikes_in_Syria_and_Iraq "April 2017 Turkish airstrikes in Syria and Iraq") [Idlib Governorate operation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate "Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate") [Afrin operation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch "Operation Olive Branch") [2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria") [Israel's role](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_and_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israel and the Syrian civil war") U.S.-led intervention against ISIL [US intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "US intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Timeline of US intervention in the Syrian civil war") [List of attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_attacks_on_Syria_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of United States attacks on Syria during the Syrian civil war") [2014 rescue operation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_American_rescue_mission_in_Syria "2014 American rescue mission in Syria") [May 2015 raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2015_U.S._special_forces_raid_in_Syria "May 2015 U.S. special forces raid in Syria") [2017 missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike "2017 Shayrat missile strike") [Qatari involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatari_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Qatari involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Jordanian intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Jordanian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Operation Martyr Muath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Martyr_Muath "Operation Martyr Muath") [Lebanon's role](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon%27s_role_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Lebanon's role in the Syrian civil war") [Saudi involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Saudi involvement in the Syrian civil war") [April 2018 missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2018_missile_strikes_against_Syria "April 2018 missile strikes against Syria") [Dutch involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Dutch involvement in the Syrian civil war") [German intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_intervention_against_the_Islamic_State "German intervention against the Islamic State") [French intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Chammal "Opération Chammal") [Australian intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Okra "Operation Okra") [UK intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Shader "Operation Shader") |
The **Syrian civil war** was an [armed conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_conflict "Armed conflict") that began with the [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution") in March 2011, when popular discontent with the [Ba'athist regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") ruled by [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad") triggered large-scale protests and [pro-democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-democracy "Pro-democracy") rallies across [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria "Syria"), as part of the wider [Arab Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring"). The Assad regime responded to the protests with lethal force, which led to a series of defections, the emergence of armed opposition groups, and the civilian uprising descending into a [civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_war "Civil war"). The war lasted almost 14 years and culminated in the [fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") in December 2024. Many sources regard this as the end of the civil war.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-end_of_war-7) Post-war clashes and disputes have [continued](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_conflict_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Syrian conflict (2024–present)") into 2026.
The [Syrian opposition to Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") began as [an insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Insurgency "Syrian Insurgency"), forming groups such as the [Free Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army"). Anti-Assad forces received arms and training from [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatari_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Qatari involvement in the Syrian civil war"), [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), a [United States-led program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_Sycamore "Timber Sycamore"), and others. Pro-Assad forces received financial and military support from [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran"), [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia"), and [Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah"): Iran [launched a military intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war") in support of the Syrian government in 2013, and [Russia followed in 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war"). By this time, rebels had established the [Syrian Interim Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government "Syrian Interim Government") after capturing the regional capitals of [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2013\) "Battle of Raqqa (2013)") in 2013 and [Idlib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_\(2015\) "Battle of Idlib (2015)") in 2015. [Use of chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war") during the war, predominantly by Syrian government forces, was the deadliest since the [Iran–Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War "Iran–Iraq War"). The [Ghouta sarin attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack") was followed by unsuccessful international attempts to [eliminate Syria's chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_Syria%27s_chemical_weapons "Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons") through military action or diplomacy.
In 2014, the [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State") (IS) seized control over [Eastern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Eastern_Syria_offensive "2014 Eastern Syria offensive") and [Western Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Iraq_offensive_\(June_2014\) "Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014)"), prompting a [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States")\-led [coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Joint_Task_Force_%E2%80%93_Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve") to launch an aerial [bombing campaign against the IS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State "War against the Islamic State"), while providing [ground support](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "US intervention in the Syrian civil war") and supplies to the [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces") (SDF), a Kurdish-dominated coalition led by the [People's Defense Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Defense_Units "People's Defense Units") (YPG). In 2016, [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") launched [an invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") of [northern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria") in response to the creation of the Kurdish-led [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") (Rojava), while also establishing the [Syrian National Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Army "Syrian National Army") (SNA) to help it [fight ISIS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Euphrates_Shield "Operation Euphrates Shield") and [pro-Assad forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Spring_Shield "Operation Spring Shield").
The 2016 victory of pro-Assad forces in the four-year [Battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") marked the recapture of what had been Syria's largest city before the war. In [Idlib Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate "Idlib Governorate"), the [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham") (HTS) militia formed the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government"), a technocratic, [Islamist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") administration that governed the region from 2017 until 2024. Meanwhile, IS was territorially defeated in the [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_\(2016%E2%80%932017\) "Raqqa campaign (2016–2017)") and [Deir ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_campaign_\(2017%E2%80%932019\) "Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017–2019)") campaigns. In December 2019, regime forces launched an offensive on Idlib province, [which resulted in a ceasefire lasting from 2020 until November 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(2019%E2%80%932020\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (2019–2020)"). During this period, there were [regular clashes between pro-Assad forces and HTS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_clashes_\(December_2022_%E2%80%93_November_2024\) "Northwestern Syria clashes (December 2022 – November 2024)").
HTS launched a [major offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives") in November 2024, joined by the SNA. [Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2024\) "Battle of Aleppo (2024)") fell in three days, giving momentum to revolutionaries across the country. HTS soon captured [Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Hama_offensive "2024 Hama offensive") and began to advance south towards [Homs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs "Homs"). [Southern rebels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Front_\(Syria\) "Southern Front (Syria)") and the [Syrian Free Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Free_Army "Syrian Free Army") launched [their own offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Syria_offensive_\(2024\) "Southern Syria offensive (2024)"), capturing [Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa "Daraa"), [Suwayda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwayda "Suwayda"), and [Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(2024\) "Palmyra offensive (2024)"). On 8 December, [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad") fled to [Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") as [Homs fell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Homs_offensive "2024 Homs offensive") to HTS while southern rebels entered [Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_\(2024\) "Fall of Damascus (2024)"). [Assad's prime minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali "Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali") remained in Damascus and transferred power to [a provisional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government"). [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel") launched an [invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_invasion_of_Syria_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Israeli invasion of Syria (2024–present)") of Syria's [Quneitra Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_Governorate "Quneitra Governorate") (including the [UN buffer zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Disengagement_Observer_Force_Zone "United Nations Disengagement Observer Force Zone")) from its [58-year occupation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_the_Golan_Heights "Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights") of the Syrian [Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golan_Heights "Golan Heights").
At the [Syrian Revolution Victory Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_Victory_Conference "Syrian Revolution Victory Conference") held at the [Presidential Palace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Damascus "Presidential Palace, Damascus") in [Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus "Damascus") in January 2025, the new government announced the dissolution of several armed militias and their integration into the [Syrian Ministry of Defense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_\(Syria\) "Ministry of Defense (Syria)"), as well as the appointment of former HTS leader [Ahmed al-Sharaa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa "Ahmed al-Sharaa") as [president of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Syria "President of Syria"). Later that year, a [Druze insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze_insurgency_in_Southern_Syria "Druze insurgency in Southern Syria") formed in the southern [Suweida Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suweida_Governorate "Suweida Governorate") following clashes with the government and alleged sectarian violence.
## Overview
The war has been fought by several factions. From 2011 to December 2024, the [Syrian Arab Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces "Syrian Arab Armed Forces"), alongside its domestic and foreign allies, represented the [Syrian Arab Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria#Ba'athist_Syria "Syria") and [Assad's Ba'athist government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Bashar_al-Assad "Presidency of Bashar al-Assad"). Alternative governments rose in [opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") to Assad's rule, including the [Syrian Interim Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government "Syrian Interim Government"), a [big-tent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_tent "Big tent") alliance of pro-democratic, [nationalist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_nationalism "Syrian nationalism") opposition groups whose military forces consisted of the [Syrian National Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Army "Syrian National Army") (SNA) and allied [Free Syrian militias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_militias "Free Syrian militias"). Another is the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government"), whose armed forces were represented by a [coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Operations_Command "Military Operations Command") of [Sunni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni "Sunni") militias led by [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham") (HTS). Independent of them is the [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") (AANES), also known as Rojava, whose military force is the [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces") (SDF), a multi-ethnic, Arab-majority force led by the Kurdish [People's Defense Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Defense_Units "People's Defense Units") (YPG). Other competing factions include [jihadist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihadist "Jihadist") organizations such as [al-Qaeda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda "Al-Qaeda")'s Syrian branch [Hurras al-Din](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurras_al-Din "Hurras al-Din") (the successor of [Al-Nusra Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front "Al-Nusra Front")) and the [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State") (IS).
The civil war has also served as a [proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_war "Proxy war")[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-8) as a number of foreign countries–including [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran"), [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") and the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States")–have been [directly involved](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") in the conflict, providing support to opposing factions. Iran, Russia and [Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah") supported Assad's government militarily, with Iran [intervening in 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war") and Russia conducting [airstrikes and ground operations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_military_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian military intervention in the Syrian civil war") in the country beginning in September 2015. In 2014, the [US-led international coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Joint_Task_Force_%E2%80%93_Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve") officially began [conducting air and ground operations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "US intervention in the Syrian civil war")–primarily against the Islamic State, al-Qaeda elements such as Hurras al-Din and the [Khorasan group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khorasan_group "Khorasan group") and occasionally [against pro-Assad forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_attacks_on_Syria_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of United States attacks on Syria during the Syrian civil war")–and has been militarily and logistically supporting factions such as the [Syrian Free Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Commando_Army "Revolutionary Commando Army") and the SDF. [Turkish forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") [occupied parts of northern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria") and have fought the SDF, Assad government and Islamic State alike while actively supporting the SNA. Between 2011 and 2017, fighting from the Syrian civil war [spilled over](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon "Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon") into [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon") as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil. While officially neutral, [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel") [exchanged border fire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Syrian_ceasefire_line_incidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line incidents during the Syrian civil war") and [conducted repeated strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iran–Israel conflict during the Syrian civil war") against Hezbollah and Iranian elements inside Syria, whose presence in the country it [viewed as a security threat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_and_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israel and the Syrian civil war").[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-9)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-10)
Violence in the war peaked during 2012–2017 amid rebel and government offensives and [sectarian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war") and Islamist violence.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-11)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-12) International organizations had accused virtually all sides involved—the Assad government, the Islamic State, opposition groups, Iran, Russia,[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-The_Guardian-13) Turkey[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-amnesty1-14) and the US-led coalition[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-15)—of severe [human rights violations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations "Human rights violations") and [massacres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_massacres_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of massacres during the Syrian civil war").[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-16) The conflict had caused [a major refugee crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Refugees of the Syrian civil war"), with millions of people fleeing to neighboring countries such as Turkey, Lebanon and [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan "Jordan");[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-17)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-PBS-18) however, a sizable minority also sought refuge in countries outside of the Middle East, with [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany "Germany") alone accepting over half a million Syrians since 2011.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-PBS-18) Beginning in 2011 [a number of peace initiatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process "Syrian peace process") were launched, including several ed by the [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"), but fighting continued.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Mediation_in_Syria-19)
## Background
Main articles: [Background and causes of the Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution "Background and causes of the Syrian revolution") and [Modern history of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_history_of_Syria "Modern history of Syria")
### Assad government
See also: [Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria"), [Presidency of Hafez al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Hafez_al-Assad "Presidency of Hafez al-Assad"), [Presidency of Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Bashar_al-Assad "Presidency of Bashar al-Assad"), and [Assad family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assad_family "Assad family")
The [Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party "Ba'ath Party") government came to power through [a coup d'état in 1963](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1963 Syrian coup d'état") by overthrowing the [Second Syrian Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic "Second Syrian Republic"). A [second coup in 1966](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1966 Syrian coup d'état") ousted the old Baathist leadership of [Michel Aflaq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq "Michel Aflaq"), replacing it with a militaristic, hard-left, pro-Soviet regime led by [Salah Jadid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salah_Jadid "Salah Jadid"), causing a split between the [Syrian branch of Ba'ath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region "Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region"), which supported Jadid, and the [Iraqi branch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region "Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region"), which remained loyal to Aflaq. Jadid was in turn [removed in November 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrective_Movement_\(Syria\) "Corrective Movement (Syria)") by General [Hafez al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad "Hafez al-Assad"), an [Alawite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alawite "Alawite") who declared himself [President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Syria "President of Syria") in March 1971.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-20) This marked the beginning of the domination of personality cults centred around the [Assad family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Assad_family "Al-Assad family") that pervaded all aspects of Syrian daily life and was accompanied by a systematic suppression of civil and political freedoms, becoming the central feature of state propaganda. Authority in Ba'athist Syria was monopolised by three power-centres: Alawite loyalist clans, the Ba'ath Party and the [Syrian Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces "Syrian Armed Forces"). All three united by their allegiance to the Assad family.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-21)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-22)[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Dictators_and_Autocrats-23)
The Syrian Regional Branch remained the dominant political authority in what had been a [one-party state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-party_state "One-party state") until the first [multi-party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party_system "Multi-party system") [election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Syrian_parliamentary_election "2012 Syrian parliamentary election") to the [People's Council of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria "People's Council of Syria") was held in 2012.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-24) On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, leading to a national crisis. The [1973 Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Constitution_of_1973 "Syrian Constitution of 1973") entrusted the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party with the distinctive role as the "leader of the state and society", empowering it to mobilise the civilians for party programmes, issue decrees to ascertain their loyalty and supervise all legal trade unions. Ba'athist ideology was imposed upon children as a compulsory part of school curricula as the Armed Forces became highly monitored by the Party. The constitution removed Islam from being recognised as the [state religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_religion "State religion") and stripped existing provisions such as the requirement that the president of Syria be [Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim "Muslim"). These measures caused widespread furor amongst the public, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the [Muslim Brotherhood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood "Muslim Brotherhood") and the *[ulama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama "Ulama")*. The Assad regime violently crushed the [Islamic revolts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria "Islamist uprising in Syria") that occurred during 1976–1982, waged by revolutionaries from the [Syrian Muslim Brotherhood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Muslim_Brotherhood "Syrian Muslim Brotherhood").[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-25)
The Ba'ath Party carefully constructed Assad as the guiding father figure of the party and modern Syrian nation, advocating the continuation of [Assad dynastic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assad_dynasty "Assad dynasty") rule of Syria. As part of the publicity efforts to brand the nation and Assad family as inseparable, slogans such as "Assad or we burn the country", "Assad or to hell with the country" and "[Hafez Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad "Hafez al-Assad"), forever" became an integral part of the state and party discourse during the 1980s. Eventually the party organisation itself became a rubber stamp and the power structures became deeply dependent on sectarian affiliation to the Assad family and the central role of armed forces needed to crack down on dissent in the society. Critics of the regime have pointed out that deployment of violence is central to the rule of [Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") and describe it as "a dictatorship with [genocidal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide "Genocide") tendencies".[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kmak,_Bj%C3%B6rklund_2022_73%E2%80%9374-26) Hafez al-Assad's nearly three-decade rule was marked by its methods, ranging from censorship to violent measures of [state terror](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_terror "State terror") such as [mass murders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_murders "Mass murders"), [forced deportations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation "Deportation") and brutal practices such as [torture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture "Torture"), which were unleashed collectively upon the civilian population.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Dictators_and_Autocrats-23) Upon Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him as the president of Syria.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kmak,_Bj%C3%B6rklund_2022_73%E2%80%9374-26)
Bashar's wife [Asma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asma_al-Assad "Asma al-Assad"), a [Sunni Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Muslim "Sunni Muslim") born and educated in Britain, was initially hailed in the Western press as a "rose in the desert".[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-rose-27)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-28) The couple once raised hopes amongst Syrian intellectuals and outside Western observers, being seen as a path towards implementing economic and political reforms. However, Bashar failed to deliver on promised reforms, instead cracking down on the civil society groups, political reformists and democratic activists that emerged during the [Damascus Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_Spring "Damascus Spring") in the 2000s.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-nyt1Apr11-29) Bashar Al-Assad claims that no 'moderate opposition' to his government exists, and that all opposition forces are [Islamists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") focused on destroying his [secular leadership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularity "Secularity"); his view was that terrorist groups operating in Syria are "linked to the agendas of foreign countries".[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-30)
### Demographics
Main article: [Demographics of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria "Demographics of Syria")
The total Syrian population in July 2018 was estimated at 19,454,263 people. By ethnic groups, Syria was approximately [Arab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrians "Syrians") 50%, [Alawite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alawite "Alawite") 15%, [Kurd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria "Kurds in Syria") 10%, [Levantine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantine_Arabic "Levantine Arabic") 10% and 15% of other ethnic groups (includes [Druze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze_people_in_Syria "Druze people in Syria"), [Ismaili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isma%27ilism "Isma'ilism"), [Imami](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imamate_\(Twelver_doctrine\) "Imamate (Twelver doctrine)"), [Assyrian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_people "Assyrian people"), [Turkmen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen "Syrian Turkmen") and [Armenian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians_in_Syria "Armenians in Syria")). Its religious breakdown was: [Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim "Muslim") 87% (official; includes [Sunni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam "Sunni Islam") 74% and Alawi, Ismaili and [Shia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam "Shia Islam") 13%), [Christian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians "Christians") 10% (mainly of [Eastern Christian churches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Christianity "Eastern Christianity")[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-IRFR2006-31)—may now be smaller as a result of Christians fleeing the country), [Druze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze "Druze") 3% and [Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") (uncounted in the estimate, but with few remaining in Damascus and Aleppo).[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-32)
### Socioeconomic background
[Socioeconomic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomics "Socioeconomics") inequality increased significantly after [free market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_market "Free market") policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the [service sector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_sector "Service sector"), these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Poor_rural_rebels-33) In 2010, Syria's nominal GDP per capita was only \$2,834, comparable to [sub-Saharan African](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa "Sub-Saharan Africa") countries such as [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") and far lower than its neighbors such as Lebanon, with an annual growth rate of 3.39%, below most other developing countries.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-34)
The country also faced particularly high [youth unemployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_unemployment "Youth unemployment") rates.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-35) At the start of the war, discontent with the government was strongest in Syria's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Poor_rural_rebels-33) These included cities with high poverty rates, such as [Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa "Daraa") and [Homs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs "Homs"), and the poorer districts of large cities.
### Drought
The unrest coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from 2006 to 2011 and resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in [food prices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_prices "Food prices") and a mass migration of farming families to urban centers.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kelley_drought_2015-36) This migration strained infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5 million refugees from the [Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War").[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-37) The drought has also been linked to [anthropogenic global warming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenic_global_warming "Anthropogenic global warming"), with evidence that human-caused climate change influenced the severity and duration of the regional drought.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-38)[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-39)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-40) Some analysis, however, has challenged the relative contribution of climatic changes to the conflict, arguing that other factors played a more important role.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-41)[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-42)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-43) Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and is frequently the target of military action.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-44)[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-45)
### Human rights
Main articles: [Human rights in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria "Human rights in Syria") and [Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war")
The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-46) The rights of [free expression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech "Freedom of speech"), [association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_association "Freedom of association") and [assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly "Freedom of assembly") were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-HRW-47) The country remained under a [state of emergency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_emergency "State of emergency") from 1963 until 2011 and public gatherings of more than five people were banned.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Reuters16Apr11-48) Security forces had sweeping powers of arrest and detention.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-AmInt2009-49) Despite hopes for democratic change with the 2000 [Damascus Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_Spring "Damascus Spring"), Bashar al-Assad was widely reported as having failed to implement any improvements. In 2010, he imposed a controversial national ban on female [Islamic dress codes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_clothing "Islamic clothing") (such as [face veils](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niq%C4%81b "Niqāb")) across universities, where reportedly over a thousand primary school teachers that wore the niqab were reassigned to administrative jobs.[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-50) A [Human Rights Watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch") report issued just before the beginning of the 2011 uprising stated that Assad had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-51)
## History
For a chronological guide, see [Timeline of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Timeline of the Syrian civil war").
### Protests, civil uprising, and armed insurgency (2011–2012)
Main articles: [Arab Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring") and [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution")
For a chronological guide, see [January–April 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2011\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2011)"), [May–August 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2011\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2011)"), [September–December 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2011\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2011)") and [January–April 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2012\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2012)") timelines.
Further information: [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution"), [Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_insurgency_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war"), and [Kofi Annan Syrian peace plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofi_Annan_Syrian_peace_plan "Kofi Annan Syrian peace plan")
In March 2011, popular discontent with President [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad")'s [Ba'athist government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") led to large-scale protests and [pro-democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-democracy "Pro-democracy") rallies across Syria, as part of the wider [Arab Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring") protests in the region.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kassam,_Becker_3-52)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Syria:_The_story_of_the_conflict-53) Numerous protests were violently suppressed by security forces in [deadly crackdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution#Crackdown "Syrian revolution") ordered by Assad, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and [detentions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention "Arbitrary arrest and detention"), many of whom were civilians.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kassam,_Becker_3-52)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Syria:_The_story_of_the_conflict-53) The [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution") transformed into an [insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_insurgency_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war") with the formation of [resistance militias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army#2011_%E2%80%93_formation "Free Syrian Army") across the country, developing into a full civil war by 2012.[\[d\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-54)
Escalation; Government clashes with rebels (2012–2013)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Situation_in_Syria_\(August_2012\).svg)
Military situation in August 2012.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Situation_in_Syria_\(June_2013\).svg)
Military situation in June 2013.
For a chronological guide, see [May–August 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2012\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2012)"), [September–December 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2012\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2012)"), [January–April 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2013\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2013)") and [May–December 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93December_2013\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–December 2013)") timelines.
Further information: [2012–2013 escalation of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%E2%80%932013_escalation_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "2012–2013 escalation of the Syrian civil war")
Rise of the Islamist groups (January–August 2014)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Situation_in_Syria_\(2014\).svg)
Military situation in July 2014.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(September_2014_-_September_2015\).svg)
Territorial changes from September 2014 to September 2015.
For a chronological guide, see [January–July 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93July_2014\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–July 2014)") timeline.
Further information: [Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-rebel_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian civil war")
US intervention (September 2014 – August 2015)
For a chronological guide, see [August–December 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(August%E2%80%93December_2014\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (August–December 2014)") and [January–July 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93July_2015\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–July 2015)") timelines.
Further information: [US intervention in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "US intervention in the Syrian civil war"), [2015 Southern Syria offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Southern_Syria_offensive "2015 Southern Syria offensive"), [Northwestern Syria offensive (April–June 2015)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93June_2015\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–June 2015)"), [Battle of Idlib (2015)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_\(2015\) "Battle of Idlib (2015)"), [Palmyra offensive (May 2015)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(May_2015\) "Palmyra offensive (May 2015)"), [Palmyra offensive (July–August 2015)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(July%E2%80%93August_2015\) "Palmyra offensive (July–August 2015)"), and [Battle of al-Hasakah (2015)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Hasakah_\(2015\) "Battle of al-Hasakah (2015)")
Russian intervention; first partial ceasefire (September 2015 – August 2016)
For a chronological guide, see [August–December 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(August%E2%80%93December_2015\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (August–December 2015)") and [January–April 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2016\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2016)") and [May–August 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2016\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2016)") timelines.
Further information: [Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war")
Aleppo recaptured; Russian/Iranian/Turkish-backed ceasefire (September 2016 – April 2017)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(September_2015_-_December_2016\).svg)
Territorial changes from September 2015 to December 2016.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(December_2016_-_December_2017\).svg)
Territorial changes from December 2016 to December 2017.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(December_2017_-_March_2019\).svg)
Territorial changes from December 2017 to March 2019.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(April_2019_-_March_2020\).svg)
Territorial changes from April 2019 to March 2020.
For a chronological guide, see [September–December 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2016\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2016)") and [January–April 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2017)") timeline.
Further information: [Aleppo offensive (November–December 2016)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(November%E2%80%93December_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (November–December 2016)")
Syrian-American conflict; de-escalation zones (April–August 2017)
For a chronological guide, see [May–August 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2017\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2017)") timeline.
Further information: [Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack "Khan Shaykhun chemical attack"), [2017 Shayrat missile strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike "2017 Shayrat missile strike"), and [Hama offensive (March–April 2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Hama offensive (March–April 2017)")
ISIL siege of Deir ez-Zor broken; CIA program halted; Russian forces permanent (September–December 2017)
For a chronological guide, see [September–December 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2017\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2017)") timeline.
Further information: [Deir ez-Zor offensive (September–November 2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(September%E2%80%93November_2017\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (September–November 2017)") and [Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Deir_ez-Zor_\(2014%E2%80%932017\) "Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017)")
Government forces advance in Hama province and Ghouta; Turkish intervention in Afrin (January–March 2018)
For a chronological guide, see [January–April 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2018\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2018)") timeline.
Further information: [Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017 – February 2018)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_campaign_\(October_2017_%E2%80%93_February_2018\) "Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017 – February 2018)"), [Operation Olive Branch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch "Operation Olive Branch"), [Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93April_2018\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)"), and [February 2018 Israel–Syria incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2018_Israel%E2%80%93Syria_incident "February 2018 Israel–Syria incident")
Douma chemical attack; US-led missile strikes; southern Syria offensive (April–August 2018)
For a chronological guide, see [May–August 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2018\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2018)") timeline.
Further information: [Douma chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douma_chemical_attack "Douma chemical attack"), [Operation House of Cards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_House_of_Cards "Operation House of Cards"), and [Syria missile strikes (September 2018)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(September_2018\) "Syria missile strikes (September 2018)")
Idlib demilitarization; Partial US withdrawal; Iraq strikes ISIL targets (September–December 2018)
For a chronological guide, see [September–December 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2018\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2018)") timeline.
Further information: [Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_\(2018%E2%80%932019\) "Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)")
ISIL attacks continue; US states conditions of withdrawal; fifth inter-rebel conflict (January–April 2019)
For a chronological guide, see [January–April 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2019\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2019)") timeline.
Further information: [National Front for Liberation–Tahrir al-Sham conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation%E2%80%93Tahrir_al-Sham_conflict "National Front for Liberation–Tahrir al-Sham conflict")
New outbreaks of civil war; northwestern offensive; northern buffer zone established (May–August 2019)
For a chronological guide, see [May–August 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2019\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2019)") timeline.
Further information: [Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93August_2019\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)")
US forces withdraw from buffer zone; Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria (September–December 2019)
For a chronological guide, see [September–December 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2019\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2019)") timeline.
Further information: [2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria")
In October 2019, Kurdish leaders of the AANES announced they had reached a major deal with the Assad government, allowing for Syrian Army forces to enter Kurdish-held towns along the [Syria–Turkey border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Turkey_border "Syria–Turkey border"). The deal was part of an effort to resist Turkey's [cross-border incursion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria") into AANES territory after US forces [withdrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war#Withdrawal_from_north_Syria "US intervention in the Syrian civil war") from the area after the collapse of the [Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Northern Syria Buffer Zone").[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-55)[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-56)[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-57) In November 2019, Russia, Turkey and the Assad government established a [new buffer zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone") in northern Syria that deescalated the Kurdish-Turkish clashes.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Turkey_and_Russia_Deal-58) US-led coalition forces regrouped in eastern Syria in continued support of the SDF against the [Islamic State insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Syria_insurgency "Eastern Syria insurgency"), amid tensions with local Russian forces and Iranian elements in the region.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-59)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-60)
By the end of the decade, the war had resulted in an estimated 470,000–610,000 violent deaths, making it the second-deadliest conflict of the 21st century, after the [Second Congo War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Congo_War "Second Congo War").[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-61)
### Stalemate and frozen conflict (2020–2024)
For a chronological guide, see [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(2020\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (2020)"), [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(2021\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (2021)"), [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(2022\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (2022)"), [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(2023\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (2023)") and [January–October 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93October_2024\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–October 2024)") timelines.
Further information: [Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(December_2019_%E2%80%93_March_2020\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020)"), [Operation Spring Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Spring_Shield "Operation Spring Shield"), and [Southern Syria protests (2023–24)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Syria_protests_\(2023%E2%80%9324\) "Southern Syria protests (2023–24)")
Following the March 2020 [Idlib ceasefire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(December_2019_%E2%80%93_March_2020\)#Second_Russia%E2%80%93Turkey_ceasefire "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020)"), frontline fighting between the Syrian government under Assad and opposition groups had mostly subsided. By 2021, the Assad government controlled about two-thirds of the country and was consolidating power.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-62)[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-aje15march-63) Although, regular flare-ups occurred among factions in northwestern Syria, and [large-scale protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Syrian_protests "2023 Syrian protests") emerged in southern Syria and spread nationwide in response to extensive autocratic policies and the economic situation. The protests were noted at the time as resembling the 2011 revolution that preceded the civil war.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-64)[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-65)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-66)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-67)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-68)
The civil war had largely settled into a stalemate by early 2023. The [United States Institute of Peace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Institute_of_Peace "United States Institute of Peace") said:
> Twelve years into Syria's devastating civil war, the conflict appears to have settled into a frozen state. Although roughly 30% of the country is controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting has largely ceased and there is a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad. Over the last decade, the conflict erupted into one of the most complicated in the world, with a dizzying array of international and regional powers, opposition groups, proxies, local militias and extremist groups all playing a role. The Syrian population has been brutalized, with nearly a half a million killed, 12 million fleeing their homes to find safety elsewhere, and widespread poverty and hunger. Meanwhile, efforts to broker a political settlement have gone nowhere, leaving the Assad regime firmly in power.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-69)
The US [Council on Foreign Relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations "Council on Foreign Relations") said:
> The war whose brutality once dominated headlines has settled into an uncomfortable stalemate. Hopes for regime change have largely died out, peace talks have been fruitless, and some regional governments are reconsidering their opposition to engaging with Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad. The government has regained control of most of the country, and Assad's hold on power seems secure.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-cfr_2023-70)
However, major clashes continued between Turkish forces and factions within Syria. In late 2023, Turkish forces continued to attack Kurdish forces in northern Syria.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-71) Starting on 5 October 2023, the [Turkish Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_Armed_Forces "Turkish Armed Forces") launched a series of air and ground strikes targeting the Syrian Democratic Forces in northeastern Syria (AANES territory). The airstrikes were launched in response to the [2023 Ankara bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Ankara_bombing "2023 Ankara bombing"), which the Turkish government alleged was carried out by attackers originating from northeastern Syria.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-reuters1-72)
### Fall of the Assad regime (2024)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(November_-_December_2024\).svg)
[Syrian opposition offensives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives") which overthrew Assad's regime in 11 days
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_map_\(December_12,_2024\).svg)
Military situation following the [fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") and the end of the civil war
See also: [Fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime"), [Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government"), [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government"), [2024 Syrian opposition offensives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives"), [Operation Dawn of Freedom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dawn_of_Freedom "Operation Dawn of Freedom"), and [Syrian conflict (2024–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_conflict_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Syrian conflict (2024–present)")
For a chronological guide, see [November 2024–present](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(November_2024%E2%80%93present\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (November 2024–present)") timeline.
On 27 November 2024, a coalition of opposition groups called the [Military Operations Command](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Operations_Command_\(Syria\) "Military Operations Command (Syria)"),[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-73) led by [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham"), launched [a major offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives")[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-74) against the Syrian Army and other pro-government forces in [Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate "Aleppo Governorate"), [Idlib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate "Idlib Governorate"), [Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_Governorate "Hama Governorate") and [Homs Governorates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs_Governorate "Homs Governorate").[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-75) This was followed by other rebel offensives from the [Southern Operations Room](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Operations_Room "Southern Operations Room"), the SDF and the Syrian Free Army which all began seizing Syrian government territory in the country's south and east.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-76)[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-77)[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-78)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-79) On 29 November, rebel forces [entered Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2024\) "Battle of Aleppo (2024)") as Syrian Army positions collapsed across the country.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-80) On 7 December, rebel forces [entered Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_\(2024\) "Fall of Damascus (2024)") and the next day, on 8 December, Bashar al-Assad was reported to have fled the capital.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-81) The Syrian Army confirmed Assad was no longer in power and had fled the country,[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Syrian_rebels_topple_Assad-82)[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-83)[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-84) resulting in the [collapse of his regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") and ending over 60 years of Ba'athist rule under the [Assad dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assad_family "Assad family").[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-85)[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-86)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-87)[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-88)[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-89) Assad and his family fled to [Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") and were granted asylum in Russia.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Syrian_rebels_topple_Assad-82)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-90)[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-91)[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-92) The fall of Assad has been said to mark the end of the Syrian civil war.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-end_of_war-7)
Syrian prime minister [Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali "Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali") recognized the transfer of power to the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government"), which established [a caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government") in Damascus with [Mohammed al-Bashir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_al-Bashir "Mohammed al-Bashir") serving as the prime minister.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-93) [Ahmed al-Sharaa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa "Ahmed al-Sharaa"), the leader of the Syrian Salvation Government and [emir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emir "Emir") of Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, became *de facto* leader of Syria.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-94)
## Belligerents
Main article: [Belligerents in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belligerents_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Belligerents in the Syrian civil war")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian-War_main_Participants.png)
Local, regional and international actors involved in the Syrian civil war prior to the fall of the Assad regime.
### Syrian factions
There are numerous factions, both foreign and domestic, involved in the Syrian civil war. These can be divided into four main groups.
- First, [Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") led by [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad") and backed by his [Russian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") and [Iranian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") allies.
- Second, the [Syrian opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") consisting of two alternative governments:
- i) the [Syrian Interim Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government "Syrian Interim Government") backed by the [Syrian National Coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Coalition_of_Syrian_Revolutionary_and_Opposition_Forces "National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces"), a [big-tent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_tent "Big tent") coalition of [democratic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy "Democracy"), [Syrian nationalist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_nationalism "Syrian nationalism") and [Islamic political](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam "Political aspects of Islam") groups whose defense forces consist of the [Syrian National Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Army "Syrian National Army")[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-95) and [Free Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army"), and
- ii) the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government"), a [Sunni Islamist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") coalition led by [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahrir_al-Sham "Tahrir al-Sham").[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-96)
- Third, the Kurdish-dominated [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") and its military wing, the [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces"), supported by the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States"), [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France") and other [coalition allies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Joint_Task_Force_%E2%80%93_Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve").[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-97)
- Fourth, the [global jihadist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihadism "Jihadism") camp consisting of [al-Qaeda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda "Al-Qaeda") affiliate [Guardians of Religion Organisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurras_al-Din "Hurras al-Din") and its rival [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State").[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-98)
The Syrian government, the opposition and the SDF all received support—militarily, logistically and diplomatically—from foreign countries, leading the conflict to often be described as a [proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_war "Proxy war").[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-99)
### Foreign involvement
Main article: [Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war")
See also: [Israel and the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_and_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israel and the Syrian civil war")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syria_military_involvement.svg)
Map of states with military/paramilitary forces deployed in Syria.
Syria
Supported the Assad government with troops
Supported the Assad government with militia
Supporting Syrian rebels or a non-government faction with troops
The major parties that supported the Assad government were [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war"),[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-100) [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war")[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-telegraph-101) and Lebanese [militia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia "Militia") [Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war"). Syrian rebel groups received political, logistic and military support from the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Syria–United States relations"),[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-102)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-103) [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war"),[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-104) [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Saudi Arabian involvement in the Syrian civil war"),[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-105) [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatari_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Qatari involvement in the Syrian civil war"),[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-106) Britain, France,[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-107) [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel%27s_role_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israel's role in the Syrian civil war")[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-108)[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-109) and the [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands").[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-110) Under the aegis of operation [Timber Sycamore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_Sycamore "Timber Sycamore") and other clandestine activities, [CIA operatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Activities_Center "Special Activities Center") and [US special operations troops](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_special_operations_forces "United States special operations forces") have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel fighters at a cost of \$1 billion a year since 2012.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-111)[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-112) [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") had also been involved in supporting the Syrian government, but mostly against [ISIL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant").[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-113)
[Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah"), the Lebanese Shia militant group, was significantly involved in the Syrian Civil War. Starting from the 2011 Syrian revolution, Hezbollah provided active support to the Ba'athist government forces.[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-114)[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-115) By 2012, the group escalated its involvement, deploying troops across Syria.[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-116) In 2013, Hezbollah publicly acknowledged its presence in Syria, intensifying its ground commitment. This involvement included an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 fighters at any given time, comprising [Special Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_forces "Special forces"), standing forces from all units, part-time fighters and new recruits with accelerated combat training. Hezbollah's presence, supported by Iranian weaponry and training, further complicated the conflict dynamics, drawing Israeli airstrikes against Hezbollah and Iranian targets in Syria.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-117)
### Spillover
Main article: [Spillover of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Spillover of the Syrian civil war")
Further information: [War in Iraq (2013–2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Iraq_\(2013%E2%80%932017\) "War in Iraq (2013–2017)")
In June 2014, members of the [Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant") (ISIL) crossed the border from Syria into northern Iraq, and [took control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Iraq_offensive_\(June_2014\) "Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014)") of large swaths of Iraqi territory as the [Iraqi Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_Army "Iraqi Army") abandoned its positions. Fighting between rebels and government forces also spilled over into Lebanon on several occasions. There were repeated incidents of sectarian violence in the [North Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Governorate "North Governorate") of Lebanon between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, as well as armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in [Tripoli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon "Tripoli, Lebanon").[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-118)
Starting on 5 June 2014, ISIL seized swathes of territory in Iraq. As of 2014, the [Syrian Arab Air Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Air_Force "Syrian Arab Air Force") used airstrikes targeted against ISIL in [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa") and [al-Hasakah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hasakah "Al-Hasakah") in coordination with the Iraqi government.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-119)
## Weaponry and warfare
See also: [List of equipment of the Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_Syrian_Army "List of equipment of the Syrian Army"), [List of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_used_by_Syrian_opposition_forces "List of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forces"), and [Improvised artillery in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvised_artillery_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Improvised artillery in the Syrian civil war")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:International_Mine_Action_Center_in_Syria_\(Aleppo\)_12.jpg)
'Hell cannon' [Improvised artillery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvised_artillery_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Improvised artillery in the Syrian civil war") found after the [battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") in 2016
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Army_tanks_1_\(Operation_Damascus_Steel,_March_2018\).png)
Syrian Army [T-72](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-72 "T-72") tank during the [2018 Rif Dimashq offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93April_2018\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)")
### Chemical weapons
Main articles: [Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war") and [Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_Syria%27s_chemical_weapons "Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons")
See also: [Syria and weapons of mass destruction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction "Syria and weapons of mass destruction") and [Syria chemical weapons program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_chemical_weapons_program "Syria chemical weapons program")
[Sarin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin "Sarin"), [mustard agent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_agent "Mustard agent") and [chlorine gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine#Use_as_a_weapon "Chlorine") have been used during the conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction, especially the 2013 [Ghouta chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack"). The attack was the deadliest use of chemical weapons since the [Iran–Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War#Iraq's_use_of_chemical_weapons "Iran–Iraq War").[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-120)[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-121) [A UN fact-finding mission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_to_Investigate_Alleged_Uses_of_Chemical_Weapons_in_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "United Nations Mission to Investigate Alleged Uses of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic") was requested to investigate reported chemical weapons attacks. In four cases, UN inspectors confirmed the use of [sarin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin "Sarin") gas.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-122) In August 2016, a confidential report by the UN and the [OPCW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPCW "OPCW") explicitly blamed the Syrian military of Bashar al-Assad for dropping chemical weapons (chlorine bombs) on the towns of Talmenes in April 2014 and Sarmin in March 2015 and ISIL for using sulfur mustard on the town of Marea in August 2015.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-123)
The United States and the European Union have said the Syrian government has conducted several chemical attacks. Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the [destruction of Syria's chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_Syria%27s_chemical_weapons "Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons") began. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds at a "military research site".[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-124) After the April 2017 [Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack "Khan Shaykhun chemical attack"), the United States launched its first intentional attack against Syrian government forces. An investigation conducted by Tobias Schneider and Theresa Lutkefend of the [GPPi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Public_Policy_Institute "Global Public Policy Institute") research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total chemical attacks to the Assad regime. Almost 90% of the attacks occurred after Ghouta chemical attack in August 2013.[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-125)[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-126)
In April 2020, the UN Security Council briefing was held on the findings of a global chemical weapons watchdog, [Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons "Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons") (OPCW), which found that the [Syrian Air Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force "Syrian Air Force") used sarin and chlorine during multiple attacks in 2017. Syria's close allies, Russia, and other European countries debated the issue, during which Moscow dismissed the OPCW findings while many Western European countries called for accountability for the government's [war crimes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime "War crime").[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-127) The UN Deputy ambassador from Britain, Jonathan Allen, stated that the report by the OPCW's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) claimed that the Syrian regime is responsible for using [chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapon "Chemical weapon") in the war on at least four occasions. The information was also noted in two UN-mandated investigations.[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-128)
In April 2021, Syria was suspended from the OPCW through the public vote of member states for not cooperating with the IIT and for violating the [Chemical Weapons Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention "Chemical Weapons Convention").[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-129)[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-130)[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-131) Findings of another OPCW investigation report published in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the 77 reported incidents of chemical weapons usage attributed to [Assadist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assadism "Assadism") forces.[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-132)[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-133)
### Cluster bombs
Syria is not a party to the [Convention on Cluster Munitions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Cluster_Munitions "Convention on Cluster Munitions") and does not recognize the ban on the use of [cluster bombs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_bomb "Cluster bomb"). The Syrian Army is reported to have begun using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms Division at [Human Rights Watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"), said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs." He adds of the weapons that "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward."[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-134)
### Thermobaric weapons
Russian [thermobaric weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermobaric_weapon "Thermobaric weapon"), also known as "fuel-air bombs", were used by the government's side during the war. On 2 December 2015, *[The National Interest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_National_Interest "The National Interest")* reported that Russia was deploying the [TOS-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOS-1 "TOS-1") Buratino multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas".[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Russia's_Lethal_Thermobaric_Rocket_Launchers-135) One [Buratino thermobaric rocket launcher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOS-1 "TOS-1") "can obliterate a roughly 200 by 400 metres (660 by 1,310 feet) area with a single salvo".[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Russia's_Lethal_Thermobaric_Rocket_Launchers-135) Since 2012, rebels have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the [Battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") and also in [Kafr Batna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafr_Batna "Kafr Batna").[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-136) A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013.[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-137) In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of napalm-like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-138)
### Missiles
See also: [Operation Laylat al-Qadr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Laylat_al-Qadr "Operation Laylat al-Qadr")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Army_of_Glory_fighter_launch_a_BGM-71_TOW_missile.png)
An [Army of Glory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_al-Izza "Jaysh al-Izza") fighter launches a [BGM-71 TOW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BGM-71_TOW "BGM-71 TOW") anti-tank missile at a Syrian government position during the [2017 Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Hama_offensive "2017 Hama offensive").
