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| Boilerpipe Text | The
meaning of life
is the concept of an individual's
life
, human life, or
existence
in general having an
inherent significance
or a
philosophical point
. There is no consensus on the specifics of such a concept, or whether the concept itself even exists in any
objective
sense.
Thinking
and
discourse
on the topic is sought in the English language through
questions
such as—but not limited to—"What is the meaning of life?", "What is the purpose of existence?", and "Why are we here?". There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many different
cultural
and
ideological
backgrounds. The search for life's meaning has produced much
philosophical
,
scientific
,
theological
, and
metaphysical
speculation throughout history. Different people and cultures believe in different answers to this question. Opinions vary on the usefulness of using
time
and
resources
in the pursuit of an answer. Excessive pondering can be indicative of, or lead to, an
existential crisis
.
The meaning of life can be derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about,
existence
,
social ties
,
consciousness
, and
happiness
. Many other issues are also involved, such as
symbolic meaning
,
ontology
,
value
,
purpose
,
ethics
,
good and evil
,
free will
, the
existence of one or multiple gods
,
conceptions of God
, the
soul
, and the
afterlife
. Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related
empirical
facts
about the
universe
, exploring the context and parameters concerning the "how" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the
pursuit of well-being
and a related
conception of morality
. An alternative,
humanistic
approach poses the question, "What is the meaning of
my
life?"
Origin of the expression
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appears in
Thomas Carlyle
's
Sartor Resartus
(1833–1834), book II chapter IX, "
The Everlasting Yea
".
[
1
]
Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the
meaning of Life
itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle.
[
2
]
Carlyle may have been inspired by earlier usage of the equivalent German expression
der Sinn des Lebens
by
German Romantic
writers
Novalis
and
Friedrich Schlegel
. Schlegel was the first to use it in print by way of his novel
Lucinde
(1799), though Novalis had done so in a 1797–1798 manuscript, in which he wrote: "Only an artist can divine the meaning of life." Additionally, the word
lebenssinn
, translated as life's meaning, had been used by
Goethe
in a 1796 letter to
Schiller
.
[
3
]
These authors grappled with the
rationalism
and
materialism
of modernity. Carlyle called this the "Torch of Science", which burned "more fiercely than ever" and made religion "all parched away, under the Droughts of practical and spiritual Unbelief", resulting in the "
Wilderness
" of "the wide World in an
Atheistic
Century".
[
4
]
Origin of the question
Socrates
Arthur Schopenhauer
was the first to explicitly ask the question,
[
1
]
in an essay entitled "Character".
Since
a man does not alter
, and his
moral character
remains absolutely the same all through his life; since he must play out the part which he has received, without the least deviation from the character; since neither experience, nor philosophy, nor religion can effect any improvement in him, the question arises,
What is the meaning of life at all?
To what purpose is it played, this farce in which everything that is essential is irrevocably fixed and determined?
[
5
]
Questions about the meaning of life, and similar, have been expressed in a broad variety of other ways, including:
What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? Who are we?
[
6
]
[
7
]
[
8
]
Why are we here? What are we here for?
[
9
]
[
10
]
[
11
]
What is the
origin of life
?
[
12
]
What is the nature of life? What is the nature of
reality
?
[
12
]
[
13
]
[
14
]
What is the purpose of life? What is the purpose of one's life?
[
13
]
[
15
]
[
16
]
What is the significance of life?
[
16
]
(See also
#Psychological significance and value in life
)
What is meaningful and valuable in life?
[
17
]
What is the
value of life
?
[
18
]
What is the reason to live? What are we living for?
[
11
]
[
19
]
These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and explications, from
scientific
theories, to
philosophical
,
theological
, and
spiritual
explanations.
Scientific inquiry and perspectives
Many members of the
scientific community
and
philosophy of science
communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the
science of happiness
to
death anxiety
. Scientific inquiry facilitates this through
nomological
investigation into various aspects of
life
and
reality
, such as the
Big Bang
,
the origin of life
, and
evolution
, and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.
Psychological significance and value in life
Researchers in
positive psychology
study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction,
[
20
]
full
engagement
in activities,
[
21
]
making a fuller contribution by using one's personal strengths,
[
22
]
and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.
[
23
]
Large-data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example
[
21
]
is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast they can make each unit and achieves flow in the process.
Neuroscience
describes
reward
,
pleasure
, and
motivation
in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the
limbic system
and the
ventral tegmental area
in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a
science of morality
—the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures.
Experimental philosophy
and
neuroethics
research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as
trolley problems
. It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models.
Neurotheology
is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.
[
24
]
[
25
]
Sociology
examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as
value theory
, norms,
anomie
, etc. One value system suggested by
social psychologists
, broadly called
Terror Management Theory
, states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.
Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives. For example,
depressive realism
posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, and
David Benatar
theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life.
Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease,
[
26
]
[
27
]
reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease,
[
28
]
reduced risk of stroke,
[
29
]
and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples.
[
30
]
There is also growing evidence for a small decline in purpose in life in the early stages of cognitive impairment.
[
31
]
In 2014, the British
National Health Service
began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are:
[
32
]
Connect with community and family
Physical exercise
Lifelong learning
Giving to others
Mindfulness
of the world around you
Origin and nature of biological life
DNA
contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known
organisms
.
The exact mechanisms of
abiogenesis
are unknown: notable hypotheses include the
RNA world hypothesis
(RNA-based replicators) and the
iron-sulfur world hypothesis
(metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via
genetic
mutation
and
natural selection
is explained by
evolution
.
[
33
]
At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the
gene-centered view of evolution
, biologists
George C. Williams
,
Richard Dawkins
, and
David Haig
, among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes.
[
34
]
[
35
]
Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about "what it is all for",
James Watson
stated "I don't think we're
for
anything. We're just the products of evolution."
[
36
]
Though scientists have intensively studied
life on Earth
, defining
life
in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.
[
37
]
[
38
]
Physically, one may say that life "feeds on
negative entropy
"
[
39
]
[
40
]
[
41
]
which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal
entropy
at the expense of some form of
energy
taken in from the environment.
[
42
]
[
43
]
[
44
]
Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are
self-organizing
systems
which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state
,
metabolism
serves to provide energy, and
reproduction
causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.
[
45
]
Non-cellular replicating agents, notably
viruses
, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some
parasites
and
endosymbionts
are also incapable of independent life.
Astrobiology
studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.
All forms of life that are in existence today possess a self-replicating informational molecule (genome), and such an informational molecule is presumably intrinsic to life. Thus the earliest forms of life also likely possessed a self-replicating informational molecule, possibly RNA
[
46
]
[
47
]
or perhaps an informational molecule more primitive than RNA. The specific genomic sequences in all currently extant organisms contain order generating information that promotes survival,
reproduction
, and the ability to acquire resources necessary for reproduction. Sequences with such basic functions probably emerged early in the evolution of life.
It has been proposed
[
48
]
that both the evolution of macroscopic order in life (including its basic functions) and the evolution of order in particular physical systems obey a common fundamental principle that was termed the
Darwinian
dynamic
. This principal was formulated by considering, first, how macroscopic order is generated in a simple physical, non-biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short RNA replicating molecules and then further to more complex forms of life. It was concluded that the fundamental order-generating process was basically similar for both types of process.
[
48
]
[
49
]
Origins and ultimate fate of the universe
Timeline of the
expansion of the universe
, where space is represented schematically at each time by circular sections. On the left, the dramatic expansion of
inflation
; at the center, the expansion
accelerates
(artist's concept; neither time nor size are to scale)
Though the
Big Bang
theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations.
[
50
]
However, current physics can only describe the early universe from around 10
−43
seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of
quantum gravity
would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being.
[
51
]
For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the
anthropic principle
, it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a
multiverse
.
[
52
]
The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly of humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through a
Big Freeze
,
Big Rip
, or
Big Crunch
.
Theoretical
cosmology
studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside
black holes
, with our own
Big Bang
being a
white hole
on the inside of a
black hole
in another parent universe.
[
53
]
Many-worlds
theories claim that every possibility of
quantum mechanics
is played out in parallel universes.
Scientific questions about the mind
The nature and origin of
consciousness
and the
mind
are also widely debated in science. The
explanatory gap
is generally equated with the
hard problem of consciousness
, and the question of
free will
is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of
cognitive science
,
neuroscience
(e.g. the
neuroscience of free will
) and
philosophy of mind
, though some
evolutionary biologists
and
theoretical physicists
have also made several allusions to the subject.
[
54
]
[
55
]
Reductionistic
and
eliminative materialistic
approaches, for example the
Multiple Drafts Model
, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the
brain
and its
neurons
, thus adhering to
biological naturalism
.
[
55
]
[
56
]
[
57
]
On the other hand, some scientists, like
Andrei Linde
, have considered that
consciousness
, like
spacetime
, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.
[
58
]
Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements",
[
58
]
often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.
[
59
]
Electromagnetic theories of consciousness
solve the
binding problem
of consciousness in saying that the
electromagnetic field
generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.
[
60
]
[
61
]
Quantum mind
theories use
quantum theory
in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of
free will
through
quantum
phenomena is an alternative to
determinism
.
Parapsychology
Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a
cosmic consciousness
, asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".
[
14
]
[
62
]
[
63
]
Proponents of this view cite accounts of
paranormal
phenomena, primarily
extrasensory perceptions
and
psychic
powers, as evidence for an
incorporeal
higher consciousness
. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena,
parapsychologists
have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations.
[
64
]
[
65
]
[
66
]
[
67
]
Nature of meaning in life
Reker and
Wong
define personal meaning as the "cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment" (p. 221).
[
68
]
In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance.
[
69
]
In contrast, Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life,
[
70
]
[
71
]
with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE):
You need to choose a worthy
purpose
or a significant life goal.
You need to have sufficient
understanding
of who you are, what life demands of you, and how you can play a significant role in life.
You and you alone are
responsible
for deciding what kind of life you want to live, and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal.
You will
enjoy
a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for
self-determination
and actively pursue a worthy life-goal.
Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor.
Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g.,
Thaddeus Metz
, Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life.
[
72
]
[
73
]
Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective
normative standard
.
[
71
]
Western philosophical perspectives
Philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans.
Ancient Greek philosophy
Plato and Aristotle in
The School of Athens
fresco by
Raphael
. Plato is pointing heavenwards, and Aristotle is gesturing to the world.
Platonism
Plato
, a pupil of
Socrates
, was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his
idealism
of believing in the existence of
universals
. His
theory of forms
proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the
dialogue
of the
Republic
, the character of Socrates describes the
Form of the Good
. His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life.
In
Platonism
, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the
Idea
(
Form
) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value.
Aristotelianism
Aristotle
, an apprentice of
Plato
, was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not
certain
knowledge (such as
metaphysics
and
epistemology
), but is
general
knowledge. Because it is not a
theoretical
discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become "good"; thus, if the person were to become
virtuous
, he could not simply study what virtue
is
, he had to
be
virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous:
Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor [...]
Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is "good".
Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B would have a goal, goal C, and goal C would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern until something stopped its
infinite regression
. Aristotle's solution is the
Highest Good
, which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other "goods" are desirable for its sake. This involves achieving
eudaemonia
, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence".
What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is an almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness.
Cynicism
Antisthenes
, a pupil of
Socrates
, first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of
Virtue
which agrees with
Nature
. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and mastering one's mental attitude; suffering results from false judgments of value, which cause negative
emotions
and a concomitant vicious character.
The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for
wealth
,
power
,
health
, and
fame
, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.
[
74
]
[
75
]
As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to
human
beings. The
world
equally belongs to everyone, so
suffering
is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the
customs
and
conventions
of
society
.
Cyrenaicism
Aristippus of Cyrene
, a pupil of
Socrates
, founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings—that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a
hedonistic
world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.
[
76
]
[
77
]
Epicureanism
Epicurus
by Agostino Scilla, circa 1670–1680. The philosopher holds a text that reads "whatever you do, do wisely and think of consequences."
Epicurus
, a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (
ataraxia
) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (
aponia
) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic "abstention" from sex and the appetites:
"When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation. By pleasure, we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul."
[
78
]
The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no
afterlife
, yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."
[
79
]
Stoicism
Zeno of Citium
, a pupil of
Crates of Thebes
, established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal
logos
, or reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is "freedom from
suffering
" through
apatheia
(Gr: απαθεια), that is, being
objective
and having "clear judgement",
not
indifference.
Stoicism's prime directives are
virtue
,
reason
, and
natural law
, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive
emotions
. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.
The Stoic ethical foundation is that "good lies in the state of the soul", itself exemplified in
wisdom
and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "
Virtue
consists in a
will
which is in agreement with Nature."
[
79
]
The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".
[
79
]
Enlightenment philosophy
The
Enlightenment
and the
colonial era
both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship.
The meaning of life also changed, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era has theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.
Kantianism
Immanuel Kant
Kantianism
is a philosophy based on the
ethical
,
epistemological
, and
metaphysical
works of
Immanuel Kant
. Kant is known for his
deontological
theory, where there is a single moral obligation, the "
Categorical Imperative
", derived from the concept of
duty
. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying
maxim
or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.
Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim—i.e., imagine that all people acted this way—and then see if it would still be possible to perform it in the world without contradiction. In
Groundwork
, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a
universal action
, no person would lend money anymore, as they know that they will never be paid back. According to Kant, the maxim of this action results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).
Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.
19th-century philosophy
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appeared in
Thomas Carlyle
's
Sartor Resartus
(1833–August 1834): "Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle."
[
80
]
Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham
The origins of
utilitarianism
can be traced back as far as
Epicurus
, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to
Jeremy Bentham
,
[
81
]
who found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"; then, from that moral insight, he derived the
Rule of Utility
: "that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". He defined the meaning of life as the "
greatest happiness principle
".
Jeremy Bentham
's foremost proponent was
James Mill
, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of
John Stuart Mill
. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work.
[
82
]
Nihilism
Nihilism
suggests that life is without objective meaning.
Friedrich Nietzsche
characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values".
[
83
]
Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that
God is dead
, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values returned meaning to the Earth.
[
84
]
To
Martin Heidegger
, nihilism is the movement whereby "
being
" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.
[
83
]
Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "
death of God
" a potential source for nihilism:
If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.
[
85
]
The French philosopher
Albert Camus
asserts that the
absurdity
of the
human condition
is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as
Meursault
,
[
86
]
but also of values in a nihilistic world, that people can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference.
[
87
]
20th-century philosophy
Philosopher
Bertrand Russell
said: "The good life is one inspired by
love
and guided by
knowledge
."
The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten humankind's relationship to the natural world. Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras;
[
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]
and philosophy—particularly following the
linguistic turn
—has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in
pragmatism
and
logical positivism
) to efforts to meta-theorize about
meaning-making
as a personal, individual-driven activity (
existentialism
,
secular humanism
).
Pragmatism
Pragmatism
originated in the late-19th-century US, concerning itself (mostly) with
truth
, and positing that "only in struggling with the environment" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that
consequences
, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that
anything
useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long run is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be
practically verifiable
—i.e., one should be able to predict and test claims—and, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.
Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life.
William James
argued that truth could be made, but not sought.
[
89
]
[
90
]
To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.
Theism
Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. Some theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value, and purpose, then life would be absurd.
[
91
]
Existentialism
Edvard Munch
,
Friedrich Nietzsche
, 1906
According to existentialism, each person creates their life's essence (meaning); life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, but one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are
action
,
freedom
, and
decision
, thus, existentialism opposes
rationalism
and
positivism
. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of
anxiety
and
dread
, felt in considering one's
free will
, and the concomitant awareness of death. According to
Jean-Paul Sartre
,
existence precedes essence
; the (
essence
) of one's life arises
only
after one comes to
existence
.
Søren Kierkegaard
spoke about a "
leap
", arguing that
life is full of absurdity
, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.
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]
Arthur Schopenhauer
answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and
asceticism
.
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]
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]
For
Friedrich Nietzsche
, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore,
all ideations take place from a particular perspective
.
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84
]
Absurdism
"... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible—no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other—no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek the help he would prefer to be himself—with all the tortures of hell if so it must be."
In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe. Humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma as beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works,
The Sickness Unto Death
(1849) and
The Myth of Sisyphus
(1942):
Suicide
(or, "escaping existence"): a solution in which a person simply ends one's own life. Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option.
Religious
belief in a
transcendent
realm or being: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now commonly referred to as a "
leap of faith
"). However, Camus regarded this solution as "philosophical suicide".
Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this solution (notably in his 1947 allegorical novel
The Plague
or
La Peste
), while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as "demoniac madness": "
He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him!
"
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]
Secular humanism
The "
Happy Human
" symbol representing secular humanism
Per secular humanism, the
human species
came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of
unguided evolution
as an integral expression of
nature
, which is self-existing.
[
97
]
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98
]
Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the
scientific method
), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the
universe
is what people discern it to be.
[
97
]
Likewise, "
values
and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"
[
97
]
and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by
critical intelligence
.
[
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]
[
100
]
"As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."
[
98
]
People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life which
humanism
seeks to develop and fulfill:
[
97
]
"Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity".
[
99
]
Humanism aims to promote
enlightened self-interest
and the
common good
for all people. It is based on the premises that the
happiness
of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in
personal relations
and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the
culture
.
[
98
]
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]
The philosophical subgenres
posthumanism
and
transhumanism
(sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of
humanity
and of
all life
to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile
Renaissance humanism
with the 21st century's
technoscientific
culture. In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life".
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101
]
From a
humanism
-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of
my
life?"
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102
]
This approach emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this question. For example,
Viktor Frankl
argues for "Dereflection", which translates largely as to cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what is the meaning of life?—evaporates when one is fully engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?"; "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; "Why do I neglect loved-ones?".)
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]
Logical positivism
Logical positivists
ask: "What is the meaning of life?", "What is the meaning in asking?"
[
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]
[
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]
and "If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?"
[
106
]
Ludwig Wittgenstein
and the logical positivists said:
[
citation needed
]
"Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because,
in
life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the
consequences
of x, or the
significance
of x, or
what is notable
about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes
recursive
, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.
The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only
in
life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous.
Bertrand Russell
wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:
[
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]
When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case—or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to "values"—that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects—lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.
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]
Postmodernism
Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human nature as constructed by language or structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out
a priori
or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing
given
meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a "meaning of life", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see
awareness
of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in
deconstructionism
) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in
poststructuralism
).
Naturalistic pantheism
According to
naturalistic pantheism
, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.
Embodied cognition
Embodied cognition
uses the neurological basis of emotion, speech, and cognition to understand the nature of thought.
Cognitive neuropsychology
has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities, and genetic studies show that the gene
FOXP2
affects neuroplasticity, which underlies language fluency.
George Lakoff
, a professor of
cognitive linguistics
and philosophy, advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning, not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation.
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108
]
Computers use
logic programming
to effectively query databases, but humans rely on a trained
biological neural network
. Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of
symbolic language
to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their
interlocutors
know what they mean.
[
citation needed
]
Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life.
[
109
]
Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains. When combined with more effective training, a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one's life should be straightforward.
[
citation needed
]
East Asian philosophical perspectives
Mohism
Further information:
Mohism
The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartial
love
. Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring—a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship with them.
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110
]
The expression of this indiscriminate caring makes one righteous in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the
Confucians
who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers.
Confucianism
Confucianism
recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning, as well as minimizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar
Tu Wei-Ming
's quote, "We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."
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111
]
Legalism
The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practical knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the function and performance of the state.
Religious perspectives
The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans. According to the
Charter for Compassion
, signed by many of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, the core of religion is the
golden rule
of "treat others as you would have them treat you".
[
full citation needed
]
Karen Armstrong
, founder of the Charter, recalls the teaching of
Rabbi
Hillel
recorded in
Shabbat
31a:6 of the
Talmud
: the essence of the
Torah
is simply to be good to others; "everything else is just commentary."
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]
This is not to reduce the commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation, and ritual are the means by which religious people
internalize
and live the golden rule.
Abrahamic religions
Symbols of the three largest Abrahamic religions:
Judaism
,
Christianity
, and
Islam
.
Judaism
In the
Judaism
and its
philosophy
, the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world (
Hebrew
:
עולם הזה
,
romanized
:
olam ha-zeh
,
lit.
'
this world
'
) and prepare it for the
Messianic Age
(no:
יְמוֹת הַמָשִׁיחַ
,
romanized
:
ye'moht ha-mashiaḥ
) and
World to Come
(no:
עולם הבא
,
romanized
:
olam ha-ba
,
lit.
'
coming world
'
). Engaging in
tikkun olam
(no:
תִּיקּוּן עוֹלָם
,
lit.
'
repairing the world
'
) is a component of bringing
Jewish eschatology
to bear.
Olam ha-ba
can also refer more generally to the afterlife, and there is debate concerning the order of Jewish eschatological events. However, while personal salvation is a component of Judaism, communal (between humans) and individual (between humans and God) spiritualised actions in this world are its focus.
Judaism's defining feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible,
transcendent
, unified, and indivisible
absolute Being
who created and governs the universe. Closeness with the God of
Israel
is sought through
prayer
,
Torah study
, Jewish cultural rites, and adherence to God's
mitzvot
(divine laws). In traditional Judaism, God established a special
covenant
with the people of Israel during the
theophany at Sinai
, giving the
613 mitzvot
. "Torah" comprises the
written Torah
and the transcribed
Oral Torah
, further developed through the generations, as well as the other books of the
Tanakh
, the
Midrash
, other
Rabbinic literature
, and
Halakha
. The Jewish people are intended as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation"
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113
]
and a "
light to the Nations
", influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio-ethical
Seven Laws of Noah
. The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God.
Jewish observance involves ethical and ritual, affirmative, and prohibitive injunctions. Modern
Jewish denominations
differ over the nature, relevance, and emphases of
mitzvot
.
Jewish philosophy
emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God.
[
citation needed
]
The rationalist
Maimonides
viewed the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary but insufficient foundation for a philosophical understanding of God, along with its love and awe.