Several types of [anti-tank missiles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank_missile "Anti-tank missile") are in use in Syria. Russia has sent [9M133 Kornet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9M133_Kornet "9M133 Kornet"), third-generation anti-tank guided missiles to the Syrian government whose forces have used them extensively against armour and other ground targets to fight jihadists and rebels.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-139) US-made [BGM-71 TOW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BGM-71_TOW "BGM-71 TOW") missiles are one of the primary weapons of rebel groups and have been primarily provided by the United States and Saudi Arabia.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-140) The US has also supplied many Eastern European sourced [9K111 Fagot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9K111_Fagot "9K111 Fagot") launchers and warheads to Syrian rebel groups under its [Timber Sycamore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_Sycamore "Timber Sycamore") program.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-janes-20160408-141)
In June 2017, Iran attacked ISIL targets in the [Deir ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor "Deir ez-Zor") area in eastern Syria with [Zolfaghar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zolfaghar_\(missile\) "Zolfaghar (missile)") [ballistic missiles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile "Ballistic missile") fired from western Iran,[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-janes.com-142) in the first use of mid-range missiles by Iran in 30 years.[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-143) According to *[Jane's Defence Weekly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%27s_Defence_Weekly "Jane's Defence Weekly")*, the missiles travelled 650–700 kilometres.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-janes.com-142)
## Sectarianism
Main articles: [Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war") and [Federalization of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalization_of_Syria "Federalization of Syria")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syria_Ethno-religious_Map.svg)
Map of Syria's ethno-religious composition in 1976
The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority Alawite religious group, an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the population, and most of the opposition, is Sunni. This resulted in calls for persecution of the Alawites by parts of the opposition.[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Behari-144)
A third of 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in the Syrian civil war.[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-145) In May 2013, [SOHR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOHR "SOHR") stated that out of 94,000 killed during the war, 41,000 of which being Alawites.[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-146)
As militias and non-Syrian Shia—motivated by pro-Shia sentiment rather than loyalty to the Assad government—have taken over fighting the anti-government forces from the weakened Syrian Army, fighting has taken on a more sectarian nature. One opposition leader has said that the Shia militias often "try to occupy and control the religious symbols in the Sunni community to achieve not just a territorial victory but a sectarian one as well"—reportedly occupying mosques and replacing Sunni icons with pictures of Shia leaders. According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights, human rights abuses have been committed by the militias including "a series of sectarian massacres between March 2011 and January 2014 that left 962 civilians dead".[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-nelson-defector-147)
In 2025 after the defeat of Assad and the rise of the transitional government, a series of [mass killings and massacres against Alawites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_massacres_of_Syrian_Alawites "2025 massacres of Syrian Alawites") occurred in Syria, largely in March 2025. The UK-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) reported that 1,614 civilians were killed by armed militias supporting the Syrian government. The observatory estimated actual numbers to be much higher.[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-148)
## Kurdish autonomy in northeastern Syria
Main articles: [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") and [Rojava conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava_conflict "Rojava conflict")
The [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") (AANES), also known as Rojava,[\[e\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-152) is a [de facto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto "De facto") [autonomous region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division "Autonomous administrative division") in northeastern Syria.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201911,_95-153)[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228-154) The region does not claim to pursue full independence but autonomy within a federal and democratic Syria.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-MiddleEastEye-155) Rojava consists of self-governing [sub-regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions_of_North_and_East_Syria "Regions of North and East Syria") in the areas of [Afrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrin_Region "Afrin Region"), [Jazira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazira_Region "Jazira Region"), [Euphrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates_Region "Euphrates Region"), [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa"), [Tabqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Thawrah "Al-Thawrah"), [Manbij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij "Manbij") and [Deir Ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate "Deir ez-Zor Governorate").[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Second_conference_of_Shahba_region-156)[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201997%E2%80%9398-157) The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing [Rojava conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava_conflict "Rojava conflict"), in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-158)[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-159)
While entertaining [some foreign relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Rojava "Foreign relations of Rojava"), the region is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state except for the [Catalan Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Catalonia "Parliament of Catalonia").[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-160)[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-161) The AANES has widespread support for its universal [democratic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy "Democracy"), [sustainable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological "Ecological"), [autonomous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous "Autonomous") [pluralist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism_\(political_philosophy\) "Pluralism (political philosophy)"), [equal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_before_the_law "Equality before the law") and [feminist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jineology "Jineology") policies in dialogues with other political parties and organizations.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-tandfonline.com-162)[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-163)[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-164)[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-165) Northeastern Syria is [polyethnic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethnic "Polyethnic") and home to sizeable ethnic Kurdish, Arab and Assyrian populations, with smaller communities of ethnic Turkmen, Armenians, [Circassians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians "Circassians") and [Yazidis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazidis "Yazidis").[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_112-166)[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228%E2%80%93229-167)[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-168)
The supporters of the region's administration state that it is an officially [secular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularism "Secularism") [polity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity "Polity")[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_66,_200-169)[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-marriage-170) with [direct democratic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy "Direct democracy") ambitions based on an [anarchistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism "Anarchism"), feminist and [libertarian socialist ideology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_confederalism "Democratic confederalism") promoting [decentralization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralization "Decentralization"), [gender equality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality "Gender equality"),[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219-171)[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019156%E2%80%93163-172) environmental [sustainability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability "Sustainability"), social [ecology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology "Ecology") and pluralistic tolerance for religious, cultural and [political diversity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_\(politics\) "Diversity (politics)"), and that these values are mirrored in [its constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_North_and_East_Syria "Constitution of North and East Syria"), society and politics, stating it to be a model for a [federalized Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalization_of_Syria "Federalization of Syria") as a whole, rather than outright independence.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-MiddleEastEye-155)[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-173)[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-utopia-174)[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-175)[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Jongerden-176) The region's administration has also been accused by some [partisan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partisan_\(politics\) "Partisan (politics)") and nonpartisan sources of [authoritarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianism "Authoritarianism"), support of the Syrian government,[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201994,_130%E2%80%93131,_184-177) [Kurdification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdification "Kurdification") and displacement.[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:4-178) However, despite this the AANES has been the most [democratic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy "Direct democracy") system in Syria, with direct open elections, [universal equality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_equality "Social equality"), respecting [human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights") within the region, as well as defense of [minority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_group "Minority group") and [religious rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_rights "Religious rights") within Syria.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-tandfonline.com-162)[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-179)[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-180)[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-181)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-182)[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-183)[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-184)
In March 2015, the Syrian Information Minister announced that his government considered recognizing Kurdish autonomy "within the law and constitution".[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-185) While the region's administration was not invited to the [Geneva III peace talks on Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_peace_talks_on_Syria_\(2016\) "Geneva peace talks on Syria (2016)"),[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-186) or any of the earlier talks, Russia in particular called for the region's inclusion and did to some degree carry the region's positions into the talks, as documented in Russia's May 2016 draft for a new constitution for Syria.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Now.MMedia/Al-Akhbar-187)[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Al-Monitor-188)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Democratic_Forces_announce_Deir_ez-Zor_offensive.jpg)
The Kurdish-led [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces") announcing the [Deir ez-Zor campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_campaign_\(2017%E2%80%932019\) "Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017–2019)") in 2017
An analysis released in June 2017 described the region's "relationship with the government fraught but functional" and a "semi-cooperative dynamic".[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-189) In late September 2017, Syria's foreign minister said that Damascus would consider granting Kurds more autonomy in the region once ISIL was defeated.[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-190)
On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of Manbij and Kobani in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-191) The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-192)[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-193) Following the creation of the [Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone"), the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-194)
As of 2022, the main military threat and conflict faced by Rojava's official defense force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), are firstly, an ongoing conflict with ISIS; and secondly, ongoing concerns of possible invasion of the northeast regions of Syria by Turkish forces, in order to strike Kurdish groups in general, and Rojava in particular.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-195)[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-196)[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-197) An official report by the Rojava government noted Turkey-backed militias as the main threat to the region of Rojava and its government.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-198)
On 5 June 2022, the leader of the SDF, [Mazloum Abdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazloum_Abdi "Mazloum Abdi"), said that forces of the Kurdish government in the AANES were willing to work with Syrian government forces to defend against Turkey, saying "Damascus should use its air defense systems against Turkish planes." Abdi said that Kurdish groups would be able to cooperate with the Syrian government, and still retain their autonomy.[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-199)[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-200)[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-201)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-202)[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-203) The joint discussions were a result of the negotiation processes that had begun in October 2019.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-204) In early 2023, reports indicated that the forces of Islamic State in Syria had mostly been defeated, with only a few cells remaining in various remote locations.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-205)[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-206)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-207)
As of 2023, Turkey was continuing its support for various militias within Syria, consisting mostly of the Syrian National Army, which periodically attempted some operations against Kurdish groups.[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto2-208)[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto1-209)[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-210) One stated goal was to create "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, according to a statement by Turkish president Erdoğan.[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto3-211)\[*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*\] The operations were generally aimed at the [Tal Rifaat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tal_Rifaat "Tal Rifaat") and [Manbij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij "Manbij") regions west of the [Euphrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates") and other areas further east. President Erdoğan openly stated his support for the operations, in talks with Moscow in mid-2022.[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto5-212)
## Humanitarian impact
| Rest Displaced Refugees Casualities Rest Displaced Refugees Casualities Human toll of Syrian civil war |
|---|
### Refugees
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_refugees_in_lebanon.jpg)
Syrian refugees in Lebanon living in cramped quarters (6 August 2012)
Main articles: [Refugees of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Refugees of the Syrian civil war") and [Return of refugees of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_of_refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Return of refugees of the Syrian civil war")
| | |
|---|---|
|  | This section needs to be **updated**. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. *(December 2024)* |
As of December 2022, an estimated 6.7 million refugees have been forced to flee Syria,[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-213) with approximately 5.5 million Syrian refugees residing across the five nearby countries of Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"). Germany hosts the largest refugee population out of any non-neighboring nation with more than 850,000 Syrian refugees.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-214)
Over 3.7 million Syrian refugees are in Turkey.[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-215) Many refugees are housed in a system of a dozen [Syrian refugee camps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_refugee_camps "Syrian refugee camps") placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs and Hama were besieged.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-216) The massive sustained presence of Syrian refugees has fueled resentment from Turkish citizens and figures across the country's political spectrum. They have been employed as scapegoats during periods of crisis within the country. Measures have been put in place to "drive them out" including raised fees on utilities such as water and services such as marriage licences. There has been an increase on attacks targeting Syrian refugees in the country.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-217)
In 2013, one in three of Syrian refugees (about 667,000 people) sought safety in Lebanon, which had a population of 5.2 million in 2012.[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-NYT5Sep-218)[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-219)
In September 2014, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded three million.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-220) According to the [Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_Center_for_Public_Affairs "Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs"), Sunnis are leaving for Lebanon and undermining Hezbollah's status. The Syrian refugee crisis has caused the "Jordan is Palestine" threat to be diminished due to the onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. Greek Catholic Patriarch [Gregorios III Laham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_III_Laham "Gregory III Laham") claimed in 2014 that more than 450,000 [Syrian Christians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria "Christianity in Syria") have been displaced by the conflict.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-221) As of September 2016[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_civil_war&action=edit), the European Union has reported that there are 13.5 million refugees in need of assistance in the country.[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-222) As of 2024[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_civil_war&action=edit), it is estimated that around 1,000 European citizens are still in the Syrian internally displaced persons camps, located almost exclusively in Al-Hawl, of whom more than 600 are children.[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-223)
A report from NGO [ACT Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACT_Alliance "ACT Alliance") found that refugees in camps in north-eastern Syria have tripled in 2019.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-224) Numerous refugees remain in local refugee camps. Conditions there are reported to be severe, especially during the winter.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-washokani-225)[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-226) In 2019, 4,000 people were housed at the Washokani Camp. The Kurdish Red Cross was the only organization known to have helped the camp's refugees. Numerous camp residents called for assistance from international groups.[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-227)[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-228)
### Internally displaced refugees
Main article: [Internally displaced persons in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internally_displaced_persons_in_Syria "Internally displaced persons in Syria")
The violence in Syria caused millions to flee their homes. As of March 2015, Al-Jazeera estimated 10.9 million Syrians, or almost half the population, have been displaced.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-aljazeera-3-17-2015-229) Violence in the ongoing crisis in northwest Syria had forced 6,500 children to flee every day over the last week of January 2020. The recorded count of displaced children in the area has reached more than 300,000 since December 2019.[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-230)
As of 2022, there are 6.2 million internally displaced persons in Syria according to the [United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees"). 2.5 million of those are children. 2017 alone saw the displacement of at least 1.8 million people, many of them being displaced for the second and third time.[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-231)
### Casualties
Main article: [Casualties of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Casualties of the Syrian civil war")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Deaths_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War_by_Year_2011_to_2024.png)
Annual deaths 2011 to 2024
Estimates of the total number of deaths in the [Syrian Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War "Syrian Civil War") were approximately 656,493 as of March 2025.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SOHR-232) In late September 2021, the [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") stated it had documented the deaths of at least 350,209 "identified individuals" in the conflict between March 2011 and March 2021, but cautioned the figure was "certainly an under-count" that specified only a "minimum verifiable number".[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-UN12-233)[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-234)[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-235)
The most violent year of the conflict was 2014, when around 110,000 people were killed.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-236) In April 2016, UN envoy to Syria [Staffan de Mistura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staffan_de_Mistura "Staffan de Mistura") stated that more than 400,000 people were killed in the Syrian civil war.[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-237) By mid-March 2025, opposition activist group the [Syrian Observatory for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights") (SOHR) reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 26,282, and that 16,181 women had also been killed.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SOHR-232)
On 28 June 2022, the [United Nations Human Rights Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights") (OHCHR) stated that at least 306,887 [civilians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilians "Civilians") had been killed in Syria during the conflict between March 2011 and March 2021, representing about 1.5% of the country's pre-war population. This figure did not include indirect and non-civilian deaths.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-238)[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-239) UN's [Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_International_Commission_of_Inquiry_on_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic") estimated that between 2011 and May 2021, more than 580,000 people were killed; with 13 million [Syrians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrians "Syrians") being displaced and 6.7 million [refugees forced to flee Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_refugee "Syrian refugee"). [Ba'athist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") government forces reportedly arrested and tortured numerous repatriated refugees, subjecting them to [forced disappearances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_disappearances "Forced disappearances") and [extrajudicial executions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrajudicial_executions "Extrajudicial executions").[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-GCR2P-240)
In 2015, the [UNHCR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees") designated the conflict as the "world's worst humanitarian crisis", while the head of the [UNHRC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council "United Nations Human Rights Council")'s [Commission of Inquiry on Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_International_Commission_of_Inquiry_on_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic") stated that the Ba'athist government was responsible for the majority of civilian casualties up to that point.[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-241) The [Syrian Network for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Network_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Network for Human Rights") estimated that between 2011 and 2024, the Ba'athist government and its foreign allies were responsible for approximately 91% of the total civilian casualties.[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-242)[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-243)[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-244)
### Human rights violations and war crimes
Main articles: [Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war") and [Human rights in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria "Human rights in Syria")
See also: [Syrian mass graves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_mass_graves "Syrian mass graves"), [Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory "Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory"), [List of massacres during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_massacres_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of massacres during the Syrian civil war"), [Rape during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Rape during the Syrian civil war"), [Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war"), and [Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosecution_of_Syrian_civil_war_criminals "Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ghouta_massacre1.JPG)
Victims of the [Ghouta chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack") perpetrated by Syrian regime forces in August 2013
[United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") and [human rights organizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_organizations "Human rights organizations") have documented that human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebel forces, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been committed by the Syrian government".[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-245)[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto4-246)
Numerous [human rights abuses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_abuses "Human rights abuses"), [political repression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_repression "Political repression"), [war crimes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime "War crime") and [crimes against humanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity "Crimes against humanity") perpetrated by the [Assad government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria#Ba'athist_Syria "Syria") throughout the course of the conflict led to international condemnation and widespread calls to convict Bashar al-Assad in European courts and in the [International Criminal Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court "International Criminal Court") (ICC).[\[f\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-252)
According to three international lawyers,[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-253) Syrian government officials could face war crimes charges in the light of a huge cache of evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic killing" of about [11,000 detainees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Syrian_detainee_report "2014 Syrian detainee report"). Most of the victims were young men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-254) Experts said this evidence was more detailed and on a far larger scale than anything else that had emerged from the then 34-month crisis.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-255) Atrocities committed by the Assad regime have been described as the "greatest war crimes of the 21st century", with chilling revelations of [torture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture "Torture"), [rapes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape "Rape"), [massacres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre "Massacre") and extermination being leaked through the [2014 Caesar Report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_Report "Caesar Report"), which contained photographic evidence gathered by a dissident [army photographer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_photographer "Military photographer") who worked in Ba'athist [military prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_prison "Military prison").[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto4-246) According to [international lawyer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_lawyer "International lawyer") [Stephen Rapp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Rapp "Stephen Rapp"):
> We've got better evidence—against Assad and his clique—than we had against [Milosevic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milosevic "Milosevic") in [Yugoslavia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia"), or we had in any of the war crimes tribunals in which I've involved in, some extent, even better than we had against the [Nazis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism "Nazism") at [Nuremberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_trials "Nuremberg trials"), because the Nazis didn't actually take individual pictures of each of their victims with identifying information on them.[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto4-246)
The UN reported in 2014 that "[siege warfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_warfare "Siege warfare") is employed in a context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their acts". Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access to humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the government forces: [Muadamiyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muadamiyat_al-Sham "Muadamiyat al-Sham"), [Daraya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darayya "Darayya"), Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama.[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-UNHCRfeb2014-256)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-thenewage.co.za-257) In [Yarmouk Camp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarmouk_Camp "Yarmouk Camp") 20,000 residents faced death by starvation due to blockade by the Syrian government forces and fighting between the army and [Jabhat al-Nusra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabhat_al-Nusra "Jabhat al-Nusra"), which prevents food distribution by UNRWA.[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-UNHCRfeb2014-256)[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-MMHYarmouk-258) In July 2015, the UN removed Yarmouk from its list of besieged areas in Syria, despite not having been able deliver aid there for four months, and declined to say why it had done so.[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-IRIN_removal-259) After intense fighting in April/May 2018, Syrian government forces finally took the camp, its population now reduced to 100–200.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-cleric-260)
ISIS forces have also been criticized by the UN of using public executions and [killing of captives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_captives_by_ISIL "Killing of captives by ISIL"), amputations and lashings in a campaign to instill fear. "Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham have committed torture, murder, acts tantamount to enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part of attacks on the civilian population in Aleppo and Raqqa governorates, amounting to crimes against humanity", said the report from 27 August 2014.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-261) ISIS also [persecuted gay and bisexual men](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_gay_and_bisexual_men_by_the_Islamic_State "Persecution of gay and bisexual men by the Islamic State").[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-262)
Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising began.[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-263) An [Amnesty International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") report, published in November 2015, stated the Syrian government has forcibly disappeared more than 65,000 people since the beginning of the Syrian civil war.[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-264) According to a report in May 2016 by the [Syrian Observatory for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights"), at least 60,000 people have been killed since March 2011 through torture or from poor humanitarian conditions in Syrian government prisons.[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-265)
In February 2017, Amnesty International published a report which stated the Syrian government murdered an estimated 13,000 persons, mostly civilians, at the [Saydnaya military prison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sednaya_Prison "Sednaya Prison"). They stated the killings began in 2011 and were still ongoing. Amnesty International described this as a "policy of deliberate extermination" and also stated that "These practices, which amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, are authorised at the highest levels of the Syrian government".[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-266) Three months later, the United States State Department stated a [crematorium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crematorium "Crematorium") had been identified near the prison. According to the US, it was being used to burn thousands of bodies of those killed by the government's forces and to cover up evidence of atrocities and war crimes.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-267) Amnesty International expressed surprise at the reports about the crematorium, as the photographs used by the US are from 2013 and they did not see them as conclusive, and fugitive government officials have stated that the government buries those its executes in cemeteries on military grounds in Damascus.[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-268) The Syrian government said the reports were not true.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-269)
By July 2012, the human rights group [Women Under Siege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Under_Siege "Women Under Siege") had documented over 100 cases of rape and [sexual assault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_assault "Sexual assault") during the conflict, with many of these crimes reported to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women and children, with about 80% of the known victims being women and girls.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-270)\[*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rojava_solidarity_demonstration_Berlin_2019-11-02_30.jpg)
Protest in Berlin, showing image of murdered Syrian-Kurdish politician [Hevrin Khalaf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hevrin_Khalaf "Hevrin Khalaf")
In late 2019, as the violence intensified in northwest Syria, thousands of women and children were reportedly kept under "inhumane conditions" in a remote camp, said UN-appointed investigators.[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-271) In October 2019, [Amnesty International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") stated that it had gathered evidence of war crimes and other violations committed by Turkish and Turkey-backed Syrian forces who are said to "have displayed a shameful disregard for civilian life, carrying out serious violations and war crimes, including summary killings and unlawful attacks that have killed and injured civilians".[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-amnesty1-14)
According to a 2020 report by UN-backed investigators into the Syrian civil war, young girls aged nine and above have been raped and inveigled into sexual slavery, while boys have been put through torture and forcefully trained to execute killings in public. Children have been attacked by sharpshooters and lured to be bargaining chips for ransoms.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-272)
On 6 April 2020, the United Nations published its investigation into the attacks on humanitarian sites in Syria. In its reports, the UN said it had examined six sites of attacks and concluded that the airstrikes had been carried out by the "Government of Syria and/or its allies." However, the report was criticized for being partial towards Russia and not naming it, despite proper evidence. "The refusal to explicitly name Russia as a responsible party working alongside the Syrian government ... is deeply disappointing", the HRW quoted.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-273)
### Crime wave
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aleppo_hospital.PNG)
Doctors and medical staff treating injured rebel fighters and civilians in Aleppo
As the conflict expanded across Syria, cities were engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-274)
Local [National Defense Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defence_Forces_\(Syria\) "National Defence Forces (Syria)") commanders often engaged "in [war profiteering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_profiteering "War profiteering") through protection rackets, looting and organized crime". NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings and extortions throughout government-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013", as reported by the Institute for the Study of War.[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-ISW-275)
Criminal networks were used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and engaging in kidnappings.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Organized_crime-276) Rebel forces sometimes relied on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies. [Black market weapon prices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_trafficking "Arms trafficking") in Syria's neighboring countries significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups turned towards extortion, theft and kidnapping.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Organized_crime-276) Syria became the chief location for manufacturing [Captagon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captagon "Captagon"), an illegal [amphetamine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphetamine "Amphetamine"). Drugs manufactured in Syria found their way across the Gulf, Jordan and Europe but were at times intercepted.[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-277)
### Epidemics
Further information: [COVID-19 pandemic in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Syria "COVID-19 pandemic in Syria")
The [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service. Fighting makes it impossible to undertake the normal vaccination programs. The displaced refugees may also pose a disease risk to countries to which they have fled.[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-278) Four hundred thousand civilians were isolated by the [Siege of Eastern Ghouta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Eastern_Ghouta "Siege of Eastern Ghouta") from April 2013 to April 2018, resulting in acutely malnourished children according to the United Nations Special Advisor, [Jan Egeland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Egeland "Jan Egeland"), who urged the parties for medical evacuations. 55,000 civilians are also isolated in the [Rukban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rukban "Rukban") refugee camp between Syria and Jordan, where humanitarian relief access is difficult due to the harsh desert conditions. Humanitarian aid reaches the camp only sporadically, sometimes taking three months between shipments.[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-279)[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-280)
Formerly rare [infectious diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease "Infectious disease") have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor [sanitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation "Sanitation") and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include [measles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles "Measles"), [typhoid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid "Typhoid"), [hepatitis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis "Hepatitis"), [dysentery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery "Dysentery"), [tuberculosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis"), [diphtheria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphtheria "Diphtheria"), [whooping cough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whooping_cough "Whooping cough") and the disfiguring [skin disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_disease "Skin disease") [leishmaniasis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmaniasis "Leishmaniasis"). Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling [poliomyelitis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliomyelitis "Poliomyelitis"). As of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed to the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination"), sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic".[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Suppressed-281)
In June 2020, the United Nations reported that after more than nine years of war, Syria was falling into an even deeper crisis and economic deterioration as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. As of 26 June, a total of 248 people were infected by COVID-19, out of which nine people died. Restrictions on the importation of medical supplies, limited access to essential equipment, reduced outside support and ongoing attacks on medical facilities left Syria's health infrastructure in peril, and unable to meet the needs of its population. Syrian communities were additionally facing unprecedented levels of [hunger crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunger_in_Syria "Hunger in Syria").[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-282)
In September 2022, the UN representative in Syria reported that several regions in the country were witnessing a [cholera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera "Cholera") outbreak. UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator Imran Riza called for an urgent response to contain the outbreak, saying that it posed "a serious threat to people in Syria". The outbreak was linked to the use of contaminated water for growing crops and the reliance of people on unsafe water sources.[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-283)
### Humanitarian aid
Main article: [Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_aid_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._Airmen_with_the_386th_Expeditionary_Logistics_Readiness_Squadron_load_pallets_of_humanitarian_relief_supplies_onto_a_C-17_Globemaster_III_aircraft_at_an_undisclosed_location_in_Southwest_Asia_June_4,_2013_130604-F-KL201-115.jpg)
US aid to Syrian opposition forces, May 2013
The conflict holds the record for the largest sum ever requested by UN agencies for a single humanitarian emergency, \$6.5 billion worth of requests of December 2013.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-RW_aid_record-284) The international humanitarian response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the [United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_the_Coordination_of_Humanitarian_Affairs "United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs") (UNOCHA) in accordance with [General Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly "United Nations General Assembly") Resolution 46/182.[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-285) The primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for US\$1.41 billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by the conflict.[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-286) Official United Nations data on the humanitarian situation and response is available at an official website managed by UNOCHA Syria (Amman).[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-287) UNICEF is also working alongside these organizations to provide vaccinations and care packages to those in need. Financial information on the response to the SHARP and assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations can be found on UNOCHA's Financial Tracking Service. As of 19 September 2015, the top ten donors to Syria were United States, European Commission, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, UAE and Norway.[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-288)
The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January 2015: of the estimated 212,000 people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, 304 were reached with food.[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-UNNC_26Mar2015-289) [USAID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAID "USAID") and other government agencies in US delivered nearly \$385 million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States has provided food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies.[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-290) [Islamic Relief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Relief "Islamic Relief") has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-291)
Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria.[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-292) Israel supplied aid through [Operation Good Neighbor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Good_Neighbor "Operation Good Neighbor"), providing medical treatment to 750 Syrians in a field hospital located in [Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golan_Heights "Golan Heights") where rebels say that 250 of their fighters were treated.[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-293) Israel established two medical centers inside Syria. Israel also delivered [heating fuel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene "Kerosene"), [diesel fuel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuel "Diesel fuel"), seven electric [generators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator "Electric generator"), water pipes, educational materials, flour for bakeries, baby food, [diapers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaper "Diaper"), shoes and clothing. [Syrian refugees in Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_refugees_in_Lebanon "Syrian refugees in Lebanon") make up one quarter of [Lebanon's population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Lebanon "Demographics of Lebanon"), mostly consisting of women and children.[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-294) In addition, Russia has said it created six humanitarian aid centers within Syria to support 3000 refugees in 2016.[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-295)
On 30 April 2020, Human Rights Watch condemned the Syrian authorities for their longstanding restriction on the entry of aid supplies.[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-296) It also demanded the World Health Organization to keep pushing the UN to allow medical aid and other essentials to reach Syria via the Iraq border crossing, to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in the war-torn nation. The aid supplies, if allowed, will allow the Syrian population to protect themselves from contracting the COVID-19 virus.[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-297)
## Cultural impact
Main articles: [Tourism in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_Syria "Tourism in Syria"), [List of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heritage_sites_damaged_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian civil war"), and [Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_the_Islamic_State "Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State")
See also: [List of works about the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_about_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of works about the Syrian civil war")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_of_Bel,_Palmyra_02.jpg)
The [Temple of Bel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Bel "Temple of Bel") in Palmyra, which was destroyed by ISIL in August 2015
As of March 2015[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_civil_war&action=edit), the war has affected 290 heritage sites, severely damaged 104, and completely destroyed 24.\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\] Five of the six UNESCO [World Heritage Sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site") in Syria have been damaged.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-aljazeera-3-17-2015-229) Destruction of antiquities has been caused by [shelling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_\(projectile\) "Shell (projectile)"), army entrenchment, and [looting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looting "Looting") at various [tells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_\(archaeology\) "Tell (archaeology)"), museums and monuments.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-298) A group called [Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Archaeological_Heritage_Under_Threat "Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat") is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and to gain global support for the protection and preservation of [Syrian archaeology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syro-Palestinian_archaeology "Syro-Palestinian archaeology") and architecture.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-299)
UNESCO listed all six Syria's World Heritage Sites as endangered but direct assessment of damage is not possible. It is known that the [Old City of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_City_of_Aleppo "Old City of Aleppo") was heavily damaged during battles being fought within the district, while [Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra "Palmyra") and [Krak des Chevaliers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak_des_Chevaliers "Krak des Chevaliers") suffered minor damage. Illegal digging is said to be a grave danger, and hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to have been looted; in Raqqa some artifacts seem to have been destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections.[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-300)
In 2014 and 2015, following the rise of the Islamic State, several sites in Syria were destroyed by the group as part of a [deliberate destruction of cultural heritage sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_the_Islamic_State "Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State"). In Palmyra, the group destroyed many ancient statues, the [Temples of Baalshamin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Baalshamin "Temple of Baalshamin") and [Bel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Bel "Temple of Bel"), many tombs including the [Tower of Elahbel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_Elahbel "Tower of Elahbel") and part of the [Monumental Arch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monumental_Arch_of_Palmyra "Monumental Arch of Palmyra").[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-301) The 13th-century [Palmyra Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_Castle "Palmyra Castle") was extensively damaged by retreating militants during the [Palmyra offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(March_2016\) "Palmyra offensive (March 2016)") in March 2016.[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-302) IS also destroyed ancient statues in [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa"),[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-303) and a number of churches, including the [Armenian Genocide Memorial Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Genocide_Memorial_Church,_Der_Zor "Armenian Genocide Memorial Church, Der Zor") in [Deir ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor "Deir ez-Zor").[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-304) In January 2018 Turkish airstrikes seriously damaged an ancient Neo-[Hittite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittites "Hittites") temple in Syria's Kurdish-held [Afrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrin_Region "Afrin Region") region. It was built by the [Arameans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameans "Arameans") in the first millennium BC.[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-305) According to a September 2019 report published by the [Syrian Network for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Network_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Network for Human Rights"), more than 120 Christian churches have been destroyed or damaged in Syria since 2011.[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-306)
The war has inspired its own particular artwork, done by Syrians. A late summer 2013 exhibition in London at the [P21 Gallery](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P21_Gallery&action=edit&redlink=1 "P21 Gallery (page does not exist)") showed some of this work, which had to be smuggled out of Syria.[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-307) As a result of the war many children's books have been published surrounding themes and stories of Syrian children of war. Some examples of this would be *Tomorrow* by Nadine Kaadan, *My Beautiful Birds* by Suzanne del Rizzo and *Nowhere Boy* by [Katherine Marsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Marsh "Katherine Marsh").[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-308)
## Media coverage
Main article: [Media coverage of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Media coverage of the Syrian civil war")
The Syrian civil war is one of the most heavily documented wars in history, despite the extreme dangers that journalists face while in Syria.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-309)
### ISIL executions
On 19 August 2014, American journalist [James Foley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Foley_\(journalist\) "James Foley (journalist)") was executed by ISIL, who said it was in retaliation for the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 by [Shabiha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabiha "Shabiha") militia.[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-310) ISIL also threatened to execute [Steven Sotloff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Sotloff "Steven Sotloff"), who was kidnapped at the Syrian–Turkish border in August 2013.[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-311) There were reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national as well.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-312) Sotloff was later executed in September 2014. At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the [Committee to Protect Journalists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_to_Protect_Journalists "Committee to Protect Journalists").[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-313) On 22 August 2014, the [al-Nusra Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front "Al-Nusra Front") released a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded Hezbollah withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-314)
## International reactions and diplomacy
Main article: [International reactions to the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_Syrian_civil_war "International reactions to the Syrian civil war")
See also: [Vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions on Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetoed_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_on_Syria "Vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions on Syria")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Esther_Brimmer_Speaks_at_Human_Rights_Council_Urgent_Debate_on_Syria_\(3\).jpg)
[Esther Brimmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_Brimmer "Esther Brimmer") (US) speaks at a [United Nations Human Rights Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council "United Nations Human Rights Council") urgent debate on Syria, February 2012
During the early period of the civil war, the [Arab League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League"), [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union"), the United Nations[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-315) and many Western governments quickly condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise [free speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_speech "Free speech").[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-316) Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but as the death toll mounted, they switched to a more balanced approach by criticizing violence from both government and protesters. Both the Arab League and the [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation") suspended Syria's membership. Russia and China vetoed Western-drafted [United Nations Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council") resolutions in 2011 and 2012, which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors.[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-317)
### Economic sanctions
See also: [Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_Syria_Civilian_Protection_Act "Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act") and [Syria–United States relations § Economic sanctions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93United_States_relations#Economic_sanctions "Syria–United States relations")
The [US Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Congress "U.S. Congress") has enacted punitive sanctions on the Syrian government for its actions during the Civil War. These sanctions would penalize any entities lending support to the Syrian government, and any companies operating in Syria.[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-sanctions_mansour-318)[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-319)[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-320)[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-321) US president Donald Trump tried to protect the Turkish president Erdogan from the effects of such sanctions.[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-322)
Some activists welcomed this legislation.[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-323) Some critics contend that these punitive sanctions are likely to backfire or have unintended consequences; they argue that ordinary Syrian people will have fewer economic resources due to these sanctions (and will thus need to rely more the Syrian government and its economic allies and projects), while the sanctions' impact on ruling political elites will be limited.[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-sanctions_mansour-318)[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-324)[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-325)
Mohammad al-Abdallah, executive director of [Syria Justice and Accountability Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_Justice_and_Accountability_Centre "Syria Justice and Accountability Centre") (SJAC), said that the sanctions will likely hurt ordinary Syrian people, saying, "it is an almost unsolvable unfeasible equation. If they are imposed, they will indirectly harm the Syrian people, and if they are lifted, they will indirectly revive the Syrian regime;" he attributed the sanctions to "political considerations, as the United States does not have weapons and tools in the Syrian file, and sanctions are its only means."[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-326)
In June, US Secretary of State [Mike Pompeo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Pompeo "Mike Pompeo") announced new economic sanctions on Syria targeting foreign business relations with the Syrian government. Under the [Caesar Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_Syria_Civilian_Protection_Act "Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act"), the latest sanctions were to be imposed on 39 individuals and entities, including [Asma al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asma_al-Assad "Asma al-Assad"), wife of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad.[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-327)
On 17 June 2020, James F. Jeffrey, Special Representative for Syria Engagement, signalled that the [UAE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAE "UAE") could be hit with sanctions under the Caesar Act if it pushed ahead with normalisation efforts with the Syrian regime.[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-328)
### 2019 negotiations
Main articles: [Syrian civil war ceasefires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_ceasefires "Syrian civil war ceasefires") and [Safe Zone (Syria)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Zone_\(Syria\) "Safe Zone (Syria)")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Secretary_Kerry_Sits_With_Fellow_Foreign_Ministers_Before_Group_Discussion_in_Austria_About_Syria_\(22573995626\).jpg)
Syria peace talks in Vienna, 30 October 2015
During the course of the war, there have been several international peace initiatives, undertaken by the Arab League, the United Nations and other actors.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Mediation_in_Syria-19) The Syrian government has refused efforts to negotiate with what it describes as armed terrorist groups.[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-329) On 1 February 2016, the UN announced the formal start of the UN-mediated Geneva Syria peace talks[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-reutersstart-330) that had been agreed on by the [International Syria Support Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_peace_talks_for_Syria "Vienna peace talks for Syria") (ISSG) in Vienna. On 3 February 2016, the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks.[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-reuterssuspend-331) On 14 March 2016, Geneva peace talks resumed. The Syrian government stated that discussion of Bashar-al-Assad's presidency "is a red line", however Syria's president Bashar al-Assad said he hoped [peace talks in Geneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_peace_talks_on_Syria_\(2016\) "Geneva peace talks on Syria (2016)") would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a political process in Syria.[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-332)
A [new round of talks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process#First_round_of_Astana_talks_\(January_2017\) "Syrian peace process") between the Syrian government and some groups of Syrian rebels concluded on 24 January 2017 in [Astana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astana "Astana"), Kazakhstan, with Russia, Iran and Turkey supporting the [ceasefire agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process#Initiation_of_Astana_talks,_and_ceasefire_\(December_2016\) "Syrian peace process") brokered in late December 2016.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-astanatalks-333) The Astana Process talks was billed by a Russian official as a complement to, rather than replacement, of the United Nations-led Geneva Process talks.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-astanatalks-333) On 4 May 2017, at the fourth round of the Astana talks, representatives of Russia, Iran and Turkey signed a memorandum whereby four "[de-escalation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De-escalation "De-escalation") zones" in Syria would be established, effective of 6 May 2017.[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-334)[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-tassdealmay4-335)
### Buffer zone with Turkey
See also: [Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Northern Syria Buffer Zone"), [Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone"), and [2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria")
In October 2019, in response to the Turkish offensive, Russia arranged for negotiations between the Syrian government and the Kurdish-led forces.[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-336) Russia also negotiated a renewal of a cease-fire between Kurds and Turkey that was about to expire.[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Newsweek_middle_east-337)
Russia and Turkey agreed via the [Sochi Agreement of 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sochi_Agreement_of_2019 "Sochi Agreement of 2019") to set up a [Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone"). Syrian president Assad expressed full support for the deal, as various terms of the agreement also applied to the Syrian government.[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:2-338)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Turkey_and_Russia_Deal-58) The SDF stated that they considered themselves as "Syrian and a part of Syria", adding that they would agree to work with the Syrian Government.[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-339) The SDF officially announced their support for the deal on 27 October.[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:4-178)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:5-340)[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-341)
The agreement reportedly included the following terms:[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:2-338)[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-342)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Fraser-343)[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-344)[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-345)[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-346)
- A buffer zone would be established in northern Syria. The zone would be around 30 kilometres (19 mi) deep,[\[g\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-347) stretching from [Euphrates River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates_River "Euphrates River") to [Tall Abyad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tall_Abyad "Tall Abyad") and from [Ras al-Ayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_al-Ayn "Ras al-Ayn") to the Iraq-Syria border, but excluding the town of [Qamishli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamishli "Qamishli"), the Kurds' de facto capital.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-348)
- The buffer zone would be controlled jointly by the [Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Army "Syrian Army") and [Russian Military Police](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Military_Police "Russian Military Police").
- All [YPG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YPG "YPG") forces, which constitute the majority of the SDF, must withdraw from the buffer zone entirely, along with their weapons, within 150 hours from the announcement of the deal. Their withdrawal would be overseen by Russian Military Police and the Syrian Border Guards, which would then enter the zone.