[
114
]
Among fundamental
values
in the Torah are the pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education.
[
115
]
[
116
]
The world to come,
[
117
]
prepared in the present, elevates religious Jews to an everlasting connection with God.
[
118
]
Simeon the Just
says, "The world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness." The
prayer book
relates, "Blessed is our God who created us for his honor ... and planted within us everlasting life." In this context, the
Talmud
states, "Everything that God does is for the good," including suffering.
The Jewish mystical
Kabbalah
gives complementary esoteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing an
immanent
relationship with God (personal
theism
), in Kabbalah, the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being (
panentheism
), related to the
Shekhinah
(Divine feminine). Jewish observance unites the
sephirot
(Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. In
Lurianic Kabbalah
, the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (the
Kelipot
shells), through the actions of Jewish observance.
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119
]
Through this, in
Hasidic Judaism
the ultimate essential "desire" of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul.
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120
]
Christianity
Christ the Redeemer
statue in
Rio de Janeiro
is symbolic of Christianity,
[
121
]
illustrating the concept of seeking
redemption
through
Jesus Christ
.
Christianity
has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's
ontology
. Its central beliefs derive from the teachings of
Jesus Christ
as presented in the
New Testament
. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine
salvation
through the grace of God and intercession of Christ.
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122
]
The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's
sins are forgiven
.
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123
]
In the Christian view, humankind was made in the
Image of God
and perfect, but the
Fall of Man
caused the progeny of the
First Parents
to inherit
Original Sin
and its consequences. Christ's
passion
,
death
and
resurrection
provide the means for transcending that impure state (
Romans
6:23). That this restoration from sin is possible is called the
gospel
.
The Apostle Paul explains the meaning of life in his speech on the
Areopagus
in
Athens
: "And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us."
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]
Denominations
The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between different
denominations
of Christians, but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point. Salvation through faith in God is found in
Ephesians
2:8–9
[8] "
For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God;
[9]
not as a result of works, that no one should boast." (
NASB
; 1973). The gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, thereby allowing believers to be
regenerated
by God and to instill in them a new heart after God's own will with the ability to live righteously before him. This is what the term
saved
almost always refer to.
In Reformed theology, it is believed the purpose of life is to glorify God. In the
Westminster Shorter Catechism
, an important creed for Reformed Christians,
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125
]
the first question is: "What is the chief end of Man?" (that is, "What is Man's main purpose?"). The answer is: "Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever". God requires one to obey the revealed moral law, saying: "Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as yourself".
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126
]
The
Baltimore Catechism
answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven."
[
127
]
Catholicism
's meaning of life is explained in Catechism of the Catholic Church paragraph 294. The Universe exists for the manifestation and communication of God's glory, while mankind exists for the
beatific vision
.
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128
]
Catechism of the Catholic Church 601 explains the meaning of Jesus' life: to fulfill the Scripture, in particular the plan of salvation.
[
129
]
Mormonism
teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy.
[
130
]
Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him. Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their development—wherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow.
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130
]
The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise; rather, the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil.
[
131
]
[
132
]
Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world,
[
133
]
so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential.
A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering;
[
134
]
nonetheless, the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the
propitiatory sacrifice
of Jesus' death on the cross.
Islam
Supplicating
Pilgrim
at
Masjid Al Haram
.
Mecca
In
Islam
, humanity's ultimate purpose is to worship their creator,
Allah
(English:
The God
), through his signs, and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion. This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in the
Qur'an
and the tradition of the
Prophet
(with the exception of
Quranists
). Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter. A person will either be close to him and his love in
Jannah
(Paradise) or far away in
Jahannam
(Hell).
For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his
angels
, his
messengers
, and in the "
Day of Judgment
".
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135
]
The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things, who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving." (Qur'an 67:1–2) and "And I (Allâh) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient (to Allah)." (Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to the
oneness of God
in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one
acts
(behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell).
[
136
]
[
citation needed
]
However, on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone.
[
137
]
The
Five Pillars of Islam
are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are:
Shahadah
(profession of faith);
Salat
(ritual prayer);
Zakat
(charity);
Sawm
(fasting during
Ramadan
), and
Hajj
(pilgrimage to
Mecca
).
[
138
]
They derive from the
Hadith
works, notably of
Sahih Al-Bukhari
and
Sahih Muslim
. The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran.
Beliefs differ among the
Kalam
. The
Sunni
and the
Ahmadiyya
concept of pre-destination is
divine decree
;
[
139
]
the
Shi'a
concept of pre-destination is
divine justice
; in the
esoteric
view of the
Sufis
, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.
The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the
hadith qudsi
that states "I (God) was
a Hidden Treasure
and loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known." One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as
'Abdu'l-Bahá
of the
Baháʼí Faith
,
and in
Ibn'Arabī
's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.
[
141
]
According to Shaykh
Ibrahim Niass
, worship of God is closely linked to
ma'rifa
,
[
142
]
therefore the perfection of the aspirant's knowledge of God is conditional upon his attainment of ma'rifa.
Baháʼí Faith
The
Baháʼí Faith
emphasizes the unity of humanity.
[
143
]
To Baháʼís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. People's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and the
prophets
were sent by God to facilitate this.
[
144
]
[
145
]
South Asian religions
Hindu philosophies
A golden
Aum
written in
Devanagari
. The Aum is sacred in
Hindu
,
Jain
and
Buddhist
religions.
Hinduism
is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive, and tolerant in content.
[
146
]
Most believe that the
ātman
(spirit, soul)—the person's true
self
—is eternal.
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147
]
In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as the
purusharthas
(ordered from least to greatest): (i)
Kāma
(wish, desire, love and sensual pleasure), (ii)
Artha
(wealth, prosperity, glory), (iii)
Dharma
(righteousness, duty, morality,
virtue
,
ethics
), encompassing notions such as
ahimsa
(non-violence) and
satya
(truth) and (iv)
Moksha
(liberation, i.e. liberation from
Saṃsāra
, the cycle of
reincarnation
).
[
148
]
[
149
]
[
150
]
In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of
karma
(causal action),
sansara
(the cycle of birth and rebirth), and
moksha
(liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (similar to the western concept of a
soul
) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader
yogas
(practices) or
dharma
(correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship
Devas
which are manifestations of
Ishvara
(a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.
In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself. This thought is conveyed in the
Mahāvākyas
("
Tat Tvam Asi
" (thou art that), "Aham Brahmāsmi", "Prajñānam Brahma" and "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (This Ātman is Brahman)).
Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism
Later schools reinterpreted the
vedas
to focus on
Brahman
, "The One Without a Second",
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151
]
as a central God-like figure.
In
monist
Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's
Ātman
(soul) is identical to
Brahman
.
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152
]
To the
Upanishads
, whoever becomes fully aware of the Ātman, as one's core of self, realizes identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves
Moksha
(liberation, freedom).
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147
]
[
153
]
[
154
]
Dvaita Vedanta and other
bhakti
schools have a
dualist
interpretation.
Brahman
is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The Ātman depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through the love of God and upon His grace.
[
153
]
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism
is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification of
Vishnu
or
Narayana
as the one supreme God. This belief contrasts with the
Krishna-centered
traditions, such as
Vallabha
,
Nimbaraka
and
Gaudiya
, in which
Krishna
is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the
source of all avataras
.
[
155
]
Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as
monotheism
,
reincarnation
,
samsara
,
karma
, and the various
Yoga
systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (
bhakti
) to Vishnu through the process of
Bhakti yoga
, often including singing Vishnu's name's (
bhajan
), meditating upon his form (
dharana
) and performing
deity
worship (
puja
). The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as
Pañcaratra
and various
Samhitas
.
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156
]
One popular school of thought,
Gaudiya Vaishnavism
, teaches the concept of
Achintya Bheda Abheda
. In this, Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna. Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion. The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating, and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna.
Jainism
Jainism
is a religion originating in
ancient India
, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the
ascetic
teachings of
Jina
, a
human
achieves
enlightenment (perfect knowledge)
. Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the living becomes attached to the non-living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.
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157
]
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal
soul
,
jiva
. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining
Moksha
. The
Jain view of karma
is that every action, every word, every thought has effect on the soul.
Jainism includes strict adherence to
ahimsa
(or
ahinsā
), a form of
nonviolence
that goes far beyond
vegetarianism
. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to
veganism
due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude
root vegetables
from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.
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158
]
Buddhism
Early Buddhism
Statue of
Gautama Buddha
Buddhists practice embracing mindfulness, the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that is present in life. Buddhists practice seeing the causes of ill-being and well-being in life. For example, one of the causes of suffering is an unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material. The Buddhist
sūtras
and
tantras
do not speak about "the meaning of life" or "the purpose of life", but about the potential of human life to end suffering, for example through embracing (not suppressing or denying) cravings and conceptual attachments. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of
Nirvana
. Nirvana means freedom from both
suffering
and
rebirth
.
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159
]
Theravada Buddhism
is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of
Vibhajjavada
(
Pali
), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the
Four Noble Truths
. This is attained in the achievement of
Nirvana
, or Unbinding which also ends the
repeated cycle
of birth, old age, sickness, and death. The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the
Noble Eightfold Path
.
Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in
Theravada
) of the release from individual Suffering (
Duhkha
) and attainment of Awakening (
Nirvana
). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable,
omnipresent
being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent
Buddha-nature
, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.
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]
Devotional schools such as
Pure Land Buddhism
seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.
[
161
]
Sikhism
The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten
Sikh Gurus
, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the
Gurū Granth Sāhib
, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."
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162
]
Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before
God
.
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163
]
Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.
[
164
]
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-
anthropomorphic
concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the
Universe
itself (
pantheism
). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,
[
165
]
Nanak
described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must
meditate
to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.
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165
]
East Asian religions
Taoism
Taoist
cosmogony
emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all men to return to the
primordial
or to rejoin with the
Oneness
of the Universe by way of self-cultivation and self-realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
Taoists believe all things were originally from
Taiji
and
Tao
, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves."
[
166
]
Shinto
Shinto
is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of the
kami
", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The "divine" crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of
free will
, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process.
Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.
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167
]
New religions
There are many
new religious movements
in East Asia, and some with millions of followers:
Chondogyo
,
Tenrikyo
,
Cao Đài
, and
Seicho-No-Ie
. New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a
Joyous Life
by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others.
Iranian religions
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendent God,
Ahura Mazda
, to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's creation is
asha
, truth and order, and it is in conflict with its
antithesis
,
druj
, falsehood and disorder.
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168
]
Since humanity possesses
free will
, people must be responsible for their moral choices. By using free will, people must take an active role in the universal conflict, with good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay.
Popular views
"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?".
[
15
]
Some popular answers include:
To realize one's potential and ideals
To chase dreams.
[
169
]
To live one's dreams.
[
170
]
To spend it for something that will outlast it.
[
171
]
To matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.
[
171
]
To expand one's potential in life.
[
170
]
To become the person you've always wanted to be.
[
172
]
To become the best version of yourself.
[
173
]
To seek happiness
[
174
]
and flourish.
[
8
]
To be a true authentic human being.
[
175
]
To be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.
[
171
]
To follow or submit to our destiny.
[
176
]
[
177
]
[
178
]
To achieve
eudaimonia
,
[
179
]
a flourishing of human spirit.
To evolve, or to achieve biological perfection
To
evolve
,
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180
]
changing from generation to generation.
To
survive
,
[
181
]
that is, to live as long as possible,
[
182
]
including pursuit of
immortality
(through scientific means).
[
183
]
To
live forever
[
183
]
or die
trying
.
[
184
]
To maximize one's genes' advantage in terms of natural selection, by having many children or indirect descendants via relatives.
[
185
]
To replicate, to reproduce.
[
169
]
"The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells."
[
186
]
[
187
]
[
188
]
[
189
]
To seek wisdom and knowledge
To expand one's perception of the world.
[
170
]
To follow the clues and walk out the exit.
[
190
]
To learn as many things as possible in life.
[
191
]
To know as much as possible about as many things as possible.
[
192
]
To seek
wisdom
and
knowledge
and to tame the
mind
, as to avoid
suffering
caused by
ignorance
and find
happiness
.
[
193
]
To face our
fears
and accept the
lessons
life offers us.
[
176
]
To find the meaning or purpose of life.
[
194
]
[
195
]
To find a reason to live.
[
196
]
To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.
[
197
]
To do good, to do the right thing
To leave the world as a better place than you found it.
[
169
]
To do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.
[
169
]
To benefit others.
[
11
]
To give more than you take.
[
169
]
To end suffering.
[
198
]
[
199
]
[
200
]
To create
equality
.
[
201
]
[
202
]
[
203
]
To challenge
oppression
.
[
204
]
To
distribute wealth
.
[
205
]
[
206
]
To be generous.
[
207
]
[
208
]
To contribute to the
well-being
and spirit of others.
[
209
]
[
210
]
To help others,
[
8
]
[
208
]
to help one another.
[
211
]
To take every chance to help another while on your journey here.
[
169
]
To be creative and innovative.
[
209
]
To forgive.
[
169
]
To accept and forgive human flaws.
[
212
]
[
213
]
To be emotionally sincere.
[
171
]
To be responsible.
[
171
]
To be honorable.
[
171
]
To
seek peace
.
[
171
]
Meanings relating to religion
To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine.
[
214
]
To have a pure soul and experience God.
[
171
]
To understand the mystery of God.
[
176
]
To know or attain union with God.
[
215
]
[
216
]
To know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.
[
217
]
To love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.
[
169
]
To love God
[
215
]
and all of his creations.
[
218
]
To glorify God by enjoying him forever.
[
219
]
To spread your religion and share it with others.
[
220
]
[
221
]
To act justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with your God.
[
222
]
To be fruitful and multiply.
[
223
]
(
Genesis 1:28
)
To obtain freedom. (
Romans 8:20–21
)
To fill the Earth and subdue it.
[
223
]
(
Genesis 1:28
)
To serve humankind,
[
224
]
to prepare to meet
[
225
]
and become more like God,
[
226
]
[
227
]
[
228
]
[
229
]
to choose good over evil,
[
230
]
and have joy.
[
231
]
[
232
]
˹He is the One˺ Who created death and life in order to test which of you is best in deeds. And He is the Almighty, All-Forgiving. —Quran
67:2
To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife.
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233
]
To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living
To love more.
[
169
]
To love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.
[
169
]
To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.
[
169
]
To seek
beauty
in all its forms.
[
169
]
To have fun or enjoy life.
[
176
]
[
209
]
To seek pleasure
[
171
]
and avoid pain.
[
234
]
To be compassionate.
[
171
]
To be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.
[
169
]
To love others as best we possibly can.
[
169
]
To eat, drink, and be merry.
[
235
]
To have power, to be better
To
strive for power
[
84
]
and superiority.
[
234
]
To rule the world.
[
177
]
To know and master the world.
[
220
]
[
236
]
To know and master nature.
[
237
]
To help life become as powerful as possible.
[
238
]
Life has no meaning
Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random
chance
in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.
[
197
]
Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.
[
169
]
There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.
[
169
]
One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life
The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.
[
197
]
You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.
[
169
]
The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.
[
169
]
Ultimately, a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is, but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked. In a word, each person is questioned by life; and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life; to life they can only respond by being responsible.
[
239
]
In popular culture
The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject in
popular culture
, featured in
entertainment media
and
various forms
of art.
Monty Python's The Meaning of Life
includes a character played by
Michael Palin
being handed an envelope containing "the meaning of life", which she opens and reads out to the audience: "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."
[
240
]
[
241
]
[
242
]
In
Douglas Adams
' book
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
, the
Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything
is given the numeric solution "
42
", after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giant
supercomputer
called
Deep Thought
. When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors, Deep Thought explains that "I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was."
[
243
]
[
8
]
[
244
]
[
245
]
[
246
]
Deep Thought then constructs another computer—the Earth—to calculate what the Ultimate Question actually is. Later Ford and Arthur manage to extract the question as the Earth computer would have rendered it. That question turns out to be "what do you get if you multiply six by nine",
[
247
]
and it is realised that
the program was ruined by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans
on Earth, and so the actual Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, And Everything remains unknown.
In
Person of Interest
season 5 episode 13, an
artificial intelligence
referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is "Everyone dies alone. But if you mean something to someone, if you help someone, or love someone. If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all." This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale.
[
248
]
Existential crisis
Charles Allan Gilbert
's
All is Vanity,
an example of
vanitas
,
depicts a young woman amidst her makeup and perfumes, preoccupied with her own beauty at the mirror of her
vanity
. But all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear, expressing
memento mori
, that no matter how good she looks, it will not last, as death is inevitable.
Existential crises
are crises of meaning. They are triggered by the impression that life lacks meaning.
[
249
]
[
250
]
[
251
]
This impression can lead to an inner conflict because there is a strong
desire
to find some form of meaning in life. In the
existentialist
literature, the discrepancy between the individual's desire for meaning and the world's apparent lack thereof is termed
the absurd
.
[
252
]
[
253
]
[
254
]
It may be summarized by the question "How does a being who needs meaning find meaning in a universe that has no meaning?".
[
255
]
While this conflict may affect different people at least to some extent, it reaches a more severe level in the case of existential crises. This level leads to various negative
experiences
, such as
stress
,
anxiety
, despair, and
depression
.
[
255
]
[
250
]
[
251
]
In the more serious cases, these symptoms disturb the individual's normal functioning in everyday life. A positive side effect of these negative experiences is that they push the affected individual to address the underlying issue. This opens the opportunity of
developing as a person
and improving one's way of life.
[
255
]
[
256
]
Therapists often try to treat existential crises by helping their patients discover meaning in life. An important distinction in this regard is the difference between personal meaning and cosmic meaning.
[
255
]
[
257
]
In the cosmic sense, the term "meaning of life" refers to the purpose of the world as a whole or why we are here. One way to solve an existential crisis is to discover a satisfying answer to this question. This often takes the form of a
religious
explanation involving a divine entity that created the world for a certain purpose.
[
255
]
[
258
]
[
259
]
Another approach to solving existential crises is to seek meaning not on the cosmic but on the personal level. This usually takes a more secular form: the therapist helps the individual realize what matters to them or why their life is worth living.
[
255
]
[
257
]
[
260
]
In this regard, they may discover how their personal life can be meaningful, for example, by dedicating themselves to their family or their career. This approach may mitigate or solve an existential crisis even if the individual still lacks an answer to the bigger question of the deeper meaning behind everything.
[
255
]
[
251
]
[
258
]
Importance
The question of the meaning of life is closely related to the question of what has
importance
or what matters. This is reflected in the fact that finding meaning in life is often associated with dedicating oneself to some kind of higher purpose, which is seen as having special importance.
[
261
]
[
262
]
Nonetheless, some theorists have argued that the two concepts are not identical.
[
261
]
[
263
]
This distinction is often motivated by the observation that seeking the meaning of life is usually regarded as an admirable goal associated with
self-transcendence
. Craving importance, on the other hand, seems to be a more
egoistic
or
narcissistic
aim in comparison.
[
261
]
Various theorists have argued that to be important means to have an impact on the world or to make a difference. Some only require that this causal impact is big enough. Others include as an additional element that the difference in question has to affect the value of the world.
[
264
]
[
263
]
[
265
]
This is often interpreted with reference to
well-being
: the degree of importance of a thing is given by the extent to which it affects the well-being of sentient entities.
[
266
]
[
263
]
[
267
]
However, the relation to a purpose is usually not required for importance. In this regard, some things may be important accidentally or
unintentionally
without being guided by a higher goal. For example, a person may by chance bump into something and thereby unwittingly trigger a
butterfly effect
of extreme proportions. In such a case, the person's life has acquired high importance due to the consequences it caused. Nonetheless, this does not imply that it has also acquired some form of deeper meaning or higher purpose.
[
261
]
Another difference is that seeking and realizing the meaning of life is usually seen by most theorists as a positive and worthwhile undertaking. Importance, however, can be either positive or negative depending on the type of value difference involved.
[
261
]
[
263
]
For example,
Alexander Fleming
was important in a positive sense since his discovery of
penicillin
helped many people cure their
bacterial infections
.
[
268
]
Adolf Hitler
, on the other hand, was important in a negative sense since his policies caused widespread suffering to innumerous people.
[
264
]
See also
Scientific explanations
Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life
– 1995 book by Daniel Dennett
The Death of God and the Meaning of Life
– 2014 book by Julian Young
Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life
– 2005 book by Nick Lane
Sex, Death and the Meaning of Life
– 2010 three-part television documentary
Origin and nature of life and reality
Abiogenesis
– Life arising from non-living matter
Awareness
– Perception or knowledge of something
Being
– State of being real
Biosemiotics
– Biology interpreted as a sign system
Dao
– Philosophical concept native to China
Existence
– State of being real
Human condition
– Ultimate concerns of human existence
Logos
– Concept in philosophy, religion, rhetoric, and psychology
Metaphysical naturalism
– Philosophical worldview rejecting anything supernatural
Perception
– Interpretation of sensory information
Reality
– Sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent
Simulated reality
– Concept of a false version of reality
Theory of everything
– Hypothetical physical concept
Teleology
– Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose
Ultimate fate of the universe
– Theories about the end of the universe
Value of life
Culture of life
– Way of life highlighting life's sanctity
Bioethics
– Study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and medicine
Meaningful life
– Fulfilling life guided by a purpose
Quality of life
– Degree of individual well-being
Value of life
– Economic measure placing a monetary value on reducing the risk of death
Purpose of life
Destiny
– Predetermined course of events
Ethical living
Intentional living
– Lifestyle
Life extension
– Concept of extending human lifespan
Man's Search for Meaning
– 1946 book by Viktor Frankl
Means to an end (disambiguation)
Philosophy of life
– German philosophical movement
Miscellaneous
Human extinction
– End of the human species
Ikigai
– Giving a sense of purpose (Japanese)
Life stance
– Person's relation with what they accept as being of ultimate importance
Meaning-making
– Process of understanding changes in life
Perennial philosophy
– Idea that all religions share a single truth
Vale of tears
– Religious phrase in Christianity
World riddle
– Term in ontology and consciousness studies
Worldview
– Fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society
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Book of Mormon: Alma 32:32
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Yea, and I know that good and evil have come before all men; he that knoweth not good from evil is blameless; but he that knoweth good and evil, to him it is given according to his desires, whether he desireth good or evil, life or death, joy or remorse of conscience.