### Syrian Constitutional Committee
Main article: [Syrian Constitutional Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Constitutional_Committee "Syrian Constitutional Committee")
In late 2019, a new [Syrian Constitutional Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Constitutional_Committee "Syrian Constitutional Committee") began operating in order to discuss a new settlement and to draft a new constitution for Syria.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-349) This committee comprises about 150 members. It includes representatives of the Syrian government, opposition groups and countries serving as guarantors of the process, such as Russia. However, this committee has faced strong opposition from the Assad government. Fifty of the committee members represent the government, and 50 members represent the opposition.[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Astana_Sabah-350)
In December 2019, the EU held an international conference which condemned any suppression of the Kurds, and called for the self-declared Autonomous Administration in Rojava to be preserved and to be reflected in any new Syrian Constitution. The Kurds are concerned that the independence of their declared Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) in Rojava might be severely curtailed.[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-351)
Rojava officials condemned the fact that they were excluded from the peace talks and stated that "having a couple of Kurds" in the committee did not mean that the Syrian Kurds were properly represented in it.[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-352) The co-chair of the [Syrian Democratic Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Council "Syrian Democratic Council") accused Turkey of vetoing the representation of Syrian Kurds within the committee.[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-353) The Kurdish administration also organized demonstrations in front of the UN office in [Qamishli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamishli "Qamishli") to protest their exclusion from the committee.[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-354)
### Arab League
See also: [Saudi Arabia–Syria relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia%E2%80%93Syria_relations "Saudi Arabia–Syria relations")
On 13 April 2023, Syrian foreign minister [Faisal Mekdad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisal_Mekdad "Faisal Mekdad") arrived in [Jeddah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeddah "Jeddah") to meet Saudi foreign minister, Prince [Faisal bin Farhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisal_bin_Farhan_Al_Saud "Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud"). After frayed relations during the Syrian civil war, both nations now seek "a political solution to the Syrian crisis that preserves the unity, security and stability of Syria", according to the Saudi foreign ministry. The high level talks are "facilitating the [return of Syrian refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_of_refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Return of refugees of the Syrian civil war") to their homeland, and securing humanitarian access to the affected areas in Syria". Al-Assad previously visited the UAE, Oman as well as Saudi Arabia. The discussion also included the possible resumption of consular services between the two countries. This is the first visit to Saudi Arabia by a Syrian foreign minister since the onset of the civil war in 2011. The same week all foreign ministers of the [Arab League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League") would meet again to discuss the return of Syria to the regional organisation.[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-355)[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-356)
## Scale of destruction
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Umayyad-mosque-aleppo-2013.png)
[Great Mosque of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Aleppo "Great Mosque of Aleppo") in 2013, after destruction of the minaret.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png)
Most of [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa") suffered extensive damage during the [Second Battle of Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2017\) "Battle of Raqqa (2017)")
United Nations authorities have estimated that the war in Syria has caused destruction amounting to about \$400 billion.[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-357) The [SNHR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNHR "SNHR") reported in 2017 that the war has rendered around 39% of [Syrian mosques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_Syria "List of mosques in Syria") unserviceable for worship. More than 13,500 [mosques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque "Mosque") were destroyed in Syria between 2011 and 2017. Around 1,400 were dismantled by 2013, while 13,000 mosques were demolished between 2013 and 2017.[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-358) According to a Syrian war monitor, [over 120 churches have been damaged or demolished](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians "Persecution of Christians") by during the course of Syrian war since 2011, 60% of which attacks were perpetrated by pro-Assad forces.[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-359) During the course of the war, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad said that Syria would be able to rebuild the war-torn country on its own. As of July 2018[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_civil_war&action=edit), the reconstruction is estimated to cost a minimum of US\$400 billion. Assad said he would be able to loan this money from friendly countries, Syrian diaspora and the state treasury.[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-360) Iran has expressed interest in helping rebuild Syria.[\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-361) One year later this seemed to be materializing, Iran and the Syrian government signed a deal where Iran would help rebuild the Syrian energy grid, which has taken damage to 50% of the grid.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-362) International donors have been suggested as one financier of the reconstruction.[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-363) As of November 2018[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_civil_war&action=edit), reports emerged that rebuilding efforts had already started. It was reported that the biggest issue facing the rebuilding process is the lack of building material and a need to make sure the resources that do exist are managed efficiently. The rebuilding effort have so far remained at a limited capacity and has often been focused on certain areas of a city, thus ignoring other areas inhabited by disadvantaged people.[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-364)
Various efforts are proceeding to rebuild infrastructure in Syria. Russia says it will spend \$500 million to modernize Syria's port of [Tartus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartus "Tartus"). Russia also said it will build a railway to link Syria with the Persian Gulf.[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-365)[\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-366) Russia will also contribute to recovery efforts by the UN.[\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-367) Syria awarded oil exploration contracts to two Russian firms.[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-368)
Syria announced it is in serious dialogue with China to join China's "[Belt and Road Initiative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative "Belt and Road Initiative")" designed to foster investment in infrastructure in over one-hundred developing nations worldwide.[\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-369)[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-370) On Wednesday 12 January 2022, China and Syria signed a [memorandum of understanding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorandum_of_understanding "Memorandum of understanding") in Damascus. The memorandum was signed by Fadi al-Khalil, the Head of Planning and International Cooperation Commission for the Syrian Side and Feng Biao, the Chinese ambassador in Damascus for the Chinese side. The memorandum sees Syria join the initiative whose aim is to help expand cooperation with China and other partner countries in areas such as trade, technology, capital, human movement and cultural exchange. Among other things, it aims to define the future of this cooperation with partner states.[\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-371)
## Aftermath
### Syrian transitional government and peace process
| | |
|---|---|
| Part of a series on the [Syrian civil war]() | |
| [Syrian peace process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process "Syrian peace process") | |
| | |
| [Start of Syrian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Revolution "Syrian Revolution") | 2011 |
| [Arab League initiatives I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League_peace_plans_for_Syria "Arab League peace plans for Syria") and [II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League_monitors_in_Syria "Arab League monitors in Syria") | 2011–12 |
| [Churkin peace plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War "Russian involvement in the Syrian Civil War") | 2012 |
| [Kofi Annan peace plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofi_Annan_Syrian_peace_plan "Kofi Annan Syrian peace plan") [(Geneva I)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_I_Conference_on_Syria "Geneva I Conference on Syria") | 2012 |
| [Lakhdar Brahimi peace plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhdar_Brahimi_Syrian_peace_plan "Lakhdar Brahimi Syrian peace plan") | 2012 |
| [U.S.–Russia peace proposal (2013)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93Russia_peace_proposals_on_Syria "U.S.–Russia peace proposals on Syria") | 2013 |
| [Geneva II Mideast peace conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_II_Conference_on_Syria "Geneva II Conference on Syria") | 2014 |
| [Staffan de Mistura peace plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_committees_initiative "Four committees initiative") | 2015 |
| [Zabadani agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Zabadani_cease-fire_agreement "2015 Zabadani cease-fire agreement") | 2015 |
| [Vienna talks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_peace_talks_in_Vienna "Syria peace talks in Vienna") | 2015 |
| [Geneva III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Peace_Conference_\(2016\) "Geneva Peace Conference (2016)") | 2016 |
| [US-Russia ceasefire proposal (2016)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93Russia_peace_proposals_on_Syria "U.S.–Russia peace proposals on Syria") | 2016 |
| [Geneva IV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_peace_talks_on_Syria_\(2017\) "Geneva peace talks on Syria (2017)") | 2017 |
| [Idlib demilitarization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Idlib_demilitarization "2018 Idlib demilitarization") | 2018 |
| [Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Northern Syria Buffer Zone") | 2019 |
| [Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone") | 2019 |
| [Syrian Constitutional Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Constitutional_Committee "Syrian Constitutional Committee") | 2019 |
| [Syrian-Turkish normalization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian-Turkish_normalization "Syrian-Turkish normalization") | 2022–24 |
| [Fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") | 2024 |
| [Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government") | 2024–25 |
| [Syrian Revolution Victory Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_Victory_Conference "Syrian Revolution Victory Conference") | 2025 |
| [Syrian National Dialogue Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Dialogue_Conference "Syrian National Dialogue Conference") | 2025 |
| [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government") | 2025 |
| Primary concerns [Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") under [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad") [Human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_Civil_War "Human rights violations during the Syrian Civil War") [Humanitarian aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_aid_during_the_Syrian_Civil_War "Humanitarian aid during the Syrian Civil War") [Israeli invasion of Syria (2024–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_invasion_of_Syria_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Israeli invasion of Syria (2024–present)") [Refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_refugees "Syrian refugees") [Secularism in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularism_in_Syria "Secularism in Syria") [Sectarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War "Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War") [Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government") [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government") | |
| Secondary concerns [Electricity supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_Syria "Energy in Syria") [Water supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria "Water supply and sanitation in Syria") [Control of oil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_Syria#Oil "Energy in Syria") [Situation in Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") | |
| Peace brokers [Peace envoy for Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhdar_Brahimi "Lakhdar Brahimi") ([United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations")) [UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_the_Coordination_of_Humanitarian_Affairs "United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs") [Arab League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League_peace_plans_for_Syria "Arab League peace plans for Syria") [Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government") [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government") | |
| Proposals [Federalization of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalization_of_Syria "Federalization of Syria") [Destruction of Chemical Weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_Syria%27s_chemical_weapons "Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons") **[Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution "Constitution") amendment:** [Constitution of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria "Constitution of Syria") [Constitution of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Democratic_Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Constitution of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") [Constitutional Declaration of the Syrian Arab Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Declaration_of_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "Constitutional Declaration of the Syrian Arab Republic") [Safe Zones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Zone_\(Syria\) "Safe Zone (Syria)") | |
| Projects [Friends of Syria Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_of_Syria_Group "Friends of Syria Group") [Free Syrian University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_University "Free Syrian University") [Raqqa Is Being Slaughtered Silently](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa_Is_Being_Slaughtered_Silently "Raqqa Is Being Slaughtered Silently") | |
| States directly involved in the Peace Process [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria "Syria") *([Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government") and [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government"))* [Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") [Supreme Legal Committee in Suwayda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Legal_Committee_in_Suwayda "Supreme Legal Committee in Suwayda") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Syrian_peace_process "Template:Syrian peace process") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Syrian_peace_process "Template talk:Syrian peace process") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syrian_peace_process "Special:EditPage/Template:Syrian peace process") | |
Main articles: [Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government"), [Syrian Revolution Victory Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_Victory_Conference "Syrian Revolution Victory Conference"), [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government"), and [Syrian peace process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process "Syrian peace process")
On 8 December 2024, hours after the [fall of Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_\(2024\) "Fall of Damascus (2024)"), [Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali "Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali"), the outgoing prime minister and last head of government of the Ba'athist regime, agreed to lead the transitional government in a [caretaking capacity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caretaker_government "Caretaker government").[\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-372) He then transferred power to Mohammed al-Bashir, prime minister of the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government") (SSG), two days later.[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-373) On 10 December, the transitional administration announced that it would remain in place until 1 March 2025\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\], with all ministers from the SSG taking up their same posts in the new provisional government.[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-374)
A few days prior to the [fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime"), the [Syrian American Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_American_Council "Syrian American Council") (SAC) successfully [lobbied](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobbying "Lobbying") for the [Caesar Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_Syria_Civilian_Protection_Act "Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act") sanctions to be renewed via the US [National Defense Authorization Act 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defense_Authorization_Act_for_Fiscal_Year_2025 "National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2025") (NDAA 2025). However, after the fall of Assad on 8 December 2024 and establishment of the [Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government"), the SAC failed to have the sanctions clause removed from the bill in time.[\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-375) On 23 December, the [Biden administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden "Presidency of Joe Biden") signed NDAA 2025 into law,[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-376) renewing the sanctions for another five years, with *[Reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason_\(magazine\) "Reason (magazine)")* magazine labeling the sanctions "a serious obstacle to Syria's reconstruction" post-Assad.[\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-377)
On 29 January 2025, Syrian *[de facto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto "De facto")* leader [Ahmed al-Sharaa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa "Ahmed al-Sharaa") was appointed President of Syria by the Syrian General Command for the transitional period and held the [Syrian Revolution Victory Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_Victory_Conference "Syrian Revolution Victory Conference").[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-378) In his first address as president, al-Sharaa said that he would hold a "national dialogue conference" and issue a "constitutional declaration" to serve as a "legal reference" during the political transition following the dissolution of the [2012 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Constitution_of_Ba%27athist_Syria "2012 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria").[\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-379)[\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-380) Al-Sharaa promised to go after [war criminals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_criminal "War criminal") belonging to the former regime.[\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-2025VictoryConference-381)[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-382) Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) leader [Mazloum Abdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazloum_Abdi "Mazloum Abdi") congratulated al-Sharaa on assuming the Syrian presidency and invited him to visit northeast Syria. The SDF agreed to integrate into state institutions on 10 March 2025 and the [Suwayda Military Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwayda_Military_Council "Suwayda Military Council") agreed to the same on 12 March 2025, marking the unification of all Syrian revolutionary factions into the transitional government.[\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SDFIntegration-383)[\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SuwaydaIntegration-384)
On 29 March 2025, the [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government") was announced by al-Sharaa at a ceremony at the [Presidential Palace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Damascus "Presidential Palace, Damascus") in [Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus "Damascus"),[\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:022-385) in which the new ministers were sworn in and delivered speeches outlining their agendas.[\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-386) The government replaced the Syrian caretaker government which had been formed following the fall of the Assad regime.[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-387)
### Clashes
See also: [Syrian conflict (2024–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_conflict_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Syrian conflict (2024–present)")
On the day that the Assad regime fell, Israel [invaded southern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria "2024 Israeli invasion of Syria"), subsuming the [Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_the_Golan_Heights "Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights") [buffer zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Disengagement_Observer_Force "United Nations Disengagement Observer Force") and capturing [Quneitra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra "Quneitra"), [Mount Hermon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Hermon "Mount Hermon"), and surrounding towns and villages, while also carrying out a bombing campaign against Syrian military bases. Israel has since maintained a military occupation of the buffer zone.[\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-388)[\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-389) The Turkish-backed SNA launched [an offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij_offensive_\(2024\) "Manbij offensive (2024)") against the SDF, which ended with the capture of [Manbij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij "Manbij") on 11 December.
See also: [SDF–Syrian transitional government clashes (2025–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDF%E2%80%93Syrian_transitional_government_clashes_\(2025%E2%80%93present\) "SDF–Syrian transitional government clashes (2025–present)")
Meanwhile, the SDF [crashed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDF%E2%80%93Syrian_transitional_government_clashes_\(2025%E2%80%93present\) "SDF–Syrian transitional government clashes (2025–present)") against the government in northeast Syria over the control of Manbij as well as the minorities' rights.
## See also
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asia_\(orthographic_projection\).svg)[Asia portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Asia "Portal:Asia")
- [Current events portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_events "Portal:Current events")
- [Middle East portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Middle_East "Portal:Middle East")
- [Modern history portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Modern_history "Portal:Modern history")
- [Belligerents in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belligerents_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Belligerents in the Syrian civil war")
### Events within Syrian society
- [2010s in Syria political history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_Syria_political_history "2010s in Syria political history")
- [Cities and towns during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_and_towns_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Cities and towns during the Syrian civil war")
- [Eastern Syria insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Syria_insurgency "Eastern Syria insurgency")
- [Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-rebel_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian civil war")
- [Rojava conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava_conflict "Rojava conflict")
- [Timeline of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Timeline of the Syrian civil war")
### Historical aspects
- [Spillover of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Spillover of the Syrian civil war")
- [Syria chemical weapons program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_chemical_weapons_program "Syria chemical weapons program")
- [Syrian Captagon industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Captagon_industry "Syrian Captagon industry")
- [Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_border_clashes_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian civil war")
- [Terrorism in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism_in_Syria "Terrorism in Syria")
- [Spillover of the Israel–Hamas war in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war_in_Syria "Spillover of the Israel–Hamas war in Syria")
- [Syrian civil war in popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_in_popular_culture "Syrian civil war in popular culture")
- [Fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime")
### Lists and statistical records
- [Casualty recording](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualty_recording "Casualty recording")
- [Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war")
- [Control of cities during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_of_cities_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Control of cities during the Syrian civil war")
- [List of Syrian defectors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Syrian_defectors "List of Syrian defectors")
- [List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aviation_shootdowns_and_accidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Syrian civil war")
- [List of terrorist incidents in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_terrorist_incidents_in_Syria "List of terrorist incidents in Syria")
### Peace efforts and civil society groups
- [Syrian civil war ceasefires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_ceasefires "Syrian civil war ceasefires")
- [Syrian Democratic Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Council "Syrian Democratic Council")
- [Syrian diaspora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_diaspora "Syrian diaspora")
- [Syrian peace process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process "Syrian peace process")
- [White Helmets (Syrian civil war)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Helmets_\(Syrian_civil_war\) "White Helmets (Syrian civil war)")
### History of other local conflicts
- [Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_\(2011%E2%80%932013\) "Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)")
- [Islamist uprising in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria "Islamist uprising in Syria") from 1976 until 1982
- [List of wars involving Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Syria "List of wars involving Syria")
- [War in Iraq (2013–2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Iraq_\(2013%E2%80%932017\) "War in Iraq (2013–2017)")
## Notes
1. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxStartDate_1-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxStartDate_1-1) [Large-scale demonstrations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution") in Syria began on 15 March 2011 and were subsequently suppressed by force by the Assad regime,[\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-390) it eventually led to an all-out civil war.[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-voxnews170408-391)[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-392) In July 2011, defectors from the Assad regime's security apparatus formed an organized rebel group called the [Free Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army") to protect protesters and strike back at Assad.[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-voxnews170408-391) The [International Committee of the Red Cross](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross "International Committee of the Red Cross") said the violence in Syria had become so widespread that it was in a state of civil war in July 2012.[\[386\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-393)
2. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxEndDate_2-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxEndDate_2-1) With the Ba'athist regime prevailing, the hostilities were mostly put on hold[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-aje15march-63)[\[387\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-394) from [6 March 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(December_2019_%E2%80%93_March_2020\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020)") until [27 November 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives"), after which the Syrian opposition launched a campaign of quick successful military offensives in Northwestern Syria, [toppling the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") on 8 December.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-end_of_war-7)
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxCivilianDeaths_5-0)** According to the [Syrian Observatory for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights") (which gave an estimate of 199,068 civilian deaths) and [Syrian Network for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Network_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Network for Human Rights") (which gave an estimate of 231,000 civilian deaths), 88–91% of these deaths were caused by the Assad regime and its allies.[\[388\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SOHR2024-395) However, the methodology of both organisations has been criticised for being unreliable.[\[389\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-396)[\[390\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-397)[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-398)
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-54)**
Sources:
- Kassam, Kamal; Becker, Maria (16 May 2023). ["Syrians of today, Germans of tomorrow: the effect of initial placement on the political interest of Syrian refugees in Germany"](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpos.2023.1100446). *Frontiers in Political Science*. **5** 1100446: 3. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.3389/fpos.2023.1100446](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpos.2023.1100446). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [2673-3145](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2673-3145).
- ["Syria: The story of the conflict"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868). BBC News. 11 March 2016. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180622052951/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868) from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- ["Syrian Troops Open Fire on Protestors in Several Cities"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/world/middleeast/26syria.html). *The New York Times*. 25 March 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180621011638/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/world/middleeast/26syria.html) from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
- ["Mid-East unrest: Syrian protests in Damascus and Aleppo"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12749674). BBC News. 15 March 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180721134738/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12749674) from the original on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-152)** The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's [PYD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Union_Party_\(Syria\) "Democratic Union Party (Syria)")\-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTELister2015154-149)[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201989-150)[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-151) Since then, the name is still used by some locals and international observers.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-252)** Sources:[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-247)[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-248)[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-249)[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-w820-250)[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-251)
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-347)** Starting from the [Syria–Turkey border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Turkey_border "Syria–Turkey border") and going south into Syria
Cite error: A [list-defined reference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Footnotes#WP:LDR "Help:Footnotes") has no name (see the [help page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_key "Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no key")).
## References
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-SOHR2025_3-0)**
["14th anniversary of Syrian Revolution \| Nearly 657,000 persons killed since the onset of the revolution in March 2011"](https://www.syriahr.com/en/358243/). Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 20 March 2025. Retrieved 20 March 2025.
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-4)**
["Syria"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230128063728/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/). *GCR2P*. 1 December 2022. Archived from [the original](https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/) on 28 January 2023.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-6)**
["Syria emergency"](https://www.unhcr.org/syria-emergency.html). *UNHCR*. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220329123555/https://www.unhcr.org/syria-emergency.html) from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2025.
4. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-end_of_war_7-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-end_of_war_7-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-end_of_war_7-2)
\*
["The end of Syria's forever war"](https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2024/12/10/the-end-of-syrias-forever-war). *[Al Jazeera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jazeera "Al Jazeera")*. December 2024. "Rapid advances by Syrian opposition forces end a war that began with peaceful protests before spiralling out of control."
- ["Monday briefing: How the decade-long war in Syria ended almost overnight"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/dec/09/first-edition-syria-bashar-assad). *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*. December 2024.
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- ["Demoralized and abandoned by allies: Why Syria's army didn't fight for Assad"](https://www.timesofisrael.com/demoralized-and-abandoned-by-allies-why-syrias-army-didnt-fight-for-assad/). *[The Times of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_of_Israel "The Times of Israel")*. December 2024. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20241220151814/https://www.timesofisrael.com/demoralized-and-abandoned-by-allies-why-syrias-army-didnt-fight-for-assad/) from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "toppling former president Bashar al-Assad as his army simply melted away. The rout abruptly ended a 13-year conflict"
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- Triche, Natalie; Hamzawy, Amr (January 2025). ["The Gulf Shifts Policies in Response to the "New" Syria"](https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2025/01/the-gulf-shifts-policies-in-response-to-the-new-syria?lang=en). *[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250713143803/https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2025/01/the-gulf-shifts-policies-in-response-to-the-new-syria?lang=en) from the original on 13 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "On 8 December 2024, armed militias toppled the brutal dictatorship of the Assad family, ending a nearly fourteen-year civil war in Syria."
- Basbugoglu, Tarik (March 2025). ["Syria: Understanding Assad's Unexpected Fall"](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/20419058251332341). *[Political Insight](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_Insight&action=edit&redlink=1 "Political Insight (page does not exist)")*. **16**. [Political Studies Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Studies_Association "Political Studies Association"): 22–25\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/20419058251332341](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F20419058251332341). "Bashar al-Assad's downfall marked the culmination of the Syrian civil war that began in 2011."
- Kardaş, Şaban (March 2025). ["Turkey's Long Game in Syria: Moving beyond Ascendance"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmepo.12807). *[Middle East Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East_Policy "Middle East Policy")*. **32**: 22–37\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1111/mepo.12807](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmepo.12807). "Turkey's actions were decisive in the evolution of the Syrian civil war and its unexpected conclusion."
- Ford, Robert S. (March 2025). ["America Can Best Help Syria by Getting Out"](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/syria/america-can-best-help-syria-getting-out). *[Foreign Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs "Foreign Affairs")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250414050859/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/syria/america-can-best-help-syria-getting-out) from the original on 14 April 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "Syria's 13-year civil war ended abruptly in December"
- Yıldırım, Kürşat; Ercan, Murat (April 2025). ["Geopolitical and strategic analysis of the Syrian problem after regime change"](https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/4589044). *Akademik Hassasiyetler-The Academic Elegance*: 619. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250719123029/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/4589044) from the original on 19 July 2025. Retrieved 18 July 2025. "These conflicts, which lasted for nearly 13 years, ended on 8 December 2024 when Bashar al-Assad, the last representative of the 61-year Baathist regime, fled the country"
- ["With Assad gone and Syria's war over, the White Helmets have a new mission"](https://www.npr.org/2025/04/21/nx-s1-5361048/syria-white-helmets). *[NPR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPR "NPR")*. April 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250710152709/https://www.npr.org/2025/04/21/nx-s1-5361048/syria-white-helmets) from the original on 10 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025.
- ["U.S. Toughens Demands on Syria's New Islamist-Led Leadership"](https://web.archive.org/web/20250417215208/https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/u-s-toughens-demands-on-syrias-new-islamist-led-leadership-695bff58). *[The Wall Street Journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")*. April 2025. Archived from [the original](https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/u-s-toughens-demands-on-syrias-new-islamist-led-leadership-695bff58) on 17 April 2025. "ousted President Bashar al-Assad from power in December, ending the country's 13-year-long civil war."
- ["UN development arm plans for \$1.3 billion in help for Syria, top official says"](https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/imf-world-bank-meetings-discuss-restoring-support-syria-un-official-says-2025-04-18/). *[Reuters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. April 2025. "Syria - hit hard by 14 years of conflict that ended when former leader Bashar al-Assad was ousted by a rebel offensive in December"
- ["'I thought I'd died.' How land mines are continuing to claim lives in post-Assad Syria"](https://apnews.com/article/syria-landmines-assad-amputations-03f8c5672c9dd943622cd622c8d80b6c). *[Associated Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press")*. April 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250724233059/https://apnews.com/article/syria-landmines-assad-amputations-03f8c5672c9dd943622cd622c8d80b6c) from the original on 24 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "While the nearly 14-year Syrian civil war came to an end with the fall of Bashar Assad on Dec. 8, war remnants continue to kill and maim."
- ["At least 249 dead as Syria's land mines continue to kill civilians months after civil war ends"](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/itll-take-ages-to-clear-them-at-least-249-dead-as-syrias-land-mines-continue-to-kill-civilians-months-after-civil-war-ends/articleshow/120450495.cms). *[The Times of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_of_India "The Times of India")*. April 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250726011906/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/itll-take-ages-to-clear-them-at-least-249-dead-as-syrias-land-mines-continue-to-kill-civilians-months-after-civil-war-ends/articleshow/120450495.cms) from the original on 26 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025.
- ["Israel and Turkey begin talks to avoid conflict in Syria"](https://www.ft.com/content/5fe34023-a81f-4f1a-baf5-4059b69121c9). *[Financial Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. April 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250910005604/https://www.ft.com/content/5fe34023-a81f-4f1a-baf5-4059b69121c9) from the original on 10 September 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "Islamist rebels toppled the regime of Bashar al-Assad in December, ending more than a decade of civil war."
- ["Syrians heading home find few of the basics needed to survive"](https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/05/1163431). *[UN News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_News "UN News")*. [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"). May 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250717040308/https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/05/1163431) from the original on 17 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "after more than 13 years of civil war that ended with the fall of the Assad regime last December"
- ["Syrians face daunting rebuild after years of war"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/clyg20822j7o). *[BBC News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News")*. May 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250703124901/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/clyg20822j7o) from the original on 3 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "It began in 2011 and finally ended with a rebel victory in December 2024."
- ["From al-Qaeda to Syria's presidency, the rise of Ahmad al-Sharaa"](https://abcnews.go.com/International/al-qaeda-syrias-presidency-rise-ahmad-al-sharaa/story?id=121788656). *[ABC News (United States)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_News_\(United_States\) "ABC News (United States)")*. May 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250705154222/https://abcnews.go.com/International/al-qaeda-syrias-presidency-rise-ahmad-al-sharaa/story?id=121788656) from the original on 5 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "Syria's civil war ended in December when al-Sharaa and a band of rebel fighters overthrew the government of strongman Bashar al-Assad."
- ["Trump signs executive order eliminating Syria sanctions program"](https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-executive-order-syria-sanctions/). *[CBS News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_News "CBS News")*. June 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250707123041/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-executive-order-syria-sanctions/) from the original on 7 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "The Assad government collapsed in December as rebel groups, including fighters led by Sharaa, swept into Damascus, ending a 13-year-long civil war."
- ["To rebuild from war, Syrian firefighters work to rebuild trust — in each other"](https://www.npr.org/2025/07/10/g-s1-74722/syria-war-firefighters-white-helmets-assad-trust). *[NPR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPR "NPR")*. July 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250715224608/https://www.npr.org/2025/07/10/g-s1-74722/syria-war-firefighters-white-helmets-assad-trust) from the original on 15 July 2025. Retrieved 16 July 2025. "With the end of the civil war, Syrians who lived, worked — and sometimes fought — on opposite sides are coming together to rebuild their country."
- ["Over 30 killed in clashes in predominantly Druze Syrian city"](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/7/13/several-dead-in-clashes-in-predominantly-druze-syrian-city). *[Al Jazeera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jazeera "Al Jazeera")*. July 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250717003216/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/7/13/several-dead-in-clashes-in-predominantly-druze-syrian-city) from the original on 17 July 2025. Retrieved 16 July 2025. "It was the deadliest sectarian flare-up in years in Syria, where a 14-year civil war ended last December with al-Assad fleeing to Russia"
- ["Israel launches bombing raids in Syria and Lebanon"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jul/15/israel-attacks-syrian-military-amid-deadly-clashes-between-druze-and-bedouin-clans). *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*. July 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250715022448/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jul/15/israel-attacks-syrian-military-amid-deadly-clashes-between-druze-and-bedouin-clans) from the original on 15 July 2025. Retrieved 15 July 2025. "In Syria, the transitional government has said it had sent the forces south to end days of clashes between Druze and Bedouin groups, who remained armed following the end of the civil war."
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-8)**
["Iran and Saudi Arabia's cold war is making the Middle East even more dangerous"](https://www.vox.com/2015/3/30/8314513/saudi-arabia-iran). *Vox*. 30 March 2015. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170705182249/https://www.vox.com/2015/3/30/8314513/saudi-arabia-iran) from the original on 5 July 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2015.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-9)**
["U.S.-Russian ceasefire deal holding in southwest Syria"](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria/u-s-russian-ceasefire-takes-effect-in-southwest-syria-idUSKBN19U08D). Reuters. 9 July 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180921113246/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria/u-s-russian-ceasefire-takes-effect-in-southwest-syria-idUSKBN19U08D) from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-10)** [Death toll in alleged Israeli strikes near Damascus up to 23 fighters — monitor](https://www.timesofisrael.com/death-toll-in-alleged-israeli-strikes-near-damascus-up-to-23-fighters-monitor/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200207133645/https://www.timesofisrael.com/death-toll-in-alleged-israeli-strikes-near-damascus-up-to-23-fighters-monitor/) 7 February 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), *Times of Israel*
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-11)**
["2021 will be a defining year for Syria"](https://www.mei.edu/publications/2021-will-be-defining-year-syria). *Middle East Institute*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221117184255/https://www.mei.edu/publications/2021-will-be-defining-year-syria) from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-12)**
["Crisis in Syria: Economic crisis compounds a decade of war"](https://www.rescue.org/article/crisis-syria-economic-crisis-compounds-decade-war). *International Rescue Committee (IRC)*. 31 January 2022. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220314175139/https://www.rescue.org/article/crisis-syria-economic-crisis-compounds-decade-war) from the original on 14 March 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-The_Guardian_13-0)**
["Russia accused of war crimes in Syria at UN security council session"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/25/russia-accused-war-crimes-syria-un-security-council-aleppo). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190401192517/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/25/russia-accused-war-crimes-syria-un-security-council-aleppo) from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
11. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-amnesty1_14-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-amnesty1_14-1)
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12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-15)**
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219. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-224)**
["ACT Alliance Call for Action: Jordan, Syria and Lebanon (18 December 2019) REPORTfrom ACT AlliancePublished on 18 Dec 2019"](https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/act-alliance-call-action-jordan-syria-and-lebanon-18-december-2019). 18 December 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191218143247/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/act-alliance-call-action-jordan-syria-and-lebanon-18-december-2019) from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
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221. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-226)** [Residents in northeast Syria brace for winter as oil smugglers thrive](https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-oil-smuggling-hyena-sdf-deir-ezzor-tankers.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191219144104/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-oil-smuggling-hyena-sdf-deir-ezzor-tankers.html) 19 December 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), by Dan Wilkofsky 18 December 2019.
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223. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-228)** [No help for people displaced by the Turkish invasion](https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/no-help-for-people-displaced-by-the-turkish-invasion-39771) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191211162755/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/no-help-for-people-displaced-by-the-turkish-invasion-39771) 11 December 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). More than 2,500 people now live in the northern Syrian camp Washokani who had to flee due to the Turkish occupation war. No help has arrived from international organisations yet. ANF HESEKE Sunday, 1 December 2019.
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248. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-254)**
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["Report: Over 120 churches damaged war in Syria since 2011"](https://www.citynews1130.com/2019/09/09/report-over-120-churches-damaged-war-in-syria-since-2011/). *citynews1130.com*. 9 September 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190921075911/https://www.citynews1130.com/2019/09/09/report-over-120-churches-damaged-war-in-syria-since-2011/) from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
353. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-360)**
["Syrians will reconstruct country after war themselves, Assad says"](http://tass.com/world/1010788). *Tass*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180627192505/http://tass.com/world/1010788) from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
354. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-361)**
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355. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-362)**
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356. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-363)**
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357. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-364)**
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358. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-365)** [Russia to modernize Syria port, build railway across Syria to Persian Gulf](https://www.timesofisrael.com/russia-to-modernize-syria-port-build-railway-across-syria-to-persian-gulf/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191218144315/https://www.timesofisrael.com/russia-to-modernize-syria-port-build-railway-across-syria-to-persian-gulf/) 18 December 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). Major commercial projects could potentially make it easier for Tehran to increase its influence in Israel's northeastern neighbor.
359. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-366)**
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378. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-:022_385-0)**
["نص الإعلان الدستوري لسوريا 2025"](https://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/2025/3/14/%D9%86%D8%B5-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7-2025). *الجزيرة نت* (in Arabic). Retrieved 29 March 2025.
379. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-386)**
["وزراء الحكومة السورية يقدمون خططهم ويؤدون القسم الدستوري"](https://www.syria.tv/%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%B7%D9%87%D9%85-%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A4%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B3%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A). *[Syria TV (Fadaat Media)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_TV_\(Fadaat_Media\) "Syria TV (Fadaat Media)")* (in Arabic). 29 March 2025. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
380. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-387)**
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381. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-388)**
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382. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-389)**
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383. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-390)**
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384. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-voxnews170408_391-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-voxnews170408_391-1)
["The war in Syria, explained"](https://www.vox.com/2017/4/8/15218782/syria-trump-bomb-assad-explainer). *[Vox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_\(website\) "Vox (website)")*. 8 April 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250702235751/https://www.vox.com/2017/4/8/15218782/syria-trump-bomb-assad-explainer) from the original on 2 July 2025. Retrieved 29 June 2025.
385. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-392)**
Fahim, Kareem; [Saad, Hwaida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hwaida_Saad "Hwaida Saad") (8 February 2013). ["A Faceless Teenage Refugee Who Helped Ignite Syria's War"](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/09/world/middleeast/a-faceless-teenage-refugee-who-helped-ignite-syrias-war.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0362-4331](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170127070543/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/09/world/middleeast/a-faceless-teenage-refugee-who-helped-ignite-syrias-war.html) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
386. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-393)**
["What's happening in Syria?"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/16979186). *[BBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC "BBC")*. 16 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200107144547/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/16979186) from the original on 7 January 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2025.
387. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-394)**
Nawaz, Amna; Warsi, Zeba; Cebrián Aranda, Teresa (15 March 2023). ["Syrians mark 12 years of civil war with no end in sight"](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/syrians-mark-12-years-of-civil-war-with-no-end-in-sight). *PBS News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240620114309/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/syrians-mark-12-years-of-civil-war-with-no-end-in-sight) from the original on 20 June 2024.
388. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-SOHR2024_395-0)**
["Syrian Revolution 13 years on \| Nearly 618,000 persons killed since the onset of the revolution in March 2011"](https://www.syriahr.com/en/328044/). Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 15 March 2024. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250403162901/https://www.syriahr.com/en/328044/) from the original on 3 April 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
389. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-396)**
["Human Rights and Organizational Wrongs: Investigating the Malpractice of the Syrian Network for Human Rights"](https://www.fairobserver.com/politics/human-rights-and-organizational-wrongs-investigating-the-malpractice-of-the-syrian-network-for-human-rights/). *Fair Observer*. 22 August 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250822135428/https://www.fairobserver.com/politics/human-rights-and-organizational-wrongs-investigating-the-malpractice-of-the-syrian-network-for-human-rights/) from the original on 22 August 2025. Retrieved 17 September 2025.
- Allsopp, Harriet; van Wilgenburg, Wladimir (2019). [*The Kurds of Northern Syria. Volume 2: Governance, Diversity and Conflicts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9vWlDwAAQBAJ). London; New York City; etc.: [I.B. Tauris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I.B._Tauris "I.B. Tauris"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-8386-0445-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0445-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0445-5")
.
- Lister, Charles R. (2015). [*The Syrian Jihad: Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and the Evolution of an Insurgency*](https://archive.org/details/CharlesR.ListerTheSyrianJihadAlQaedaTheIslamicStateAndTheEvolutionOfAnInsurgency.). Oxford: [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780190462475](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190462475 "Special:BookSources/9780190462475")
.
- Zabad, Ibrahim (2017). [*Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of the Arab Spring*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XiAlDwAAQBAJ). London; New York City: [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-472-47441-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-472-47441-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-472-47441-4")
.
## Further reading
- Cordesman, Anthony H.; Markusen, Max (23 March 2016). ["Part Three: Stability and Conflict in Syria"](https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/160302_Syria_Iraq_ISIS_III-Syria.pdf) (PDF). [The Comparative Metrics of ISIS and 'Failed State Wars' in Syria and Iraq](https://www.csis.org/analysis/comparative-metrics-isis-and-failed-state-wars-syria-and-iraq-0) (Report). Washington, DC: [Center for Strategic and International Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies "Center for Strategic and International Studies").
- Hinnebusch, Raymond (2012). "Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution?". *[International Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Affairs_\(journal\) "International Affairs (journal)")*. **88** (1): 95–113\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2346.2012.01059.x).
- Landis, Joshua (2012). ["The Syrian Uprising of 2011: Why the Asad Regime Is Likely to Survive to 2013"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4967.2012.00524.x). *Middle East Policy*. **19** (1): 72–84\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00524.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4967.2012.00524.x).
- [Malek, Alia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alia_Malek "Alia Malek") (2017). [*The Home That Was Our Country: A Memoir of Syria*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GnT8sgEACAAJ). [PublicAffairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PublicAffairs "PublicAffairs"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-56858-532-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56858-532-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-56858-532-1")
.
- Pearlman, Wendy (2017). [*We Crossed a Bridge and It Trembled: Voices from Syria*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5BoGDQAAQBAJ). [HarperCollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins "HarperCollins"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-06-265445-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-265445-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-06-265445-8")
.
- Sorenson, David S. (2016). *Syria in Ruins: The Dynamics of the Syrian Civil War*. ABC-CLIO. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4408-3837-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3837-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3837-8")
.
- [van Dam, Nikolaos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_van_Dam "Nikolaos van Dam") (2017). [*Destroying a Nation: The Civil War in Syria*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MARsDgAAQBAJ). I. B. Tauris. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78672-248-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78672-248-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78672-248-5")
.
## External links
**Syrian civil war** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects "Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects")
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg)[Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:_Syrian_civil_war "c:Category: Syrian civil war") from Commons
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikinews-logo.svg)[News](https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Syrian_Civil_War "n:Category:Syrian Civil War") from Wikinews
- [Data](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178810 "d:Q178810") from Wikidata
- [Ecowatch – Syria: Another Pipeline War](https://www.ecowatch.com/syria-another-pipeline-war-1882180532.html)
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Syrian_civil_war "Template:Syrian civil war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Syrian_civil_war "Template talk:Syrian civil war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syrian_civil_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Syrian civil war")[Syrian civil war]() | |
|---|---|
| Overviews | |
| | |
| Main overviews | [Syrian civil war]() [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Timeline of the Syrian civil war") [Background and causes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War "Background and causes of the Syrian Civil War") [Syrian government reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_government_reactions_to_the_Syrian_civil_war "Syrian government reactions to the Syrian civil war") [Belligerents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belligerents_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Belligerents in the Syrian civil war") [Inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-rebel_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian civil war") [Spillover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Spillover of the Syrian civil war") [Cities and towns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_of_cities_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Control of cities during the Syrian civil war") [Sectarianism and minorities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war") [Syrian Desert campaign (2017–2024)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Desert_campaign_\(2017%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian Desert campaign (2017–2024)") [2024 Syrian opposition offensives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives") [Fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") |
| Effects and ongoing concerns | [Casualties of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Casualties of the Syrian civil war") [Refugees of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Refugees of the Syrian civil war") [Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_aid_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war") [Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war") |
| Phases and processes | [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution") [Early insurgency phase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_insurgency_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war") [2012–2013 escalation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%E2%80%932013_escalation_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "2012–2013 escalation of the Syrian civil war") [Ceasefires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_ceasefires "Syrian civil war ceasefires") [Syrian peace process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process "Syrian peace process") |
| World reaction | [International reactions to the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_Syrian_civil_war "International reactions to the Syrian civil war") [Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Reactions to the fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactions_to_the_fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Reactions to the fall of the Assad regime") |
| Specific groups and countries | [Russian involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Russian intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Turkish involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Turkish occupation of northern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria") [Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone") [Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_\(2018%E2%80%932019\) "Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)") [US intervention in the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "US intervention in the Syrian civil war") [2023 attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_attacks_on_U.S._bases_in_Iraq_and_Syria "2023 attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and Syria") [Kurdish Area in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_Area_in_Syria "Kurdish Area in Syria") [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces") [Rojava conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava_conflict "Rojava conflict") [U.S. task force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Joint_Task_Force_%E2%80%93_Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve") |
| Agreements and dialogues | [Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-Turkish_agreement_on_Syria "Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria") [Relations between the Syrian government and North-East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AANES%E2%80%93Syria_relations "AANES–Syria relations") |
| Transitional phase | [Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government") [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government") |
| [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Timeline of the Syrian civil war") | |
| | |
| [**Background**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War "Background and causes of the Syrian Civil War") | [1963 coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1963 Syrian coup d'état") [1963 failed coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_1963_Syrian_coup_attempt "July 1963 Syrian coup attempt") [1966 coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1966 Syrian coup d'état") [Corrective Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrective_Revolution_\(Syria\) "Corrective Revolution (Syria)") [Islamist uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria "Islamist uprising in Syria") [Latakia protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_Latakia_protests "1999 Latakia protests") [Damascus Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_Spring "Damascus Spring") [Qamishli riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Qamishli_riots "2004 Qamishli riots") [Syrian occupation of Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon "Syrian occupation of Lebanon") [Damascus Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_Declaration "Damascus Declaration") [Human rights in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria "Human rights in Syria") [2010s in Syria political history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_Syria_political_history "2010s in Syria political history") [Arab Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring") |
| **2011** [Jan–Apr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2011\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2011)") [May–Aug](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2011\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2011)") [Sep–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2011\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2011)") | [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution") [Death of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Hamza_Ali_Al-Khateeb "Death of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb") [Siege of Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Daraa "Siege of Daraa") [Siege of Baniyas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Baniyas "Siege of Baniyas") [May Talkalakh siege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Talkalakh_\(May_2011\) "Siege of Talkalakh (May 2011)") [Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Rastan_and_Talbiseh "Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh") [June Jisr ash-Shughur operation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2011_Jisr_ash-Shughur_clashes "June 2011 Jisr ash-Shughur clashes") [Siege of Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Hama_\(2011\) "Siege of Hama (2011)") [Siege of Homs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Homs "Siege of Homs") [Siege of Latakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Latakia_\(2011\) "Siege of Latakia (2011)") [Deir ez-Zor clashes (2011–2014)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_clashes_\(2011%E2%80%932014\) "Deir ez-Zor clashes (2011–2014)") [Rif Dimashq clashes (Nov 2011-Mar 2012)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_clashes_\(November_2011%E2%80%93March_2012\) "Rif Dimashq clashes (November 2011–March 2012)") [Battle of Zabadani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zabadani_\(2012\) "Battle of Zabadani (2012)") [Battle of Douma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Douma "Battle of Douma") [Daraa Governorate clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_Governorate_clashes_\(2011%E2%80%932013\) "Daraa Governorate clashes (2011–2013)") [Battle of Rastan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rastan_\(2011\) "Battle of Rastan (2011)") [Idlib Governorate clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(September_2011_%E2%80%93_March_2012\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (September 2011 – March 2012)") [December Jabal al-Zawiya massacres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2011_Jabal_al-Zawiya_massacres "December 2011 Jabal al-Zawiya massacres") |
| **2012** [Jan–Apr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2012\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2012)") [May–Aug](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2012\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2012)") [Sep–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2012\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2012)") | [January al-Midan bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_2012_al-Midan_bombing "January 2012 al-Midan bombing") [Battle of Rastan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rastan_\(January%E2%80%93February_2012\) "Battle of Rastan (January–February 2012)") [First Battle of Idlib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_\(2012\) "Battle of Idlib (2012)") [Battle of al-Qusayr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Qusayr_\(2012\) "Battle of al-Qusayr (2012)") [Idlib Governorate operation (Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2012_Idlib_Governorate_Operation "April 2012 Idlib Governorate Operation") [Battle of Taftanaz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Taftanaz "Battle of Taftanaz") [May Battle of Rastan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rastan_\(May_2012\) "Battle of Rastan (May 2012)") [Houla massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houla_massacre "Houla massacre") [Battle of al-Haffah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Haffah "Battle of al-Haffah") [Al-Qubeir massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qubeir_massacre "Al-Qubeir massacre") [Battle of Tremseh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tremseh "Battle of Tremseh") [Battle of Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Damascus_\(2012\) "Battle of Damascus (2012)") [18 July 2012 Damascus bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18_July_2012_Damascus_bombing "18 July 2012 Damascus bombing") [Battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") [Battle of Anadan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Anadan "Battle of Anadan") [Siege of Base 46](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Base_46 "Siege of Base 46") [Al-Hasakah Governorate campaign (2012–2013)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate_campaign_\(2012%E2%80%932013\) "Al-Hasakah Governorate campaign (2012–2013)") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug-Oct)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(August%E2%80%93October_2012\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (August–October 2012)") [Darayya massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darayya_massacre "Darayya massacre") [Battle of Khirbet Al-Joz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Khirbet_Al-Joz "Battle of Khirbet Al-Joz") [Battle of Maarrat al-Numan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maarrat_al-Numan_\(2012\) "Battle of Maarrat al-Numan (2012)") [First siege of Wadi Deif](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Wadi_Deif_\(2012%E2%80%932013\) "Siege of Wadi Deif (2012–2013)") [Battle of Harem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Harem "Battle of Harem") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Nov 2012–Feb 2013)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(November_2012%E2%80%93February_2013\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (November 2012–February 2013)") [Battle of Darayya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Darayya_\(November_2012%E2%80%93February_2013\) "Battle of Darayya (November 2012–February 2013)") [Aqrab massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqrab_massacre "Aqrab massacre") [Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Hama_offensive "2012 Hama offensive") [Halfaya massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfaya_massacre "Halfaya massacre") [Battle of Darayya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Darayya_\(November_2012%E2%80%93February_2013\) "Battle of Darayya (November 2012–February 2013)") [Quneitra Governorate clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_Governorate_clashes_\(2012%E2%80%932014\) "Quneitra Governorate clashes (2012–2014)") [Talbiseh bakery massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talbiseh_bakery_massacre "Talbiseh bakery massacre") |
| **2013** [Jan–Apr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2013\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2013)") [May–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93December_2013\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–December 2013)") | [Battle of Safira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Safira "Battle of Safira") [Battle of Shadadeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shaddadi_\(2013\) "Battle of Shaddadi (2013)") [Damascus offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_offensive_\(2013\) "Damascus offensive (2013)") [Raqqa campaign (2012–2013)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_\(2012%E2%80%932013\) "Raqqa campaign (2012–2013)") [Battle of Raqqa (Mar)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2013\) "Battle of Raqqa (2013)") [Daraa offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Daraa_offensive "2013 Daraa offensive") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Mar–Aug)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93August_2013\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (March–August 2013)") [Battle of Jdaidet al-Fadl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jdaidet_al-Fadl "Battle of Jdaidet al-Fadl") [Ghouta chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack") [Al-Qusayr offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qusayr_offensive "Al-Qusayr offensive") [Battle of al-Qusayr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Qusayr_\(2013\) "Battle of al-Qusayr (2013)") [Bayda and Baniyas massacres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayda_and_Baniyas_massacres "Bayda and Baniyas massacres") [Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Hama_offensive "2013 Hama offensive") [Hatla massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatla_massacre "Hatla massacre") [Khan al-Assal chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_al-Assal_chemical_attack "Khan al-Assal chemical attack") [Khan al-Assal massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_al-Assal_massacre "Khan al-Assal massacre") [Adra massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adra_massacre "Adra massacre") [Battle of Ras al-Ayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ras_al-Ayn_\(2012%E2%80%9313\) "Battle of Ras al-Ayn (2012–13)") [Battle of Tell Abyad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tell_Abyad_\(2013\) "Battle of Tell Abyad (2013)") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep–Nov)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(September%E2%80%93November_2013\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (September–November 2013)") [Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93December_2013\) "Aleppo offensive (October–December 2013)") [Battle of al-Yaarubiyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Yaarubiyah "Battle of al-Yaarubiyah") [Battle of Tell Hamis and Tell Brak (Dec–Jan)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tell_Hamis_and_Tell_Brak_\(December_2013%E2%80%93January_2014\) "Battle of Tell Hamis and Tell Brak (December 2013–January 2014)") |
| **2014** [Jan–Jul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93July_2014\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–July 2014)") [Aug–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(August%E2%80%93December_2014\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (August–December 2014)") | [First Inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-rebel_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian civil war") [Battle of Markada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Markada "Battle of Markada") [Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93July_2014\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (April–July 2014)") [Battle of Morek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Morek "Battle of Morek") [Daraa offensive (Feb–May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93May_2014\) "Daraa offensive (February–May 2014)") [Maan massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maan_massacre "Maan massacre") [Al-Otaiba ambush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Otaiba_ambush "Al-Otaiba ambush") [Idlib offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Idlib_offensive "2014 Idlib offensive") [Battle of Hosn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hosn "Battle of Hosn") [Latakia Offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Latakia_offensive "2014 Latakia offensive") [Battle of Al-Malihah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Malihah "Battle of Al-Malihah") [Kafr Zita chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Kafr_Zita_chemical_attack "2014 Kafr Zita chemical attack") [Second siege of Wadi Deif](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Wadi_Deif_\(2014\) "Siege of Wadi Deif (2014)") [Qalamoun offensive (Jun–Aug)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalamoun_offensive_\(2014\) "Qalamoun offensive (2014)") [Battle of Arsal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Arsal_\(2014\) "Battle of Arsal (2014)") [First Battle of the Shaer gas field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Shaer_gas_field_\(July_2014\) "Battle of the Shaer gas field (July 2014)") [Eastern Syria offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Eastern_Syria_offensive "2014 Eastern Syria offensive") [Battle of Tabqa Airbase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tabqa_Airbase "Battle of Tabqa Airbase") [Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb–Jul)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Aleppo_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93July_2014\) "Northern Aleppo offensive (February–July 2014)") [Hama Offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Hama_offensive "2014 Hama offensive") [Quneitra offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Quneitra_offensive "2014 Quneitra offensive") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug–Nov)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(August%E2%80%93November_2014\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (August–November 2014)") [Siege of Kobanî](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Koban%C3%AE "Siege of Kobanî") [Homs school bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs_school_bombing "Homs school bombing") [Daraa offensive (Oct)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(October_2014\) "Daraa offensive (October 2014)") [Al-Safira offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Al-Safira_offensive "2014 Al-Safira offensive") [Idlib Raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_raid_on_Idlib_city "2014 raid on Idlib city") [Second Inter-Rebel Conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front%E2%80%93SRF/Hazzm_Movement_conflict "Al-Nusra Front–SRF/Hazzm Movement conflict") [Second Battle of the Shaer gas field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Shaer_gas_field_\(October%E2%80%93November_2014\) "Battle of the Shaer gas field (October–November 2014)") [Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Shaykh_Maskin_\(2014\) "Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin (2014)") [Deir ez-Zor offensive (Dec)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(December_2014\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (December 2014)") |
| **2015** [Jan–Jul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93July_2015\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–July 2015)") [Aug–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(August%E2%80%93December_2015\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (August–December 2015)") | [Air Force An-26 crash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Syrian_Air_Force_An-26_crash "2015 Syrian Air Force An-26 crash") [Daraa Offensive (Jan)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(January_2015\) "Daraa offensive (January 2015)") [Southern Syria Offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Southern_Syria_offensive "2015 Southern Syria offensive") [Eastern al-Hasakah offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_al-Hasakah_offensive "Eastern al-Hasakah offensive") [Battle of Sarrin (Mar–Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sarrin_\(March%E2%80%93April_2015\) "Battle of Sarrin (March–April 2015)") [Battle of Sarrin (Jun–Jul)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sarrin_\(June%E2%80%93July_2015\) "Battle of Sarrin (June–July 2015)") [Battle of Bosra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bosra_\(2015\) "Battle of Bosra (2015)") [Idlib Offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Idlib_offensive "2015 Idlib offensive") [Second Battle of Idlib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_\(2015\) "Battle of Idlib (2015)") [Battle of Nasib Border Crossing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nasib_Border_Crossing "Battle of Nasib Border Crossing") [Battle of Yarmouk Camp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk_Camp_\(2015\) "Battle of Yarmouk Camp (2015)") [Western al-Hasakah offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_al-Hasakah_offensive "Western al-Hasakah offensive") [Palmyra offensive (May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(May_2015\) "Palmyra offensive (May 2015)") [Qamishli bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Qamishli_bombings "2015 Qamishli bombings") [Tell Abyad offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_Abyad_offensive "Tell Abyad offensive") [Kobanî massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koban%C3%AE_massacre "Kobanî massacre") [Quneitra offensive (Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_offensive_\(June_2015\) "Quneitra offensive (June 2015)") [Palmyra offensive (Jul–Aug)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(July%E2%80%93August_2015\) "Palmyra offensive (July–August 2015)") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(September_2015\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (September 2015)") [Northwestern Syria offensive (Oct–Nov)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93November_2015\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (October–November 2015)") [Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93December_2015\) "Aleppo offensive (October–December 2015)") [Al-Hawl offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_al-Hawl_offensive "2015 al-Hawl offensive") [Homs offensive (Nov-Dec)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs_offensive_\(November%E2%80%93December_2015\) "Homs offensive (November–December 2015)") [East Aleppo offensive (2015–2016)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Aleppo_offensive_\(2015%E2%80%932016\) "East Aleppo offensive (2015–2016)") [2015–2016 Latakia offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_Latakia_offensive "2015–2016 Latakia offensive") [Tishrin Dam offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tishrin_Dam_offensive "Tishrin Dam offensive") [Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Russian_Sukhoi_Su-24_shootdown "2015 Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown") |
| **2016** [Jan–Apr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2016\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2016)") [May–Aug](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2016\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2016)") [Sep–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2016\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2016)") | [Second Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Al-Shaykh_Maskin_\(2015%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin (2015–2016)") [Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(2016\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (2016)") [January Sayyidah Zaynab bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Sayyidah_Zaynab_attacks#January "2016 Sayyidah Zaynab attacks") [Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Aleppo_offensive_\(February_2016\) "Northern Aleppo offensive (February 2016)") [Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Feb–Mar)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithriyah-Raqqa_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93March_2016\) "Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (February–March 2016)") [Al-Shaddadi offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Shaddadi_offensive_\(2016\) "Al-Shaddadi offensive (2016)") [February Homs bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2016_Homs_bombings "February 2016 Homs bombings") [February Sayyidah Zaynab bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Sayyidah_Zaynab_attacks#February "2016 Sayyidah Zaynab attacks") [Khanasir offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Khanasir_offensive "2016 Khanasir offensive") [Battle of Tel Abyad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tell_Abyad_\(2016\) "Battle of Tell Abyad (2016)") [Battle of Maarrat al-Numan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maarrat_al-Numan_\(2016\) "Battle of Maarrat al-Numan (2016)") [Battle of Qamishli (Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Qamishli_\(2016\) "Battle of Qamishli (2016)") [Northern Aleppo offensive (Mar–Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Aleppo_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93June_2016\) "Northern Aleppo offensive (March–June 2016)") [Palmyra offensive (Mar)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(March_2016\) "Palmyra offensive (March 2016)") [East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Ghouta_inter-rebel_conflict_\(April%E2%80%93May_2016\) "East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (April–May 2016)") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Apr–May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93May_2016\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (April–May 2016)") [Northern Raqqa offensive (May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Raqqa_offensive "Northern Raqqa offensive") [May Jableh & Tartous bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2016_Jableh_and_Tartous_bombings "May 2016 Jableh and Tartous bombings") [Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithriyah-Raqqa_offensive_\(June_2016\) "Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (June 2016)") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Jun–Oct)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(June%E2%80%93October_2016\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (June–October 2016)") [Manbij offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij_offensive_\(2016\) "Manbij offensive (2016)") [Tokhar massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokhar_massacre "Tokhar massacre") [Southern Aleppo campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Southern_Aleppo_campaign "2016 Southern Aleppo campaign") [Battle of al-Rai (Aug)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Rai_\(August_2016\) "Battle of al-Rai (August 2016)") [Operation Euphrates Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Euphrates_Shield "Operation Euphrates Shield") [Aleppo summer campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Aleppo_summer_campaign "2016 Aleppo summer campaign") [Western al-Bab offensive (Sep)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_al-Bab_offensive_\(September_2016\) "Western al-Bab offensive (September 2016)") [5 September bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_September_2016_Syria_bombings "5 September 2016 Syria bombings") [September Deir ez-Zor air raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_2016_Deir_ez-Zor_air_raid "September 2016 Deir ez-Zor air raid") [September Urum al-Kubra aid convoy attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_2016_Urum_al-Kubra_aid_convoy_attack "September 2016 Urum al-Kubra aid convoy attack") [Aleppo offensive (Sep–Oct)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(September%E2%80%93October_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (September–October 2016)") [Dabiq offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Dabiq_offensive "2016 Dabiq offensive") [Western al-Bab offensive (Oct–Nov)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_al-Bab_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93November_2016\) "Western al-Bab offensive (October–November 2016)") [Khan al-Shih offensive (Oct–Nov)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_al-Shih_offensive_\(October%E2%80%93November_2016\) "Khan al-Shih offensive (October–November 2016)") [Raqqa campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_\(2016%E2%80%932017\) "Raqqa campaign (2016–2017)") [Battle of al-Bab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Bab "Battle of al-Bab") [Aleppo offensive (Nov-Dec)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_offensive_\(November%E2%80%93December_2016\) "Aleppo offensive (November–December 2016)") [Palmyra offensive (Dec)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(December_2016\) "Palmyra offensive (December 2016)") |
| **2017** [Jan–Apr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2017)") [May–Aug](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2017\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2017)") [Sep–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2017\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2017)") | [Wadi Barada offensive (2016–2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_Barada_offensive_\(2016%E2%80%932017\) "Wadi Barada offensive (2016–2017)") [January Azaz bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_2017_Azaz_bombing "January 2017 Azaz bombing") [Desert campaign (Dec 16–Apr 17)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Desert_campaign_\(December_2016%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Syrian Desert campaign (December 2016–April 2017)") [Idlib clashes (Jan–Mar)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(January%E2%80%93March_2017\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017)") [Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan–Feb)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(January%E2%80%93February_2017\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (January–February 2017)") [Daraa offensive (Feb–Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93June_2017\) "Daraa offensive (February–June 2017)") [Southwestern Daraa offensive (Feb)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_Daraa_offensive_\(February_2017\) "Southwestern Daraa offensive (February 2017)") [Qaboun offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaboun_offensive_\(2017\) "Qaboun offensive (2017)") [Palmyra offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(2017\) "Palmyra offensive (2017)") [East Aleppo offensive (Jan–Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Aleppo_offensive_\(2017\) "East Aleppo offensive (2017)") [March Damascus bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2017_Damascus_bombings "March 2017 Damascus bombings") [Al-Jinah airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_al-Jinah_airstrike "2017 al-Jinah airstrike") [Hama offensive (Mar–Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Hama offensive (March–April 2017)") [Battle of Tabqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tabqa "Battle of Tabqa") [Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack "Khan Shaykhun chemical attack") [Shayrat missile strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike "2017 Shayrat missile strike") [Aleppo bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Aleppo_suicide_car_bombing "2017 Aleppo suicide car bombing") [April Turkish airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2017_Turkish_airstrikes_in_Syria_and_Iraq "April 2017 Turkish airstrikes in Syria and Iraq") [East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Ghouta_inter-rebel_conflict_\(April%E2%80%93May_2017\) "East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (April–May 2017)") [Desert campaign (May–Jul)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Desert_campaign_\(May%E2%80%93July_2017\) "Syrian Desert campaign (May–July 2017)") [Maskanah Plains offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskanah_Plains_offensive "Maskanah Plains offensive") [East Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Hama_offensive_\(2017\) "East Hama offensive (2017)") [Battle of Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2017\) "Battle of Raqqa (2017)") [Daraa offensive (Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa_offensive_\(June_2017\) "Daraa offensive (June 2017)") [Southern Raqqa offensive (Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Southern_Raqqa_offensive "2017 Southern Raqqa offensive") [Jobar offensive (Jun–Aug)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Jobar_offensive "2017 Jobar offensive") [Quneitra offensive (Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_offensive_\(June_2017\) "Quneitra offensive (June 2017)") [Idlib clashes (Jul)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(July_2017\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)") [Central campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Syria_campaign "Central Syria campaign") [Qalamoun (Jul–Aug)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalamoun_offensive_\(2017\) "Qalamoun offensive (2017)") [Deir ez-Zor offensive (Sep 17–Mar 18)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_campaign_\(2017%E2%80%932019\) "Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017–2019)") [Hama offensive (Sep)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_offensive_\(September_2017\) "Hama offensive (September 2017)") [Northwestern campaign (Oct 17–Feb 18)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_campaign_\(October_2017%E2%80%93February_2018\) "Northwestern Syria campaign (October 2017–February 2018)") [Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate "Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate") [Battle of Harasta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Harasta_\(2017%E2%80%932018\) "Battle of Harasta (2017–2018)") [Eastern campaign (Sep–Dec)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Syria_campaign_\(September%E2%80%93December_2017\) "Eastern Syria campaign (September–December 2017)") [Euphrates Crossing offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Euphrates_Crossing_offensive "2017 Euphrates Crossing offensive") [Mayadin offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Mayadin_offensive "2017 Mayadin offensive") [Battle of Deir ez-Zor (Sep–Nov)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(September%E2%80%93November_2017\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (September–November 2017)") [Abu Kamal offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Abu_Kamal_offensive "2017 Abu Kamal offensive") [Beit Jinn offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beit_Jinn_offensive "Beit Jinn offensive") |
| **2018** [Jan–Apr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2018\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2018)") [May–Aug](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2018\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2018)") [Sep–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2018\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2018)") | [Operation Olive Branch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch "Operation Olive Branch") [Battle of Khasham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Khasham "Battle of Khasham") [Rif Dimashq offensive (Feb–Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93April_2018\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)") [Southern Damascus offensive (Jan–Feb)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Damascus_offensive_\(January%E2%80%93February_2018\) "Southern Damascus offensive (January–February 2018)") [Syrian Liberation Front–Tahrir al-Sham conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Liberation_Front%E2%80%93Tahrir_al-Sham_conflict "Syrian Liberation Front–Tahrir al-Sham conflict") [Southern Damascus offensive (Mar)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Damascus_offensive_\(March_2018\) "Southern Damascus offensive (March 2018)") [Douma chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douma_chemical_attack "Douma chemical attack") [Missile strikes (Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2018_missile_strikes_against_Syria "April 2018 missile strikes against Syria") [Northern Homs offensive (Apr–May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Homs_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93May_2018\) "Northern Homs offensive (April–May 2018)") [Eastern Qalamoun offensive (Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Qalamoun_offensive_\(April_2018\) "Eastern Qalamoun offensive (April 2018)") [Southern Damascus offensive (Apr–May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Damascus_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93May_2018\) "Southern Damascus offensive (April–May 2018)") [Deir ez-Zor clashes (Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate_clashes "Deir ez-Zor Governorate clashes") [Deir ez-Zor offensive (May–Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(2018\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (2018)") [As-Suwayda offensive (Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-Suwayda_offensive_\(June_2018\) "As-Suwayda offensive (June 2018)") [Southern offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Southern_Syria_offensive "2018 Southern Syria offensive") [As-Suwayda attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_As-Suwayda_attacks "2018 As-Suwayda attacks") [As-Suwayda (Aug-Nov)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-Suwayda_offensive_\(August%E2%80%93November_2018\) "As-Suwayda offensive (August–November 2018)") [Qamishli clashes (Sep)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamishli_clashes_\(2018\) "Qamishli clashes (2018)") [Missile strikes (Sep)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(September_2018\) "Syria missile strikes (September 2018)") [Northern border clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Syrian-Turkish_border_clashes "2018 Syrian-Turkish border clashes") |
| **2019** [Jan–Apr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93April_2019\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2019)") [May–Aug](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(May%E2%80%93August_2019\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2019)") [Sep–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(September%E2%80%93December_2019\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2019)") | [Idlib inter-rebel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation%E2%80%93Tahrir_al-Sham_conflict "National Front for Liberation–Tahrir al-Sham conflict") [Manbij bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Manbij_bombing "2019 Manbij bombing") [Battle of Baghuz Fawqani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Baghuz_Fawqani "Battle of Baghuz Fawqani") [ISIL insurgency in Deir-ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISIL_insurgency_in_Deir_ez-Zor_\(2019\) "ISIL insurgency in Deir ez-Zor (2019)") [Dêrik prison escape attempt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AArik_prison_escape_attempt "Dêrik prison escape attempt") [Tell Rifaat clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Tell_Rifaat_clashes "2019 Tell Rifaat clashes") [Northwestern offensive (Apr–Aug)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(April%E2%80%93August_2019\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)") [June bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2019_Syria_bombings "June 2019 Syria bombings") [Hass refugee camp bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hass_refugee_camp_bombing "Hass refugee camp bombing") [Missile strikes (Aug)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(August_2019\) "Syria missile strikes (August 2019)") [Turkish offensive into northeast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria") [Barisha raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi "Death of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi") [November bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_2019_Syria_bombings "November 2019 Syria bombings") [Israeli missile strikes (Nov)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_2019_Israeli_missile_strikes_in_Syria "November 2019 Israeli missile strikes in Syria") [Qah missile strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qah_missile_strike "Qah missile strike") [Northwestern offensive (Dec 19–Mar 20)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(December_2019%E2%80%93March_2020\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019–March 2020)") [US airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2019_United_States_airstrikes_in_Iraq_and_Syria "December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria") |
| **2020** [Jan–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(2020\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (2020)") | [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Syria "COVID-19 pandemic in Syria") [Afrin bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Afrin_bombing "2020 Afrin bombing") [Idlib Governorate clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_\(June_2020\) "Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2020)") [Kafr-Takharim airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Kafr_Takharim_airstrike "2020 Kafr Takharim airstrike") [Ayn Issa clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Ayn_Issa_clashes "2020–2021 Ayn Issa clashes") [Deir ez-Zor ambush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Deir_ez-Zor_ambush "2020 Deir ez-Zor ambush") |
| **2021** [Jan–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(2021\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (2021)") | [Siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Qamishli_and_Al-Hasakah "Siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah") [Missile strikes (Jan)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(January_2021\) "Syria missile strikes (January 2021)") [US airstrike (Feb)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2021_United_States_airstrike_in_Syria "February 2021 United States airstrike in Syria") [Battle of Qamishli (Apr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Qamishli_\(2021\) "Battle of Qamishli (2021)") [US airstrike (Jun)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2021_United_States_airstrike_in_Syria "June 2021 United States airstrike in Syria") [Daraa clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Daraa_clashes "2021 Daraa clashes") [Tahrir al-Sham–Junud al-Sham conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahrir_al-Sham%E2%80%93Junud_al-Sham_conflict "Tahrir al-Sham–Junud al-Sham conflict") |
| **2022** [Jan–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(2022\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (2022)") | [Battle of al-Hasakah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Hasakah_\(2022\) "Battle of al-Hasakah (2022)") [Ahrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Ahrar_al-Sham%E2%80%93Levant_Front_clashes "2022 Ahrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes") [Jabal al-Bishrī clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Jabal_al-Bishr%C4%AB_clashes "2022 Jabal al-Bishrī clashes") [Jarqli airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Jarqli_airstrikes "2022 Jarqli airstrikes") [Northern Aleppo clashes (Oct)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Aleppo_clashes_\(October_2022\) "Northern Aleppo clashes (October 2022)") [Operation Claw-Sword](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Claw-Sword "Operation Claw-Sword") [Northwest clashes (Dec)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_clashes_\(December_2022%E2%80%93present\) "Northwestern Syria clashes (December 2022–present)") |
| **2023** [Jan–Dec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(2023\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (2023)") | [Al-Sukhnah attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Al-Sukhnah_attack "2023 Al-Sukhnah attack") [Damascus airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Damascus_airstrike "2023 Damascus airstrike") [Hama attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Hama_attack "2023 Hama attack") [Northern border clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Northern_Syria_clashes "2023 Northern Syria clashes") |
| **2024** [Jan–Oct](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(January%E2%80%93October_2024\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–October 2024)") [Nov–present](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(November_2024%E2%80%93present\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (November 2024–present)") | [Opposition offensives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives") [Deir ez-Zor offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_offensive_\(2024\) "Deir ez-Zor offensive (2024)") [Northwestern Syria offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(2024\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (2024)") [Battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2024\) "Battle of Aleppo (2024)") [Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Hama_offensive "2024 Hama offensive") [Southern offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Syria_offensive_\(2024\) "Southern Syria offensive (2024)") [Operation Dawn of Freedom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dawn_of_Freedom "Operation Dawn of Freedom") [Manbij offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij_offensive_\(2024\) "Manbij offensive (2024)") [Ayn Issa attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Ayn_Issa_attack "2024 Ayn Issa attack") [Kobani clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Kobani_clashes "2024 Kobani clashes") [Homs offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Homs_offensive "2024 Homs offensive") [Palmyra offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(2024\) "Palmyra offensive (2024)") [Fall of Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_\(2024\) "Fall of Damascus (2024)") [Fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") [Western Syria clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Syria_clashes "Western Syria clashes") [Hezbollah-Syria clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah%E2%80%93Syria_clashes_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Hezbollah–Syria clashes (2024–present)") [Turkish offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_offensive_into_northeastern_Syria_\(2024%E2%80%932025\) "Turkish offensive into northeastern Syria (2024–2025)") [Israeli invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_invasion_of_Syria_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Israeli invasion of Syria (2024–present)") |
| **2025** [Nov 2024 –present](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(November_2024%E2%80%93present\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (November 2024–present)") | [Druze insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze_insurgency_in_Southern_Syria "Druze insurgency in Southern Syria") [Jaramana clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Jaramana_clashes "2025 Jaramana clashes") [Southern clashes (April–May)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Syria_clashes_\(April%E2%80%93May_2025\) "Southern Syria clashes (April–May 2025)") [Massacres of Syrian Druze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2025_massacres_of_Syrian_Druze "April 2025 massacres of Syrian Druze") [Southern clashes (July–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Syria_clashes_\(July_2025%E2%80%93present\) "Southern Syria clashes (July 2025–present)") [Massacres of Syrian Alawites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_massacres_of_Syrian_Alawites "2025 massacres of Syrian Alawites") [Daraa clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2025_Daraa_clashes "March 2025 Daraa clashes") [Mar Elias Church attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar_Elias_Church_attack "Mar Elias Church attack") [Aleppo clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_clashes_\(2025%E2%80%932026\) "Aleppo clashes (2025–2026)") [Homs mosque bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Homs_mosque_bombing "2025 Homs mosque bombing") |
| **2026** [Nov 2024 –present](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_\(November_2024%E2%80%93present\) "Timeline of the Syrian civil war (November 2024–present)") | [Northeastern Syria offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_northeastern_Syria_offensive "2026 northeastern Syria offensive") |
| [**Spillover**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Spillover of the Syrian civil war") | |
| | |
| [Israel and Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Syrian_ceasefire_line_incidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line incidents during the Syrian civil war"): | [March 2017 incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2017_Israel%E2%80%93Syria_incident "March 2017 Israel–Syria incident") [February 2018 incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2018_Israel%E2%80%93Syria_incident "February 2018 Israel–Syria incident") [May 2018 Israel–Iran incidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_House_of_Cards "Operation House of Cards") |
| [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_War_in_Iraq_\(2014\) "Timeline of the War in Iraq (2014)"): | [Akashat ambush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akashat_ambush "Akashat ambush") [Operation al-Shabah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_al-Shabah "Operation al-Shabah") [April 2014 Iraqi border airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_War_in_Iraq_\(2014\)#April "Timeline of the War in Iraq (2014)") |
| [Jordanian border incidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanian%E2%80%93Syrian_border_incidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Jordanian–Syrian border incidents during the Syrian civil war") | [April 2014 Jordanian border airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanian%E2%80%93Syrian_border_incidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war#2014 "Jordanian–Syrian border incidents during the Syrian civil war") |
| [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon "Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon"): | [Lebanese border clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%E2%80%932017_Lebanon%E2%80%93Syria_border_clashes "2012–2017 Lebanon–Syria border clashes") [Battle of Sidon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Sidon_clash "2013 Sidon clash") [Iranian embassy bombing in Beirut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_embassy_bombing_in_Beirut "Iranian embassy bombing in Beirut") [North Lebanon clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Lebanon_clashes_\(2014\) "North Lebanon clashes (2014)") [Qalamoun (Jul–Aug 2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalamoun_offensive_\(2017\) "Qalamoun offensive (2017)") |
| [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_border_clashes_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian civil war"): | [December 2011 Turkish border clash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2011_Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_border_clash "December 2011 Syrian–Turkish border clash") [2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Turkish_F-4_Phantom_shootdown "2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown") [2012 Turkish border clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_border_clashes "2012 Syrian–Turkish border clashes") [2013 Reyhanlı car bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Reyhanl%C4%B1_car_bombings "2013 Reyhanlı car bombings") [January 2014 Turkish attack in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_2014_Turkish_attack_in_Syria "January 2014 Turkish attack in Syria") [Assassination of Andrei Karlov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Andrei_Karlov "Assassination of Andrei Karlov") [Russian Air Force Al-Bab incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Russian_Air_Force_Al-Bab_incident "2017 Russian Air Force Al-Bab incident") [2020 Balyun airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Balyun_airstrikes "2020 Balyun airstrikes") [Operation Spring Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Spring_Shield "Operation Spring Shield") |
| Elsewhere: | [Deir ez-Zor missile strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Deir_ez-Zor_missile_strike "2017 Deir ez-Zor missile strike") (Iran) |
| Belligerents | |
| | |
| [Ba'athist regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") | |
| | |
| [Politics of Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Ba%27athist_Syria "Politics of Ba'athist Syria") | [Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region "Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region") [Ba'ath Brigades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27ath_Brigades "Ba'ath Brigades") [Syrian Social Nationalist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party "Syrian Social Nationalist Party") [Arab Socialist Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement "Arab Socialist Movement") [Syrian Communist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party_\(Bakdash\) "Syrian Communist Party (Bakdash)") [Syrian Communist Party (Unified)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party_\(Unified\) "Syrian Communist Party (Unified)") |
| Military and militias | [Lions of Hussein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lions_of_Hussein "Lions of Hussein") [Guardians of the Dawn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardians_of_the_Dawn "Guardians of the Dawn") [Arab Nationalist Guard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Guard "Arab Nationalist Guard") [Jaysh al-Muwahhidin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_al-Muwahhidin "Jaysh al-Muwahhidin") [Sootoro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sootoro "Sootoro") [Ba'ath Brigades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27ath_Brigades "Ba'ath Brigades") [National Defence Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defence_Forces "National Defence Forces") [Popular Committees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Committees_\(Syria\) "Popular Committees (Syria)") [Golan Regiment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golan_Regiment "Golan Regiment") [Syrian Arab Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces_\(Ba%27athist_Syria\) "Syrian Arab Armed Forces (Ba'athist Syria)") [Eagles of the Whirlwind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagles_of_the_Whirlwind "Eagles of the Whirlwind") [The Islamic Resistance Front in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Islamic_Resistance_Front_in_Syria "The Islamic Resistance Front in Syria") [Military Council for the Liberation of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Council_for_the_Liberation_of_Syria "Military Council for the Liberation of Syria") [Syrian Popular Resistance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Popular_Resistance "Syrian Popular Resistance") [Syrian Resistance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Resistance "Syrian Resistance") [Popular Resistance of the Eastern Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Resistance_of_the_Eastern_Region "Popular Resistance of the Eastern Region") [PFLP-GC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine_%E2%80%93_General_Command "Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command") [Jihad Jibril Brigades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihad_Jibril_Brigades "Jihad Jibril Brigades") [Galilee Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilee_Forces "Galilee Forces") [Free Palestine Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Palestine_Movement "Free Palestine Movement") [Palestinian People's Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_People%27s_Party "Palestinian People's Party") [Liwa Fatemiyoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwa_Fatemiyoun "Liwa Fatemiyoun") [As-Sa'iqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-Sa%27iqa "As-Sa'iqa") [al-Quds Brigade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwa_al-Quds "Liwa al-Quds") [Palestine Liberation Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Army "Palestine Liberation Army") |
| [Foreign support](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") | [Hezbollah involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Iranian involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Liwa Fatemiyoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwa_Fatemiyoun "Liwa Fatemiyoun") [Russian involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war") [medical facility targeting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%E2%80%93Syrian_hospital_bombing_campaign "Russian–Syrian hospital bombing campaign") [military intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Wagner Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner_Group_activities_in_Syria "Wagner Group activities in Syria") [Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Syria%E2%80%93Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_coalition "Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition") [Popular Mobilization Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Mobilization_Forces "Popular Mobilization Forces") |
| [Opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") | |
| | |
| [Interim government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government "Syrian Interim Government") | [National Coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Coalition_of_Syrian_Revolutionary_and_Opposition_Forces "National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces") [Local Coordination Committees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Coordination_Committees_of_Syria "Local Coordination Committees of Syria") [Syrian National Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Council "Syrian National Council") [Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_the_Syrian_Revolution "Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution") [National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Coordination_Committee_for_Democratic_Change "National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change") [Syrian Revolution General Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_General_Commission "Syrian Revolution General Commission") [Syrian Support Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Support_Group "Syrian Support Group") [Adopt a Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adopt_a_Revolution "Adopt a Revolution") [Syrian Patriotic Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Council#Syrian_Patriotic_Group "Syrian National Council") |
| Opposition militias | [Syrian National Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Army "Syrian National Army") [Free Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army") [National Front for Liberation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation "National Front for Liberation") [Army of Glory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_al-Izza "Jaysh al-Izza") [Authenticity and Development Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authenticity_and_Development_Front "Authenticity and Development Front") [Army of Free Tribes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Free_Tribes "Army of Free Tribes") [Syrian Free Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Free_Army "Syrian Free Army") [Muslim Brotherhood in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Syria "Muslim Brotherhood in Syria") [Grey Wolves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_Wolves_\(organization\) "Grey Wolves (organization)") [Syrian Council of Tribes and Clans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Council_of_Tribes_and_Clans "Syrian Council of Tribes and Clans") |
| [Foreign support](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") | [US intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "US intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Jordanian intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Jordanian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatari_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Qatari involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Saudi involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") |
| [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") | |
| | |
| [DFNS Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_for_a_Democratic_Society "Movement for a Democratic Society") | [Democratic Union Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Union_Party_\(Syria\) "Democratic Union Party (Syria)") [Kurdish National Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_National_Council "Kurdish National Council") [Smaller political parties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Rojava "List of political parties in Rojava") |
| [SDF militias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces") | [People's Protection Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Defense_Units "People's Defense Units") [Women's Protection Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Protection_Units "Women's Protection Units") [Anti-Terror Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Terror_Units "Anti-Terror Units") [Al-Sanadid Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Sanadid_Forces "Al-Sanadid Forces") [Army of Revolutionaries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Revolutionaries "Army of Revolutionaries") [SDF military councils](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces_military_councils "Syrian Democratic Forces military councils") [Syriac Military Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_Military_Council "Syriac Military Council") [Liwa Thuwar al-Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwa_Thuwar_al-Raqqa "Liwa Thuwar al-Raqqa") [Northern Democratic Brigade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Democratic_Brigade "Northern Democratic Brigade") |
| Support | [Patriotic Union of Kurdistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Union_of_Kurdistan "Patriotic Union of Kurdistan") [Kurdistan Workers' Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdistan_Workers%27_Party "Kurdistan Workers' Party") [International Freedom Battalion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Freedom_Battalion "International Freedom Battalion") [Sinjar Resistance Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinjar_Resistance_Units "Sinjar Resistance Units") [Êzîdxan Women's Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Az%C3%AEdxan_Women%27s_Units "Êzîdxan Women's Units") |
| [Islamists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") | |
| | |
| [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State") | [Military activity of ISIL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Islamic_State "Military of the Islamic State") [Dokumacılar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dokumac%C4%B1lar "Dokumacılar") [Al-Barakah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Barakah_\(Islamic_State_administrative_district\) "Al-Barakah (Islamic State administrative district)") [Khalid ibn al-Walid Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid_Army "Khalid ibn al-Walid Army") [Yarmouk Martyrs Brigade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarmouk_Martyrs_Brigade "Yarmouk Martyrs Brigade") [Islamic Muthanna Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Muthanna_Movement "Islamic Muthanna Movement") [Jaysh al-Jihad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_al-Jihad "Jaysh al-Jihad") [Jund al-Aqsa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jund_al-Aqsa "Jund al-Aqsa") [Group of the One and Only](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_the_One_and_Only "Group of the One and Only") [Liwa Dawud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwa_Dawud "Liwa Dawud") [Liwa Aqab al-Islami](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwa_Aqab_al-Islami "Liwa Aqab al-Islami") [Katibah Nusantara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katibah_Nusantara "Katibah Nusantara") [Katiba al-Bittar al-Libi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katiba_al-Bittar_al-Libi "Katiba al-Bittar al-Libi") [Al-Khansaa Brigade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khansaa_Brigade "Al-Khansaa Brigade") [Saraya Ansar al-Sunnah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraya_Ansar_al-Sunnah "Saraya Ansar al-Sunnah") |
| [al-Qaeda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda "Al-Qaeda") and allies | [Al-Nusra Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front "Al-Nusra Front") ([Jabhat Fatah al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabhat_Fatah_al-Sham "Jabhat Fatah al-Sham") ([Khorasan group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khorasan_group "Khorasan group"), [Suqour al-Ezz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suqour_al-Ezz "Suqour al-Ezz")) [Jaysh Muhammad in Bilad al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_Muhammad_in_Bilad_al-Sham "Jaysh Muhammad in Bilad al-Sham") [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham") [Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkistan_Islamic_Party_in_Syria "Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria") [Caucasus Emirate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Emirate "Caucasus Emirate") [Ajnad al-Kavkaz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajnad_al-Kavkaz "Ajnad al-Kavkaz") [Junud al-Makhdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junud_al-Makhdi "Junud al-Makhdi") [Rouse the Believers Operations Room](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouse_the_Believers_Operations_Room "Rouse the Believers Operations Room") ([Ansar al-Tawhid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansar_al-Tawhid_\(Syria\) "Ansar al-Tawhid (Syria)") ([Firqat al-Ghuraba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firqat_al-Ghuraba "Firqat al-Ghuraba")), [Hurras al-Din](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurras_al-Din "Hurras al-Din"), [Ansar al-Din Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansar_al-Din_Front "Ansar al-Din Front") ([Harakat Sham al-Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harakat_Sham_al-Islam "Harakat Sham al-Islam")), [Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansar_al-Islam_in_Kurdistan "Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan")) [Jaish al-Haramoun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaish_al-Haramoun "Jaish al-Haramoun") [Jaysh al-Sunna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_al-Sunna "Jaysh al-Sunna") [Liwa al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwa_al-Muhajireen_wal-Ansar "Liwa al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar") ([Green Battalion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Battalion "Green Battalion")) [Mujahideen Shura Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mujahideen_Shura_Council_\(Syria\) "Mujahideen Shura Council (Syria)") [Malhama Tactical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malhama_Tactical "Malhama Tactical") [Katibat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katibat_al-Tawhid_wal-Jihad "Katibat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad") [Katibat Jabal al-Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katibat_Jabal_al-Islam "Katibat Jabal al-Islam") [Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jama%27at_Ansar_al-Furqan_in_Bilad_al_Sham "Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham") [Ghuraba al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghuraba_al-Sham "Ghuraba al-Sham") [Taliban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban "Taliban") ([Pakistani Taliban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_Taliban "Pakistani Taliban"), [Imam Bukhari Jamaat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam_Bukhari_Jamaat "Imam Bukhari Jamaat")) [Fatah al-Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatah_al-Islam "Fatah al-Islam") [Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhajirin_wa-Ansar_Alliance "Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance") ([Liwaa al-Umma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwaa_al-Umma "Liwaa al-Umma")) |
| People | |
| | |
| Pro-[Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") | [Assad family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assad_family "Assad family") [Bashar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad") [Maher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maher_al-Assad "Maher al-Assad") [Rifaat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifaat_al-Assad "Rifaat al-Assad") [Rami Makhlouf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rami_Makhlouf "Rami Makhlouf") [Hafez Makhlouf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez_Makhlouf "Hafez Makhlouf") [Fahd Jassem al-Freij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahd_Jassem_al-Freij "Fahd Jassem al-Freij") [Suheil al-Hassan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suheil_al-Hassan "Suheil al-Hassan") [Ali Habib Mahmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Habib_Mahmud "Ali Habib Mahmud") [Dawoud Rajiha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawoud_Rajiha "Dawoud Rajiha") [Bouthaina Shaaban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouthaina_Shaaban "Bouthaina Shaaban") [Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamad_Anas_Haitham_Soueid "Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid") (Accused) |
| [Dissidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition "Syrian opposition") | [Ammar Abdulhamid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammar_Abdulhamid "Ammar Abdulhamid") [Ali al-Abdallah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_al-Abdallah "Ali al-Abdallah") [Adnan al-Aroor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adnan_al-Aroor "Adnan al-Aroor") [Riad al-Asaad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riad_al-Asaad "Riad al-Asaad") [Hadi al-Bahra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadi_al-Bahra "Hadi al-Bahra") [Anwar al-Bunni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anwar_al-Bunni "Anwar al-Bunni") [Haitham al-Maleh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitham_al-Maleh "Haitham al-Maleh") [Moaz al-Khatib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moaz_al-Khatib "Moaz al-Khatib") [Kamal al-Labwani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal_al-Labwani "Kamal al-Labwani") [Hamza al-Khateeb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Hamza_Ali_Al-Khateeb "Death of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb") [Tal al-Mallohi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tal_al-Mallohi "Tal al-Mallohi") [Fida al-Sayed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fida_al-Sayed "Fida al-Sayed") [Riad al-Turk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riad_al-Turk "Riad al-Turk") [Khaled Khoja](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khaled_Khoja "Khaled Khoja") [Ammar al-Qurabi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammar_al-Qurabi "Ammar al-Qurabi") [Suheir Atassi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suheir_Atassi "Suheir Atassi") [Ali Sadreddine Al-Bayanouni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Sadreddine_Al-Bayanouni "Ali Sadreddine Al-Bayanouni") [Aref Dalila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aref_Dalila "Aref Dalila") [Farid Ghadry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farid_Ghadry "Farid Ghadry") [Burhan Ghalioun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burhan_Ghalioun "Burhan Ghalioun") [Razan Ghazzawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razan_Ghazzawi "Razan Ghazzawi") [Ghassan Hitto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghassan_Hitto "Ghassan Hitto") [Salim Idris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salim_Idris "Salim Idris") [Randa Kassis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randa_Kassis "Randa Kassis") [Abdul Halim Khaddam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam "Abdul Halim Khaddam") [Michel Kilo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Kilo "Michel Kilo") [Bassma Kodmani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassma_Kodmani "Bassma Kodmani") [Ali Mahmoud Othman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Mahmoud_Othman "Ali Mahmoud Othman") [Ibrahim Qashoush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Qashoush "Ibrahim Qashoush") [Yassin al-Haj Saleh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yassin_al-Haj_Saleh "Yassin al-Haj Saleh") [Ahmed al-Sharaa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa "Ahmed al-Sharaa") [Abdulbaset Sieda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdulbaset_Sieda "Abdulbaset Sieda") [Riad Seif](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riad_Seif "Riad Seif") [Fadwa Souleimane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadwa_Souleimane "Fadwa Souleimane") [Yaser Tabbara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaser_Tabbara "Yaser Tabbara") [Razan Zaitouneh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razan_Zaitouneh "Razan Zaitouneh") [Rami Jarrah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rami_Jarrah "Rami Jarrah") [Abdurrahman Mustafa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Mustafa "Abdurrahman Mustafa") [Fadlallah al-Haji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadlallah_al-Haji "Fadlallah al-Haji") |
| [DAANES](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DAANES "DAANES") | [Mazloum Abdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazloum_Abdi "Mazloum Abdi") [Ferhad Şamî](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferhad_%C5%9Eam%C3%AE "Ferhad Şamî") [Salih Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salih_Muslim "Salih Muslim") |
| Related | |
| | |
| [Elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_Syria "Elections in Syria") | [2011 local elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Syrian_local_elections "2011 Syrian local elections") [2012 parliamentary election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Syrian_parliamentary_election "2012 Syrian parliamentary election") [2014 presidential election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Syrian_presidential_election "2014 Syrian presidential election") [2015 Northern local elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Rojava_local_elections "2015 Rojava local elections") [2016 parliamentary election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Syrian_parliamentary_election "2016 Syrian parliamentary election") [2017 Northern local elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Rojava_local_elections "2017 Rojava local elections") [2017 Northern regional elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Rojava_regional_elections "2017 Rojava regional elections") [2018 local elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Syrian_local_elections "2018 Syrian local elections") [2020 parliamentary election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Syrian_parliamentary_election "2020 Syrian parliamentary election") [2021 presidential election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Syrian_presidential_election "2021 Syrian presidential election") |