^
Book of Mormon: 2 Nephi 2:25
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Adam fell that men might be; and men are, that they might have joy.
^
Pearl of Great Price: Book of Moses 5:11
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And Eve, his wife, heard all these things and was glad, saying: Were it not for our transgression we never should have had seed, and never should have known good and evil, and the joy of our redemption, and the eternal life which God giveth unto all the obedient.
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External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to
Life
.
Meaning of Life: The Analytic Perspective
article in the
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Meaning of Life
in the
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Wikiversity:Do living things on Earth have a purpose? |
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## Contents
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- [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life)
- [1 Origin of the expression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Origin_of_the_expression)
- [2 Origin of the question](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Origin_of_the_question)
- [3 Scientific inquiry and perspectives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Scientific_inquiry_and_perspectives)
Toggle Scientific inquiry and perspectives subsection
- [3\.1 Psychological significance and value in life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Psychological_significance_and_value_in_life)
- [3\.2 Origin and nature of biological life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Origin_and_nature_of_biological_life)
- [3\.3 Origins and ultimate fate of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Origins_and_ultimate_fate_of_the_universe)
- [3\.4 Scientific questions about the mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Scientific_questions_about_the_mind)
- [3\.4.1 Parapsychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Parapsychology)
- [3\.5 Nature of meaning in life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Nature_of_meaning_in_life)
- [4 Western philosophical perspectives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Western_philosophical_perspectives)
Toggle Western philosophical perspectives subsection
- [4\.1 Ancient Greek philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Ancient_Greek_philosophy)
- [4\.1.1 Platonism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Platonism)
- [4\.1.2 Aristotelianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Aristotelianism)
- [4\.1.3 Cynicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Cynicism)
- [4\.1.4 Cyrenaicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Cyrenaicism)
- [4\.1.5 Epicureanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Epicureanism)
- [4\.1.6 Stoicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Stoicism)
- [4\.2 Enlightenment philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Enlightenment_philosophy)
- [4\.2.1 Kantianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Kantianism)
- [4\.3 19th-century philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#19th-century_philosophy)
- [4\.3.1 Utilitarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Utilitarianism)
- [4\.3.2 Nihilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Nihilism)
- [4\.4 20th-century philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#20th-century_philosophy)
- [4\.4.1 Pragmatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Pragmatism)
- [4\.4.2 Theism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Theism)
- [4\.4.3 Existentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Existentialism)
- [4\.4.4 Absurdism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Absurdism)
- [4\.4.5 Secular humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Secular_humanism)
- [4\.4.6 Logical positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Logical_positivism)
- [4\.4.7 Postmodernism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Postmodernism)
- [4\.4.8 Naturalistic pantheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Naturalistic_pantheism)
- [4\.4.9 Embodied cognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Embodied_cognition)
- [5 East Asian philosophical perspectives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#East_Asian_philosophical_perspectives)
Toggle East Asian philosophical perspectives subsection
- [5\.1 Mohism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Mohism)
- [5\.2 Confucianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Confucianism)
- [5\.3 Legalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Legalism)
- [6 Religious perspectives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Religious_perspectives)
Toggle Religious perspectives subsection
- [6\.1 Abrahamic religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Abrahamic_religions)
- [6\.1.1 Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Judaism)
- [6\.1.2 Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Christianity)
- [6\.1.2.1 Denominations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Denominations)
- [6\.1.3 Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Islam)
- [6\.1.4 Baháʼí Faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith)
- [6\.2 South Asian religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#South_Asian_religions)
- [6\.2.1 Hindu philosophies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Hindu_philosophies)
- [6\.2.1.1 Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Advaita_and_Dvaita_Hinduism)
- [6\.2.1.2 Vaishnavism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Vaishnavism)
- [6\.2.2 Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Jainism)
- [6\.2.3 Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Buddhism)
- [6\.2.3.1 Early Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Early_Buddhism)
- [6\.2.3.2 Mahayana Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Mahayana_Buddhism)
- [6\.2.4 Sikhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Sikhism)
- [6\.3 East Asian religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#East_Asian_religions)
- [6\.3.1 Taoism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Taoism)
- [6\.3.2 Shinto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Shinto)
- [6\.3.3 New religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#New_religions)
- [6\.4 Iranian religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Iranian_religions)
- [6\.4.1 Zoroastrianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Zoroastrianism)
- [7 Popular views](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Popular_views)
Toggle Popular views subsection
- [7\.1 To realize one's potential and ideals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#To_realize_one's_potential_and_ideals)
- [7\.2 To evolve, or to achieve biological perfection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#To_evolve,_or_to_achieve_biological_perfection)
- [7\.3 To seek wisdom and knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#To_seek_wisdom_and_knowledge)
- [7\.4 To do good, to do the right thing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#To_do_good,_to_do_the_right_thing)
- [7\.5 Meanings relating to religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Meanings_relating_to_religion)
- [7\.6 To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#To_love,_to_feel,_to_enjoy_the_act_of_living)
- [7\.7 To have power, to be better](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#To_have_power,_to_be_better)
- [7\.8 Life has no meaning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Life_has_no_meaning)
- [7\.9 One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#One_should_not_seek_to_know_and_understand_the_meaning_of_life)
- [8 In popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#In_popular_culture)
- [9 Related concepts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Related_concepts)
Toggle Related concepts subsection
- [9\.1 Existential crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Existential_crisis)
- [9\.2 Importance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Importance)
- [10 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#See_also)
- [11 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#References)
- [12 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#External_links)
Toggle the table of contents
# Meaning of life
53 languages
- [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin_van_die_lewe "Sin van die lewe – Afrikaans")
- [العربية](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A9 "معنى الحياة – Arabic")
- [Azərbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C9%99yat%C4%B1n_m%C9%99nas%C4%B1 "Həyatın mənası – Azerbaijani")
- [বাংলা](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5 "জীবনের অর্থ – Bangla")
- [Català](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentit_de_la_vida "Sentit de la vida – Catalan")
- [Čeština](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smysl_%C5%BEivota "Smysl života – Czech")
- [Чӑвашла](https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%C4%83%C3%A7_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%81%C4%83%D0%BC%C4%95 "Пурнăç тупсăмĕ – Chuvash")
- [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningen_med_livet "Meningen med livet – Danish")
- [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_des_Lebens "Sinn des Lebens – German")
- [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentido_de_la_vida "Sentido de la vida – Spanish")
- [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elu_m%C3%B5te "Elu mõte – Estonian")
- [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizitzaren_zentzua "Bizitzaren zentzua – Basque")
- [فارسی](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C "معنی زندگی – Persian")
- [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A4m%C3%A4n_tarkoitus "Elämän tarkoitus – Finnish")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sens_de_la_vie "Sens de la vie – French")
- [עברית](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D "משמעות החיים – Hebrew")
- [हिन्दी](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5 "जीवन का अर्थ – Hindi")
- [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_%C3%A9let_%C3%A9rtelme_\(filoz%C3%B3fia\) "Az élet értelme (filozófia) – Hungarian")
- [Հայերեն](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%AB_%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF "Կյանքի իմաստ – Armenian")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makna_kehidupan "Makna kehidupan – Indonesian")
- [Íslenska](https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilgangur_l%C3%ADfsins "Tilgangur lífsins – Icelandic")
- [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senso_della_vita "Senso della vita – Italian")
- [日本語](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%9F%E3%81%AE%E6%84%8F%E7%BE%A9 "人生の意義 – Japanese")
- [Jawa](https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makna_gesang "Makna gesang – Javanese")
- [한국어](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%B6%EC%9D%98_%EC%9D%98%EB%AF%B8 "삶의 의미 – Korean")
- [Latina](https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensus_vitae "Sensus vitae – Latin")
- [Lingua Franca Nova](https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinifia_de_vive "Sinifia de vive – Lingua Franca Nova")
- [Lietuvių](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyvenimo_prasm%C4%97 "Gyvenimo prasmė – Lithuanian")
- [Latviešu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dz%C4%ABves_j%C4%93ga "Dzīves jēga – Latvian")
- [Malagasy](https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antom-pisian%27ny_olona "Antom-pisian'ny olona – Malagasy")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makna_kehidupan "Makna kehidupan – Malay")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin_van_het_leven "Zin van het leven – Dutch")
- [Norsk bokmål](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningen_med_livet "Meningen med livet – Norwegian Bokmål")
- [ਪੰਜਾਬੀ](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%AC "ਜੀਵਨ ਦਾ ਮਤਲਬ – Punjabi")
- [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sens_%C5%BCycia "Sens życia – Polish")
- [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentido_da_vida "Sentido da vida – Portuguese")
- [Rumantsch](https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senn_da_la_vita "Senn da la vita – Romansh")
- [Română](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensul_vie%C8%9Bii "Sensul vieții – Romanian")
- [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BB_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8 "Смысл жизни – Russian")
- [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life "Meaning of life – Simple English")
- [Slovenčina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zmysel_%C5%BEivota "Zmysel života – Slovak")
- [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuptimi_i_jet%C3%ABs "Kuptimi i jetës – Albanian")
- [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BE_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0 "Смисао живота – Serbian")
- [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningen_med_livet "Meningen med livet – Swedish")
- [Kiswahili](https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maana_ya_maisha "Maana ya maisha – Swahili")
- [ไทย](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95 "ความหมายของชีวิต – Thai")
- [Tagalog](https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahulugan_ng_buhay "Kahulugan ng buhay – Tagalog")
- [Türkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayat%C4%B1n_anlam%C4%B1 "Hayatın anlamı – Turkish")
- [Татарча / tatarça](https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%A4%C5%9F%C3%A4w_m%C3%A4%C4%9Fn%C3%A4se "Yäşäw mäğnäse – Tatar")
- [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8F "Сенс життя – Ukrainian")
- [Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayotning_ma%CA%BCnosi "Hayotning maʼnosi – Uzbek")
- [Tiếng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9D_ngh%C4%A9a_cu%E1%BB%99c_s%E1%BB%91ng "Ý nghĩa cuộc sống – Vietnamese")
- [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%84%E6%84%8F%E7%BE%A9 "生命的意義 – Chinese")
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Philosophical and spiritual question
"Theory of life" redirects here. For the work by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, see [Coleridge's theory of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life "Coleridge's theory of life"). For other uses, see [Meaning of Life (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_Life_\(disambiguation\) "Meaning of Life (disambiguation)").