| Issues | [Casualties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Casualties of the Syrian civil war") [Cities and towns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_and_towns_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Cities and towns during the Syrian civil war") [Chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war") [Damaged heritage sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heritage_sites_damaged_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of heritage sites damaged during the Syrian civil war") [Foreign involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Human rights violations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war") [Humanitarian aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_aid_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war") [International demonstrations and protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_demonstrations_and_protests_relating_to_the_Syrian_civil_war "International demonstrations and protests relating to the Syrian civil war") [International reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_Syrian_civil_war "International reactions to the Syrian civil war") [Massacres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_massacres_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of massacres during the Syrian civil war") [Mass graves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_mass_graves "Syrian mass graves") [Refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Refugees of the Syrian civil war") [Sectarianism and minorities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war") [Status of the Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_of_the_Golan_Heights "Status of the Golan Heights") [Spillover in Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon "Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon") [Syrian government reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_government_reactions_to_the_Syrian_civil_war "Syrian government reactions to the Syrian civil war") |
| [Peace process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process "Syrian peace process") | [Arab League monitors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League_monitors_in_Syria "Arab League monitors in Syria") [Friends of Syria Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_of_Syria_Group "Friends of Syria Group") [Kofi Annan peace plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofi_Annan_Syrian_peace_plan "Kofi Annan Syrian peace plan") [UN supervision mission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Supervision_Mission_in_Syria "United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria") [Lakhdar Brahimi peace plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhdar_Brahimi_Syrian_peace_plan "Lakhdar Brahimi Syrian peace plan") [U.S.–Russia peace proposals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93Russia_peace_proposals_on_Syria "U.S.–Russia peace proposals on Syria") [39th G8 summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/39th_G8_summit "39th G8 summit") [UN Security Council Resolution 2118](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_2118 "United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118") [Geneva II conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_II_Conference_on_Syria "Geneva II Conference on Syria") [2015 Zabadani cease-fire agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Zabadani_cease-fire_agreement "2015 Zabadani cease-fire agreement") [Vienna talks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_peace_talks_for_Syria "Vienna peace talks for Syria") [2016 Geneva talks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_peace_talks_on_Syria_\(2016\) "Geneva peace talks on Syria (2016)") [Idlib demilitarization (2018–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_\(2018%E2%80%932019\) "Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)") [First Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Northern Syria Buffer Zone") [Second Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone") [Syrian Negotiation Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Negotiation_Commission "Syrian Negotiation Commission") [Syrian Constitutional Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Constitutional_Committee "Syrian Constitutional Committee") |
| Investigations/legal cases | Investigations [International Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_International_Commission_of_Inquiry_on_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic") [Chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_to_Investigate_Alleged_Uses_of_Chemical_Weapons_in_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "United Nations Mission to Investigate Alleged Uses of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic") [War crimes cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosecution_of_Syrian_civil_war_criminals "Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lkerstrafgesetzbuch#Syrian_civil_war,_2017%E2%80%93present "Völkerstrafgesetzbuch") [*Canada + Netherlands vs Syria*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_and_the_Netherlands_v._Syrian_Arab_Republic "Canada and the Netherlands v. Syrian Arab Republic") |
| Related topics | [Exclusive mandate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_mandate "Exclusive mandate") [Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference "Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference") [Syria Files](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_Files "Syria Files") [Syrian detainee report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Syrian_detainee_report "2014 Syrian detainee report") [Syrian media coverage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Media coverage of the Syrian civil war") [2015 European migrant crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_European_migrant_crisis "2015 European migrant crisis") [Syrian civil war in popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_in_popular_culture "Syrian civil war in popular culture") |
|  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Syrian_civil_war "Category:Syrian civil war") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Russia%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Template:Russia–United States relations") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Russia%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Template talk:Russia–United States relations") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russia%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Special:EditPage/Template:Russia–United States relations")[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") [Russia–United States relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Russia–United States relations") [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") | |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic posts | [Embassy of Russia, Washington, D.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_Russia,_Washington,_D.C. "Embassy of Russia, Washington, D.C.") [Ambassadors of Russia to the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Russia_to_the_United_States "List of ambassadors of Russia to the United States") [Russian ambassador's residence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_ambassador%27s_residence_in_Washington,_D.C. "Russian ambassador's residence in Washington, D.C.") [Embassy of the United States, Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_States,_Moscow "Embassy of the United States, Moscow") [Ambassadors of the United States to Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Russia "List of ambassadors of the United States to Russia") [Spaso House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaso_House "Spaso House") [Consulate General of Russia, Houston](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate_General_of_Russia,_Houston "Consulate General of Russia, Houston") [Consulate General of Russia, New York City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate_General_of_Russia,_New_York_City "Consulate General of Russia, New York City") [John Henry Hammond House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_Hammond_House "John Henry Hammond House") [Consulate General of Russia, Seattle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate_General_of_Russia,_Seattle "Consulate General of Russia, Seattle") [Samuel Hyde House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Hyde_House "Samuel Hyde House") [Consulate General of Russia, San Francisco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate_General_of_Russia,_San_Francisco "Consulate General of Russia, San Francisco") [Consulate General of the United States, Saint Petersburg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Saint_Petersburg "Consulate General of the United States, Saint Petersburg") [Consulate General of the United States, Vladivostok](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Vladivostok "Consulate General of the United States, Vladivostok") [Consulate General of the United States, Yekaterinburg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Yekaterinburg "Consulate General of the United States, Yekaterinburg") [Elmcroft Estate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmcroft_Estate "Elmcroft Estate") [Lothrop Mansion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothrop_Mansion "Lothrop Mansion") [Pioneer Point](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_Point,_Maryland "Pioneer Point, Maryland") [Permanent Mission of Russia to the United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_Mission_of_Russia_to_the_United_Nations "Permanent Mission of Russia to the United Nations") [Russian Mission Residency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Mission_Residency "Russian Mission Residency") [Killenworth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killenworth "Killenworth") [Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_European_and_Eurasian_Affairs "Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs") |
| [Diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russia%E2%80%93United_States_summits "List of Russia–United States summits") | [Operation Provide Hope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Provide_Hope "Operation Provide Hope") [Agreement Concerning Safe and Secure Transportation, Storage and Destruction of Weapons and the Prevention of Weapons Proliferation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_between_the_United_States_of_America_and_the_Russian_Federation_Concerning_the_Safe_and_Secure_Transportation,_Storage_and_Destruction_of_Weapons_and_the_Prevention_of_Weapons_Proliferation "Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning the Safe and Secure Transportation, Storage and Destruction of Weapons and the Prevention of Weapons Proliferation") [1998 Moscow Summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Summit_\(1998\) "Moscow Summit (1998)") [Agreement Regarding Cooperation in the Area of Nuclear Material Physical Protection, Control, and Accounting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_Between_the_Government_of_the_United_States_of_America_and_the_Government_of_the_Russian_Federation_Regarding_Cooperation_in_the_Area_of_Nuclear_Material_Physical_Protection,_Control,_and_Accounting "Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation Regarding Cooperation in the Area of Nuclear Material Physical Protection, Control, and Accounting") [2001 Slovenia Summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia_Summit_2001 "Slovenia Summit 2001") [2005 Slovakia Summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia_Summit_2005 "Slovakia Summit 2005") [5+2 format](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5%2B2_format "5+2 format") [Russian reset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_reset "Russian reset") [Obama–Medvedev Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obama%E2%80%93Medvedev_Commission "Obama–Medvedev Commission") [Syrian civil war]() [U.S.–Russia peace proposals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93Russia_peace_proposals_on_Syria "U.S.–Russia peace proposals on Syria") [Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_Syria%27s_chemical_weapons "Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons") [2017 St. Petersburg raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_St._Petersburg_raid "2017 St. Petersburg raid") [2018 Helsinki summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Russia%E2%80%93United_States_Summit "2018 Russia–United States Summit") [2021 Geneva summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Russia%E2%80%93United_States_Summit "2021 Russia–United States Summit") [Arctic Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Council "Arctic Council") [Arctic Ocean Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean_Conference "Arctic Ocean Conference") [Ilulissat Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilulissat_Declaration "Ilulissat Declaration") [Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Initiative_to_Combat_Nuclear_Terrorism "Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism") [Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gore%E2%80%93Chernomyrdin_Commission "Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission") [The U.S. Russia Investment Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_U.S._Russia_Investment_Fund "The U.S. Russia Investment Fund") [U.S.–Russia Joint Commission on POW/MIAs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93Russia_Joint_Commission_on_POW/MIAs "U.S.–Russia Joint Commission on POW/MIAs") [Moscow–Washington hotline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow%E2%80%93Washington_hotline "Moscow–Washington hotline") [Shuttle–Mir program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program "Shuttle–Mir program") [Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action "Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action") [2024 Ankara prisoner exchange](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Ankara_prisoner_exchange "2024 Ankara prisoner exchange") [2025 Russia–United States Summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Russia%E2%80%93United_States_Summit "2025 Russia–United States Summit") [2025 Russia–United States summit in Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Russia%E2%80%93United_States_summit_in_Hungary "2025 Russia–United States summit in Hungary") [2026 United States–Ukraine–Russia meetings in Abu Dhabi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_United_States%E2%80%93Ukraine%E2%80%93Russia_meetings_in_Abu_Dhabi "2026 United States–Ukraine–Russia meetings in Abu Dhabi") [2026 United States–Ukraine–Russia meetings in Geneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_United_States%E2%80%93Ukraine%E2%80%93Russia_meetings_in_Geneva "2026 United States–Ukraine–Russia meetings in Geneva") [RIMPAC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIMPAC "RIMPAC") [International Space Station](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station "International Space Station") |
| [Incidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States "Russian espionage in the United States") | [Kildin Island submarine incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_incident_off_Kildin_Island "Submarine incident off Kildin Island") [Kola Peninsula submarine incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_incident_off_Kola_Peninsula_\(1993\) "Submarine incident off Kola Peninsula (1993)") [Norwegian rocket incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_rocket_incident "Norwegian rocket incident") [Strait of Juan de Fuca laser incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Juan_de_Fuca_laser_incident "Strait of Juan de Fuca laser incident") [Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itar-Tass_Russian_News_Agency_v._Russian_Kurier,_Inc. "Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.") [Kidnapping of Mormon missionaries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_kidnapping_of_Mormon_missionaries_in_Saratov,_Russia "1998 kidnapping of Mormon missionaries in Saratov, Russia") [Incident at Pristina Airport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_at_Pristina_Airport "Incident at Pristina Airport") [Russian Guantanamo Bay detainees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_detainees_at_Guantanamo_Bay "List of Russian detainees at Guantanamo Bay") [RM Broadcasting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RM_Broadcasting "RM Broadcasting") [Illegals Program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegals_Program "Illegals Program") [Stephen Holmes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Holmes_\(CIA\) "Stephen Holmes (CIA)") [European Deterrence Initiative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Deterrence_Initiative "European Deterrence Initiative") [Operation Atlantic Resolve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Atlantic_Resolve "Operation Atlantic Resolve") Russian interference in United States elections [2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_United_States_elections "Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections") [Links between Trump associates and Russian officials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Links_between_Trump_associates_and_Russian_officials "Links between Trump associates and Russian officials") [Steele dossier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steele_dossier "Steele dossier") [Maria Butina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Butina "Maria Butina") [2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2018_United_States_elections "Russian interference in the 2018 United States elections") [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2020_United_States_elections "Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections") [2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2024_United_States_elections "Russian interference in the 2024 United States elections") [Donald Trump's disclosures of classified information](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump%27s_disclosures_of_classified_information "Donald Trump's disclosures of classified information") [Havana syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havana_syndrome "Havana syndrome") [Zersetzung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zersetzung "Zersetzung") [Battle of Khasham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Khasham "Battle of Khasham") [Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisoning_of_Sergei_and_Yulia_Skripal "Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal") [Arrest of Trevor Reed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrest_of_Trevor_Reed "Arrest of Trevor Reed") [Russian bounty program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_bounty_program "Russian bounty program") [Marc Fogel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Fogel "Marc Fogel") [Viktor Bout–Brittney Griner prisoner exchange](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Bout%E2%80%93Brittney_Griner_prisoner_exchange "Viktor Bout–Brittney Griner prisoner exchange") [Black Sea drone incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Black_Sea_drone_incident "2023 Black Sea drone incident") [Russian spies in the Russo-Ukrainian War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_spies_in_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War "Russian spies in the Russo-Ukrainian War") [2022–2023 Pentagon document leaks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022%E2%80%932023_Pentagon_document_leaks "2022–2023 Pentagon document leaks") [*Lady R* incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_R_incident "Lady R incident") [2024 Tenet Media investigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Tenet_Media_investigation "2024 Tenet Media investigation") |
| Legislation | [Jackson–Vanik amendment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson%E2%80%93Vanik_amendment "Jackson–Vanik amendment") [Russian foreign agent law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_foreign_agent_law "Russian foreign agent law") [Magnitsky Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnitsky_Act "Magnitsky Act") [Dima Yakovlev Law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dima_Yakovlev_Law "Dima Yakovlev Law") [Guantanamo List](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guantanamo_List "Guantanamo List") [Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine_Freedom_Support_Act_of_2014 "Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014") [Russian undesirable organizations law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_undesirable_organizations_law "Russian undesirable organizations law") [Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidated_Appropriations_Act,_2017 "Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2017") [Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countering_America%27s_Adversaries_Through_Sanctions_Act "Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act") [Defending Elections from Threats by Establishing Redlines Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defending_Elections_from_Threats_by_Establishing_Redlines_Act "Defending Elections from Threats by Establishing Redlines Act") [Defending American Security from Kremlin Aggression Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defending_American_Security_from_Kremlin_Aggression_Act "Defending American Security from Kremlin Aggression Act") [Russian–Venezuelan Threat Mitigation Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%E2%80%93Venezuelan_Threat_Mitigation_Act "Russian–Venezuelan Threat Mitigation Act") [Task Force KleptoCapture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_Force_KleptoCapture "Task Force KleptoCapture") [Executive Order 14071](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_14071 "Executive Order 14071") [Sanctioning Russia Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctioning_Russia_Act "Sanctioning Russia Act") |
| Treaties | [START II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/START_II "START II") [START III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/START_III "START III") [Mutual detargeting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_%E2%80%93_Russia_mutual_detargeting "United States – Russia mutual detargeting") [Megatons to Megawatts Program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatons_to_Megawatts_Program "Megatons to Megawatts Program") [Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Offensive_Reductions_Treaty "Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty") [New START](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_START "New START") |
| Related | [Russian Empire–United States relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Russian Empire–United States relations") [Soviet Union–United States relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Soviet Union–United States relations") [Russia–NATO relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations "Russia–NATO relations") [Anti-American sentiment in Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_Russia "Anti-American sentiment in Russia") [Bush legs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_legs "Bush legs") [Center on Global Interests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_on_Global_Interests "Center on Global Interests") [Congress of Russian Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Russian_Americans "Congress of Russian Americans") [Anglo-American School of Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-American_School_of_Moscow "Anglo-American School of Moscow") [United States military and prostitution in South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea "United States military and prostitution in South Korea") [Russian Mission School in New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Mission_School_in_New_York "Russian Mission School in New York") [Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Embassy_School_in_Washington,_D.C. "Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C.") [Russian Cultural Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Cultural_Center "Russian Cultural Center") [International Launch Services](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Launch_Services "International Launch Services") [U.S. Russia Foundation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Russia_Foundation "U.S. Russia Foundation") [U.S.–Russia Business Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93Russia_Business_Council "U.S.–Russia Business Council") [Stanford US–Russia Forum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_US%E2%80%93Russia_Forum "Stanford US–Russia Forum") [Space Flight Europe-America 500](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Flight_Europe-America_500 "Space Flight Europe-America 500") [Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Syria%E2%80%93Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_coalition "Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition") [Territorial claims in the Arctic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_claims_in_the_Arctic "Territorial claims in the Arctic") [United States and the Russian invasion of Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_and_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "United States and the Russian invasion of Ukraine") [New Great Game](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Great_Game "New Great Game") [Second Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Cold_War "Second Cold War") [RT America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT_America "RT America") *[Not One Inch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_One_Inch "Not One Inch")* |
|  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Russia%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Category:Russia–United States relations") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations "Template:Iran–Saudi Arabia relations") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations "Template talk:Iran–Saudi Arabia relations") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations "Special:EditPage/Template:Iran–Saudi Arabia relations")[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") [Iran–Saudi Arabia relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations "Iran–Saudi Arabia relations") [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") | |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic posts | [Ambassadors of Iran to Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Iran_to_Saudi_Arabia "List of ambassadors of Iran to Saudi Arabia") [Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Tehran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_Saudi_Arabia,_Tehran "Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Tehran") [Ambassadors of Saudi Arabia to Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Saudi_Arabia_to_Iran "List of ambassadors of Saudi Arabia to Iran") |
| Diplomacy | [Safari Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_Club "Safari Club") [2023 Iran–Saudi Arabia summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_summit "2023 Iran–Saudi Arabia summit") |
| [Conflicts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war") | [Iranian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution "Iranian Revolution") [1979 Khuzestan insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency "1979 Khuzestan insurgency") [Arab separatism in Khuzestan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan "Arab separatism in Khuzestan") [Qatif conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatif_conflict "Qatif conflict") [1979 Qatif Uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_Qatif_Uprising "1979 Qatif Uprising") [Iran–Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War "Iran–Iraq War") [Action of June 5, 1984](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_of_June_5,_1984 "Action of June 5, 1984") [Qatar–Saudi Arabia diplomatic conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_diplomatic_conflict "Qatar–Saudi Arabia diplomatic conflict") [Qatar diplomatic crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar_diplomatic_crisis "Qatar diplomatic crisis") [2011 Egyptian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Egyptian_revolution "2011 Egyptian revolution") [2011 Bahraini uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Bahraini_uprising "2011 Bahraini uprising") [Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi-led_intervention_in_Bahrain "Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain") [insurgency in Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurgency_in_Bahrain "Insurgency in Bahrain") [2011 Libyan civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_civil_war_\(2011\) "Libyan civil war (2011)") [Syrian civil war]() [Hezbollah involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Iranian involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war") [Saudi involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Saudi involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Spillover in Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon "Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon") [Axis of Resistance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_of_Resistance "Axis of Resistance") [Funding of the Axis of Resistance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_the_Axis_of_Resistance "Funding of the Axis of Resistance") [Iranian intervention in Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_Iraq_\(2014%E2%80%93present\) "Iranian intervention in Iraq (2014–present)") [Yemeni crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_crisis "Yemeni crisis") [Houthi insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houthi_insurgency "Houthi insurgency") [Operation Scorched Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Scorched_Earth "Operation Scorched Earth") [Operation Blow to the Head](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Blow_to_the_Head "Operation Blow to the Head") [Yemeni revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_revolution "Yemeni revolution") [Yemeni civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_\(2014%E2%80%93present\) "Yemeni civil war (2014–present)") [Saudi-led intervention in Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi-led_intervention_in_the_Yemeni_civil_war "Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war") [Houthi–Saudi Arabian conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houthi%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabian_conflict "Houthi–Saudi Arabian conflict") [Houthi takeover in Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houthi_takeover_in_Yemen "Houthi takeover in Yemen") [Second Libyan civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_civil_war_\(2014%E2%80%932020\) "Libyan civil war (2014–2020)") |
| Incidents | [1987 Mecca incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_Mecca_incident "1987 Mecca incident") [Khobar Towers bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khobar_Towers_bombing "Khobar Towers bombing") [2011–2012 Saudi Arabian protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%E2%80%932012_Saudi_Arabian_protests "2011–2012 Saudi Arabian protests") [2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Saudi_Arabia_mass_execution "2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution") [Execution of Nimr al-Nimr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_of_Nimr_al-Nimr "Execution of Nimr al-Nimr") [2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_attack_on_the_Saudi_diplomatic_missions_in_Iran "2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran") [2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Saudi_Arabia_mass_execution "2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution") [2011 alleged Iran assassination plot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_alleged_Iran_assassination_plot "2011 alleged Iran assassination plot") [2015 Mina stampede](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Mina_stampede "2015 Mina stampede") [2017 Lebanon–Saudi Arabia dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Lebanon%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_dispute "2017 Lebanon–Saudi Arabia dispute") [2017–2020 Qatif unrest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%932020_Qatif_unrest "2017–2020 Qatif unrest") [2018 Riyadh missile strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Riyadh_missile_strike "2018 Riyadh missile strike") [International Maritime Security Construct](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Maritime_Security_Construct "International Maritime Security Construct") [United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_2231 "United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231") [May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2019_Gulf_of_Oman_incident "May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident") [2019 Afif attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Afif_attack "2019 Afif attack") [Abha International Airport attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abha_International_Airport_attacks "Abha International Airport attacks") [Abqaiq–Khurais attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abqaiq%E2%80%93Khurais_attack "Abqaiq–Khurais attack") |
| Iranian relations with [GCC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council "Gulf Cooperation Council") member states | [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain%E2%80%93Iran_relations "Bahrain–Iran relations") [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Kuwait_relations "Iran–Kuwait relations") [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Oman_relations "Iran–Oman relations") [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Qatar_relations "Iran–Qatar relations") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_Arab_Emirates_relations "Iran–United Arab Emirates relations") |
| Related | [Iran–Saudi Arabia football rivalry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_football_rivalry "Iran–Saudi Arabia football rivalry") [Iran and state-sponsored terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism "Iran and state-sponsored terrorism") [Iran–Israel proxy conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Iran–Israel proxy conflict") [Arab League–Iran relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93Iran_relations "Arab League–Iran relations") [United States–Gulf Cooperation Council relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Gulf_Cooperation_Council_relations "United States–Gulf Cooperation Council relations") [Arab–Israeli alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_alliance "Arab–Israeli alliance") [Warsaw Middle East conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2019_Warsaw_Conference "February 2019 Warsaw Conference") [Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Syria%E2%80%93Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_coalition "Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition") [Opposition to military action against Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_military_action_against_Iran "Opposition to military action against Iran") [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation") [Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Military_Counter_Terrorism_Coalition "Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition") [Gulf Cooperation Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council "Gulf Cooperation Council") [Iran International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_International "Iran International") [Shia–Sunni relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations "Shia–Sunni relations") [Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Saudi_Arabia "Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia") |
| ** [Category:Iran–Saudi Arabia relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations "Category:Iran–Saudi Arabia relations")** | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Template:Iran–United States relations") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Template talk:Iran–United States relations") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Special:EditPage/Template:Iran–United States relations")[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") [Iran–United States relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Iran–United States relations") [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") | |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic posts | [Embassy of Iran, Washington, D.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_Iran,_Washington,_D.C. "Embassy of Iran, Washington, D.C.") [Ambassadors of Iran to the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Iran_to_the_United_States "List of ambassadors of Iran to the United States") [Embassy of the United States, Tehran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_States,_Tehran "Embassy of the United States, Tehran") [Ambassadors of the United States to Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Iran "List of ambassadors of the United States to Iran") [Interests Section of Iran in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interests_Section_of_Iran_in_the_United_States "Interests Section of Iran in the United States") [Consulate-General of the United States, Tabriz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulate-General_of_the_United_States,_Tabriz "Consulate-General of the United States, Tabriz") [Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Near_Eastern_Affairs "Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs") [Iran–United States Claims Tribunal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_Claims_Tribunal "Iran–United States Claims Tribunal") [Iranian Directorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Directorate "Iranian Directorate") [Iran Syria Policy and Operations Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Syria_Policy_and_Operations_Group "Iran Syria Policy and Operations Group") |
| Diplomacy | [Persian Corridor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Corridor "Persian Corridor") [Persian Gulf Command](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Command "Persian Gulf Command") [Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalization_of_the_Iranian_oil_industry "Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry") [1953 Iranian coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1953 Iranian coup d'état") [Abadan Crisis Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Abadan_Crisis "Timeline of the Abadan Crisis") [Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity,_Economic_Relations_and_Consular_Rights "Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights") [Exercise Delawar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_Delawar "Exercise Delawar") [Project Dark Gene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Dark_Gene "Project Dark Gene") [Safari Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_Club "Safari Club") [Island of Stability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_of_Stability_\(speech\) "Island of Stability (speech)") [Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. Bush](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad%27s_letter_to_George_W._Bush "Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. Bush") [Correspondence between Barack Obama and Ali Khamenei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_between_Barack_Obama_and_Ali_Khamenei "Correspondence between Barack Obama and Ali Khamenei") [Phone conversation between Barack Obama and Hassan Rouhani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phone_conversation_between_Barack_Obama_and_Hassan_Rouhani "Phone conversation between Barack Obama and Hassan Rouhani") [Iran nuclear deal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_nuclear_deal "Iran nuclear deal") [Negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negotiations_leading_to_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action "Negotiations leading to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action") [Joint Plan of Action](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Plan_of_Action "Joint Plan of Action") [Framework](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_nuclear_deal_framework "Iran nuclear deal framework") [Reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactions_to_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action "Reactions to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action") [Criticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action "Criticism of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action") [Aftermath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action "Aftermath of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action") [U.S. withdrawal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action "United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action") [2025–2026 Iran–United States negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025%E2%80%932026_Iran%E2%80%93United_States_negotiations "2025–2026 Iran–United States negotiations") |
| Conflicts | [Iran–Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War "Iran–Iraq War") [United States support for Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_support_for_Iraq_during_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War "United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War") [Bridgeton incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeton_incident "Bridgeton incident") [Iran Air Flight 655](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655 "Iran Air Flight 655") [Iran Ajr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Ajr "Iran Ajr") [Iran–Contra affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair "Iran–Contra affair") [Operation Staunch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Staunch "Operation Staunch") [Operation Eager Glacier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eager_Glacier "Operation Eager Glacier") [Operation Earnest Will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Earnest_Will "Operation Earnest Will") [Operation Prime Chance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Prime_Chance "Operation Prime Chance") [Operation Nimble Archer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Nimble_Archer "Operation Nimble Archer") [Operation Praying Mantis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Praying_Mantis "Operation Praying Mantis") [Syrian civil war]() [Yemeni Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_\(2014%E2%80%93present\) "Yemeni civil war (2014–present)") [Arab–Israeli alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_alliance "Arab–Israeli alliance") [Abraham Accords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Accords "Abraham Accords") [February 2019 Warsaw Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2019_Warsaw_Conference "February 2019 Warsaw Conference") [Iran–Israel proxy conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Iran–Israel proxy conflict") [Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war") [Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Syria%E2%80%93Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_coalition "Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition") [International Maritime Security Construct](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Maritime_Security_Construct "International Maritime Security Construct") [Assassination of Qasem Soleimani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Qasem_Soleimani "Assassination of Qasem Soleimani") [reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactions_to_the_assassination_of_Qasem_Soleimani "Reactions to the assassination of Qasem Soleimani") [Thirteen revenge scenarios](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteen_revenge_scenarios "Thirteen revenge scenarios") [Operation Martyr Soleimani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Martyr_Soleimani "Operation Martyr Soleimani") [2020 Camp Taji attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Camp_Taji_attacks "2020 Camp Taji attacks") |
| [Incidents after 1979](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations_after_1979 "Iran–United States relations after 1979") | [Assassination of Paul R. Shaffer and John H. Turner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Paul_R._Shaffer_and_John_H._Turner "Assassination of Paul R. Shaffer and John H. Turner") [Iranian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution "Iranian Revolution") [Iran hostage crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis "Iran hostage crisis") [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Iranian_hostage_crisis "Timeline of the Iranian hostage crisis") [Guadeloupe Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadeloupe_Conference "Guadeloupe Conference") [Operation Credible Sport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Credible_Sport "Operation Credible Sport") [Operation Eagle Claw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw "Operation Eagle Claw") [Canadian Caper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Caper "Canadian Caper") [Jimmy Carter's engagement with Ruhollah Khomeini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter%27s_engagement_with_Ruhollah_Khomeini "Jimmy Carter's engagement with Ruhollah Khomeini") [1980 October Surprise theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_October_Surprise_theory "1980 October Surprise theory") [Negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis_negotiations "Iran hostage crisis negotiations") [Algiers Accords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers_Accords_\(1981\) "Algiers Accords (1981)") *[America can't do a damn thing against us](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America_can%27t_do_a_damn_thing_against_us "America can't do a damn thing against us")* [Beirut barracks bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_Beirut_barracks_bombings "1983 Beirut barracks bombings") [Khobar Towers bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khobar_Towers_bombing "Khobar Towers bombing") [Lawrence Franklin espionage scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Franklin_espionage_scandal "Lawrence Franklin espionage scandal") [Disappearance of Robert Levinson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance_of_Robert_Levinson "Disappearance of Robert Levinson") [United States kill or capture strategy in Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_kill_or_capture_strategy_in_Iraq "United States kill or capture strategy in Iraq") [United States raid on the Iranian Liaison Office in Erbil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_raid_on_the_Iranian_Liaison_Office_in_Erbil "United States raid on the Iranian Liaison Office in Erbil") [Kidnapping of Jalal Sharafi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping_of_Jalal_Sharafi "Kidnapping of Jalal Sharafi") [2008 Naval dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Iran%E2%80%93United_States_naval_dispute "2008 Iran–United States naval dispute") [Filipino Monkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_Monkey "Filipino Monkey") [Project Cassandra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Cassandra "Project Cassandra") [Detention of American hikers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%E2%80%932011_detention_of_American_hikers_by_Iran "2009–2011 detention of American hikers by Iran") [United States diplomatic cables leak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contents_of_the_United_States_diplomatic_cables_leak_\(Iran\) "Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (Iran)") [2011 alleged Iran assassination plot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_alleged_Iran_assassination_plot "2011 alleged Iran assassination plot") [Strait of Hormuz dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%E2%80%932012_Strait_of_Hormuz_dispute "2011–2012 Strait of Hormuz dispute") [RQ-170 incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93U.S._RQ-170_incident "Iran–U.S. RQ-170 incident") [MV *Maersk Tigris*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Maersk_Tigris "MV Maersk Tigris") [2016 Naval incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States%E2%80%93Iran_naval_incident "2016 United States–Iran naval incident") [Nuclear program of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran "Nuclear program of Iran") [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_nuclear_program_of_Iran "Timeline of the nuclear program of Iran") [P5+1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P5%2B1 "P5+1") [Operation Merlin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Merlin "Operation Merlin") [Charming Kitten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charming_Kitten "Charming Kitten") [Stuxnet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuxnet "Stuxnet") [Kidnapping of Hossein Alikhani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping_of_Hossein_Alikhani "Kidnapping of Hossein Alikhani") [Arrest of Meng Wanzhou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extradition_case_of_Meng_Wanzhou "Extradition case of Meng Wanzhou") [Deportation of Iranian students at US airports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_Iranian_students_at_US_airports "Deportation of Iranian students at US airports") [May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2019_Gulf_of_Oman_incident "May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident") [June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2019_Gulf_of_Oman_incident "June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident") [2019 Iranian shoot-down of American drone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Iranian_shoot-down_of_American_drone "2019 Iranian shoot-down of American drone") [2019 K-1 Air Base attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_K-1_Air_Base_attack "2019 K-1 Air Base attack") [December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2019_United_States_airstrikes_in_Iraq_and_Syria "December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria") [Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_the_United_States_embassy_in_Baghdad "Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad") [2020 Iran explosions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Iran_explosions "2020 Iran explosions") [2021 Erbil rocket attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Erbil_rocket_attacks "2021 Erbil rocket attacks") [2021 Natanz incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Natanz_incident "2021 Natanz incident") [February 2021 United States airstrike in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2021_United_States_airstrike_in_Syria "February 2021 United States airstrike in Syria") [Leaked Mohammad Javad Zarif audiotape](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaked_Mohammad_Javad_Zarif_audiotape "Leaked Mohammad Javad Zarif audiotape") [June 2021 United States airstrike in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2021_United_States_airstrike_in_Syria "June 2021 United States airstrike in Syria") [July 2021 Gulf of Oman incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_2021_Gulf_of_Oman_incident "July 2021 Gulf of Oman incident") [August 2021 Gulf of Oman incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_2021_Gulf_of_Oman_incident "August 2021 Gulf of Oman incident") [2021 Naval incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_United_States%E2%80%93Iran_naval_incident "2021 United States–Iran naval incident") [2022 Erbil missile attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Erbil_missile_attacks "2022 Erbil missile attacks") [2023 Northeastern Syria clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2023_Northeastern_Syria_clashes "March 2023 Northeastern Syria clashes") [Seizure of *Suez Rajan* and *St Nikolas*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Rajan "Suez Rajan") [Attacks on US bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria during the Gaza war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_US_bases_in_Iraq,_Jordan,_and_Syria_during_the_Gaza_war "Attacks on US bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria during the Gaza war") [2024 Erbil attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Erbil_attack "2024 Erbil attack") [Tower 22 drone attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_22_drone_attack "Tower 22 drone attack") [2024 leak of U.S. intelligence on Israeli strike plans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_leak_of_U.S._intelligence_on_Israeli_strike_plans "2024 leak of U.S. intelligence on Israeli strike plans") [Iranian interference in the 2024 United States elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_interference_in_the_2024_United_States_elections "Iranian interference in the 2024 United States elections") [2025 United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_United_States_strikes_on_Iranian_nuclear_sites "2025 United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites") [Twelve-Day War ceasefire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve-Day_War_ceasefire "Twelve-Day War ceasefire") [2025 Iranian strikes on Al Udeid Air Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Iranian_strikes_on_Al_Udeid_Air_Base "2025 Iranian strikes on Al Udeid Air Base") [2026 Iran war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_Iran_war "2026 Iran war") [List of attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_attacks_during_the_2026_Iran_war "List of attacks during the 2026 Iran war") [Assassination of Iranian officials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_officials_killed_during_the_2026_Iran_war "List of Iranian officials killed during the 2026 Iran war") [Ali Khamenei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Ali_Khamenei "Assassination of Ali Khamenei") [Ali Larijani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Ali_Larijani "Assassination of Ali Larijani") |
| [Legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iran "Sanctions against Iran") | [United States sanctions against Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_sanctions_against_Iran "United States sanctions against Iran") [Maximum pressure campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_pressure_campaign "Maximum pressure campaign") [Executive Order 12170](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_12170 "Executive Order 12170") [Executive Order 12172](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_12172 "Executive Order 12172") [Executive Order 13769](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 "Executive Order 13769") [reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactions_to_Executive_Order_13769 "Reactions to Executive Order 13769") [Trump travel ban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_travel_ban "Trump travel ban") [Executive Order 13780](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13780 "Executive Order 13780") [Executive Order 13876](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13876 "Executive Order 13876") [Iran and Libya Sanctions Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_and_Libya_Sanctions_Act "Iran and Libya Sanctions Act") [Iran Nonproliferation Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Nonproliferation_Act_of_2000 "Iran Nonproliferation Act of 2000") [Iran, North Korea, Syria Nonproliferation Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran,_North_Korea,_Syria_Nonproliferation_Act "Iran, North Korea, Syria Nonproliferation Act") [Iran Freedom and Support Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Freedom_and_Support_Act "Iran Freedom and Support Act") [Iran Sanctions Enhancement Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Sanctions_Enhancement_Act_of_2007 "Iran Sanctions Enhancement Act of 2007") [Kyl–Lieberman Amendment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyl%E2%80%93Lieberman_Amendment "Kyl–Lieberman Amendment") [Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_Iran_Sanctions,_Accountability,_and_Divestment_Act_of_2010 "Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010") [Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Freedom_and_Counter-Proliferation_Act "Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act") [Public Law 113-100](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Law_113-100 "Public Law 113-100") [Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Nuclear_Agreement_Review_Act_of_2015 "Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act of 2015") [Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countering_America%27s_Adversaries_Through_Sanctions_Act "Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act") [Dames & Moore v. Regan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dames_%26_Moore_v._Regan "Dames & Moore v. Regan") [United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Diplomatic_and_Consular_Staff_in_Tehran "United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran") [Oil Platforms case](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_Platforms_case "Oil Platforms case") [United States v. Banki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Banki "United States v. Banki") [Bank Markazi v. Peterson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_Markazi_v._Peterson "Bank Markazi v. Peterson") [Certain Iranian Assets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certain_Iranian_Assets "Certain Iranian Assets") *[Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubin_v._Islamic_Republic_of_Iran "Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran")* [Alleged violations of Treaty of Amity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alleged_Violations_of_the_1955_Treaty_of_Amity_\(Iran_v._United_States\) "Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity (Iran v. United States)") |
| Groups and individuals | [Iran Action Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Action_Group "Iran Action Group") [Iran–America Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93America_Society "Iran–America Society") [Iranian Students Association in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Students_Association_in_the_United_States "Iranian Students Association in the United States") [National Iranian American Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Iranian_American_Council "National Iranian American Council") [Organization of Iranian American Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_Iranian_American_Communities "Organization of Iranian American Communities") [United Against Nuclear Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Against_Nuclear_Iran "United Against Nuclear Iran") [Farashgard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farashgard "Farashgard") [Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps "Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps") [Jundallah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jundallah_\(Iran\) "Jundallah (Iran)") [Kingdom Assembly of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_Assembly_of_Iran "Kingdom Assembly of Iran") [National Council of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_of_Iran "National Council of Iran") [National Council of Resistance of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_of_Resistance_of_Iran "National Council of Resistance of Iran") [People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Mojahedin_Organization_of_Iran "People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran") [Elliott Abrams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Abrams "Elliott Abrams") [Kaveh L. Afrasiabi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaveh_L._Afrasiabi "Kaveh L. Afrasiabi") [Howard Baskerville](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Baskerville "Howard Baskerville") [William J. Fallon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Fallon "William J. Fallon") [Brian Hook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Hook "Brian Hook") [Joseph Macmanus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Macmanus "Joseph Macmanus") [Robert Malley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Malley "Robert Malley") [Stephen D. Mull](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_D._Mull "Stephen D. Mull") [Erwin David Rabhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_David_Rabhan "Erwin David Rabhan") [Jason Rezaian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Rezaian "Jason Rezaian") [Scott Ritter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Ritter "Scott Ritter") [Craig Wadsworth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Wadsworth "Craig Wadsworth") [Michael R. White](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_R._White_\(U.S._veteran\) "Michael R. White (U.S. veteran)") [Roxana Saberi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxana_Saberi "Roxana Saberi") [Saeed Abedini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saeed_Abedini "Saeed Abedini") [Saeid Aboutaleb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saeid_Aboutaleb "Saeid Aboutaleb") [Shahram Amiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahram_Amiri "Shahram Amiri") [Sirous Asgari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirous_Asgari "Sirous Asgari") [Mahmoud Reza Banki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Reza_Banki "Mahmoud Reza Banki") [Haleh Esfandiari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haleh_Esfandiari "Haleh Esfandiari") [Amir Mirza Hekmati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amir_Mirza_Hekmati "Amir Mirza Hekmati") [Ezedin Abdel Aziz Khalil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezedin_Abdel_Aziz_Khalil "Ezedin Abdel Aziz Khalil") [Shahrzad Mirgholikhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahrzad_Mirgholikhan "Shahrzad Mirgholikhan") [Mohammad Hosseini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Hosseini_\(showman\) "Mohammad Hosseini (showman)") [Esha Momeni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esha_Momeni "Esha Momeni") [Mohammad Mosaddegh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh "Mohammad Mosaddegh") [Baquer Namazi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baquer_Namazi "Baquer Namazi") [Siamak Namazi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siamak_Namazi "Siamak Namazi") [Sahar Nowrouzzadeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahar_Nowrouzzadeh "Sahar Nowrouzzadeh") [Reza Pahlavi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reza_Pahlavi "Reza Pahlavi") [Noor Pahlavi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noor_Pahlavi "Noor Pahlavi") [Trita Parsi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trita_Parsi "Trita Parsi") [Maryam Rajavi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryam_Rajavi "Maryam Rajavi") [Abdolreza Shahlaei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdolreza_Shahlaei "Abdolreza Shahlaei") [Ali Shakeri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Shakeri "Ali Shakeri") [Masoud Soleimani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoud_Soleimani "Masoud Soleimani") [Morad Tahbaz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morad_Tahbaz "Morad Tahbaz") [Kian Tajbakhsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kian_Tajbakhsh "Kian Tajbakhsh") [Karan Vafadari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karan_Vafadari "Karan Vafadari") [Xiyue Wang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiyue_Wang "Xiyue Wang") [Nizar Zakka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizar_Zakka "Nizar Zakka") [Iranian Guantanamo Bay detainees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_detainees_at_Guantanamo_Bay "List of Iranian detainees at Guantanamo Bay") [Abdul Majid Muhammed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Majid_Muhammed "Abdul Majid Muhammed") |
| Related | [United States–Gulf Cooperation Council relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Gulf_Cooperation_Council_relations "United States–Gulf Cooperation Council relations") [1998 FIFA World Cup match](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v_Iran_\(1998_FIFA_World_Cup\) "United States v Iran (1998 FIFA World Cup)") [Academic relations between Iran and the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_relations_between_Iran_and_the_United_States "Academic relations between Iran and the United States") [American Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Islam_\(term\) "American Islam (term)") [Anti-American sentiment in Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_Iran "Anti-American sentiment in Iran") [Axis of evil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_of_evil "Axis of evil") [CIA activities in Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Iran "CIA activities in Iran") [Copyright relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_copyright_relations "Iran–United States copyright relations") [Death to America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_to_America "Death to America") [Dual containment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_containment "Dual containment") [Great Satan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Satan "Great Satan") [International Conference on Hollywoodism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Hollywoodism "International Conference on Hollywoodism") [Iran and state-sponsored terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism "Iran and state-sponsored terrorism") [Iranian frozen assets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_frozen_assets "Iranian frozen assets") [Opposition to military action against Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_military_action_against_Iran "Opposition to military action against Iran") [State Sponsor of Terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-designated_state_sponsors_of_terrorism "US-designated state sponsors of terrorism") [United States involvement in regime change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change "United States involvement in regime change") [United States and state-sponsored terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_and_state-sponsored_terrorism "United States and state-sponsored terrorism") [650 Fifth Avenue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/650_Fifth_Avenue "650 Fifth Avenue") [Alavi Foundation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alavi_Foundation "Alavi Foundation") [Alborz High School](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alborz_High_School "Alborz High School") [American Institute of Iranian Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Iranian_Studies "American Institute of Iranian Studies") [American School of Isfahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_School_of_Isfahan "American School of Isfahan") [Community School, Tehran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_School,_Tehran "Community School, Tehran") [Damavand College](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damavand_College "Damavand College") [Iran Bethel School](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Bethel_School "Iran Bethel School") [Iranzamin School](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranzamin_School "Iranzamin School") [Saint Peter Church, Tehran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Peter_Church,_Tehran "Saint Peter Church, Tehran") [Tehran American School](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran_American_School "Tehran American School") "[Bomb Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb_Iran "Bomb Iran")" *[Overthrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overthrow_\(book\) "Overthrow (book)")* *[Not for the Faint of Heart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_for_the_Faint_of_Heart "Not for the Faint of Heart")* |
|  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Category:Iran–United States relations") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Template:Iran–Israel proxy conflict") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Template talk:Iran–Israel proxy conflict") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Special:EditPage/Template:Iran–Israel proxy conflict")[Iran–Israel proxy conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Iran–Israel proxy conflict") | |
|---|---|
| [Background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_relations "Iran–Israel relations") | [Iranian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution "Iranian Revolution") [Iran–Iraq war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_support_for_Iran_during_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_war "Israeli support for Iran during the Iran–Iraq war") [1999 arrest of Iranian Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_arrest_of_Iranian_Jews "1999 arrest of Iranian Jews") |
| [2024 Iran–Israel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Iran%E2%80%93Israel_conflict "2024 Iran–Israel conflict") | [Israeli airstrike on the Iranian consulate in Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_airstrike_on_the_Iranian_consulate_in_Damascus "Israeli airstrike on the Iranian consulate in Damascus") [Iranian seizure of the MSC Aries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_seizure_of_the_MSC_Aries "Iranian seizure of the MSC Aries") Iranian strikes on Israel [April 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2024_Iranian_strikes_on_Israel "April 2024 Iranian strikes on Israel") [October 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_2024_Iranian_strikes_on_Israel "October 2024 Iranian strikes on Israel") Israeli strikes on Iran [April 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2024_Israeli_strikes_on_Iran "April 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran") [October 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_2024_Israeli_strikes_on_Iran "October 2024 Israeli strikes on Iran") |
| [Twelve-Day War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve-Day_War "Twelve-Day War") | [Prelude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelude_to_the_Twelve-Day_War "Prelude to the Twelve-Day War") [Casualties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Twelve-Day_War "Casualties of the Twelve-Day War") [Ceasefire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve-Day_War_ceasefire "Twelve-Day War ceasefire") [Economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_Twelve-Day_War "Economic impact of the Twelve-Day War") [List of attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_attacks_during_the_Twelve-Day_War "List of attacks during the Twelve-Day War") [Iranian strikes on the Weizmann Institute of Science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_strikes_on_the_Weizmann_Institute_of_Science "Iranian strikes on the Weizmann Institute of Science") [United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_United_States_strikes_on_Iranian_nuclear_sites "2025 United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites") [Israeli strikes on Evin prison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_strikes_on_Evin_prison "Israeli strikes on Evin prison") [Iranian strikes on Al Udeid Air Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_strikes_on_Al_Udeid_Air_Base "Iranian strikes on Al Udeid Air Base") [Order of battle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve-Day_War_order_of_battle "Twelve-Day War order of battle") [Reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactions_to_the_Twelve-Day_War "Reactions to the Twelve-Day War") |
| [2026 Iran war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_Iran_war "2026 Iran war") | [Prelude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelude_to_the_2026_Iran_war "Prelude to the 2026 Iran war") [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_2026_Iran_war "Timeline of the 2026 Iran war") [Iranian officials killed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_officials_killed_during_the_2026_Iran_war "List of Iranian officials killed during the 2026 Iran war") [Assassination of Ali Khamenei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Ali_Khamenei "Assassination of Ali Khamenei") [Reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactions_to_the_2026_Iran_war "Reactions to the 2026 Iran war") [2026 Strait of Hormuz crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_Strait_of_Hormuz_crisis "2026 Strait of Hormuz crisis") |
| [Hezbollah–Israel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah%E2%80%93Israel_conflict "Hezbollah–Israel conflict") | [Lebanese Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War "Lebanese Civil War") [Israeli–Lebanese conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Lebanese_conflict "Israeli–Lebanese conflict") [South Lebanon conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Lebanon_conflict_\(1985%E2%80%932000\) "South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)") [1982 kidnapping of Iranian diplomats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_kidnapping_of_Iranian_diplomats "1982 kidnapping of Iranian diplomats") [Assassination of Abbas al-Musawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Abbas_al-Musawi "Assassination of Abbas al-Musawi") [1992 Buenos Aires Israeli embassy bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Buenos_Aires_Israeli_embassy_bombing "1992 Buenos Aires Israeli embassy bombing") [AMIA bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMIA_bombing "AMIA bombing") [2000–2006 Shebaa Farms conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%E2%80%932006_Shebaa_Farms_conflict "2000–2006 Shebaa Farms conflict") [2000 Hezbollah cross-border raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Hezbollah_cross-border_raid "2000 Hezbollah cross-border raid") [2005 Hezbollah cross-border raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Hezbollah_cross-border_raid "2005 Hezbollah cross-border raid") [2006 Lebanon War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Lebanon_War "2006 Lebanon War") [Assassination of Imad Mughniyeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Imad_Mughniyeh "Assassination of Imad Mughniyeh") [2008 Israel–Hezbollah prisoner exchange](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Israel%E2%80%93Hezbollah_prisoner_exchange "2008 Israel–Hezbollah prisoner exchange") [2009 Hezbollah plot in Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_Hezbollah_plot_in_Egypt "2009 Hezbollah plot in Egypt") [Francop Affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francop_Affair "Francop Affair") [January 2015 Shebaa Farms incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_2015_Shebaa_Farms_incident "January 2015 Shebaa Farms incident") [Operation Northern Shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Northern_Shield "Operation Northern Shield") [2019 Beirut drone crash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Beirut_drone_crash "2019 Beirut drone crash") [April 2023 Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2023_Palestinian_rocket_attacks_on_Israel "April 2023 Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel") [Projectile attacks from Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_projectile_attacks_from_Lebanon_on_Israel_and_the_Golan_Heights "List of projectile attacks from Lebanon on Israel and the Golan Heights") [Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Hezbollah_conflict_\(2023%E2%80%93present\) "Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hezbollah_conflict_\(2023%E2%80%93present\) "Timeline of the Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)") [Killing of Fuad Shukr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Fuad_Shukr "Killing of Fuad Shukr") [2024 Lebanon electronic device attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Lebanon_electronic_device_attacks "2024 Lebanon electronic device attacks") [20 September 2024 Beirut attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20_September_2024_Beirut_attack "20 September 2024 Beirut attack") [September 2024 Israeli attacks against Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_2024_Israeli_attacks_against_Lebanon "September 2024 Israeli attacks against Lebanon") [2024 Hezbollah headquarters strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Hezbollah_headquarters_strike "2024 Hezbollah headquarters strike") [Assassination of Hashem Safieddine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Hashem_Safieddine "Assassination of Hashem Safieddine") [2024 Tyre airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Tyre_airstrikes "2024 Tyre airstrikes") [2024 Beqaa Valley airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Beqaa_Valley_airstrikes "2024 Beqaa Valley airstrikes") [2024 Israeli invasion of Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Lebanon "2024 Israeli invasion of Lebanon") [2024 Israel–Lebanon ceasefire agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Israel%E2%80%93Lebanon_ceasefire_agreement "2024 Israel–Lebanon ceasefire agreement") [November 2025 Israeli attack in Beirut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_2025_Israeli_attack_in_Beirut "November 2025 Israeli attack in Beirut") [Disarmament of Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disarmament_of_Hezbollah "Disarmament of Hezbollah") [2026 Lebanon war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_Lebanon_war "2026 Lebanon war") |
| [Israeli–Palestinian conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict "Israeli–Palestinian conflict") | [Karine A affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karine_A_affair "Karine A affair") [Victoria Affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Affair "Victoria Affair") [Klos C cargo ship seizure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klos_C_cargo_ship_seizure "Klos C cargo ship seizure") |
| [Gaza–Israel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_conflict "Gaza–Israel conflict") | [Blockade of the Gaza Strip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockade_of_the_Gaza_Strip "Blockade of the Gaza Strip") [Gaza–Israel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_conflict "2006 Gaza–Israel conflict") (2006) [Gaza War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_War_\(2008%E2%80%932009\) "Gaza War (2008–2009)") (2008–2009) [Gaza War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Gaza_War "2012 Gaza War") (2012) [Gaza War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Gaza_War "2014 Gaza War") (2014) [Israel–Palestine crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Israel%E2%80%93Palestine_crisis "2021 Israel–Palestine crisis") (2021) [Gaza war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_war "Gaza war") (since 2023) [Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Ismail_Haniyeh "Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh") |
| [Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iran–Israel conflict during the Syrian civil war") | [Syrian civil war]() [January 2013 Rif Dimashq airstrike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_2013_Rif_Dimashq_airstrike "January 2013 Rif Dimashq airstrike") [May 2013 Rif Dimashq airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2013_Rif_Dimashq_airstrikes "May 2013 Rif Dimashq airstrikes") [January 2015 Mazraat Amal incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_2015_Mazraat_Amal_incident "January 2015 Mazraat Amal incident") [Qalamoun offensive (May–June 2015)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalamoun_offensive_\(May%E2%80%93June_2015\) "Qalamoun offensive (May–June 2015)") [March 2017 Israel–Syria incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2017_Israel%E2%80%93Syria_incident "March 2017 Israel–Syria incident") [February 2018 Israel–Syria incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2018_Israel%E2%80%93Syria_incident "February 2018 Israel–Syria incident") [Operation House of Cards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_House_of_Cards "Operation House of Cards") [September 2018 Syria missile strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(September_2018\) "Syria missile strikes (September 2018)") [January 2021 Syria airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_missile_strikes_\(January_2021\) "Syria missile strikes (January 2021)") [Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line incidents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Syrian_ceasefire_line_incidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line incidents during the Syrian civil war") [Hezbollah involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war") |
| [Red Sea crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea_crisis "Red Sea crisis") | [20 July 2024 Israeli attack on Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20_July_2024_Israeli_attack_on_Yemen "20 July 2024 Israeli attack on Yemen") [29 September 2024 Israeli attacks on Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/29_September_2024_Israeli_attacks_on_Yemen "29 September 2024 Israeli attacks on Yemen") [December 2024 Israeli airstrikes in Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2024_Israeli_airstrikes_in_Yemen "December 2024 Israeli airstrikes in Yemen") [26 December 2024 Israeli attack on Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/26_December_2024_Israeli_attack_on_Yemen "26 December 2024 Israeli attack on Yemen") [10 January 2025 Israeli attack on Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_January_2025_Israeli_attack_on_Yemen "10 January 2025 Israeli attack on Yemen") [2025 Israeli attacks in Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Israeli_attacks_in_Yemen "2025 Israeli attacks in Yemen") [28 August 2025 Israeli attacks on Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28_August_2025_Israeli_attacks_on_Yemen "28 August 2025 Israeli attacks on Yemen") [2026 Houthi strikes on Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_Houthi_strikes_on_Israel "2026 Houthi strikes on Israel") |
| International incidents | [Operation Outside the Box](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Outside_the_Box "Operation Outside the Box") [2009 Sudan airstrikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_Sudan_airstrikes "2009 Sudan airstrikes") [2011 alleged Iran assassination plot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_alleged_Iran_assassination_plot "2011 alleged Iran assassination plot") [2012 attacks on Israeli diplomats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_attacks_on_Israeli_diplomats "2012 attacks on Israeli diplomats") [2012 Bangkok bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Bangkok_bombings "2012 Bangkok bombings") [2012 Cyprus terrorist plot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Cyprus_terrorist_plot "2012 Cyprus terrorist plot") [2012 Burgas bus bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Burgas_bus_bombing "2012 Burgas bus bombing") [Yarmouk munitions factory explosion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarmouk_Military_Industrial_Complex "Yarmouk Military Industrial Complex") [2019 Israeli airstrikes in Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Israeli_airstrikes_in_Iraq "2019 Israeli airstrikes in Iraq") [2022 Erbil missile attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Erbil_missile_attacks "2022 Erbil missile attacks") [2022 Istanbul terror plot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Istanbul_terror_plot "2022 Istanbul terror plot") |
| [Nuclear program of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran "Nuclear program of Iran") | [Israel and the nuclear program of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_and_the_nuclear_program_of_Iran "Israel and the nuclear program of Iran") [Assassinations of Iranian nuclear scientists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassinations_of_Iranian_nuclear_scientists "Assassinations of Iranian nuclear scientists") [Ardeshir Hosseinpour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardeshir_Hosseinpour "Ardeshir Hosseinpour") [Massoud Ali-Mohammadi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massoud_Ali-Mohammadi "Massoud Ali-Mohammadi") [Majid Shahriari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majid_Shahriari "Majid Shahriari") [Fereydoon Abbasi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fereydoon_Abbasi "Fereydoon Abbasi") [Mostafa Ahmadi Roshan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mostafa_Ahmadi_Roshan "Mostafa Ahmadi Roshan") [Mohsen Fakhrizadeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohsen_Fakhrizadeh "Mohsen Fakhrizadeh") [AMAD Project](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMAD_Project "AMAD Project") [Mossad activities in Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossad_activities_in_Iran "Mossad activities in Iran") [Israeli infiltration of an Iranian nuclear archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_infiltration_of_an_Iranian_nuclear_archive "Israeli infiltration of an Iranian nuclear archive") [Bid Kaneh explosion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bid_Kaneh_explosion "Bid Kaneh explosion") [Stuxnet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuxnet "Stuxnet") [2020 Iran explosions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Iran_explosions "2020 Iran explosions") [2021 Natanz incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Natanz_incident "2021 Natanz incident") [2023 Iran drone attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Iran_drone_attacks "2023 Iran drone attacks") |
| Related | [Hezbollah–Russia relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah%E2%80%93Russia_relations "Hezbollah–Russia relations") [Russia–Hamas relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Hamas_relations "Russia–Hamas relations") [Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war") [Ahmad Reza Djalali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Reza_Djalali "Ahmad Reza Djalali") [Axis of Resistance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_of_Resistance "Axis of Resistance") [Arab–Israeli alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_alliance "Arab–Israeli alliance") [Abraham Accords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Accords "Abraham Accords") [Warsaw Middle East conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2019_Warsaw_Conference "February 2019 Warsaw Conference") [People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Mojahedin_Organization_of_Iran "People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran") [Little Satan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Satan "Little Satan") [Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad_and_Israel "Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Israel") [Views on military action against Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Views_on_military_action_against_Iran "Views on military action against Iran") [Iran and state-sponsored terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism "Iran and state-sponsored terrorism") [Hezbollah–Iran relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah%E2%80%93Iran_relations "Hezbollah–Iran relations") [Iranian support for Hamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_support_for_Hamas "Iranian support for Hamas") [Iranian support for the Houthis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_support_for_the_Houthis "Iranian support for the Houthis") [Israel and state-sponsored terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_and_state-sponsored_terrorism "Israel and state-sponsored terrorism") [Quds Day](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quds_Day "Quds Day") [Prisoner X2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_X2 "Prisoner X2") [*Tehran*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran_\(TV_series\) "Tehran (TV series)") [Israeli war crimes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_war_crimes "Israeli war crimes") [2024 leak of U.S. intelligence on Israeli strike plans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_leak_of_U.S._intelligence_on_Israeli_strike_plans "2024 leak of U.S. intelligence on Israeli strike plans") |
|  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Category:Iran–Israel proxy conflict") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Template:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Template talk:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Special:EditPage/Template:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war")[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war") | |
|---|---|
| [Background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations "Iran–Saudi Arabia relations") | [Iranian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution "Iranian Revolution") [1979 Khuzestan insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency "1979 Khuzestan insurgency") [Arab separatism in Khuzestan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan "Arab separatism in Khuzestan") [Qatif conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatif_conflict "Qatif conflict") [1979 Qatif Uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_Qatif_Uprising "1979 Qatif Uprising") |
| Conflicts | [Assadist–Saddamist conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assadist%E2%80%93Saddamist_conflict "Assadist–Saddamist conflict") (until 1990) [Iran–Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War "Iran–Iraq War") [Action of June 5, 1984](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_of_June_5,_1984 "Action of June 5, 1984") [Qatar–Saudi Arabia diplomatic conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_diplomatic_conflict "Qatar–Saudi Arabia diplomatic conflict") [Qatar diplomatic crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar_diplomatic_crisis "Qatar diplomatic crisis") [2011 Egyptian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Egyptian_revolution "2011 Egyptian revolution") [2011 Bahraini uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Bahraini_uprising "2011 Bahraini uprising") [Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi-led_intervention_in_Bahrain "Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain") [insurgency in Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurgency_in_Bahrain "Insurgency in Bahrain") [First Libyan civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Libyan_civil_war "First Libyan civil war") [Syrian civil war]() [Hezbollah involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Iranian involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Saudi involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Saudi Arabian involvement in the Syrian civil war") [Spillover in Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon "Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon") [Axis of Resistance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_of_Resistance "Axis of Resistance") [Funding of the Axis of Resistance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_the_Axis_of_Resistance "Funding of the Axis of Resistance") [War in Iraq (2013–2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Iraq_\(2013%E2%80%932017\) "War in Iraq (2013–2017)") [Iranian intervention in Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_Iraq_\(2014%E2%80%93present\) "Iranian intervention in Iraq (2014–present)") [Yemeni crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_crisis "Yemeni crisis") [Houthi insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houthi_insurgency "Houthi insurgency") [Operation Scorched Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Scorched_Earth "Operation Scorched Earth") [Operation Blow to the Head](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Blow_to_the_Head "Operation Blow to the Head") [Yemeni revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_revolution "Yemeni revolution") [Yemeni civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_\(2014%E2%80%93present\) "Yemeni civil war (2014–present)") [Saudi-led intervention in Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabian%E2%80%93led_intervention_in_Yemen "Saudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen") [Houthi–Saudi Arabian conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houthi%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabian_conflict "Houthi–Saudi Arabian conflict") [Houthi takeover in Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houthi_takeover_in_Yemen "Houthi takeover in Yemen") [Second Libyan civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_civil_war_\(2014%E2%80%932020\) "Libyan civil war (2014–2020)") |
| Incidents | [1987 Mecca incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_Mecca_incident "1987 Mecca incident") [Khobar Towers bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khobar_Towers_bombing "Khobar Towers bombing") [2011–2012 Saudi Arabian protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%E2%80%932012_Saudi_Arabian_protests "2011–2012 Saudi Arabian protests") [2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Saudi_Arabia_mass_execution "2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution") [Execution of Nimr al-Nimr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_of_Nimr_al-Nimr "Execution of Nimr al-Nimr") [2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_attack_on_the_Saudi_diplomatic_missions_in_Iran "2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran") [2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Saudi_Arabia_mass_execution "2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution") [2011 alleged Iran assassination plot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_alleged_Iran_assassination_plot "2011 alleged Iran assassination plot") [2015 Mina stampede](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Mina_stampede "2015 Mina stampede") [2017 Lebanon–Saudi Arabia dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Lebanon%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_dispute "2017 Lebanon–Saudi Arabia dispute") [2017–2020 Qatif unrest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%932020_Qatif_unrest "2017–2020 Qatif unrest") [2018 Riyadh missile strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Riyadh_missile_strike "2018 Riyadh missile strike") [International Maritime Security Construct](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Maritime_Security_Construct "International Maritime Security Construct") [United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_2231 "United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231") [May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2019_Gulf_of_Oman_incident "May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident") [2019 Afif attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Afif_attack "2019 Afif attack") [Abha International Airport attacks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abha_International_Airport_attacks "Abha International Airport attacks") [Abqaiq–Khurais attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abqaiq%E2%80%93Khurais_attack "Abqaiq–Khurais attack") |
| Iranian relations with [GCC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council "Gulf Cooperation Council") member states | [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain%E2%80%93Iran_relations "Bahrain–Iran relations") [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Kuwait_relations "Iran–Kuwait relations") [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Oman_relations "Iran–Oman relations") [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Qatar_relations "Iran–Qatar relations") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_Arab_Emirates_relations "Iran–United Arab Emirates relations") |
| Related topics | [Iran and state-sponsored terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism "Iran and state-sponsored terrorism") [Iran–Israel proxy conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Iran–Israel proxy conflict") [Arab League–Iran relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93Iran_relations "Arab League–Iran relations") [United States–Gulf Cooperation Council relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Gulf_Cooperation_Council_relations "United States–Gulf Cooperation Council relations") [Arab–Israeli alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_alliance "Arab–Israeli alliance") [Warsaw Middle East conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2019_Warsaw_Conference "February 2019 Warsaw Conference") [Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Syria%E2%80%93Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_coalition "Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition") [Opposition to military action against Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_military_action_against_Iran "Opposition to military action against Iran") [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation") [Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Military_Counter_Terrorism_Coalition "Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition") [Gulf Cooperation Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council "Gulf Cooperation Council") [Iran International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_International "Iran International") [Shia–Sunni relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations "Shia–Sunni relations") [Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Saudi_Arabia "Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia") |
| ** [Category:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Category:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war")** | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Middle_East_conflicts "Template:Middle East conflicts") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_East_conflicts "Template talk:Middle East conflicts") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_East_conflicts "Special:EditPage/Template:Middle East conflicts")[List of modern conflicts in the Middle East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modern_conflicts_in_the_Middle_East "List of modern conflicts in the Middle East") | |
|---|---|
| 1910s | **[World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I "World War I")** [Italo-Turkish War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War "Italo-Turkish War") [Middle Eastern theatre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I "Middle Eastern theatre of World War I") [Battle of Robat Karim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim "Battle of Robat Karim") [Arab Revolt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Revolt "Arab Revolt") [Armenian genocide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_genocide "Armenian genocide") [Assyrian genocide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayfo "Sayfo") [Mount Lebanon starvation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon "Great Famine of Mount Lebanon") [Unification of Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Saudi_Arabia "Unification of Saudi Arabia") [Simko Shikak revolt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simko_Shikak_revolt_\(1918%E2%80%931922\) "Simko Shikak revolt (1918–1922)") [1919 Egyptian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution "1919 Egyptian revolution") **[Turkish War of Independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence "Turkish War of Independence")** [Anglo-Turkish War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_during_the_Turkish_War_of_Independence "United Kingdom during the Turkish War of Independence") [Al-Jazeera Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Jazeera_Front_\(Anglo-Turkish_War,_1918%E2%80%931923\)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Al-Jazeera Front (Anglo-Turkish War, 1918–1923) (page does not exist)") [Greco-Turkish War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_\(1919%E2%80%931922\) "Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)") [Turkish–Armenian War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War "Turkish–Armenian War") [Franco-Turkish War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War "Franco-Turkish War") [Revolts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolts_during_the_Turkish_War_of_Independence "Revolts during the Turkish War of Independence") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_during_the_Turkish_War_of_Independence "United States during the Turkish War of Independence") [Mahmud Barzanji revolts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Barzanji_revolts "Mahmud Barzanji revolts") |
| 1920s | [Franco-Syrian War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War "Franco-Syrian War") [Iraqi Revolt (1920)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt "Iraqi Revolt") [Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercommunal_conflict_in_Mandatory_Palestine "Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine") [1922 Dhabyani coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922_Dhabyani_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1922 Dhabyani coup d'état") [Adwan Rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adwan_Rebellion "Adwan Rebellion") [Arab separatism in Khuzestan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan "Arab separatism in Khuzestan") [Great Syrian Revolt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt "Great Syrian Revolt") [1926 Dhabyani coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1926_Dhabyani_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1926 Dhabyani coup d'état") [1928 Dhabyani coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928_Dhabyani_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1928 Dhabyani coup d'état") [Sheikh Said rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh_Said_rebellion "Sheikh Said rebellion") |
| 1930s | [Ararat rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ararat_rebellion "Ararat rebellion") [Ahmed Barzani revolt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Barzani_revolt "Ahmed Barzani revolt") [Simele massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simele_massacre "Simele massacre") [Saudi–Yemeni war (1934)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi%E2%80%93Yemeni_war_\(1934\) "Saudi–Yemeni war (1934)") [Goharshad Mosque rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goharshad_Mosque_rebellion "Goharshad Mosque rebellion") [1935–1936 Iraqi Shia revolts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935%E2%80%931936_Iraqi_Shia_revolts "1935–1936 Iraqi Shia revolts") [1935 Yazidi revolt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935_Yazidi_revolt "1935 Yazidi revolt") [1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine "1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine") [Dersim rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dersim_rebellion "Dersim rebellion") |
| 1940s | **[World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II "World War II")** [Italian bombing of Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_bombing_of_Mandatory_Palestine_in_World_War_II "Italian bombing of Mandatory Palestine in World War II") [Allied invasion of Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Iraq "Allied invasion of Iraq") [Syria–Lebanon campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign "Syria–Lebanon campaign") [Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran "Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran") [1943 Barzani revolt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943_Barzani_revolt "1943 Barzani revolt") [Al-Waziri coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Waziri_coup "Al-Waziri coup") [Al-Wathbah uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising "Al-Wathbah uprising") *[Kurdish separatism in Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_separatism_in_Iran "Kurdish separatism in Iran")* [Iran crisis of 1946](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946 "Iran crisis of 1946") **[Arab–Israeli conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict "Arab–Israeli conflict")** [1948 Arab–Israeli War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War "1948 Arab–Israeli War") [Suez Crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Crisis "Suez Crisis") [1967 Six-Day War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") [1973 Yom Kippur War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War "Yom Kippur War") [1982 Lebanon War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War "1982 Lebanon War") |
| 1950s | [Buraimi dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buraimi_dispute "Buraimi dispute") [1952 Egyptian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution "1952 Egyptian revolution") [1953 Iranian coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1953 Iranian coup d'état") [Jebel Akhdar War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War "Jebel Akhdar War") [Cyprus Emergency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency "Cyprus Emergency") [Suez Crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Crisis "Suez Crisis") [Yemeni–Adenese clan violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni%E2%80%93Adenese_clan_violence "Yemeni–Adenese clan violence") [1958 Lebanon crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis "1958 Lebanon crisis") [1958 Iraqi revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_July_Revolution "14 July Revolution") [1959 Mosul uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising "1959 Mosul uprising") |
| 1960s | [Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963%E2%80%931964 "Cypriot intercommunal violence") **[Iraqi–Kurdish conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict "Iraqi–Kurdish conflict")** [First Iraqi–Kurdish War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War "First Iraqi–Kurdish War") [Second Iraqi–Kurdish War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War "Second Iraqi–Kurdish War") [Dhofar rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhofar_rebellion "Dhofar rebellion") **[North Yemen civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war "North Yemen civil war")** [Feb. 1963 Iraqi coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution "Ramadan Revolution") [Mar. 1963 Syrian coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1963 Syrian coup d'état") [Nov. 1963 Iraqi coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état") [Aden Emergency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aden_Emergency "Aden Emergency") [1964 Hama riot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Hama_riot "1964 Hama riot") *[Israeli–Palestinian conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict "Israeli–Palestinian conflict")* [1948 Palestine war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Palestine_war "1948 Palestine war") [First Intifada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Intifada "First Intifada") [Second Intifada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Intifada "Second Intifada") [1965 Sharjawi coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_Sharjawi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1965 Sharjawi coup d'état") [1966 Syrian coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1966 Syrian coup d'état") [1966 Dhabyani coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_Dhabyani_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1966 Dhabyani coup d'état") [1969 Saudi Arabian coup attempt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969_Saudi_Arabian_coup_attempt "1969 Saudi Arabian coup attempt") |
| 1970s | [Black September in Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_September "Black September") [1972 Sharjawi coup d'état attempt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Sharjawi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt "1972 Sharjawi coup d'état attempt") [Yemenite War of 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenite_War_of_1972 "Yemenite War of 1972") [Turkish invasion of Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus "Turkish invasion of Cyprus") [Shatt al-Arab clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%E2%80%931975_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict "1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab conflict") **[Lebanese Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War "Lebanese Civil War")** [Political violence in Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_violence_in_Turkey_\(1976%E2%80%931980\) "Political violence in Turkey (1976–1980)") [Islamist uprising in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria "Islamist uprising in Syria") [1977 Shia uprising in Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq "1977 Shia uprising in Iraq") [NDF Rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDF_Rebellion "NDF Rebellion") [Yemenite War of 1979](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenite_War_of_1979 "Yemenite War of 1979") [Iranian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution "Iranian Revolution") [Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Iranian_Revolution "Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution") [1979 Qatif Uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_Qatif_Uprising "1979 Qatif Uprising") [Grand Mosque seizure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure "Grand Mosque seizure") [1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq "1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq") |
| 1980s | **[Iran–Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War "Iran–Iraq War")** [1980 Turkish coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1980 Turkish coup d'état") [Kurdish–Turkish conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish%E2%80%93Turkish_conflict "Kurdish–Turkish conflict") [Turkey–PKK conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish%E2%80%93Turkish_conflict_\(1978%E2%80%93present\) "Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present)") [South Yemen civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war "South Yemen civil war") [1986 Egyptian conscripts riot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_Egyptian_conscripts_riot "1986 Egyptian conscripts riot") [1986 Damascus bombings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_Damascus_bombings "1986 Damascus bombings") [1987 Sharjawi coup d'état attempt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_Sharjawi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt "1987 Sharjawi coup d'état attempt") [Mecca massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_Mecca_incident "1987 Mecca incident") [Abu Nidal's executions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Nidal_Organization_internal_executions "Abu Nidal Organization internal executions") |
| 1990s | **[Gulf War (1990–1991)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War")** [1991 Iraqi uprisings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings "1991 Iraqi uprisings") [Terror campaign in Egypt (1990s)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism_in_Egypt "Terrorism in Egypt") [Yemeni civil war (1994)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_\(1994\) "Yemeni civil war (1994)") [Iraqi Kurdish Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdish_Civil_War "Iraqi Kurdish Civil War") [*Islamic insurgency in Saudi Arabia (2000–present)*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism_in_Saudi_Arabia "Terrorism in Saudi Arabia") [Operation Desert Fox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_bombing_of_Iraq "1998 bombing of Iraq") *[al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda_insurgency_in_Yemen "Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen")* [1999 Shia uprising in Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq "1999 Shia uprising in Iraq") |
| 2000s | **[2003 American Invasion of Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War")** *[Balochi insurgency in Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistan_and_Baluchestan_insurgency "Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency")* [2004 Qamishli riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Qamishli_riots "2004 Qamishli riots") [Houthi insurgency in Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houthi_insurgency_in_Yemen "Houthi insurgency in Yemen") *[Iran–Israel proxy conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Iran–Israel proxy conflict")* [2006 Lebanon War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Lebanon_War "2006 Lebanon War") [Fatah–Hamas conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatah%E2%80%93Hamas_conflict "Fatah–Hamas conflict") [South Yemen insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Yemen_insurgency "South Yemen insurgency") |
| 2010s | [2011 Bahraini uprising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Bahraini_uprising "2011 Bahraini uprising") [Egyptian Crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Crisis_\(2011%E2%80%932014\) "Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)") [Sinai insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_insurgency "Sinai insurgency") *[Insurgency in Egypt (2013–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_terrorism_in_Egypt_\(2013%E2%80%93present\) "Timeline of terrorism in Egypt (2013–present)")* **[Syrian civil war]()** [Syrian War spillover in Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon "Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon") Iraqi crisis *[Iraqi conflict following the American invasion (2003–2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_conflict "Iraqi conflict")* [Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_\(2011%E2%80%932013\) "Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)") [War in Iraq (2013–2017)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Iraq_\(2013%E2%80%932017\) "War in Iraq (2013–2017)") *[Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_\(2017%E2%80%93present\) "Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)")* [Yemeni crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_crisis "Yemeni crisis") ***[Yemeni civil war (2014–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_\(2014%E2%80%93present\) "Yemeni civil war (2014–present)")*** |
| 2020s | [2021 Beirut clashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Beirut_clashes "2021 Beirut clashes") *[Gaza war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_war "Gaza war")* *[Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Hezbollah_conflict_\(2023%E2%80%93present\) "Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)")* *[Red Sea crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea_crisis "Red Sea crisis")* [2024 Iran–Israel conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Iran%E2%80%93Israel_conflict "2024 Iran–Israel conflict") [Twelve-Day War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve-Day_War "Twelve-Day War") [2026 Kurdish–Iranian crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_Kurdish%E2%80%93Iranian_crisis "2026 Kurdish–Iranian crisis") [2026 Iran war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_Iran_war "2026 Iran war") |
| **This list includes [World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") and later conflicts (after 1914) of at least 100 fatalities each** Prolonged conflicts are listed in the decade when initiated; ongoing conflicts are marked italic, and conflicts with +100,000 killed with bold. | |
| [Authority control databases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control "Help:Authority control") [](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178810#identifiers "Edit this at Wikidata") | |
|---|---|
| International | [GND](https://d-nb.info/gnd/1041651422) |
| National | [United States](https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2012001320) [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph877036&CON_LNG=ENG) [Israel](https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007517204905171) |
| Other | [Yale LUX](https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/activity/d5f4d6ff-ea7a-494b-a6c0-bab429930a40) |
Retrieved from "<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_civil_war&oldid=1345386847>"
[Categories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category "Help:Category"):
- [Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Syrian_civil_war "Category:Syrian civil war")
- [2010s in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:2010s_in_Syria "Category:2010s in Syria")
- [2020s in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:2020s_in_Syria "Category:2020s in Syria")
- [2010s civil wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:2010s_civil_wars "Category:2010s civil wars")
- [2020s civil wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:2020s_civil_wars "Category:2020s civil wars")
- [Civil wars of the 21st century](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Civil_wars_of_the_21st_century "Category:Civil wars of the 21st century")
- [Arab Winter in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Arab_Winter_in_Syria "Category:Arab Winter in Syria")
- [Politics of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Politics_of_Syria "Category:Politics of Syria")
- [Protests in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Protests_in_Syria "Category:Protests in Syria")
- [Rebellions in Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Rebellions_in_Syria "Category:Rebellions in Syria")
- [Proxy wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Proxy_wars "Category:Proxy wars")
- [Religion-based civil wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Religion-based_civil_wars "Category:Religion-based civil wars")
- [Religion-based wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Religion-based_wars "Category:Religion-based wars")
- [Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Civil_wars_involving_the_states_and_peoples_of_Asia "Category:Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Asia")
- [Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_war "Category:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war")
- [Iran–Israel proxy conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Category:Iran–Israel proxy conflict")
- [Wars involving Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Syria "Category:Wars involving Syria")
- [Wars involving Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Egypt "Category:Wars involving Egypt")
- [Wars involving France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_France "Category:Wars involving France")
- [Wars involving Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Hezbollah "Category:Wars involving Hezbollah")
- [Wars involving Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Iran "Category:Wars involving Iran")
- [Wars involving Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Iraq "Category:Wars involving Iraq")
- [Wars involving Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Israel "Category:Wars involving Israel")
- [Wars involving Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Jordan "Category:Wars involving Jordan")
- [Wars involving Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Qatar "Category:Wars involving Qatar")
- [Wars involving Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Russia "Category:Wars involving Russia")
- [Wars involving Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Saudi_Arabia "Category:Wars involving Saudi Arabia")
- [Wars involving the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_United_Kingdom "Category:Wars involving the United Kingdom")
- [Wars involving the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_United_States "Category:Wars involving the United States")
- [Wars involving Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Turkey "Category:Wars involving Turkey")
- [Wars involving the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant "Category:Wars involving the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant")
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Syrian civil war
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| Readable Markdown | | Syrian civil war | |
|---|---|
| Part of the [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution"), [Arab Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring"), [Arab Winter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Winter "Arab Winter"), [Islamic State war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State "War against the Islamic State"), [Kurdish–Turkish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish%E2%80%93Turkish_conflict "Kurdish–Turkish conflict") and [Arab–Israeli conflicts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict "Arab–Israeli conflict"), [Iran–Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict "Iran–Israel proxy conflict") and [Iran–Saudi proxy wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_conflict "Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict") | |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bombed_out_vehicles_Aleppo.jpg) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:People%27s_Defense_Units_defending_Ras_al-Ayn_against_al-Nusra_Front_terrorists_\(8\).jpg) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rebel_rocket_artillery_\(Hama_March_2017\).png) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Combined_Joint_U.S.,_Turkey_Patrols.jpg) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrians_celebrate_the_fall_of_Assad_at_the_Umayyad_mosque,_14_December_2024.jpg) From top to bottom, left to right: Destroyed vehicles during the [Battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)"), 2012 Kurdish [People's Protection Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Protection_Units "People's Protection Units") fighters during the [Battle of Ras al-Ayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ras_al-Ayn_\(2012%E2%80%9313\) "Battle of Ras al-Ayn (2012–13)"), 2013 Opposition rocket artillery bombards government positions during an [offensive on Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_offensive_\(March%E2%80%93April_2017\) "Hama offensive (March–April 2017)"), 2017 A neighborhood in [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa") after being [recaptured](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2017\) "Battle of Raqqa (2017)") from the [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State"), 2017 [Turkish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") and [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_intervention_in_Syria "United States intervention in Syria") troops on a joint patrol in [northern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria"), 2018 Syrians celebrating the [Fall of Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Assad "Fall of Assad"), 2024 | |
| | |
| Date | 15 March 2011[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-InfoboxStartDate-1) – 8 December 2024[\[b\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-InfoboxEndDate-2) (13 years, 8 months and 23 days) |
| Location | [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria "Syria") (with [spillovers in neighboring countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Spillover of the Syrian civil war"), especially [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") and [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon")) |
| Result | [Syrian opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") and allied victory; *See [Aftermath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#Aftermath)* |
| Belligerents | |
| [Full list of factions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_armed_factions_during_the_Syrian_civil_war#Opposing_forces_during_the_civil_war "List of armed factions during the Syrian civil war") | |
| Casualties and losses | |
| **Total deaths** 656,493+[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SOHR2025-3)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-4) **Civilian deaths** 219,223–306,887+[\[c\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-InfoboxCivilianDeaths-5) **Displaced people** 6\.7 million [internally](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internally_displaced_person "Internally displaced person") 6\.6 million [externally (refugees)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Refugees of the Syrian civil war") (March 2021)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-6) *See [Casualties of the Syrian civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Casualties of the Syrian civil war") for details* | |
The **Syrian civil war** was an [armed conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_conflict "Armed conflict") that began with the [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution") in March 2011, when popular discontent with the [Ba'athist regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") ruled by [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad") triggered large-scale protests and [pro-democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-democracy "Pro-democracy") rallies across [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria "Syria"), as part of the wider [Arab Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring"). The Assad regime responded to the protests with lethal force, which led to a series of defections, the emergence of armed opposition groups, and the civilian uprising descending into a [civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_war "Civil war"). The war lasted almost 14 years and culminated in the [fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") in December 2024. Many sources regard this as the end of the civil war.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-end_of_war-7) Post-war clashes and disputes have [continued](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_conflict_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Syrian conflict (2024–present)") into 2026.
The [Syrian opposition to Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") began as [an insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Insurgency "Syrian Insurgency"), forming groups such as the [Free Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army"). Anti-Assad forces received arms and training from [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatari_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Qatari involvement in the Syrian civil war"), [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), a [United States-led program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_Sycamore "Timber Sycamore"), and others. Pro-Assad forces received financial and military support from [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran"), [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia"), and [Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah"): Iran [launched a military intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war") in support of the Syrian government in 2013, and [Russia followed in 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war"). By this time, rebels had established the [Syrian Interim Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government "Syrian Interim Government") after capturing the regional capitals of [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_\(2013\) "Battle of Raqqa (2013)") in 2013 and [Idlib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Idlib_\(2015\) "Battle of Idlib (2015)") in 2015. [Use of chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war") during the war, predominantly by Syrian government forces, was the deadliest since the [Iran–Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War "Iran–Iraq War"). The [Ghouta sarin attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack") was followed by unsuccessful international attempts to [eliminate Syria's chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_Syria%27s_chemical_weapons "Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons") through military action or diplomacy.
In 2014, the [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State") (IS) seized control over [Eastern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Eastern_Syria_offensive "2014 Eastern Syria offensive") and [Western Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Iraq_offensive_\(June_2014\) "Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014)"), prompting a [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States")\-led [coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Joint_Task_Force_%E2%80%93_Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve") to launch an aerial [bombing campaign against the IS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State "War against the Islamic State"), while providing [ground support](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "US intervention in the Syrian civil war") and supplies to the [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces") (SDF), a Kurdish-dominated coalition led by the [People's Defense Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Defense_Units "People's Defense Units") (YPG). In 2016, [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") launched [an invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") of [northern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria") in response to the creation of the Kurdish-led [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") (Rojava), while also establishing the [Syrian National Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Army "Syrian National Army") (SNA) to help it [fight ISIS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Euphrates_Shield "Operation Euphrates Shield") and [pro-Assad forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Spring_Shield "Operation Spring Shield").
The 2016 victory of pro-Assad forces in the four-year [Battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") marked the recapture of what had been Syria's largest city before the war. In [Idlib Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate "Idlib Governorate"), the [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham") (HTS) militia formed the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government"), a technocratic, [Islamist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") administration that governed the region from 2017 until 2024. Meanwhile, IS was territorially defeated in the [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_\(2016%E2%80%932017\) "Raqqa campaign (2016–2017)") and [Deir ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_campaign_\(2017%E2%80%932019\) "Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017–2019)") campaigns. In December 2019, regime forces launched an offensive on Idlib province, [which resulted in a ceasefire lasting from 2020 until November 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(2019%E2%80%932020\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (2019–2020)"). During this period, there were [regular clashes between pro-Assad forces and HTS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_clashes_\(December_2022_%E2%80%93_November_2024\) "Northwestern Syria clashes (December 2022 – November 2024)").
HTS launched a [major offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives") in November 2024, joined by the SNA. [Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2024\) "Battle of Aleppo (2024)") fell in three days, giving momentum to revolutionaries across the country. HTS soon captured [Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Hama_offensive "2024 Hama offensive") and began to advance south towards [Homs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs "Homs"). [Southern rebels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Front_\(Syria\) "Southern Front (Syria)") and the [Syrian Free Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Free_Army "Syrian Free Army") launched [their own offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Syria_offensive_\(2024\) "Southern Syria offensive (2024)"), capturing [Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa "Daraa"), [Suwayda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwayda "Suwayda"), and [Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(2024\) "Palmyra offensive (2024)"). On 8 December, [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad") fled to [Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") as [Homs fell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Homs_offensive "2024 Homs offensive") to HTS while southern rebels entered [Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_\(2024\) "Fall of Damascus (2024)"). [Assad's prime minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali "Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali") remained in Damascus and transferred power to [a provisional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government"). [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel") launched an [invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_invasion_of_Syria_\(2024%E2%80%93present\) "Israeli invasion of Syria (2024–present)") of Syria's [Quneitra Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra_Governorate "Quneitra Governorate") (including the [UN buffer zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Disengagement_Observer_Force_Zone "United Nations Disengagement Observer Force Zone")) from its [58-year occupation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_the_Golan_Heights "Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights") of the Syrian [Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golan_Heights "Golan Heights").
At the [Syrian Revolution Victory Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_Victory_Conference "Syrian Revolution Victory Conference") held at the [Presidential Palace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Damascus "Presidential Palace, Damascus") in [Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus "Damascus") in January 2025, the new government announced the dissolution of several armed militias and their integration into the [Syrian Ministry of Defense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_\(Syria\) "Ministry of Defense (Syria)"), as well as the appointment of former HTS leader [Ahmed al-Sharaa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa "Ahmed al-Sharaa") as [president of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Syria "President of Syria"). Later that year, a [Druze insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze_insurgency_in_Southern_Syria "Druze insurgency in Southern Syria") formed in the southern [Suweida Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suweida_Governorate "Suweida Governorate") following clashes with the government and alleged sectarian violence.
Overview
The war has been fought by several factions. From 2011 to December 2024, the [Syrian Arab Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces "Syrian Arab Armed Forces"), alongside its domestic and foreign allies, represented the [Syrian Arab Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria#Ba'athist_Syria "Syria") and [Assad's Ba'athist government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Bashar_al-Assad "Presidency of Bashar al-Assad"). Alternative governments rose in [opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") to Assad's rule, including the [Syrian Interim Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government "Syrian Interim Government"), a [big-tent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_tent "Big tent") alliance of pro-democratic, [nationalist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_nationalism "Syrian nationalism") opposition groups whose military forces consisted of the [Syrian National Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Army "Syrian National Army") (SNA) and allied [Free Syrian militias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_militias "Free Syrian militias"). Another is the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government"), whose armed forces were represented by a [coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Operations_Command "Military Operations Command") of [Sunni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni "Sunni") militias led by [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham") (HTS). Independent of them is the [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") (AANES), also known as Rojava, whose military force is the [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces") (SDF), a multi-ethnic, Arab-majority force led by the Kurdish [People's Defense Units](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Defense_Units "People's Defense Units") (YPG). Other competing factions include [jihadist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihadist "Jihadist") organizations such as [al-Qaeda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda "Al-Qaeda")'s Syrian branch [Hurras al-Din](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurras_al-Din "Hurras al-Din") (the successor of [Al-Nusra Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front "Al-Nusra Front")) and the [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State") (IS).
The civil war has also served as a [proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_war "Proxy war")[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-8) as a number of foreign countries–including [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran"), [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") and the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States")–have been [directly involved](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war") in the conflict, providing support to opposing factions. Iran, Russia and [Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah") supported Assad's government militarily, with Iran [intervening in 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war") and Russia conducting [airstrikes and ground operations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_military_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian military intervention in the Syrian civil war") in the country beginning in September 2015. In 2014, the [US-led international coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Joint_Task_Force_%E2%80%93_Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve") officially began [conducting air and ground operations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "US intervention in the Syrian civil war")–primarily against the Islamic State, al-Qaeda elements such as Hurras al-Din and the [Khorasan group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khorasan_group "Khorasan group") and occasionally [against pro-Assad forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_attacks_on_Syria_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of United States attacks on Syria during the Syrian civil war")–and has been militarily and logistically supporting factions such as the [Syrian Free Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Commando_Army "Revolutionary Commando Army") and the SDF. [Turkish forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war") [occupied parts of northern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria "Turkish occupation of northern Syria") and have fought the SDF, Assad government and Islamic State alike while actively supporting the SNA. Between 2011 and 2017, fighting from the Syrian civil war [spilled over](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon "Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon") into [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon") as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil. While officially neutral, [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel") [exchanged border fire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Syrian_ceasefire_line_incidents_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line incidents during the Syrian civil war") and [conducted repeated strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iran–Israel conflict during the Syrian civil war") against Hezbollah and Iranian elements inside Syria, whose presence in the country it [viewed as a security threat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_and_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israel and the Syrian civil war").[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-9)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-10)
Violence in the war peaked during 2012–2017 amid rebel and government offensives and [sectarian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war") and Islamist violence.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-11)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-12) International organizations had accused virtually all sides involved—the Assad government, the Islamic State, opposition groups, Iran, Russia,[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-The_Guardian-13) Turkey[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-amnesty1-14) and the US-led coalition[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-15)—of severe [human rights violations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations "Human rights violations") and [massacres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_massacres_during_the_Syrian_civil_war "List of massacres during the Syrian civil war").[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-16) The conflict had caused [a major refugee crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Refugees of the Syrian civil war"), with millions of people fleeing to neighboring countries such as Turkey, Lebanon and [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan "Jordan");[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-17)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-PBS-18) however, a sizable minority also sought refuge in countries outside of the Middle East, with [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany "Germany") alone accepting over half a million Syrians since 2011.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-PBS-18) Beginning in 2011 [a number of peace initiatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process "Syrian peace process") were launched, including several ed by the [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"), but fighting continued.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Mediation_in_Syria-19)
Background
Assad government
The [Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party "Ba'ath Party") government came to power through [a coup d'état in 1963](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1963 Syrian coup d'état") by overthrowing the [Second Syrian Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic "Second Syrian Republic"). A [second coup in 1966](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1966 Syrian coup d'état") ousted the old Baathist leadership of [Michel Aflaq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq "Michel Aflaq"), replacing it with a militaristic, hard-left, pro-Soviet regime led by [Salah Jadid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salah_Jadid "Salah Jadid"), causing a split between the [Syrian branch of Ba'ath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region "Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region"), which supported Jadid, and the [Iraqi branch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region "Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region"), which remained loyal to Aflaq. Jadid was in turn [removed in November 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrective_Movement_\(Syria\) "Corrective Movement (Syria)") by General [Hafez al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad "Hafez al-Assad"), an [Alawite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alawite "Alawite") who declared himself [President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Syria "President of Syria") in March 1971.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-20) This marked the beginning of the domination of personality cults centred around the [Assad family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Assad_family "Al-Assad family") that pervaded all aspects of Syrian daily life and was accompanied by a systematic suppression of civil and political freedoms, becoming the central feature of state propaganda. Authority in Ba'athist Syria was monopolised by three power-centres: Alawite loyalist clans, the Ba'ath Party and the [Syrian Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces "Syrian Armed Forces"). All three united by their allegiance to the Assad family.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-21)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-22)[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Dictators_and_Autocrats-23)
The Syrian Regional Branch remained the dominant political authority in what had been a [one-party state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-party_state "One-party state") until the first [multi-party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party_system "Multi-party system") [election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Syrian_parliamentary_election "2012 Syrian parliamentary election") to the [People's Council of Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria "People's Council of Syria") was held in 2012.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-24) On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, leading to a national crisis. The [1973 Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Constitution_of_1973 "Syrian Constitution of 1973") entrusted the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party with the distinctive role as the "leader of the state and society", empowering it to mobilise the civilians for party programmes, issue decrees to ascertain their loyalty and supervise all legal trade unions. Ba'athist ideology was imposed upon children as a compulsory part of school curricula as the Armed Forces became highly monitored by the Party. The constitution removed Islam from being recognised as the [state religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_religion "State religion") and stripped existing provisions such as the requirement that the president of Syria be [Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim "Muslim"). These measures caused widespread furor amongst the public, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the [Muslim Brotherhood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood "Muslim Brotherhood") and the *[ulama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama "Ulama")*. The Assad regime violently crushed the [Islamic revolts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria "Islamist uprising in Syria") that occurred during 1976–1982, waged by revolutionaries from the [Syrian Muslim Brotherhood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Muslim_Brotherhood "Syrian Muslim Brotherhood").[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-25)
The Ba'ath Party carefully constructed Assad as the guiding father figure of the party and modern Syrian nation, advocating the continuation of [Assad dynastic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assad_dynasty "Assad dynasty") rule of Syria. As part of the publicity efforts to brand the nation and Assad family as inseparable, slogans such as "Assad or we burn the country", "Assad or to hell with the country" and "[Hafez Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad "Hafez al-Assad"), forever" became an integral part of the state and party discourse during the 1980s. Eventually the party organisation itself became a rubber stamp and the power structures became deeply dependent on sectarian affiliation to the Assad family and the central role of armed forces needed to crack down on dissent in the society. Critics of the regime have pointed out that deployment of violence is central to the rule of [Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") and describe it as "a dictatorship with [genocidal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide "Genocide") tendencies".[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kmak,_Bj%C3%B6rklund_2022_73%E2%80%9374-26) Hafez al-Assad's nearly three-decade rule was marked by its methods, ranging from censorship to violent measures of [state terror](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_terror "State terror") such as [mass murders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_murders "Mass murders"), [forced deportations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation "Deportation") and brutal practices such as [torture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture "Torture"), which were unleashed collectively upon the civilian population.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Dictators_and_Autocrats-23) Upon Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him as the president of Syria.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kmak,_Bj%C3%B6rklund_2022_73%E2%80%9374-26)
Bashar's wife [Asma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asma_al-Assad "Asma al-Assad"), a [Sunni Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Muslim "Sunni Muslim") born and educated in Britain, was initially hailed in the Western press as a "rose in the desert".[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-rose-27)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-28) The couple once raised hopes amongst Syrian intellectuals and outside Western observers, being seen as a path towards implementing economic and political reforms. However, Bashar failed to deliver on promised reforms, instead cracking down on the civil society groups, political reformists and democratic activists that emerged during the [Damascus Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_Spring "Damascus Spring") in the 2000s.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-nyt1Apr11-29) Bashar Al-Assad claims that no 'moderate opposition' to his government exists, and that all opposition forces are [Islamists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") focused on destroying his [secular leadership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularity "Secularity"); his view was that terrorist groups operating in Syria are "linked to the agendas of foreign countries".[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-30)
Demographics
The total Syrian population in July 2018 was estimated at 19,454,263 people. By ethnic groups, Syria was approximately [Arab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrians "Syrians") 50%, [Alawite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alawite "Alawite") 15%, [Kurd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria "Kurds in Syria") 10%, [Levantine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantine_Arabic "Levantine Arabic") 10% and 15% of other ethnic groups (includes [Druze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze_people_in_Syria "Druze people in Syria"), [Ismaili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isma%27ilism "Isma'ilism"), [Imami](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imamate_\(Twelver_doctrine\) "Imamate (Twelver doctrine)"), [Assyrian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_people "Assyrian people"), [Turkmen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen "Syrian Turkmen") and [Armenian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians_in_Syria "Armenians in Syria")). Its religious breakdown was: [Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim "Muslim") 87% (official; includes [Sunni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam "Sunni Islam") 74% and Alawi, Ismaili and [Shia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam "Shia Islam") 13%), [Christian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians "Christians") 10% (mainly of [Eastern Christian churches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Christianity "Eastern Christianity")[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-IRFR2006-31)—may now be smaller as a result of Christians fleeing the country), [Druze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze "Druze") 3% and [Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") (uncounted in the estimate, but with few remaining in Damascus and Aleppo).[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-32)
Socioeconomic background
[Socioeconomic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomics "Socioeconomics") inequality increased significantly after [free market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_market "Free market") policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the [service sector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_sector "Service sector"), these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Poor_rural_rebels-33) In 2010, Syria's nominal GDP per capita was only \$2,834, comparable to [sub-Saharan African](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa "Sub-Saharan Africa") countries such as [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") and far lower than its neighbors such as Lebanon, with an annual growth rate of 3.39%, below most other developing countries.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-34)
The country also faced particularly high [youth unemployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_unemployment "Youth unemployment") rates.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-35) At the start of the war, discontent with the government was strongest in Syria's poor areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Poor_rural_rebels-33) These included cities with high poverty rates, such as [Daraa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa "Daraa") and [Homs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs "Homs"), and the poorer districts of large cities.