The **meaning of life** is the concept of an individual's [life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life "Life"), human life, or [existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence") in general having an [inherent significance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_value_\(ethics\) "Intrinsic value (ethics)") or a [philosophical point](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_\(philosophy\) "Meaning (philosophy)"). There is no consensus on the specifics of such a concept, or whether the concept itself even exists in any [objective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_\(philosophy\) "Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)") sense. [Thinking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking "Thinking") and [discourse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse "Discourse") on the topic is sought in the English language through [questions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question "Question") such as—but not limited to—"What is the meaning of life?", "What is the purpose of existence?", and "Why are we here?". There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many different [cultural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural "Cultural") and [ideological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideological "Ideological") backgrounds. The search for life's meaning has produced much [philosophical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical "Philosophical"), [scientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific "Scientific"), [theological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological "Theological"), and [metaphysical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") speculation throughout history. Different people and cultures believe in different answers to this question. Opinions vary on the usefulness of using [time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time "Time") and [resources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource "Resource") in the pursuit of an answer. Excessive pondering can be indicative of, or lead to, an [existential crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_crisis "Existential crisis").
The meaning of life can be derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about, [existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence"), [social ties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_ties "Social ties"), [consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness "Consciousness"), and [happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness "Happiness"). Many other issues are also involved, such as [symbolic meaning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_meaning "Linguistic meaning"), [ontology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology "Ontology"), [value](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_\(philosophy\) "Value (philosophy)"), [purpose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology "Teleology"), [ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics "Ethics"), [good and evil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_and_evil "Good and evil"), [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will"), the [existence of one or multiple gods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence_of_God "Existence of God"), [conceptions of God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptions_of_God "Conceptions of God"), the [soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_\(spirit\) "Soul (spirit)"), and the [afterlife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife"). Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related [empirical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism "Empiricism") [facts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact "Fact") about the [universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe "Universe"), exploring the context and parameters concerning the "how" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the [pursuit of well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology "Positive psychology") and a related [conception of morality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_morality "Science of morality"). An alternative, [humanistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic "Humanistic") approach poses the question, "What is the meaning of *my* life?"
## Origin of the expression
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appears in [Thomas Carlyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle "Thomas Carlyle")'s *[Sartor Resartus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sartor_Resartus "Sartor Resartus")* (1833–1834), book II chapter IX, "[The Everlasting Yea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Everlasting_Yea "The Everlasting Yea")".[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:8-1)
> Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the **meaning of Life** itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-2)
Carlyle may have been inspired by earlier usage of the equivalent German expression *der Sinn des Lebens* by [German Romantic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Romanticism "German Romanticism") writers [Novalis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novalis "Novalis") and [Friedrich Schlegel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel "Friedrich Schlegel"). Schlegel was the first to use it in print by way of his novel *Lucinde* (1799), though Novalis had done so in a 1797–1798 manuscript, in which he wrote: "Only an artist can divine the meaning of life." Additionally, the word *lebenssinn*, translated as life's meaning, had been used by [Goethe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethe "Goethe") in a 1796 letter to [Schiller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiller "Schiller").[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-3) These authors grappled with the [rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism "Rationalism") and [materialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism "Materialism") of modernity. Carlyle called this the "Torch of Science", which burned "more fiercely than ever" and made religion "all parched away, under the Droughts of practical and spiritual Unbelief", resulting in the "[Wilderness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temptation_of_Christ "Temptation of Christ")" of "the wide World in an [Atheistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism "Atheism") Century".[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-4)
## Origin of the question
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%A3%CF%89%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82,_%CE%91%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%91%CE%B8%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BD_6616.jpg)
[Socrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates "Socrates")
[Arthur Schopenhauer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer "Arthur Schopenhauer") was the first to explicitly ask the question,[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:8-1) in an essay entitled "Character".
> Since *a man does not alter*, and his *moral character* remains absolutely the same all through his life; since he must play out the part which he has received, without the least deviation from the character; since neither experience, nor philosophy, nor religion can effect any improvement in him, the question arises, **What is the meaning of life at all?** To what purpose is it played, this farce in which everything that is essential is irrevocably fixed and determined?[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-5)
Questions about the meaning of life, and similar, have been expressed in a broad variety of other ways, including:
- What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? Who are we?[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Westphal-6)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick-7)[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Baggini-8)
- Why are we here? What are we here for?[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Thiemann_&_Placher-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Marcellino-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Hua-11)
- What is the [origin of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_life "Origin of life")?[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Davies-12)
- What is the nature of life? What is the nature of [reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality "Reality")?[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Davies-12)[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Christiansen_&_Baum_&_Bass-Haugen-13)[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Walker-14)
- What is the purpose of life? What is the purpose of one's life?[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Christiansen_&_Baum_&_Bass-Haugen-13)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-WITMOL-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Krishnamurti-16)
- What is the significance of life?[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Krishnamurti-16) (See also [\#Psychological significance and value in life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Psychological_significance_and_value_in_life))
- What is meaningful and valuable in life?[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-UIUC-17)
- What is the [value of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_of_life "Value of life")?[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Van_Hooft-18)
- What is the reason to live? What are we living for?[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Hua-11)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Shafer-Landau_&_Cuneo-19)
These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and explications, from [scientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific "Scientific") theories, to [philosophical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical "Philosophical"), [theological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological "Theological"), and [spiritual](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality "Spirituality") explanations.
## Scientific inquiry and perspectives
Further information: [Eudaimonia § Eudaimonia and modern psychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia#Eudaimonia_and_modern_psychology "Eudaimonia"), and [Meaningful Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaningful_Life "Meaningful Life")
Many members of the [scientific community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community "Scientific community") and [philosophy of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science "Philosophy of science") communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the [science of happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology "Positive psychology") to [death anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_anxiety "Death anxiety"). Scientific inquiry facilitates this through [nomological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomology "Nomology") investigation into various aspects of [life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life "Life") and [reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality "Reality"), such as the [Big Bang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang "Big Bang"), [the origin of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis "Abiogenesis"), and [evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution "Evolution"), and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.
### Psychological significance and value in life
Researchers in [positive psychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology "Positive psychology") study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction,[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:6-20) full [engagement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_\(psychology\) "Flow (psychology)") in activities,[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cs%C3%ADkszentmih%C3%A1lyi,_Mih%C3%A1ly_1990-21) making a fuller contribution by using one's personal strengths,[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:4-22) and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-23) Large-data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cs%C3%ADkszentmih%C3%A1lyi,_Mih%C3%A1ly_1990-21) is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast they can make each unit and achieves flow in the process.
[Neuroscience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience "Neuroscience") describes [reward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system "Reward system"), [pleasure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure "Pleasure"), and [motivation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation "Motivation") in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the [limbic system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system "Limbic system") and the [ventral tegmental area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area "Ventral tegmental area") in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a [science of morality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_morality "Science of morality")—the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures.
[Experimental philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_philosophy "Experimental philosophy") and [neuroethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics "Neuroethics") research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as [trolley problems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trolley_problems "Trolley problems"). It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models.
[Neurotheology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotheology "Neurotheology") is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:5-24)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:7-25)
[Sociology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology "Sociology") examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as [value theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_theory#Sociology "Value theory"), norms, [anomie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomie "Anomie"), etc. One value system suggested by [social psychologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology_\(psychology\) "Social psychology (psychology)"), broadly called [Terror Management Theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terror_Management_Theory "Terror Management Theory"), states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.
Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives. For example, [depressive realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressive_realism "Depressive realism") posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, and [David Benatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Benatar "David Benatar") theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life.
Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease,[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-26)[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:0-27) reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease,[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:1-28) reduced risk of stroke,[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:2-29) and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-30) There is also growing evidence for a small decline in purpose in life in the early stages of cognitive impairment.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-31)
In 2014, the British [National Health Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service "National Health Service") began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are:[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-32)
1. Connect with community and family
2. Physical exercise
3. Lifelong learning
4. Giving to others
5. [Mindfulness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness "Mindfulness") of the world around you
### Origin and nature of biological life
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_Overview.png)
[DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA "DNA") contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known [organisms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life "Life").
The exact mechanisms of [abiogenesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis "Abiogenesis") are unknown: notable hypotheses include the [RNA world hypothesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis "RNA world hypothesis") (RNA-based replicators) and the [iron-sulfur world hypothesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-sulfur_world_hypothesis "Iron-sulfur world hypothesis") (metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via [genetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene "Gene") [mutation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation "Mutation") and [natural selection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection "Natural selection") is explained by [evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution "Evolution").[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-33) At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the [gene-centered view of evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution "Gene-centered view of evolution"), biologists [George C. Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_C._Williams_\(biologist\) "George C. Williams (biologist)"), [Richard Dawkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins "Richard Dawkins"), and [David Haig](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Haig_\(biologist\) "David Haig (biologist)"), among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dawkins_selfish_gene-34)[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dawkins_river-35) Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about "what it is all for", [James Watson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson "James Watson") stated "I don't think we're *for* anything. We're just the products of evolution."[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-36)
Though scientists have intensively studied [life on Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism "Organism"), defining [life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life "Life") in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-37)[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-38) Physically, one may say that life "feeds on [negative entropy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negentropy "Negentropy")"[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-worldtransformation.com-39)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-40)[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-41) which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal [entropy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy "Entropy") at the expense of some form of [energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy "Energy") taken in from the environment.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-42)[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-44) Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are [self-organizing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-organization "Self-organization") systems [which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis "Homeostasis"), [metabolism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism "Metabolism") serves to provide energy, and [reproduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction "Reproduction") causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-45)
Non-cellular replicating agents, notably [viruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus "Virus"), are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some [parasites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite "Parasite") and [endosymbionts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiont "Endosymbiont") are also incapable of independent life. [Astrobiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobiology "Astrobiology") studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.
All forms of life that are in existence today possess a self-replicating informational molecule (genome), and such an informational molecule is presumably intrinsic to life. Thus the earliest forms of life also likely possessed a self-replicating informational molecule, possibly RNA[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-46)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-47) or perhaps an informational molecule more primitive than RNA. The specific genomic sequences in all currently extant organisms contain order generating information that promotes survival, [reproduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction "Reproduction"), and the ability to acquire resources necessary for reproduction. Sequences with such basic functions probably emerged early in the evolution of life.
It has been proposed[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bernstein1983-48) that both the evolution of macroscopic order in life (including its basic functions) and the evolution of order in particular physical systems obey a common fundamental principle that was termed the [Darwinian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwinism "Darwinism") [dynamic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_dynamics "Evolutionary dynamics"). This principal was formulated by considering, first, how macroscopic order is generated in a simple physical, non-biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short RNA replicating molecules and then further to more complex forms of life. It was concluded that the fundamental order-generating process was basically similar for both types of process.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bernstein1983-48)[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-49)
### Origins and ultimate fate of the universe
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg)
Timeline of the [expansion of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe "Expansion of the universe"), where space is represented schematically at each time by circular sections. On the left, the dramatic expansion of [inflation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_inflation "Cosmic inflation"); at the center, the expansion [accelerates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe "Accelerating expansion of the universe") (artist's concept; neither time nor size are to scale)
Though the [Big Bang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang "Big Bang") theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-50) However, current physics can only describe the early universe from around 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of [quantum gravity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravity "Quantum gravity") would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Prantzos_&_Lyle-51) For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the [anthropic principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle "Anthropic principle"), it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a [multiverse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse "Multiverse").[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Edwards-52)
The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly of humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through a [Big Freeze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Freeze "Big Freeze"), [Big Rip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Rip "Big Rip"), or [Big Crunch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch "Big Crunch").