Drought
The unrest coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from 2006 to 2011 and resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in [food prices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_prices "Food prices") and a mass migration of farming families to urban centers.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kelley_drought_2015-36) This migration strained infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5 million refugees from the [Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War").[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-37) The drought has also been linked to [anthropogenic global warming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenic_global_warming "Anthropogenic global warming"), with evidence that human-caused climate change influenced the severity and duration of the regional drought.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-38)[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-39)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-40) Some analysis, however, has challenged the relative contribution of climatic changes to the conflict, arguing that other factors played a more important role.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-41)[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-42)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-43) Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and is frequently the target of military action.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-44)[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-45)
Human rights
The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-46) The rights of [free expression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech "Freedom of speech"), [association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_association "Freedom of association") and [assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly "Freedom of assembly") were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-HRW-47) The country remained under a [state of emergency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_emergency "State of emergency") from 1963 until 2011 and public gatherings of more than five people were banned.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Reuters16Apr11-48) Security forces had sweeping powers of arrest and detention.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-AmInt2009-49) Despite hopes for democratic change with the 2000 [Damascus Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_Spring "Damascus Spring"), Bashar al-Assad was widely reported as having failed to implement any improvements. In 2010, he imposed a controversial national ban on female [Islamic dress codes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_clothing "Islamic clothing") (such as [face veils](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niq%C4%81b "Niqāb")) across universities, where reportedly over a thousand primary school teachers that wore the niqab were reassigned to administrative jobs.[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-50) A [Human Rights Watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch") report issued just before the beginning of the 2011 uprising stated that Assad had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-51)
History
Protests, civil uprising, and armed insurgency (2011–2012)
In March 2011, popular discontent with President [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad")'s [Ba'athist government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") led to large-scale protests and [pro-democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-democracy "Pro-democracy") rallies across Syria, as part of the wider [Arab Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring "Arab Spring") protests in the region.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kassam,_Becker_3-52)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Syria:_The_story_of_the_conflict-53) Numerous protests were violently suppressed by security forces in [deadly crackdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution#Crackdown "Syrian revolution") ordered by Assad, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and [detentions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention "Arbitrary arrest and detention"), many of whom were civilians.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Kassam,_Becker_3-52)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Syria:_The_story_of_the_conflict-53) The [Syrian revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution") transformed into an [insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_insurgency_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war") with the formation of [resistance militias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army#2011_%E2%80%93_formation "Free Syrian Army") across the country, developing into a full civil war by 2012.[\[d\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-54)
Escalation; Government clashes with rebels (2012–2013)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Situation_in_Syria_\(August_2012\).svg)
Military situation in August 2012.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Situation_in_Syria_\(June_2013\).svg)
Military situation in June 2013.
Rise of the Islamist groups (January–August 2014)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Situation_in_Syria_\(2014\).svg)
Military situation in July 2014.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(September_2014_-_September_2015\).svg)
Territorial changes from September 2014 to September 2015.
US intervention (September 2014 – August 2015)
Russian intervention; first partial ceasefire (September 2015 – August 2016)
Aleppo recaptured; Russian/Iranian/Turkish-backed ceasefire (September 2016 – April 2017)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(September_2015_-_December_2016\).svg)
Territorial changes from September 2015 to December 2016.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(December_2016_-_December_2017\).svg)
Territorial changes from December 2016 to December 2017.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(December_2017_-_March_2019\).svg)
Territorial changes from December 2017 to March 2019.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(April_2019_-_March_2020\).svg)
Territorial changes from April 2019 to March 2020.
Syrian-American conflict; de-escalation zones (April–August 2017)
ISIL siege of Deir ez-Zor broken; CIA program halted; Russian forces permanent (September–December 2017)
Government forces advance in Hama province and Ghouta; Turkish intervention in Afrin (January–March 2018)
Douma chemical attack; US-led missile strikes; southern Syria offensive (April–August 2018)
Idlib demilitarization; Partial US withdrawal; Iraq strikes ISIL targets (September–December 2018)
ISIL attacks continue; US states conditions of withdrawal; fifth inter-rebel conflict (January–April 2019)
New outbreaks of civil war; northwestern offensive; northern buffer zone established (May–August 2019)
US forces withdraw from buffer zone; Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria (September–December 2019)
In October 2019, Kurdish leaders of the AANES announced they had reached a major deal with the Assad government, allowing for Syrian Army forces to enter Kurdish-held towns along the [Syria–Turkey border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Turkey_border "Syria–Turkey border"). The deal was part of an effort to resist Turkey's [cross-border incursion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria "2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria") into AANES territory after US forces [withdrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war#Withdrawal_from_north_Syria "US intervention in the Syrian civil war") from the area after the collapse of the [Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Northern Syria Buffer Zone").[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-55)[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-56)[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-57) In November 2019, Russia, Turkey and the Assad government established a [new buffer zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone") in northern Syria that deescalated the Kurdish-Turkish clashes.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Turkey_and_Russia_Deal-58) US-led coalition forces regrouped in eastern Syria in continued support of the SDF against the [Islamic State insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Syria_insurgency "Eastern Syria insurgency"), amid tensions with local Russian forces and Iranian elements in the region.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-59)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-60)
By the end of the decade, the war had resulted in an estimated 470,000–610,000 violent deaths, making it the second-deadliest conflict of the 21st century, after the [Second Congo War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Congo_War "Second Congo War").[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-61)
Stalemate and frozen conflict (2020–2024)
Following the March 2020 [Idlib ceasefire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(December_2019_%E2%80%93_March_2020\)#Second_Russia%E2%80%93Turkey_ceasefire "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020)"), frontline fighting between the Syrian government under Assad and opposition groups had mostly subsided. By 2021, the Assad government controlled about two-thirds of the country and was consolidating power.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-62)[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-aje15march-63) Although, regular flare-ups occurred among factions in northwestern Syria, and [large-scale protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Syrian_protests "2023 Syrian protests") emerged in southern Syria and spread nationwide in response to extensive autocratic policies and the economic situation. The protests were noted at the time as resembling the 2011 revolution that preceded the civil war.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-64)[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-65)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-66)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-67)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-68)
The civil war had largely settled into a stalemate by early 2023. The [United States Institute of Peace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Institute_of_Peace "United States Institute of Peace") said:
> Twelve years into Syria's devastating civil war, the conflict appears to have settled into a frozen state. Although roughly 30% of the country is controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting has largely ceased and there is a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad. Over the last decade, the conflict erupted into one of the most complicated in the world, with a dizzying array of international and regional powers, opposition groups, proxies, local militias and extremist groups all playing a role. The Syrian population has been brutalized, with nearly a half a million killed, 12 million fleeing their homes to find safety elsewhere, and widespread poverty and hunger. Meanwhile, efforts to broker a political settlement have gone nowhere, leaving the Assad regime firmly in power.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-69)
The US [Council on Foreign Relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations "Council on Foreign Relations") said:
> The war whose brutality once dominated headlines has settled into an uncomfortable stalemate. Hopes for regime change have largely died out, peace talks have been fruitless, and some regional governments are reconsidering their opposition to engaging with Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad. The government has regained control of most of the country, and Assad's hold on power seems secure.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-cfr_2023-70)
However, major clashes continued between Turkish forces and factions within Syria. In late 2023, Turkish forces continued to attack Kurdish forces in northern Syria.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-71) Starting on 5 October 2023, the [Turkish Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_Armed_Forces "Turkish Armed Forces") launched a series of air and ground strikes targeting the Syrian Democratic Forces in northeastern Syria (AANES territory). The airstrikes were launched in response to the [2023 Ankara bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Ankara_bombing "2023 Ankara bombing"), which the Turkish government alleged was carried out by attackers originating from northeastern Syria.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-reuters1-72)
Fall of the Assad regime (2024)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_\(November_-_December_2024\).svg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_map_\(December_12,_2024\).svg)
On 27 November 2024, a coalition of opposition groups called the [Military Operations Command](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Operations_Command_\(Syria\) "Military Operations Command (Syria)"),[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-73) led by [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham "Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham"), launched [a major offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives")[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-74) against the Syrian Army and other pro-government forces in [Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate "Aleppo Governorate"), [Idlib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate "Idlib Governorate"), [Hama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_Governorate "Hama Governorate") and [Homs Governorates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs_Governorate "Homs Governorate").[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-75) This was followed by other rebel offensives from the [Southern Operations Room](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Operations_Room "Southern Operations Room"), the SDF and the Syrian Free Army which all began seizing Syrian government territory in the country's south and east.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-76)[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-77)[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-78)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-79) On 29 November, rebel forces [entered Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2024\) "Battle of Aleppo (2024)") as Syrian Army positions collapsed across the country.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-80) On 7 December, rebel forces [entered Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_\(2024\) "Fall of Damascus (2024)") and the next day, on 8 December, Bashar al-Assad was reported to have fled the capital.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-81) The Syrian Army confirmed Assad was no longer in power and had fled the country,[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Syrian_rebels_topple_Assad-82)[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-83)[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-84) resulting in the [collapse of his regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") and ending over 60 years of Ba'athist rule under the [Assad dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assad_family "Assad family").[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-85)[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-86)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-87)[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-88)[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-89) Assad and his family fled to [Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") and were granted asylum in Russia.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Syrian_rebels_topple_Assad-82)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-90)[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-91)[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-92) The fall of Assad has been said to mark the end of the Syrian civil war.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-end_of_war-7)
Syrian prime minister [Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali "Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali") recognized the transfer of power to the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government"), which established [a caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government") in Damascus with [Mohammed al-Bashir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_al-Bashir "Mohammed al-Bashir") serving as the prime minister.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-93) [Ahmed al-Sharaa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa "Ahmed al-Sharaa"), the leader of the Syrian Salvation Government and [emir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emir "Emir") of Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, became *de facto* leader of Syria.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-94)
Belligerents
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian-War_main_Participants.png)
Local, regional and international actors involved in the Syrian civil war prior to the fall of the Assad regime.
Syrian factions
There are numerous factions, both foreign and domestic, involved in the Syrian civil war. These can be divided into four main groups.
- First, [Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") led by [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad "Bashar al-Assad") and backed by his [Russian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") and [Iranian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") allies.
- Second, the [Syrian opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition_\(2011%E2%80%932024\) "Syrian opposition (2011–2024)") consisting of two alternative governments:
- i) the [Syrian Interim Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government "Syrian Interim Government") backed by the [Syrian National Coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Coalition_of_Syrian_Revolutionary_and_Opposition_Forces "National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces"), a [big-tent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_tent "Big tent") coalition of [democratic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy "Democracy"), [Syrian nationalist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_nationalism "Syrian nationalism") and [Islamic political](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam "Political aspects of Islam") groups whose defense forces consist of the [Syrian National Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_National_Army "Syrian National Army")[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-95) and [Free Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army"), and
- ii) the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government"), a [Sunni Islamist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism "Islamism") coalition led by [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahrir_al-Sham "Tahrir al-Sham").[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-96)
- Third, the Kurdish-dominated [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") and its military wing, the [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces"), supported by the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States"), [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France") and other [coalition allies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Joint_Task_Force_%E2%80%93_Operation_Inherent_Resolve "Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve").[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-97)
- Fourth, the [global jihadist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihadism "Jihadism") camp consisting of [al-Qaeda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda "Al-Qaeda") affiliate [Guardians of Religion Organisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurras_al-Din "Hurras al-Din") and its rival [Islamic State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State "Islamic State").[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-98)
The Syrian government, the opposition and the SDF all received support—militarily, logistically and diplomatically—from foreign countries, leading the conflict to often be described as a [proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_war "Proxy war").[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-99)
Foreign involvement
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syria_military_involvement.svg)
Map of states with military/paramilitary forces deployed in Syria.
Syria
Supported the Assad government with troops
Supported the Assad government with militia
Supporting Syrian rebels or a non-government faction with troops
The major parties that supported the Assad government were [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war"),[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-100) [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war")[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-telegraph-101) and Lebanese [militia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia "Militia") [Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war"). Syrian rebel groups received political, logistic and military support from the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93United_States_relations "Syria–United States relations"),[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-102)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-103) [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war"),[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-104) [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Saudi Arabian involvement in the Syrian civil war"),[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-105) [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatari_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Qatari involvement in the Syrian civil war"),[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-106) Britain, France,[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-107) [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel%27s_role_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Israel's role in the Syrian civil war")[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-108)[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-109) and the [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands").[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-110) Under the aegis of operation [Timber Sycamore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_Sycamore "Timber Sycamore") and other clandestine activities, [CIA operatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Activities_Center "Special Activities Center") and [US special operations troops](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_special_operations_forces "United States special operations forces") have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel fighters at a cost of \$1 billion a year since 2012.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-111)[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-112) [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") had also been involved in supporting the Syrian government, but mostly against [ISIL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant").[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-113)
[Hezbollah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah"), the Lebanese Shia militant group, was significantly involved in the Syrian Civil War. Starting from the 2011 Syrian revolution, Hezbollah provided active support to the Ba'athist government forces.[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-114)[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-115) By 2012, the group escalated its involvement, deploying troops across Syria.[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-116) In 2013, Hezbollah publicly acknowledged its presence in Syria, intensifying its ground commitment. This involvement included an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 fighters at any given time, comprising [Special Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_forces "Special forces"), standing forces from all units, part-time fighters and new recruits with accelerated combat training. Hezbollah's presence, supported by Iranian weaponry and training, further complicated the conflict dynamics, drawing Israeli airstrikes against Hezbollah and Iranian targets in Syria.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-117)
Spillover
In June 2014, members of the [Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant") (ISIL) crossed the border from Syria into northern Iraq, and [took control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Iraq_offensive_\(June_2014\) "Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014)") of large swaths of Iraqi territory as the [Iraqi Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_Army "Iraqi Army") abandoned its positions. Fighting between rebels and government forces also spilled over into Lebanon on several occasions. There were repeated incidents of sectarian violence in the [North Governorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Governorate "North Governorate") of Lebanon between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, as well as armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in [Tripoli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon "Tripoli, Lebanon").[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-118)
Starting on 5 June 2014, ISIL seized swathes of territory in Iraq. As of 2014, the [Syrian Arab Air Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Air_Force "Syrian Arab Air Force") used airstrikes targeted against ISIL in [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa") and [al-Hasakah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hasakah "Al-Hasakah") in coordination with the Iraqi government.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-119)
Weaponry and warfare
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:International_Mine_Action_Center_in_Syria_\(Aleppo\)_12.jpg)
'Hell cannon' [Improvised artillery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvised_artillery_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Improvised artillery in the Syrian civil war") found after the [battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") in 2016
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Army_tanks_1_\(Operation_Damascus_Steel,_March_2018\).png)
Syrian Army [T-72](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-72 "T-72") tank during the [2018 Rif Dimashq offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_\(February%E2%80%93April_2018\) "Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)")
Chemical weapons
[Sarin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin "Sarin"), [mustard agent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_agent "Mustard agent") and [chlorine gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine#Use_as_a_weapon "Chlorine") have been used during the conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction, especially the 2013 [Ghouta chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack"). The attack was the deadliest use of chemical weapons since the [Iran–Iraq War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War#Iraq's_use_of_chemical_weapons "Iran–Iraq War").[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-120)[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-121) [A UN fact-finding mission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_to_Investigate_Alleged_Uses_of_Chemical_Weapons_in_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "United Nations Mission to Investigate Alleged Uses of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic") was requested to investigate reported chemical weapons attacks. In four cases, UN inspectors confirmed the use of [sarin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin "Sarin") gas.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-122) In August 2016, a confidential report by the UN and the [OPCW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPCW "OPCW") explicitly blamed the Syrian military of Bashar al-Assad for dropping chemical weapons (chlorine bombs) on the towns of Talmenes in April 2014 and Sarmin in March 2015 and ISIL for using sulfur mustard on the town of Marea in August 2015.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-123)
The United States and the European Union have said the Syrian government has conducted several chemical attacks. Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the [destruction of Syria's chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_Syria%27s_chemical_weapons "Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons") began. In 2015 the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds at a "military research site".[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-124) After the April 2017 [Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack "Khan Shaykhun chemical attack"), the United States launched its first intentional attack against Syrian government forces. An investigation conducted by Tobias Schneider and Theresa Lutkefend of the [GPPi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Public_Policy_Institute "Global Public Policy Institute") research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total chemical attacks to the Assad regime. Almost 90% of the attacks occurred after Ghouta chemical attack in August 2013.[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-125)[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-126)
In April 2020, the UN Security Council briefing was held on the findings of a global chemical weapons watchdog, [Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons "Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons") (OPCW), which found that the [Syrian Air Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force "Syrian Air Force") used sarin and chlorine during multiple attacks in 2017. Syria's close allies, Russia, and other European countries debated the issue, during which Moscow dismissed the OPCW findings while many Western European countries called for accountability for the government's [war crimes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime "War crime").[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-127) The UN Deputy ambassador from Britain, Jonathan Allen, stated that the report by the OPCW's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) claimed that the Syrian regime is responsible for using [chemical weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapon "Chemical weapon") in the war on at least four occasions. The information was also noted in two UN-mandated investigations.[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-128)
In April 2021, Syria was suspended from the OPCW through the public vote of member states for not cooperating with the IIT and for violating the [Chemical Weapons Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention "Chemical Weapons Convention").[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-129)[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-130)[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-131) Findings of another OPCW investigation report published in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the 77 reported incidents of chemical weapons usage attributed to [Assadist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assadism "Assadism") forces.[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-132)[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-133)
Cluster bombs
Syria is not a party to the [Convention on Cluster Munitions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Cluster_Munitions "Convention on Cluster Munitions") and does not recognize the ban on the use of [cluster bombs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_bomb "Cluster bomb"). The Syrian Army is reported to have begun using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms Division at [Human Rights Watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch"), said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs." He adds of the weapons that "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward."[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-134)
Thermobaric weapons
Russian [thermobaric weapons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermobaric_weapon "Thermobaric weapon"), also known as "fuel-air bombs", were used by the government's side during the war. On 2 December 2015, *[The National Interest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_National_Interest "The National Interest")* reported that Russia was deploying the [TOS-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOS-1 "TOS-1") Buratino multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas".[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Russia's_Lethal_Thermobaric_Rocket_Launchers-135) One [Buratino thermobaric rocket launcher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOS-1 "TOS-1") "can obliterate a roughly 200 by 400 metres (660 by 1,310 feet) area with a single salvo".[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Russia's_Lethal_Thermobaric_Rocket_Launchers-135) Since 2012, rebels have said that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the [Battle of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_\(2012%E2%80%932016\) "Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)") and also in [Kafr Batna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafr_Batna "Kafr Batna").[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-136) A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the strategic town of Qusayr in March 2013.[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-137) In August 2013, the BBC reported on the use of napalm-like incendiary bombs on a school in northern Syria.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-138)
Missiles
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Army_of_Glory_fighter_launch_a_BGM-71_TOW_missile.png)
An [Army of Glory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_al-Izza "Jaysh al-Izza") fighter launches a [BGM-71 TOW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BGM-71_TOW "BGM-71 TOW") anti-tank missile at a Syrian government position during the [2017 Hama offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Hama_offensive "2017 Hama offensive").
Several types of [anti-tank missiles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank_missile "Anti-tank missile") are in use in Syria. Russia has sent [9M133 Kornet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9M133_Kornet "9M133 Kornet"), third-generation anti-tank guided missiles to the Syrian government whose forces have used them extensively against armour and other ground targets to fight jihadists and rebels.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-139) US-made [BGM-71 TOW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BGM-71_TOW "BGM-71 TOW") missiles are one of the primary weapons of rebel groups and have been primarily provided by the United States and Saudi Arabia.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-140) The US has also supplied many Eastern European sourced [9K111 Fagot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9K111_Fagot "9K111 Fagot") launchers and warheads to Syrian rebel groups under its [Timber Sycamore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_Sycamore "Timber Sycamore") program.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-janes-20160408-141)
In June 2017, Iran attacked ISIL targets in the [Deir ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor "Deir ez-Zor") area in eastern Syria with [Zolfaghar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zolfaghar_\(missile\) "Zolfaghar (missile)") [ballistic missiles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile "Ballistic missile") fired from western Iran,[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-janes.com-142) in the first use of mid-range missiles by Iran in 30 years.[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-143) According to *[Jane's Defence Weekly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%27s_Defence_Weekly "Jane's Defence Weekly")*, the missiles travelled 650–700 kilometres.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-janes.com-142)
Sectarianism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syria_Ethno-religious_Map.svg)
Map of Syria's ethno-religious composition in 1976
The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority Alawite religious group, an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the population, and most of the opposition, is Sunni. This resulted in calls for persecution of the Alawites by parts of the opposition.[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Behari-144)
A third of 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in the Syrian civil war.[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-145) In May 2013, [SOHR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOHR "SOHR") stated that out of 94,000 killed during the war, 41,000 of which being Alawites.[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-146)
As militias and non-Syrian Shia—motivated by pro-Shia sentiment rather than loyalty to the Assad government—have taken over fighting the anti-government forces from the weakened Syrian Army, fighting has taken on a more sectarian nature. One opposition leader has said that the Shia militias often "try to occupy and control the religious symbols in the Sunni community to achieve not just a territorial victory but a sectarian one as well"—reportedly occupying mosques and replacing Sunni icons with pictures of Shia leaders. According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights, human rights abuses have been committed by the militias including "a series of sectarian massacres between March 2011 and January 2014 that left 962 civilians dead".[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-nelson-defector-147)
In 2025 after the defeat of Assad and the rise of the transitional government, a series of [mass killings and massacres against Alawites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_massacres_of_Syrian_Alawites "2025 massacres of Syrian Alawites") occurred in Syria, largely in March 2025. The UK-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) reported that 1,614 civilians were killed by armed militias supporting the Syrian government. The observatory estimated actual numbers to be much higher.[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-148)
Kurdish autonomy in northeastern Syria
The [Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria") (AANES), also known as Rojava,[\[e\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-152) is a [de facto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto "De facto") [autonomous region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division "Autonomous administrative division") in northeastern Syria.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201911,_95-153)[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228-154) The region does not claim to pursue full independence but autonomy within a federal and democratic Syria.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-MiddleEastEye-155) Rojava consists of self-governing [sub-regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions_of_North_and_East_Syria "Regions of North and East Syria") in the areas of [Afrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrin_Region "Afrin Region"), [Jazira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazira_Region "Jazira Region"), [Euphrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates_Region "Euphrates Region"), [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa"), [Tabqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Thawrah "Al-Thawrah"), [Manbij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij "Manbij") and [Deir Ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate "Deir ez-Zor Governorate").[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Second_conference_of_Shahba_region-156)[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201997%E2%80%9398-157) The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing [Rojava conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava_conflict "Rojava conflict"), in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-158)[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-159)
While entertaining [some foreign relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Rojava "Foreign relations of Rojava"), the region is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state except for the [Catalan Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Catalonia "Parliament of Catalonia").[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-160)[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-161) The AANES has widespread support for its universal [democratic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy "Democracy"), [sustainable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological "Ecological"), [autonomous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous "Autonomous") [pluralist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism_\(political_philosophy\) "Pluralism (political philosophy)"), [equal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_before_the_law "Equality before the law") and [feminist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jineology "Jineology") policies in dialogues with other political parties and organizations.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-tandfonline.com-162)[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-163)[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-164)[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-165) Northeastern Syria is [polyethnic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethnic "Polyethnic") and home to sizeable ethnic Kurdish, Arab and Assyrian populations, with smaller communities of ethnic Turkmen, Armenians, [Circassians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians "Circassians") and [Yazidis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazidis "Yazidis").[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_112-166)[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228%E2%80%93229-167)[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-168)
The supporters of the region's administration state that it is an officially [secular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularism "Secularism") [polity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity "Polity")[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_66,_200-169)[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-marriage-170) with [direct democratic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy "Direct democracy") ambitions based on an [anarchistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism "Anarchism"), feminist and [libertarian socialist ideology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_confederalism "Democratic confederalism") promoting [decentralization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralization "Decentralization"), [gender equality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality "Gender equality"),[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219-171)[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019156%E2%80%93163-172) environmental [sustainability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability "Sustainability"), social [ecology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology "Ecology") and pluralistic tolerance for religious, cultural and [political diversity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_\(politics\) "Diversity (politics)"), and that these values are mirrored in [its constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_North_and_East_Syria "Constitution of North and East Syria"), society and politics, stating it to be a model for a [federalized Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalization_of_Syria "Federalization of Syria") as a whole, rather than outright independence.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-MiddleEastEye-155)[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-173)[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-utopia-174)[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-175)[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Jongerden-176) The region's administration has also been accused by some [partisan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partisan_\(politics\) "Partisan (politics)") and nonpartisan sources of [authoritarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianism "Authoritarianism"), support of the Syrian government,[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201994,_130%E2%80%93131,_184-177) [Kurdification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdification "Kurdification") and displacement.[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:4-178) However, despite this the AANES has been the most [democratic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy "Direct democracy") system in Syria, with direct open elections, [universal equality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_equality "Social equality"), respecting [human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights") within the region, as well as defense of [minority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_group "Minority group") and [religious rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_rights "Religious rights") within Syria.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-tandfonline.com-162)[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-179)[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-180)[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-181)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-182)[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-183)[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-184)
In March 2015, the Syrian Information Minister announced that his government considered recognizing Kurdish autonomy "within the law and constitution".[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-185) While the region's administration was not invited to the [Geneva III peace talks on Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_peace_talks_on_Syria_\(2016\) "Geneva peace talks on Syria (2016)"),[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-186) or any of the earlier talks, Russia in particular called for the region's inclusion and did to some degree carry the region's positions into the talks, as documented in Russia's May 2016 draft for a new constitution for Syria.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Now.MMedia/Al-Akhbar-187)[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Al-Monitor-188)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_Democratic_Forces_announce_Deir_ez-Zor_offensive.jpg)
The Kurdish-led [Syrian Democratic Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces "Syrian Democratic Forces") announcing the [Deir ez-Zor campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_campaign_\(2017%E2%80%932019\) "Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017–2019)") in 2017
An analysis released in June 2017 described the region's "relationship with the government fraught but functional" and a "semi-cooperative dynamic".[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-189) In late September 2017, Syria's foreign minister said that Damascus would consider granting Kurds more autonomy in the region once ISIL was defeated.[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-190)
On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of Manbij and Kobani in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-191) The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-192)[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-193) Following the creation of the [Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone"), the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-194)
As of 2022, the main military threat and conflict faced by Rojava's official defense force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), are firstly, an ongoing conflict with ISIS; and secondly, ongoing concerns of possible invasion of the northeast regions of Syria by Turkish forces, in order to strike Kurdish groups in general, and Rojava in particular.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-195)[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-196)[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-197) An official report by the Rojava government noted Turkey-backed militias as the main threat to the region of Rojava and its government.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-198)
On 5 June 2022, the leader of the SDF, [Mazloum Abdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazloum_Abdi "Mazloum Abdi"), said that forces of the Kurdish government in the AANES were willing to work with Syrian government forces to defend against Turkey, saying "Damascus should use its air defense systems against Turkish planes." Abdi said that Kurdish groups would be able to cooperate with the Syrian government, and still retain their autonomy.[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-199)[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-200)[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-201)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-202)[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-203) The joint discussions were a result of the negotiation processes that had begun in October 2019.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-204) In early 2023, reports indicated that the forces of Islamic State in Syria had mostly been defeated, with only a few cells remaining in various remote locations.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-205)[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-206)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-207)
As of 2023, Turkey was continuing its support for various militias within Syria, consisting mostly of the Syrian National Army, which periodically attempted some operations against Kurdish groups.[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto2-208)[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto1-209)[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-210) One stated goal was to create "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, according to a statement by Turkish president Erdoğan.[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto3-211)\[*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*\] The operations were generally aimed at the [Tal Rifaat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tal_Rifaat "Tal Rifaat") and [Manbij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij "Manbij") regions west of the [Euphrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates "Euphrates") and other areas further east. President Erdoğan openly stated his support for the operations, in talks with Moscow in mid-2022.[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto5-212)
Humanitarian impact
| Rest Displaced Refugees Casualities Rest Displaced Refugees Casualities Human toll of Syrian civil war |
|---|
Refugees
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syrian_refugees_in_lebanon.jpg)
Syrian refugees in Lebanon living in cramped quarters (6 August 2012)
| | |
|---|---|
|  | This section needs to be **updated**. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. *(December 2024)* |
As of December 2022, an estimated 6.7 million refugees have been forced to flee Syria,[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-213) with approximately 5.5 million Syrian refugees residing across the five nearby countries of Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"). Germany hosts the largest refugee population out of any non-neighboring nation with more than 850,000 Syrian refugees.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-214)
Over 3.7 million Syrian refugees are in Turkey.[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-215) Many refugees are housed in a system of a dozen [Syrian refugee camps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_refugee_camps "Syrian refugee camps") placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs and Hama were besieged.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-216) The massive sustained presence of Syrian refugees has fueled resentment from Turkish citizens and figures across the country's political spectrum. They have been employed as scapegoats during periods of crisis within the country. Measures have been put in place to "drive them out" including raised fees on utilities such as water and services such as marriage licences. There has been an increase on attacks targeting Syrian refugees in the country.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-217)
In 2013, one in three of Syrian refugees (about 667,000 people) sought safety in Lebanon, which had a population of 5.2 million in 2012.[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-NYT5Sep-218)[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-219)
In September 2014, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded three million.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-220) According to the [Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_Center_for_Public_Affairs "Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs"), Sunnis are leaving for Lebanon and undermining Hezbollah's status. The Syrian refugee crisis has caused the "Jordan is Palestine" threat to be diminished due to the onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. Greek Catholic Patriarch [Gregorios III Laham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_III_Laham "Gregory III Laham") claimed in 2014 that more than 450,000 [Syrian Christians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria "Christianity in Syria") have been displaced by the conflict.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-221) As of September 2016, the European Union has reported that there are 13.5 million refugees in need of assistance in the country.[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-222) As of 2024, it is estimated that around 1,000 European citizens are still in the Syrian internally displaced persons camps, located almost exclusively in Al-Hawl, of whom more than 600 are children.[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-223)
A report from NGO [ACT Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACT_Alliance "ACT Alliance") found that refugees in camps in north-eastern Syria have tripled in 2019.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-224) Numerous refugees remain in local refugee camps. Conditions there are reported to be severe, especially during the winter.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-washokani-225)[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-226) In 2019, 4,000 people were housed at the Washokani Camp. The Kurdish Red Cross was the only organization known to have helped the camp's refugees. Numerous camp residents called for assistance from international groups.[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-227)[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-228)
Internally displaced refugees
The violence in Syria caused millions to flee their homes. As of March 2015, Al-Jazeera estimated 10.9 million Syrians, or almost half the population, have been displaced.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-aljazeera-3-17-2015-229) Violence in the ongoing crisis in northwest Syria had forced 6,500 children to flee every day over the last week of January 2020. The recorded count of displaced children in the area has reached more than 300,000 since December 2019.[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-230)
As of 2022, there are 6.2 million internally displaced persons in Syria according to the [United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees"). 2.5 million of those are children. 2017 alone saw the displacement of at least 1.8 million people, many of them being displaced for the second and third time.[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-231)
Casualties
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Deaths_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War_by_Year_2011_to_2024.png)
Annual deaths 2011 to 2024
Estimates of the total number of deaths in the [Syrian Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War "Syrian Civil War") were approximately 656,493 as of March 2025.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SOHR-232) In late September 2021, the [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") stated it had documented the deaths of at least 350,209 "identified individuals" in the conflict between March 2011 and March 2021, but cautioned the figure was "certainly an under-count" that specified only a "minimum verifiable number".[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-UN12-233)[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-234)[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-235)
The most violent year of the conflict was 2014, when around 110,000 people were killed.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-236) In April 2016, UN envoy to Syria [Staffan de Mistura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staffan_de_Mistura "Staffan de Mistura") stated that more than 400,000 people were killed in the Syrian civil war.[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-237) By mid-March 2025, opposition activist group the [Syrian Observatory for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights") (SOHR) reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 26,282, and that 16,181 women had also been killed.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SOHR-232)
On 28 June 2022, the [United Nations Human Rights Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights") (OHCHR) stated that at least 306,887 [civilians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilians "Civilians") had been killed in Syria during the conflict between March 2011 and March 2021, representing about 1.5% of the country's pre-war population. This figure did not include indirect and non-civilian deaths.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-238)[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-239) UN's [Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_International_Commission_of_Inquiry_on_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic") estimated that between 2011 and May 2021, more than 580,000 people were killed; with 13 million [Syrians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrians "Syrians") being displaced and 6.7 million [refugees forced to flee Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_refugee "Syrian refugee"). [Ba'athist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria "Ba'athist Syria") government forces reportedly arrested and tortured numerous repatriated refugees, subjecting them to [forced disappearances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_disappearances "Forced disappearances") and [extrajudicial executions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrajudicial_executions "Extrajudicial executions").[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-GCR2P-240)
In 2015, the [UNHCR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees") designated the conflict as the "world's worst humanitarian crisis", while the head of the [UNHRC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council "United Nations Human Rights Council")'s [Commission of Inquiry on Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_International_Commission_of_Inquiry_on_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic "Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic") stated that the Ba'athist government was responsible for the majority of civilian casualties up to that point.[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-241) The [Syrian Network for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Network_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Network for Human Rights") estimated that between 2011 and 2024, the Ba'athist government and its foreign allies were responsible for approximately 91% of the total civilian casualties.[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-242)[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-243)[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-244)
Human rights violations and war crimes
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ghouta_massacre1.JPG)
Victims of the [Ghouta chemical attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack "Ghouta chemical attack") perpetrated by Syrian regime forces in August 2013
[United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") and [human rights organizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_organizations "Human rights organizations") have documented that human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebel forces, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been committed by the Syrian government".[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-245)[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto4-246)
Numerous [human rights abuses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_abuses "Human rights abuses"), [political repression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_repression "Political repression"), [war crimes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime "War crime") and [crimes against humanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity "Crimes against humanity") perpetrated by the [Assad government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria#Ba'athist_Syria "Syria") throughout the course of the conflict led to international condemnation and widespread calls to convict Bashar al-Assad in European courts and in the [International Criminal Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court "International Criminal Court") (ICC).[\[f\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-252)
According to three international lawyers,[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-253) Syrian government officials could face war crimes charges in the light of a huge cache of evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic killing" of about [11,000 detainees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Syrian_detainee_report "2014 Syrian detainee report"). Most of the victims were young men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-254) Experts said this evidence was more detailed and on a far larger scale than anything else that had emerged from the then 34-month crisis.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-255) Atrocities committed by the Assad regime have been described as the "greatest war crimes of the 21st century", with chilling revelations of [torture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture "Torture"), [rapes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape "Rape"), [massacres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre "Massacre") and extermination being leaked through the [2014 Caesar Report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_Report "Caesar Report"), which contained photographic evidence gathered by a dissident [army photographer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_photographer "Military photographer") who worked in Ba'athist [military prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_prison "Military prison").[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto4-246) According to [international lawyer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_lawyer "International lawyer") [Stephen Rapp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Rapp "Stephen Rapp"):
> We've got better evidence—against Assad and his clique—than we had against [Milosevic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milosevic "Milosevic") in [Yugoslavia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia"), or we had in any of the war crimes tribunals in which I've involved in, some extent, even better than we had against the [Nazis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism "Nazism") at [Nuremberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_trials "Nuremberg trials"), because the Nazis didn't actually take individual pictures of each of their victims with identifying information on them.[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-auto4-246)
The UN reported in 2014 that "[siege warfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_warfare "Siege warfare") is employed in a context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their acts". Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access to humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the government forces: [Muadamiyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muadamiyat_al-Sham "Muadamiyat al-Sham"), [Daraya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darayya "Darayya"), Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama.[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-UNHCRfeb2014-256)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-thenewage.co.za-257) In [Yarmouk Camp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarmouk_Camp "Yarmouk Camp") 20,000 residents faced death by starvation due to blockade by the Syrian government forces and fighting between the army and [Jabhat al-Nusra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabhat_al-Nusra "Jabhat al-Nusra"), which prevents food distribution by UNRWA.[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-UNHCRfeb2014-256)[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-MMHYarmouk-258) In July 2015, the UN removed Yarmouk from its list of besieged areas in Syria, despite not having been able deliver aid there for four months, and declined to say why it had done so.[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-IRIN_removal-259) After intense fighting in April/May 2018, Syrian government forces finally took the camp, its population now reduced to 100–200.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-cleric-260)
ISIS forces have also been criticized by the UN of using public executions and [killing of captives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_captives_by_ISIL "Killing of captives by ISIL"), amputations and lashings in a campaign to instill fear. "Forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham have committed torture, murder, acts tantamount to enforced disappearance and forced displacement as part of attacks on the civilian population in Aleppo and Raqqa governorates, amounting to crimes against humanity", said the report from 27 August 2014.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-261) ISIS also [persecuted gay and bisexual men](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_gay_and_bisexual_men_by_the_Islamic_State "Persecution of gay and bisexual men by the Islamic State").[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-262)
Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising began.[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-263) An [Amnesty International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") report, published in November 2015, stated the Syrian government has forcibly disappeared more than 65,000 people since the beginning of the Syrian civil war.[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-264) According to a report in May 2016 by the [Syrian Observatory for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights"), at least 60,000 people have been killed since March 2011 through torture or from poor humanitarian conditions in Syrian government prisons.[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-265)
In February 2017, Amnesty International published a report which stated the Syrian government murdered an estimated 13,000 persons, mostly civilians, at the [Saydnaya military prison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sednaya_Prison "Sednaya Prison"). They stated the killings began in 2011 and were still ongoing. Amnesty International described this as a "policy of deliberate extermination" and also stated that "These practices, which amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, are authorised at the highest levels of the Syrian government".[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-266) Three months later, the United States State Department stated a [crematorium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crematorium "Crematorium") had been identified near the prison. According to the US, it was being used to burn thousands of bodies of those killed by the government's forces and to cover up evidence of atrocities and war crimes.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-267) Amnesty International expressed surprise at the reports about the crematorium, as the photographs used by the US are from 2013 and they did not see them as conclusive, and fugitive government officials have stated that the government buries those its executes in cemeteries on military grounds in Damascus.[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-268) The Syrian government said the reports were not true.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-269)
By July 2012, the human rights group [Women Under Siege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Under_Siege "Women Under Siege") had documented over 100 cases of rape and [sexual assault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_assault "Sexual assault") during the conflict, with many of these crimes reported to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women and children, with about 80% of the known victims being women and girls.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-270)\[*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rojava_solidarity_demonstration_Berlin_2019-11-02_30.jpg)
Protest in Berlin, showing image of murdered Syrian-Kurdish politician [Hevrin Khalaf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hevrin_Khalaf "Hevrin Khalaf")
In late 2019, as the violence intensified in northwest Syria, thousands of women and children were reportedly kept under "inhumane conditions" in a remote camp, said UN-appointed investigators.[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-271) In October 2019, [Amnesty International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") stated that it had gathered evidence of war crimes and other violations committed by Turkish and Turkey-backed Syrian forces who are said to "have displayed a shameful disregard for civilian life, carrying out serious violations and war crimes, including summary killings and unlawful attacks that have killed and injured civilians".[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-amnesty1-14)
According to a 2020 report by UN-backed investigators into the Syrian civil war, young girls aged nine and above have been raped and inveigled into sexual slavery, while boys have been put through torture and forcefully trained to execute killings in public. Children have been attacked by sharpshooters and lured to be bargaining chips for ransoms.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-272)
On 6 April 2020, the United Nations published its investigation into the attacks on humanitarian sites in Syria. In its reports, the UN said it had examined six sites of attacks and concluded that the airstrikes had been carried out by the "Government of Syria and/or its allies." However, the report was criticized for being partial towards Russia and not naming it, despite proper evidence. "The refusal to explicitly name Russia as a responsible party working alongside the Syrian government ... is deeply disappointing", the HRW quoted.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-273)
Crime wave
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aleppo_hospital.PNG)
Doctors and medical staff treating injured rebel fighters and civilians in Aleppo
As the conflict expanded across Syria, cities were engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-274)
Local [National Defense Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defence_Forces_\(Syria\) "National Defence Forces (Syria)") commanders often engaged "in [war profiteering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_profiteering "War profiteering") through protection rackets, looting and organized crime". NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings and extortions throughout government-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in 2013", as reported by the Institute for the Study of War.[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-ISW-275)
Criminal networks were used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and engaging in kidnappings.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Organized_crime-276) Rebel forces sometimes relied on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies. [Black market weapon prices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_trafficking "Arms trafficking") in Syria's neighboring countries significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups turned towards extortion, theft and kidnapping.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Organized_crime-276) Syria became the chief location for manufacturing [Captagon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captagon "Captagon"), an illegal [amphetamine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphetamine "Amphetamine"). Drugs manufactured in Syria found their way across the Gulf, Jordan and Europe but were at times intercepted.[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-277)
Epidemics
The [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service. Fighting makes it impossible to undertake the normal vaccination programs. The displaced refugees may also pose a disease risk to countries to which they have fled.[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-278) Four hundred thousand civilians were isolated by the [Siege of Eastern Ghouta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Eastern_Ghouta "Siege of Eastern Ghouta") from April 2013 to April 2018, resulting in acutely malnourished children according to the United Nations Special Advisor, [Jan Egeland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Egeland "Jan Egeland"), who urged the parties for medical evacuations. 55,000 civilians are also isolated in the [Rukban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rukban "Rukban") refugee camp between Syria and Jordan, where humanitarian relief access is difficult due to the harsh desert conditions. Humanitarian aid reaches the camp only sporadically, sometimes taking three months between shipments.[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-279)[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-280)
Formerly rare [infectious diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease "Infectious disease") have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor [sanitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation "Sanitation") and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include [measles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles "Measles"), [typhoid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid "Typhoid"), [hepatitis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis "Hepatitis"), [dysentery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery "Dysentery"), [tuberculosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis"), [diphtheria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphtheria "Diphtheria"), [whooping cough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whooping_cough "Whooping cough") and the disfiguring [skin disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_disease "Skin disease") [leishmaniasis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmaniasis "Leishmaniasis"). Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling [poliomyelitis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliomyelitis "Poliomyelitis"). As of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed to the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination"), sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic".[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Suppressed-281)
In June 2020, the United Nations reported that after more than nine years of war, Syria was falling into an even deeper crisis and economic deterioration as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. As of 26 June, a total of 248 people were infected by COVID-19, out of which nine people died. Restrictions on the importation of medical supplies, limited access to essential equipment, reduced outside support and ongoing attacks on medical facilities left Syria's health infrastructure in peril, and unable to meet the needs of its population. Syrian communities were additionally facing unprecedented levels of [hunger crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunger_in_Syria "Hunger in Syria").[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-282)
In September 2022, the UN representative in Syria reported that several regions in the country were witnessing a [cholera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera "Cholera") outbreak. UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator Imran Riza called for an urgent response to contain the outbreak, saying that it posed "a serious threat to people in Syria". The outbreak was linked to the use of contaminated water for growing crops and the reliance of people on unsafe water sources.[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-283)
Humanitarian aid
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._Airmen_with_the_386th_Expeditionary_Logistics_Readiness_Squadron_load_pallets_of_humanitarian_relief_supplies_onto_a_C-17_Globemaster_III_aircraft_at_an_undisclosed_location_in_Southwest_Asia_June_4,_2013_130604-F-KL201-115.jpg)
US aid to Syrian opposition forces, May 2013
The conflict holds the record for the largest sum ever requested by UN agencies for a single humanitarian emergency, \$6.5 billion worth of requests of December 2013.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-RW_aid_record-284) The international humanitarian response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the [United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_the_Coordination_of_Humanitarian_Affairs "United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs") (UNOCHA) in accordance with [General Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly "United Nations General Assembly") Resolution 46/182.[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-285) The primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for US\$1.41 billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by the conflict.[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-286) Official United Nations data on the humanitarian situation and response is available at an official website managed by UNOCHA Syria (Amman).[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-287) UNICEF is also working alongside these organizations to provide vaccinations and care packages to those in need. Financial information on the response to the SHARP and assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations can be found on UNOCHA's Financial Tracking Service. As of 19 September 2015, the top ten donors to Syria were United States, European Commission, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, UAE and Norway.[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-288)
The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January 2015: of the estimated 212,000 people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, 304 were reached with food.[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-UNNC_26Mar2015-289) [USAID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAID "USAID") and other government agencies in US delivered nearly \$385 million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States has provided food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies.[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-290) [Islamic Relief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Relief "Islamic Relief") has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-291)
Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria.[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-292) Israel supplied aid through [Operation Good Neighbor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Good_Neighbor "Operation Good Neighbor"), providing medical treatment to 750 Syrians in a field hospital located in [Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golan_Heights "Golan Heights") where rebels say that 250 of their fighters were treated.[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-293) Israel established two medical centers inside Syria. Israel also delivered [heating fuel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene "Kerosene"), [diesel fuel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuel "Diesel fuel"), seven electric [generators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator "Electric generator"), water pipes, educational materials, flour for bakeries, baby food, [diapers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaper "Diaper"), shoes and clothing. [Syrian refugees in Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_refugees_in_Lebanon "Syrian refugees in Lebanon") make up one quarter of [Lebanon's population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Lebanon "Demographics of Lebanon"), mostly consisting of women and children.[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-294) In addition, Russia has said it created six humanitarian aid centers within Syria to support 3000 refugees in 2016.[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-295)
On 30 April 2020, Human Rights Watch condemned the Syrian authorities for their longstanding restriction on the entry of aid supplies.[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-296) It also demanded the World Health Organization to keep pushing the UN to allow medical aid and other essentials to reach Syria via the Iraq border crossing, to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in the war-torn nation. The aid supplies, if allowed, will allow the Syrian population to protect themselves from contracting the COVID-19 virus.[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-297)
Cultural impact
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_of_Bel,_Palmyra_02.jpg)
The [Temple of Bel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Bel "Temple of Bel") in Palmyra, which was destroyed by ISIL in August 2015
As of March 2015, the war has affected 290 heritage sites, severely damaged 104, and completely destroyed 24.\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\] Five of the six UNESCO [World Heritage Sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site") in Syria have been damaged.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-aljazeera-3-17-2015-229) Destruction of antiquities has been caused by [shelling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_\(projectile\) "Shell (projectile)"), army entrenchment, and [looting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looting "Looting") at various [tells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_\(archaeology\) "Tell (archaeology)"), museums and monuments.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-298) A group called [Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Archaeological_Heritage_Under_Threat "Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat") is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and to gain global support for the protection and preservation of [Syrian archaeology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syro-Palestinian_archaeology "Syro-Palestinian archaeology") and architecture.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-299)
UNESCO listed all six Syria's World Heritage Sites as endangered but direct assessment of damage is not possible. It is known that the [Old City of Aleppo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_City_of_Aleppo "Old City of Aleppo") was heavily damaged during battles being fought within the district, while [Palmyra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra "Palmyra") and [Krak des Chevaliers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak_des_Chevaliers "Krak des Chevaliers") suffered minor damage. Illegal digging is said to be a grave danger, and hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to have been looted; in Raqqa some artifacts seem to have been destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections.[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-300)
In 2014 and 2015, following the rise of the Islamic State, several sites in Syria were destroyed by the group as part of a [deliberate destruction of cultural heritage sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_the_Islamic_State "Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State"). In Palmyra, the group destroyed many ancient statues, the [Temples of Baalshamin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Baalshamin "Temple of Baalshamin") and [Bel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Bel "Temple of Bel"), many tombs including the [Tower of Elahbel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_Elahbel "Tower of Elahbel") and part of the [Monumental Arch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monumental_Arch_of_Palmyra "Monumental Arch of Palmyra").[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-301) The 13th-century [Palmyra Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_Castle "Palmyra Castle") was extensively damaged by retreating militants during the [Palmyra offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra_offensive_\(March_2016\) "Palmyra offensive (March 2016)") in March 2016.[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-302) IS also destroyed ancient statues in [Raqqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raqqa "Raqqa"),[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-303) and a number of churches, including the [Armenian Genocide Memorial Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Genocide_Memorial_Church,_Der_Zor "Armenian Genocide Memorial Church, Der Zor") in [Deir ez-Zor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor "Deir ez-Zor").[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-304) In January 2018 Turkish airstrikes seriously damaged an ancient Neo-[Hittite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittites "Hittites") temple in Syria's Kurdish-held [Afrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrin_Region "Afrin Region") region. It was built by the [Arameans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameans "Arameans") in the first millennium BC.[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-305) According to a September 2019 report published by the [Syrian Network for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Network_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Network for Human Rights"), more than 120 Christian churches have been destroyed or damaged in Syria since 2011.[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-306)
The war has inspired its own particular artwork, done by Syrians. A late summer 2013 exhibition in London at the [P21 Gallery](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P21_Gallery&action=edit&redlink=1 "P21 Gallery (page does not exist)") showed some of this work, which had to be smuggled out of Syria.[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-307) As a result of the war many children's books have been published surrounding themes and stories of Syrian children of war. Some examples of this would be *Tomorrow* by Nadine Kaadan, *My Beautiful Birds* by Suzanne del Rizzo and *Nowhere Boy* by [Katherine Marsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Marsh "Katherine Marsh").[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-308)
The Syrian civil war is one of the most heavily documented wars in history, despite the extreme dangers that journalists face while in Syria.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-309)
ISIL executions
On 19 August 2014, American journalist [James Foley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Foley_\(journalist\) "James Foley (journalist)") was executed by ISIL, who said it was in retaliation for the United States operations in Iraq. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November 2012 by [Shabiha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabiha "Shabiha") militia.[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-310) ISIL also threatened to execute [Steven Sotloff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Sotloff "Steven Sotloff"), who was kidnapped at the Syrian–Turkish border in August 2013.[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-311) There were reports ISIS captured a Japanese national, two Italian nationals, and a Danish national as well.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-312) Sotloff was later executed in September 2014. At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the [Committee to Protect Journalists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_to_Protect_Journalists "Committee to Protect Journalists").[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-313) On 22 August 2014, the [al-Nusra Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front "Al-Nusra Front") released a video of captured Lebanese soldiers and demanded Hezbollah withdraw from Syria under threat of their execution.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-314)
International reactions and diplomacy
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Esther_Brimmer_Speaks_at_Human_Rights_Council_Urgent_Debate_on_Syria_\(3\).jpg)
[Esther Brimmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_Brimmer "Esther Brimmer") (US) speaks at a [United Nations Human Rights Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council "United Nations Human Rights Council") urgent debate on Syria, February 2012
During the early period of the civil war, the [Arab League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League"), [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union"), the United Nations[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-315) and many Western governments quickly condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise [free speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_speech "Free speech").[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-316) Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but as the death toll mounted, they switched to a more balanced approach by criticizing violence from both government and protesters. Both the Arab League and the [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation") suspended Syria's membership. Russia and China vetoed Western-drafted [United Nations Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council") resolutions in 2011 and 2012, which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors.[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-317)
Economic sanctions
The [US Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Congress "U.S. Congress") has enacted punitive sanctions on the Syrian government for its actions during the Civil War. These sanctions would penalize any entities lending support to the Syrian government, and any companies operating in Syria.[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-sanctions_mansour-318)[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-319)[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-320)[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-321) US president Donald Trump tried to protect the Turkish president Erdogan from the effects of such sanctions.[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-322)
Some activists welcomed this legislation.[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-323) Some critics contend that these punitive sanctions are likely to backfire or have unintended consequences; they argue that ordinary Syrian people will have fewer economic resources due to these sanctions (and will thus need to rely more the Syrian government and its economic allies and projects), while the sanctions' impact on ruling political elites will be limited.[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-sanctions_mansour-318)[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-324)[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-325)
Mohammad al-Abdallah, executive director of [Syria Justice and Accountability Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_Justice_and_Accountability_Centre "Syria Justice and Accountability Centre") (SJAC), said that the sanctions will likely hurt ordinary Syrian people, saying, "it is an almost unsolvable unfeasible equation. If they are imposed, they will indirectly harm the Syrian people, and if they are lifted, they will indirectly revive the Syrian regime;" he attributed the sanctions to "political considerations, as the United States does not have weapons and tools in the Syrian file, and sanctions are its only means."[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-326)
In June, US Secretary of State [Mike Pompeo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Pompeo "Mike Pompeo") announced new economic sanctions on Syria targeting foreign business relations with the Syrian government. Under the [Caesar Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_Syria_Civilian_Protection_Act "Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act"), the latest sanctions were to be imposed on 39 individuals and entities, including [Asma al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asma_al-Assad "Asma al-Assad"), wife of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad.[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-327)
On 17 June 2020, James F. Jeffrey, Special Representative for Syria Engagement, signalled that the [UAE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAE "UAE") could be hit with sanctions under the Caesar Act if it pushed ahead with normalisation efforts with the Syrian regime.[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-328)
2019 negotiations
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Secretary_Kerry_Sits_With_Fellow_Foreign_Ministers_Before_Group_Discussion_in_Austria_About_Syria_\(22573995626\).jpg)
Syria peace talks in Vienna, 30 October 2015
During the course of the war, there have been several international peace initiatives, undertaken by the Arab League, the United Nations and other actors.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Mediation_in_Syria-19) The Syrian government has refused efforts to negotiate with what it describes as armed terrorist groups.[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-329) On 1 February 2016, the UN announced the formal start of the UN-mediated Geneva Syria peace talks that had been agreed on by the [International Syria Support Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_peace_talks_for_Syria "Vienna peace talks for Syria") (ISSG) in Vienna. On 3 February 2016, the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks. On 14 March 2016, Geneva peace talks resumed. The Syrian government stated that discussion of Bashar-al-Assad's presidency "is a red line", however Syria's president Bashar al-Assad said he hoped [peace talks in Geneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_peace_talks_on_Syria_\(2016\) "Geneva peace talks on Syria (2016)") would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a political process in Syria.[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-332)
A [new round of talks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process#First_round_of_Astana_talks_\(January_2017\) "Syrian peace process") between the Syrian government and some groups of Syrian rebels concluded on 24 January 2017 in [Astana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astana "Astana"), Kazakhstan, with Russia, Iran and Turkey supporting the [ceasefire agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process#Initiation_of_Astana_talks,_and_ceasefire_\(December_2016\) "Syrian peace process") brokered in late December 2016.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-astanatalks-333) The Astana Process talks was billed by a Russian official as a complement to, rather than replacement, of the United Nations-led Geneva Process talks.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-astanatalks-333) On 4 May 2017, at the fourth round of the Astana talks, representatives of Russia, Iran and Turkey signed a memorandum whereby four "[de-escalation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De-escalation "De-escalation") zones" in Syria would be established, effective of 6 May 2017.[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-334)[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-tassdealmay4-335)
Buffer zone with Turkey
In October 2019, in response to the Turkish offensive, Russia arranged for negotiations between the Syrian government and the Kurdish-led forces.[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-336) Russia also negotiated a renewal of a cease-fire between Kurds and Turkey that was about to expire.[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Newsweek_middle_east-337)
Russia and Turkey agreed via the [Sochi Agreement of 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sochi_Agreement_of_2019 "Sochi Agreement of 2019") to set up a [Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone "Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone"). Syrian president Assad expressed full support for the deal, as various terms of the agreement also applied to the Syrian government.[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:2-338)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Turkey_and_Russia_Deal-58) The SDF stated that they considered themselves as "Syrian and a part of Syria", adding that they would agree to work with the Syrian Government.[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-339) The SDF officially announced their support for the deal on 27 October.[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:4-178)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:5-340)[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-341)
The agreement reportedly included the following terms:[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:2-338)[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-342)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Fraser-343)[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-344)[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-345)[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-346)
- A buffer zone would be established in northern Syria. The zone would be around 30 kilometres (19 mi) deep,[\[g\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-347) stretching from [Euphrates River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates_River "Euphrates River") to [Tall Abyad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tall_Abyad "Tall Abyad") and from [Ras al-Ayn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_al-Ayn "Ras al-Ayn") to the Iraq-Syria border, but excluding the town of [Qamishli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamishli "Qamishli"), the Kurds' de facto capital.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-348)
- The buffer zone would be controlled jointly by the [Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Army "Syrian Army") and [Russian Military Police](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Military_Police "Russian Military Police").
- All [YPG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YPG "YPG") forces, which constitute the majority of the SDF, must withdraw from the buffer zone entirely, along with their weapons, within 150 hours from the announcement of the deal. Their withdrawal would be overseen by Russian Military Police and the Syrian Border Guards, which would then enter the zone.
Syrian Constitutional Committee
In late 2019, a new [Syrian Constitutional Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Constitutional_Committee "Syrian Constitutional Committee") began operating in order to discuss a new settlement and to draft a new constitution for Syria.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-349) This committee comprises about 150 members. It includes representatives of the Syrian government, opposition groups and countries serving as guarantors of the process, such as Russia. However, this committee has faced strong opposition from the Assad government. Fifty of the committee members represent the government, and 50 members represent the opposition.[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-Astana_Sabah-350)
In December 2019, the EU held an international conference which condemned any suppression of the Kurds, and called for the self-declared Autonomous Administration in Rojava to be preserved and to be reflected in any new Syrian Constitution. The Kurds are concerned that the independence of their declared Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) in Rojava might be severely curtailed.[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-351)
Rojava officials condemned the fact that they were excluded from the peace talks and stated that "having a couple of Kurds" in the committee did not mean that the Syrian Kurds were properly represented in it.[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-352) The co-chair of the [Syrian Democratic Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Council "Syrian Democratic Council") accused Turkey of vetoing the representation of Syrian Kurds within the committee.[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-353) The Kurdish administration also organized demonstrations in front of the UN office in [Qamishli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamishli "Qamishli") to protest their exclusion from the committee.[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-354)
Arab League
On 13 April 2023, Syrian foreign minister [Faisal Mekdad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisal_Mekdad "Faisal Mekdad") arrived in [Jeddah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeddah "Jeddah") to meet Saudi foreign minister, Prince [Faisal bin Farhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisal_bin_Farhan_Al_Saud "Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud"). After frayed relations during the Syrian civil war, both nations now seek "a political solution to the Syrian crisis that preserves the unity, security and stability of Syria", according to the Saudi foreign ministry. The high level talks are "facilitating the [return of Syrian refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_of_refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war "Return of refugees of the Syrian civil war") to their homeland, and securing humanitarian access to the affected areas in Syria". Al-Assad previously visited the UAE, Oman as well as Saudi Arabia. The discussion also included the possible resumption of consular services between the two countries. This is the first visit to Saudi Arabia by a Syrian foreign minister since the onset of the civil war in 2011. The same week all foreign ministers of the [Arab League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League") would meet again to discuss the return of Syria to the regional organisation.[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-355)[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-356)
Scale of destruction
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Umayyad-mosque-aleppo-2013.png)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png)
United Nations authorities have estimated that the war in Syria has caused destruction amounting to about \$400 billion.[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-357) The [SNHR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNHR "SNHR") reported in 2017 that the war has rendered around 39% of [Syrian mosques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_Syria "List of mosques in Syria") unserviceable for worship. More than 13,500 [mosques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque "Mosque") were destroyed in Syria between 2011 and 2017. Around 1,400 were dismantled by 2013, while 13,000 mosques were demolished between 2013 and 2017.[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-358) According to a Syrian war monitor, [over 120 churches have been damaged or demolished](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians "Persecution of Christians") by during the course of Syrian war since 2011, 60% of which attacks were perpetrated by pro-Assad forces.[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-359) During the course of the war, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad said that Syria would be able to rebuild the war-torn country on its own. As of July 2018, the reconstruction is estimated to cost a minimum of US\$400 billion. Assad said he would be able to loan this money from friendly countries, Syrian diaspora and the state treasury.[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-360) Iran has expressed interest in helping rebuild Syria.[\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-361) One year later this seemed to be materializing, Iran and the Syrian government signed a deal where Iran would help rebuild the Syrian energy grid, which has taken damage to 50% of the grid.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-362) International donors have been suggested as one financier of the reconstruction.[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-363) As of November 2018, reports emerged that rebuilding efforts had already started. It was reported that the biggest issue facing the rebuilding process is the lack of building material and a need to make sure the resources that do exist are managed efficiently. The rebuilding effort have so far remained at a limited capacity and has often been focused on certain areas of a city, thus ignoring other areas inhabited by disadvantaged people.[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-364)
Various efforts are proceeding to rebuild infrastructure in Syria. Russia says it will spend \$500 million to modernize Syria's port of [Tartus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartus "Tartus"). Russia also said it will build a railway to link Syria with the Persian Gulf.[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-365)[\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-366) Russia will also contribute to recovery efforts by the UN.[\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-367) Syria awarded oil exploration contracts to two Russian firms.[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-368)
Syria announced it is in serious dialogue with China to join China's "[Belt and Road Initiative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative "Belt and Road Initiative")" designed to foster investment in infrastructure in over one-hundred developing nations worldwide.[\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-369)[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-370) On Wednesday 12 January 2022, China and Syria signed a [memorandum of understanding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorandum_of_understanding "Memorandum of understanding") in Damascus. The memorandum was signed by Fadi al-Khalil, the Head of Planning and International Cooperation Commission for the Syrian Side and Feng Biao, the Chinese ambassador in Damascus for the Chinese side. The memorandum sees Syria join the initiative whose aim is to help expand cooperation with China and other partner countries in areas such as trade, technology, capital, human movement and cultural exchange. Among other things, it aims to define the future of this cooperation with partner states.[\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-371)
Aftermath
Syrian transitional government and peace process
On 8 December 2024, hours after the [fall of Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_\(2024\) "Fall of Damascus (2024)"), [Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali "Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali"), the outgoing prime minister and last head of government of the Ba'athist regime, agreed to lead the transitional government in a [caretaking capacity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caretaker_government "Caretaker government").[\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-372) He then transferred power to Mohammed al-Bashir, prime minister of the [Syrian Salvation Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government "Syrian Salvation Government") (SSG), two days later.[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-373) On 10 December, the transitional administration announced that it would remain in place until 1 March 2025\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\], with all ministers from the SSG taking up their same posts in the new provisional government.[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-374)
A few days prior to the [fall of the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime"), the [Syrian American Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_American_Council "Syrian American Council") (SAC) successfully [lobbied](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobbying "Lobbying") for the [Caesar Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_Syria_Civilian_Protection_Act "Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act") sanctions to be renewed via the US [National Defense Authorization Act 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defense_Authorization_Act_for_Fiscal_Year_2025 "National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2025") (NDAA 2025). However, after the fall of Assad on 8 December 2024 and establishment of the [Syrian caretaker government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_caretaker_government "Syrian caretaker government"), the SAC failed to have the sanctions clause removed from the bill in time.[\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-375) On 23 December, the [Biden administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden "Presidency of Joe Biden") signed NDAA 2025 into law,[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-376) renewing the sanctions for another five years, with *[Reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason_\(magazine\) "Reason (magazine)")* magazine labeling the sanctions "a serious obstacle to Syria's reconstruction" post-Assad.[\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-377)
On 29 January 2025, Syrian *[de facto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto "De facto")* leader [Ahmed al-Sharaa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa "Ahmed al-Sharaa") was appointed President of Syria by the Syrian General Command for the transitional period and held the [Syrian Revolution Victory Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_Victory_Conference "Syrian Revolution Victory Conference").[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-378) In his first address as president, al-Sharaa said that he would hold a "national dialogue conference" and issue a "constitutional declaration" to serve as a "legal reference" during the political transition following the dissolution of the [2012 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Constitution_of_Ba%27athist_Syria "2012 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria").[\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-379)[\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-380) Al-Sharaa promised to go after [war criminals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_criminal "War criminal") belonging to the former regime.[\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-2025VictoryConference-381)[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-382) Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) leader [Mazloum Abdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazloum_Abdi "Mazloum Abdi") congratulated al-Sharaa on assuming the Syrian presidency and invited him to visit northeast Syria. The SDF agreed to integrate into state institutions on 10 March 2025 and the [Suwayda Military Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwayda_Military_Council "Suwayda Military Council") agreed to the same on 12 March 2025, marking the unification of all Syrian revolutionary factions into the transitional government.[\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SDFIntegration-383)[\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SuwaydaIntegration-384)
On 29 March 2025, the [Syrian transitional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government "Syrian transitional government") was announced by al-Sharaa at a ceremony at the [Presidential Palace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Damascus "Presidential Palace, Damascus") in [Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus "Damascus"),[\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-:022-385) in which the new ministers were sworn in and delivered speeches outlining their agendas.[\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-386) The government replaced the Syrian caretaker government which had been formed following the fall of the Assad regime.[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-387)
Clashes
On the day that the Assad regime fell, Israel [invaded southern Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria "2024 Israeli invasion of Syria"), subsuming the [Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_the_Golan_Heights "Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights") [buffer zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Disengagement_Observer_Force "United Nations Disengagement Observer Force") and capturing [Quneitra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quneitra "Quneitra"), [Mount Hermon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Hermon "Mount Hermon"), and surrounding towns and villages, while also carrying out a bombing campaign against Syrian military bases. Israel has since maintained a military occupation of the buffer zone.[\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-388)[\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-389) The Turkish-backed SNA launched [an offensive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij_offensive_\(2024\) "Manbij offensive (2024)") against the SDF, which ended with the capture of [Manbij](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbij "Manbij") on 11 December.
Meanwhile, the SDF [crashed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDF%E2%80%93Syrian_transitional_government_clashes_\(2025%E2%80%93present\) "SDF–Syrian transitional government clashes (2025–present)") against the government in northeast Syria over the control of Manbij as well as the minorities' rights.
See also
Notes
1. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxStartDate_1-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxStartDate_1-1) [Large-scale demonstrations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_revolution "Syrian revolution") in Syria began on 15 March 2011 and were subsequently suppressed by force by the Assad regime,[\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-390) it eventually led to an all-out civil war.[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-voxnews170408-391)[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-392) In July 2011, defectors from the Assad regime's security apparatus formed an organized rebel group called the [Free Syrian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army "Free Syrian Army") to protect protesters and strike back at Assad.[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-voxnews170408-391) The [International Committee of the Red Cross](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross "International Committee of the Red Cross") said the violence in Syria had become so widespread that it was in a state of civil war in July 2012.[\[386\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-393)
2. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxEndDate_2-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxEndDate_2-1) With the Ba'athist regime prevailing, the hostilities were mostly put on hold[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-aje15march-63)[\[387\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-394) from [6 March 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_\(December_2019_%E2%80%93_March_2020\) "Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020)") until [27 November 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives "2024 Syrian opposition offensives"), after which the Syrian opposition launched a campaign of quick successful military offensives in Northwestern Syria, [toppling the Assad regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime "Fall of the Assad regime") on 8 December.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-end_of_war-7)
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-InfoboxCivilianDeaths_5-0)** According to the [Syrian Observatory for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights") (which gave an estimate of 199,068 civilian deaths) and [Syrian Network for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Network_for_Human_Rights "Syrian Network for Human Rights") (which gave an estimate of 231,000 civilian deaths), 88–91% of these deaths were caused by the Assad regime and its allies.[\[388\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-SOHR2024-395) However, the methodology of both organisations has been criticised for being unreliable.[\[389\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-396)[\[390\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-397)[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-398)
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-54)**
Sources:
- Kassam, Kamal; Becker, Maria (16 May 2023). ["Syrians of today, Germans of tomorrow: the effect of initial placement on the political interest of Syrian refugees in Germany"](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpos.2023.1100446). *Frontiers in Political Science*. **5** 1100446: 3. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.3389/fpos.2023.1100446](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpos.2023.1100446). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [2673-3145](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2673-3145).
- ["Syria: The story of the conflict"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868). BBC News. 11 March 2016. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180622052951/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868) from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- ["Syrian Troops Open Fire on Protestors in Several Cities"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/world/middleeast/26syria.html). *The New York Times*. 25 March 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180621011638/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/26/world/middleeast/26syria.html) from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
- ["Mid-East unrest: Syrian protests in Damascus and Aleppo"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12749674). BBC News. 15 March 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180721134738/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12749674) from the original on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-152)** The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's [PYD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Union_Party_\(Syria\) "Democratic Union Party (Syria)")\-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTELister2015154-149)[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201989-150)[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-151) Since then, the name is still used by some locals and international observers.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-252)** Sources:[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-247)[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-248)[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-249)[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-w820-250)[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_note-251)
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-347)** Starting from the [Syria–Turkey border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Turkey_border "Syria–Turkey border") and going south into Syria
Cite error: A [list-defined reference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Footnotes#WP:LDR "Help:Footnotes") has no name (see the [help page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_key "Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no key")).
References
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-SOHR2025_3-0)**
["14th anniversary of Syrian Revolution \| Nearly 657,000 persons killed since the onset of the revolution in March 2011"](https://www.syriahr.com/en/358243/). Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 20 March 2025. Retrieved 20 March 2025.
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-4)**
["Syria"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230128063728/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/). *GCR2P*. 1 December 2022. Archived from [the original](https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/) on 28 January 2023.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-6)**
["Syria emergency"](https://www.unhcr.org/syria-emergency.html). *UNHCR*. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220329123555/https://www.unhcr.org/syria-emergency.html) from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2025.
4. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-end_of_war_7-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-end_of_war_7-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-end_of_war_7-2)
\*
["The end of Syria's forever war"](https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2024/12/10/the-end-of-syrias-forever-war). *[Al Jazeera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jazeera "Al Jazeera")*. December 2024. "Rapid advances by Syrian opposition forces end a war that began with peaceful protests before spiralling out of control."
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- ["Demoralized and abandoned by allies: Why Syria's army didn't fight for Assad"](https://www.timesofisrael.com/demoralized-and-abandoned-by-allies-why-syrias-army-didnt-fight-for-assad/). *[The Times of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_of_Israel "The Times of Israel")*. December 2024. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20241220151814/https://www.timesofisrael.com/demoralized-and-abandoned-by-allies-why-syrias-army-didnt-fight-for-assad/) from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "toppling former president Bashar al-Assad as his army simply melted away. The rout abruptly ended a 13-year conflict"
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- Triche, Natalie; Hamzawy, Amr (January 2025). ["The Gulf Shifts Policies in Response to the "New" Syria"](https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2025/01/the-gulf-shifts-policies-in-response-to-the-new-syria?lang=en). *[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250713143803/https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2025/01/the-gulf-shifts-policies-in-response-to-the-new-syria?lang=en) from the original on 13 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "On 8 December 2024, armed militias toppled the brutal dictatorship of the Assad family, ending a nearly fourteen-year civil war in Syria."
- Basbugoglu, Tarik (March 2025). ["Syria: Understanding Assad's Unexpected Fall"](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/20419058251332341). *[Political Insight](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_Insight&action=edit&redlink=1 "Political Insight (page does not exist)")*. **16**. [Political Studies Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Studies_Association "Political Studies Association"): 22–25\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/20419058251332341](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F20419058251332341). "Bashar al-Assad's downfall marked the culmination of the Syrian civil war that began in 2011."
- Kardaş, Şaban (March 2025). ["Turkey's Long Game in Syria: Moving beyond Ascendance"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmepo.12807). *[Middle East Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East_Policy "Middle East Policy")*. **32**: 22–37\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1111/mepo.12807](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmepo.12807). "Turkey's actions were decisive in the evolution of the Syrian civil war and its unexpected conclusion."
- Ford, Robert S. (March 2025). ["America Can Best Help Syria by Getting Out"](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/syria/america-can-best-help-syria-getting-out). *[Foreign Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs "Foreign Affairs")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250414050859/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/syria/america-can-best-help-syria-getting-out) from the original on 14 April 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "Syria's 13-year civil war ended abruptly in December"
- Yıldırım, Kürşat; Ercan, Murat (April 2025). ["Geopolitical and strategic analysis of the Syrian problem after regime change"](https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/4589044). *Akademik Hassasiyetler-The Academic Elegance*: 619. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250719123029/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/4589044) from the original on 19 July 2025. Retrieved 18 July 2025. "These conflicts, which lasted for nearly 13 years, ended on 8 December 2024 when Bashar al-Assad, the last representative of the 61-year Baathist regime, fled the country"
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- ["UN development arm plans for \$1.3 billion in help for Syria, top official says"](https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/imf-world-bank-meetings-discuss-restoring-support-syria-un-official-says-2025-04-18/). *[Reuters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. April 2025. "Syria - hit hard by 14 years of conflict that ended when former leader Bashar al-Assad was ousted by a rebel offensive in December"
- ["'I thought I'd died.' How land mines are continuing to claim lives in post-Assad Syria"](https://apnews.com/article/syria-landmines-assad-amputations-03f8c5672c9dd943622cd622c8d80b6c). *[Associated Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press")*. April 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250724233059/https://apnews.com/article/syria-landmines-assad-amputations-03f8c5672c9dd943622cd622c8d80b6c) from the original on 24 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "While the nearly 14-year Syrian civil war came to an end with the fall of Bashar Assad on Dec. 8, war remnants continue to kill and maim."
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- ["Israel and Turkey begin talks to avoid conflict in Syria"](https://www.ft.com/content/5fe34023-a81f-4f1a-baf5-4059b69121c9). *[Financial Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*. April 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250910005604/https://www.ft.com/content/5fe34023-a81f-4f1a-baf5-4059b69121c9) from the original on 10 September 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "Islamist rebels toppled the regime of Bashar al-Assad in December, ending more than a decade of civil war."
- ["Syrians heading home find few of the basics needed to survive"](https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/05/1163431). *[UN News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_News "UN News")*. [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"). May 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250717040308/https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/05/1163431) from the original on 17 July 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2025. "after more than 13 years of civil war that ended with the fall of the Assad regime last December"
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5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-8)**
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190. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-195)** [Is This the End of Rojava?The Kurdish region of northeast Syria was autonomous for seven years, but had to ask the Syrian government for protection after an invasion by Turkey.](https://www.thenation.com/article/world/rojava-kurds-syria/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221129211158/https://www.thenation.com/article/world/rojava-kurds-syria/) 29 November 2022 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") By Mireille Court and Chris Den Hond, 18 February 2020, The Nation website.
191. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-196)** [We stand in solidarity with Rojava, an example to the world](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/01/we-stand-in-solidarity-with-rojava-an-example-to-the-world) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201002134723/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/01/we-stand-in-solidarity-with-rojava-an-example-to-the-world) 2 October 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine").Leaders from social movements, communities and First Nations from around the world, including LaDonna Brave Bull Allard, Eve Ensler and Stuart Basden on the Turkish invasion in north-east Syria. Fri 1 November 2019 guardian.com
192. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-197)** [Statement regarding Syrian Democratic Forces security operation in al-Hol camp](https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/STATEMENTS/Statements-View/Article/3161976/statement-regarding-syrian-democratic-forces-security-operation-in-al-hol-camp/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221013190856/https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/STATEMENTS/Statements-View/Article/3161976/statement-regarding-syrian-democratic-forces-security-operation-in-al-hol-camp/) 13 October 2022 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), 18 September 2022 US Army Central Command Communication Integration official statement.
193. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-198)** [The Syrian National Army: The Turkish Proxy Militias of Northern Syria](https://rojavainformationcenter.com/2022/07/the-syrian-national-army-the-turkish-proxy-militias-of-northern-syria/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220721092444/https://rojavainformationcenter.com/2022/07/the-syrian-national-army-the-turkish-proxy-militias-of-northern-syria/) 21 July 2022 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), 21 July 2022, Rojava official website.
194. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-199)** [US-Backed Kurdish-Led Forces Say Ready to Coordinate With Syrian Army Against Turkey](https://www.voanews.com/a/us-backed-kurdish-led-forces-say-ready-to-coordinate-with-syrian-army-against-turkey/6606769.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230720154601/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-backed-kurdish-led-forces-say-ready-to-coordinate-with-syrian-army-against-turkey/6606769.html) 20 July 2023 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), Reuters, via VOA website, By Maya Gebeily, 5 June 2022.
195. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-200)** [Syria 'should use air defences' against Turkish invasion](https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/syria/2022/06/06/syria-should-use-air-defences-against-turkish-invasion/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230601033047/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/syria/2022/06/06/syria-should-use-air-defences-against-turkish-invasion/) 1 June 2023 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), The National, 6 June 2022.
196. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-201)** [These Kurdish-Led Forces Cannot Count On Syrian Air Defenses To Protect Them Against The Turkish Air Force](https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2022/06/20/these-kurdish-led-forces-cannot-count-on-syrian-air-defenses-to-protect-them-against-the-turkish-air-force/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221020044555/https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2022/06/20/these-kurdish-led-forces-cannot-count-on-syrian-air-defenses-to-protect-them-against-the-turkish-air-force/) 20 October 2022 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), Paul Iddon, 20 June 2022.
197. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-202)** [Kurdish, Syrian, Iranian forces coordinate ahead of Turkish operation:Kurdish units and Iranian-affiliated factions in Syria have formed a joint operations room under Russian supervision to counter a possible Turkish military operation in northern Syria.](https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/06/kurdish-syrian-iranian-forces-coordinate-ahead-turkish-operation) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173617/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/06/kurdish-syrian-iranian-forces-coordinate-ahead-turkish-operation) 31 January 2023 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), by Mohammed Hardan, 17 June 2022. al-monitor.com
198. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-203)** [US-backed Syrian Kurds to turn to Damascus if Turkey attacks. The US-backed and Kurdish-led forces in northern Syria say they will turn to the government in Damascus for support should Turkey go ahead with its threat to launch a new incursion into the war-torn country.](https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/us-backed-syrian-kurds-turn-damascus-turkey-attacks-85231755) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221020210851/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/us-backed-syrian-kurds-turn-damascus-turkey-attacks-85231755) 20 October 2022 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") By BASSEM MROUE Associated Press, 7 June 2022.
199. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-204)** [Syria's Kurds strike deal with Assad after being abandoned by US](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/turkey-syria-news-kurds-deal-bashar-al-assad-sdf-latest-updates-a9154561.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230320154200/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/turkey-syria-news-kurds-deal-bashar-al-assad-sdf-latest-updates-a9154561.html) 20 March 2023 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), Kurdish fighters agree to hand over border towns to Damascus in deal brokered by Russia, Richard Hall, Sunday 13 October 2019, the UK Independent.
200. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-205)** [Sixteenth report of the Secretary-General on the threat posed by ISIL (Da'esh) to international peace and security and the range of United Nations efforts in support of Member States in countering the threat](https://iraq.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/S202376%20EN.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230320194115/https://iraq.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/S202376%20EN.pdf) 20 March 2023 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), UN official website, February 2023.
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["Lebanon"](https://data.who.int/countries/422). *datadot*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20241213225950/https://data.who.int/countries/422) from the original on 13 December 2024. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
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219. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-224)**
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["In Syria, Crackdown After Protests"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. 18 March 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110322061301/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html) from the original on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2025.
382. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-voxnews170408_391-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-voxnews170408_391-1)
["The war in Syria, explained"](https://www.vox.com/2017/4/8/15218782/syria-trump-bomb-assad-explainer). *[Vox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_\(website\) "Vox (website)")*. 8 April 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250702235751/https://www.vox.com/2017/4/8/15218782/syria-trump-bomb-assad-explainer) from the original on 2 July 2025. Retrieved 29 June 2025.
383. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-392)**
Fahim, Kareem; [Saad, Hwaida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hwaida_Saad "Hwaida Saad") (8 February 2013). ["A Faceless Teenage Refugee Who Helped Ignite Syria's War"](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/09/world/middleeast/a-faceless-teenage-refugee-who-helped-ignite-syrias-war.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0362-4331](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170127070543/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/09/world/middleeast/a-faceless-teenage-refugee-who-helped-ignite-syrias-war.html) from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
384. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-393)**
["What's happening in Syria?"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/16979186). *[BBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC "BBC")*. 16 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200107144547/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/16979186) from the original on 7 January 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2025.
385. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-394)**
Nawaz, Amna; Warsi, Zeba; Cebrián Aranda, Teresa (15 March 2023). ["Syrians mark 12 years of civil war with no end in sight"](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/syrians-mark-12-years-of-civil-war-with-no-end-in-sight). *PBS News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240620114309/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/syrians-mark-12-years-of-civil-war-with-no-end-in-sight) from the original on 20 June 2024.
386. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-SOHR2024_395-0)**
["Syrian Revolution 13 years on \| Nearly 618,000 persons killed since the onset of the revolution in March 2011"](https://www.syriahr.com/en/328044/). Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 15 March 2024. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250403162901/https://www.syriahr.com/en/328044/) from the original on 3 April 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
387. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war#cite_ref-396)**
["Human Rights and Organizational Wrongs: Investigating the Malpractice of the Syrian Network for Human Rights"](https://www.fairobserver.com/politics/human-rights-and-organizational-wrongs-investigating-the-malpractice-of-the-syrian-network-for-human-rights/). *Fair Observer*. 22 August 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250822135428/https://www.fairobserver.com/politics/human-rights-and-organizational-wrongs-investigating-the-malpractice-of-the-syrian-network-for-human-rights/) from the original on 22 August 2025. Retrieved 17 September 2025.
- Allsopp, Harriet; van Wilgenburg, Wladimir (2019). [*The Kurds of Northern Syria. Volume 2: Governance, Diversity and Conflicts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9vWlDwAAQBAJ). London; New York City; etc.: [I.B. Tauris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I.B._Tauris "I.B. Tauris"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-8386-0445-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0445-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0445-5")
.
- Lister, Charles R. (2015). [*The Syrian Jihad: Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and the Evolution of an Insurgency*](https://archive.org/details/CharlesR.ListerTheSyrianJihadAlQaedaTheIslamicStateAndTheEvolutionOfAnInsurgency.). Oxford: [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780190462475](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190462475 "Special:BookSources/9780190462475")
.
- Zabad, Ibrahim (2017). [*Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of the Arab Spring*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XiAlDwAAQBAJ). London; New York City: [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-472-47441-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-472-47441-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-472-47441-4")
.
Further reading
- Cordesman, Anthony H.; Markusen, Max (23 March 2016). ["Part Three: Stability and Conflict in Syria"](https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/160302_Syria_Iraq_ISIS_III-Syria.pdf) (PDF). [The Comparative Metrics of ISIS and 'Failed State Wars' in Syria and Iraq](https://www.csis.org/analysis/comparative-metrics-isis-and-failed-state-wars-syria-and-iraq-0) (Report). Washington, DC: [Center for Strategic and International Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies "Center for Strategic and International Studies").
- Hinnebusch, Raymond (2012). "Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution?". *[International Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Affairs_\(journal\) "International Affairs (journal)")*. **88** (1): 95–113\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2346.2012.01059.x).
- Landis, Joshua (2012). ["The Syrian Uprising of 2011: Why the Asad Regime Is Likely to Survive to 2013"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4967.2012.00524.x). *Middle East Policy*. **19** (1): 72–84\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00524.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4967.2012.00524.x).
- [Malek, Alia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alia_Malek "Alia Malek") (2017). [*The Home That Was Our Country: A Memoir of Syria*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GnT8sgEACAAJ). [PublicAffairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PublicAffairs "PublicAffairs"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-56858-532-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56858-532-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-56858-532-1")
.
- Pearlman, Wendy (2017). [*We Crossed a Bridge and It Trembled: Voices from Syria*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5BoGDQAAQBAJ). [HarperCollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins "HarperCollins"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-06-265445-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-265445-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-06-265445-8")
.
- Sorenson, David S. (2016). *Syria in Ruins: The Dynamics of the Syrian Civil War*. ABC-CLIO. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4408-3837-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3837-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3837-8")
.
- [van Dam, Nikolaos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_van_Dam "Nikolaos van Dam") (2017). [*Destroying a Nation: The Civil War in Syria*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MARsDgAAQBAJ). I. B. Tauris. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78672-248-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78672-248-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78672-248-5")
.
External links
- [Ecowatch – Syria: Another Pipeline War](https://www.ecowatch.com/syria-another-pipeline-war-1882180532.html) |
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| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/Syrian_civil_war s443 |