Theoretical [cosmology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology "Cosmology") studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside [black holes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holes "Black holes"), with our own [Big Bang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang "Big Bang") being a [white hole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_hole "White hole") on the inside of a [black hole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole") in another parent universe.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Poplawski-53) [Many-worlds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds "Many-worlds") theories claim that every possibility of [quantum mechanics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics") is played out in parallel universes.
### Scientific questions about the mind
The nature and origin of [consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness "Consciousness") and the [mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind "Mind") are also widely debated in science. The [explanatory gap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanatory_gap "Explanatory gap") is generally equated with the [hard problem of consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness "Hard problem of consciousness"), and the question of [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will") is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of [cognitive science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science "Cognitive science"), [neuroscience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience "Neuroscience") (e.g. the [neuroscience of free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will "Neuroscience of free will")) and [philosophy of mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind "Philosophy of mind"), though some [evolutionary biologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biologist "Evolutionary biologist") and [theoretical physicists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicist "Theoretical physicist") have also made several allusions to the subject.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Whitehouse-54)[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gray-55)
[Reductionistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionistic "Reductionistic") and [eliminative materialistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliminative_materialism "Eliminative materialism") approaches, for example the [Multiple Drafts Model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_Drafts_Model "Multiple Drafts Model"), hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the [brain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain "Human brain") and its [neurons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron "Neuron"), thus adhering to [biological naturalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_naturalism "Biological naturalism").[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gray-55)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Churchland-56)[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dennett-57)
On the other hand, some scientists, like [Andrei Linde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Linde "Andrei Linde"), have considered that [consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness "Consciousness"), like [spacetime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime "Spacetime"), might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Barrow,_Davies,_Harper-58) Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements",[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Barrow,_Davies,_Harper-58) often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Millay,_Heinze-59) [Electromagnetic theories of consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_theories_of_consciousness "Electromagnetic theories of consciousness") solve the [binding problem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem "Binding problem") of consciousness in saying that the [electromagnetic field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_field "Electromagnetic field") generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-60)[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Buccheri_&_Di_Ges%C3%B9_&_Saniga-61) [Quantum mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind "Quantum mind") theories use [quantum theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics") in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will") through [quantum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum "Quantum") phenomena is an alternative to [determinism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism "Determinism").
#### Parapsychology
Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a [cosmic consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_consciousness "Cosmic consciousness"), asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Walker-14)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bruce-62)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ho-63) Proponents of this view cite accounts of [paranormal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranormal "Paranormal") phenomena, primarily [extrasensory perceptions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrasensory_perception "Extrasensory perception") and [psychic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychic "Psychic") powers, as evidence for an [incorporeal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporeal "Incorporeal") [higher consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_consciousness "Higher consciousness"). In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, [parapsychologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychologist "Parapsychologist") have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Akers-64)[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-65)[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-67)
### Nature of meaning in life
Reker and [Wong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_T._P._Wong "Paul T. P. Wong") define personal meaning as the "cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment" (p. 221).[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-68) In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance.[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-69) In contrast, Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life,[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-70)[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:3-71) with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE):
1. You need to choose a worthy *purpose* or a significant life goal.
2. You need to have sufficient *understanding* of who you are, what life demands of you, and how you can play a significant role in life.
3. You and you alone are *responsible* for deciding what kind of life you want to live, and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal.
4. You will *enjoy* a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for [self-determination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") and actively pursue a worthy life-goal.
Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor.
Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g., [Thaddeus Metz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Metz "Thaddeus Metz"), Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-72)[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-73) Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective [normative standard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics "Normative ethics").[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:3-71)
## Western philosophical perspectives
Philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans.
### Ancient Greek philosophy
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg)
Plato and Aristotle in *[The School of Athens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_School_of_Athens "The School of Athens")* fresco by [Raphael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael "Raphael"). Plato is pointing heavenwards, and Aristotle is gesturing to the world.
#### Platonism
Main article: [Platonism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism "Platonism")
[Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato "Plato"), a pupil of [Socrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates "Socrates"), was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his [idealism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_idealism "Philosophical idealism") of believing in the existence of [universals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universals_\(metaphysics\) "Universals (metaphysics)"). His [theory of forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_forms "Theory of forms") proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the [dialogue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue "Dialogue") of the *[Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_\(Plato\) "Republic (Plato)")*, the character of Socrates describes the [Form of the Good](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_the_Good "Form of the Good"). His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life.
In [Platonism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism "Platonism"), the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the [Idea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_idealism "Platonic idealism") ([Form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_realism "Platonic realism")) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value.
#### Aristotelianism
Main article: [Aristotelian ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics "Aristotelian ethics")
[Aristotle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle"), an apprentice of [Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato "Plato"), was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not *certain* knowledge (such as [metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") and [epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology "Epistemology")), but is *general* knowledge. Because it is not a [theoretical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical "Theoretical") discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become "good"; thus, if the person were to become [virtuous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtuous "Virtuous"), he could not simply study what virtue *is*, he had to *be* virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous:
> Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor \[...\]
> Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is "good".
— *[Nicomachean Ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics "Nicomachean Ethics")* 1.1
Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B would have a goal, goal C, and goal C would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern until something stopped its [infinite regression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_regression "Infinite regression"). Aristotle's solution is the *[Highest Good](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summum_bonum "Summum bonum")*, which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other "goods" are desirable for its sake. This involves achieving *[eudaemonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaemonia "Eudaemonia")*, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence".
> What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is an almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness.
— *[Nicomachean Ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics "Nicomachean Ethics")* 1.4
#### Cynicism
Main article: [Cynicism (philosophy)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_\(philosophy\) "Cynicism (philosophy)")
[Antisthenes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisthenes "Antisthenes"), a pupil of [Socrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates "Socrates"), first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of [Virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue "Virtue") which agrees with [Nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature "Nature"). Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and mastering one's mental attitude; suffering results from false judgments of value, which cause negative [emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions "Emotions") and a concomitant vicious character.
The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for [wealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth "Wealth"), [power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_\(sociology\) "Power (sociology)"), [health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health "Health"), and [fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebrity "Celebrity"), by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-74)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-75) As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to [human](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") beings. The [world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World "World") equally belongs to everyone, so [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering "Suffering") is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the [customs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition "Tradition") and [conventions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_\(norm\) "Convention (norm)") of [society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society "Society").
#### Cyrenaicism
Main article: [Cyrenaics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrenaics "Cyrenaics")
[Aristippus of Cyrene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristippus_of_Cyrene "Aristippus of Cyrene"), a pupil of [Socrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates "Socrates"), founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings—that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a [hedonistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonistic "Hedonistic") world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-76)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-77)
#### Epicureanism
Main article: [Epicureanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicureanism "Epicureanism")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Agostino_Scilla._The_philosopher_Epicurus.jpg)
[Epicurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus "Epicurus") by Agostino Scilla, circa 1670–1680. The philosopher holds a text that reads "whatever you do, do wisely and think of consequences."
[Epicurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus "Epicurus"), a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear ([ataraxia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataraxia "Ataraxia")) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain ([aponia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aponia "Aponia")) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic "abstention" from sex and the appetites:
> "When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation. By pleasure, we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul."[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-78)
The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no [afterlife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife"), yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Russel-79)
#### Stoicism
Main article: [Stoicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism "Stoicism")
[Zeno of Citium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium "Zeno of Citium"), a pupil of [Crates of Thebes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes "Crates of Thebes"), established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal *[logos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logos "Logos")*, or reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is "freedom from [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering "Suffering")" through *[apatheia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apatheia "Apatheia")* (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being [objective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_\(philosophy\) "Objectivity (philosophy)") and having "clear judgement", *not* indifference.
Stoicism's prime directives are [virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue "Virtue"), [reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason "Reason"), and [natural law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law "Natural law"), abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive [emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion "Emotion"). The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.
The Stoic ethical foundation is that "good lies in the state of the soul", itself exemplified in [wisdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisdom "Wisdom") and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "*Virtue* consists in a *will* which is in agreement with Nature."[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Russel-79) The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Russel-79)
### Enlightenment philosophy
Further information: [Enlightenment philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlightenment_philosophy "Enlightenment philosophy")
The [Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment "Age of Enlightenment") and the [colonial era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism") both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship.
The meaning of life also changed, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era has theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.
#### Kantianism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg)
[Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant")
[Kantianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantianism "Kantianism") is a philosophy based on the [ethical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical "Ethical"), [epistemological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological "Epistemological"), and [metaphysical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") works of [Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant"). Kant is known for his [deontological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontology "Deontology") theory, where there is a single moral obligation, the "[Categorical Imperative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_Imperative "Categorical Imperative")", derived from the concept of [duty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty "Duty"). Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying [maxim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim_\(philosophy\) "Maxim (philosophy)") or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.
Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim—i.e., imagine that all people acted this way—and then see if it would still be possible to perform it in the world without contradiction. In *Groundwork*, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a [universal action](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_universalism "Moral universalism"), no person would lend money anymore, as they know that they will never be paid back. According to Kant, the maxim of this action results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).
Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.
### 19th-century philosophy
Further information: [19th-century philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th-century_philosophy "19th-century philosophy")
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appeared in [Thomas Carlyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle "Thomas Carlyle")'s *[Sartor Resartus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sartor_Resartus "Sartor Resartus")* (1833–August 1834): "Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle."[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-80)
#### Utilitarianism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill.jpg)
[Jeremy Bentham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham "Jeremy Bentham")
The origins of [utilitarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism "Utilitarianism") can be traced back as far as [Epicurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus "Epicurus"), but, as a school of thought, it is credited to [Jeremy Bentham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham "Jeremy Bentham"),[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-81) who found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"; then, from that moral insight, he derived the *Rule of Utility*: "that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". He defined the meaning of life as the "[greatest happiness principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_happiness_principle "Greatest happiness principle")".
[Jeremy Bentham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham "Jeremy Bentham")'s foremost proponent was [James Mill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Mill "James Mill"), a significant philosopher in his day, and father of [John Stuart Mill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill "John Stuart Mill"). The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mill-82)
#### Nihilism
[Nihilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism "Nihilism") suggests that life is without objective meaning.
[Friedrich Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche "Friedrich Nietzsche") characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values".[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bind%C3%A9-83) Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that [God is dead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_is_dead "God is dead"), and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values returned meaning to the Earth.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Reginster-84)
To [Martin Heidegger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger "Martin Heidegger"), nihilism is the movement whereby "[being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being "Being")" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bind%C3%A9-83) Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "[death of God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_is_dead "God is dead")" a potential source for nihilism:
> If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-85)
The French philosopher [Albert Camus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Camus "Albert Camus") asserts that the [absurdity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdity "Absurdity") of the [human condition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_condition "Human condition") is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as [Meursault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stranger_\(Camus_novel\) "The Stranger (Camus novel)"),[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-86) but also of values in a nihilistic world, that people can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-87)
### 20th-century philosophy
Further information: [20th-century philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_philosophy "20th-century philosophy")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_photo.jpg)
Philosopher [Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") said: "The good life is one inspired by [love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love "Love") and guided by [knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge "Knowledge")."
The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten humankind's relationship to the natural world. Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras;[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-88) and philosophy—particularly following the [linguistic turn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_turn "Linguistic turn")—has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in [pragmatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Pragmatism) and [logical positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Logical_positivism)) to efforts to meta-theorize about [meaning-making](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning-making "Meaning-making") as a personal, individual-driven activity ([existentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Existentialism), [secular humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Secular_humanism)).
#### Pragmatism
[Pragmatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism "Pragmatism") originated in the late-19th-century US, concerning itself (mostly) with [truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth "Truth"), and positing that "only in struggling with the environment" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that *consequences*, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that *anything* useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long run is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be *practically verifiable*—i.e., one should be able to predict and test claims—and, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.
Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. [William James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James "William James") argued that truth could be made, but not sought.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-James-89)[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Corti-90) To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.
#### Theism
Main article: [Philosophical theism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_theism "Philosophical theism")
Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. Some theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value, and purpose, then life would be absurd.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Theistic_Perspectives_on_the_Meaning_of_Life-91)
#### Existentialism
Main article: [Meaning (existential)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_\(existential\) "Meaning (existential)")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edvard_Munch_Friedrich_Nietzsche_Thielska_292.tif)
[Edvard Munch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvard_Munch "Edvard Munch"), *[Friedrich Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche "Friedrich Nietzsche")*, 1906
According to existentialism, each person creates their life's essence (meaning); life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, but one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are *action*, *freedom*, and *decision*, thus, existentialism opposes [rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism "Rationalism") and [positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism_\(philosophy\) "Positivism (philosophy)"). In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of [anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_\(mood\) "Anxiety (mood)") and [dread](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angst "Angst"), felt in considering one's [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will"), and the concomitant awareness of death. According to [Jean-Paul Sartre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre "Jean-Paul Sartre"), [existence precedes essence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence "Existence precedes essence"); the ([essence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence "Essence")) of one's life arises *only* after one comes to [existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence").
[Søren Kierkegaard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard "Søren Kierkegaard") spoke about a "[leap](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard#Misattributed "q:Søren Kierkegaard")", arguing that [life is full of absurdity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism "Absurdism"), and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Hall-92)
[Arthur Schopenhauer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer "Arthur Schopenhauer") answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and [asceticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asceticism "Asceticism").[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Jacquette-93)[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Murray-94)
For [Friedrich Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche "Friedrich Nietzsche"), life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, [all ideations take place from a particular perspective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectivism "Perspectivism").[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Reginster-84)
#### Absurdism
Main article: [Absurdism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism "Absurdism")
> "... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible—no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other—no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek the help he would prefer to be himself—with all the tortures of hell if so it must be."
[Søren Kierkegaard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard "Søren Kierkegaard"), *[The Sickness Unto Death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sickness_Unto_Death "The Sickness Unto Death")*[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-KierkegaardSuD-95)
In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe. Humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma as beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, *[The Sickness Unto Death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sickness_Unto_Death "The Sickness Unto Death")* (1849) and *[The Myth of Sisyphus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Myth_of_Sisyphus "The Myth of Sisyphus")* (1942):
- [Suicide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") (or, "escaping existence"): a solution in which a person simply ends one's own life. Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option.
- [Religious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious "Religious") belief in a [transcendent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_\(religion\) "Transcendence (religion)") realm or being: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now commonly referred to as a "[leap of faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_of_faith "Leap of faith")"). However, Camus regarded this solution as "philosophical suicide".
- Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this solution (notably in his 1947 allegorical novel *The Plague* or *La Peste*), while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as "demoniac madness": "*He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him\!*"[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-96)
#### Secular humanism
Further information: [Secular humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_humanism "Secular humanism")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HumanismSymbol.svg)
The "[Happy Human](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Human "Happy Human")" symbol representing secular humanism
Per secular humanism, the [human species](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of [unguided evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution "Evolution") as an integral expression of [nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature "Nature"), which is self-existing.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto1-97)[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto2-98) Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the [scientific method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method "Scientific method")), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the [universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe "Universe") is what people discern it to be.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto1-97) Likewise, "[values](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_value_\(ethics\) "Intrinsic value (ethics)") and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto1-97) and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by [critical intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking "Critical thinking").[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto3-99)[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-CDSH-100) "As far as we know, the total personality is \[a function\] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto2-98)
People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life which [humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_humanism "Secular humanism") seeks to develop and fulfill:[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto1-97) "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity".[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto3-99) Humanism aims to promote [enlightened self-interest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlightened_self-interest "Enlightened self-interest") and the [common good](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_good "Common good") for all people. It is based on the premises that the [happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness "Happiness") of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in [personal relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship "Interpersonal relationship") and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture "Culture").[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto2-98)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto3-99)
The philosophical subgenres [posthumanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posthumanism "Posthumanism") and [transhumanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism "Transhumanism") (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of [humanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") and of [all life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrism_\(ethics\) "Biocentrism (ethics)") to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile [Renaissance humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_humanism "Renaissance humanism") with the 21st century's [technoscientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscientific "Technoscientific") culture. In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life".[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-101)
From a [humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_humanism "Secular humanism")\-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of *my* life?"[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-102) This approach emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this question. For example, [Viktor Frankl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl "Viktor Frankl") argues for "Dereflection", which translates largely as to cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what is the meaning of life?—evaporates when one is fully engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?"; "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; "Why do I neglect loved-ones?".)[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-103)
#### Logical positivism
[Logical positivists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivists "Logical positivists") ask: "What is the meaning of life?", "What is the meaning in asking?"[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-104)[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-105) and "If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?"[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-106) [Ludwig Wittgenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein "Ludwig Wittgenstein") and the logical positivists said:\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] "Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because, *in* life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the *consequences* of x, or the *significance* of x, or *what is notable* about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes [recursive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion "Recursion"), and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.
The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only *in* life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. [Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Russel-79)
> When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case—or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to "values"—that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects—lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-107)
#### Postmodernism
Further information: [Postmodernism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism "Postmodernism")
Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human nature as constructed by language or structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out *[a priori](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori "A priori and a posteriori")* or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing *given* meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a "meaning of life", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see [awareness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awareness "Awareness") of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in [deconstructionism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstructionism "Deconstructionism")) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in [poststructuralism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poststructuralism "Poststructuralism")).
#### Naturalistic pantheism
According to [naturalistic pantheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistic_pantheism "Naturalistic pantheism"), the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.
#### Embodied cognition
[Embodied cognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition "Embodied cognition") uses the neurological basis of emotion, speech, and cognition to understand the nature of thought. [Cognitive neuropsychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuropsychology "Cognitive neuropsychology") has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities, and genetic studies show that the gene [FOXP2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOXP2 "FOXP2") affects neuroplasticity, which underlies language fluency.
[George Lakoff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lakoff "George Lakoff"), a professor of [cognitive linguistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics "Cognitive linguistics") and philosophy, advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning, not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-108) Computers use [logic programming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_programming "Logic programming") to effectively query databases, but humans rely on a trained [biological neural network](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neural_network "Biological neural network"). Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of [symbolic language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_language_\(literature\) "Symbolic language (literature)") to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their [interlocutors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlocutor_\(linguistics\) "Interlocutor (linguistics)") know what they mean.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-109) Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains. When combined with more effective training, a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one's life should be straightforward.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
## East Asian philosophical perspectives
Further information: [Chinese philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy "Chinese philosophy"), [Japanese philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_philosophy "Japanese philosophy"), and [Ikigai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikigai "Ikigai")
### Mohism
Further information: [Mohism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohism "Mohism")
The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartial [love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love "Love"). Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring—a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship with them.[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-philosophers-110) The expression of this indiscriminate caring makes one righteous in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the [Confucians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian "Confucian") who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers.
### Confucianism
Further information: [Confucianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism "Confucianism")
[Confucianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism "Confucianism") recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning, as well as minimizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar [Tu Wei-Ming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu_Wei-Ming "Tu Wei-Ming")'s quote, "We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-111)
### Legalism
Further information: [Legalism (Chinese philosophy)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_\(Chinese_philosophy\) "Legalism (Chinese philosophy)")
The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practical knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the function and performance of the state.
## Religious perspectives
The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans. According to the [Charter for Compassion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_for_Compassion "Charter for Compassion"), signed by many of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, the core of religion is the [golden rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rule "Golden rule") of "treat others as you would have them treat you".\[*[full citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] [Karen Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Armstrong "Karen Armstrong"), founder of the Charter, recalls the teaching of [Rabbi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbi "Rabbi") [Hillel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder "Hillel the Elder") recorded in [Shabbat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat_\(Talmud\) "Shabbat (Talmud)") 31a:6 of the [Talmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud "Talmud"): the essence of the [Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah "Torah") is simply to be good to others; "everything else is just commentary."[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-112) This is not to reduce the commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation, and ritual are the means by which religious people [internalize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalisation_\(sociology\) "Internalisation (sociology)") and live the golden rule.
### Abrahamic religions
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ReligionSymbolAbr.PNG)
Symbols of the three largest Abrahamic religions: [Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism "Judaism"), [Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), and [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam "Islam").
Further information: [Abrahamic religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religion "Abrahamic religion")
#### Judaism
In the [Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") and its [philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_philosophy "Jewish philosophy"), the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ([Hebrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"): עולם הזה, [romanized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew "Romanization of Hebrew"):*olam ha-zeh*, [lit.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation "Literal translation")'this world') and prepare it for the [Messianic Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messianic_Age#Judaism "Messianic Age") (no: יְמוֹת הַמָשִׁיחַ, [romanized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew "Romanization of Hebrew"):*ye'moht ha-mashiaḥ*) and [World to Come](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_eschatology#World_to_Come "Jewish eschatology") (no: עולם הבא, [romanized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew "Romanization of Hebrew"):*olam ha-ba*, [lit.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation "Literal translation")'coming world'). Engaging in *[tikkun olam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikkun_olam "Tikkun olam")* (no: תִּיקּוּן עוֹלָם, [lit.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation "Literal translation")'repairing the world') is a component of bringing [Jewish eschatology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_eschatology "Jewish eschatology") to bear. *Olam ha-ba* can also refer more generally to the afterlife, and there is debate concerning the order of Jewish eschatological events. However, while personal salvation is a component of Judaism, communal (between humans) and individual (between humans and God) spiritualised actions in this world are its focus.
Judaism's defining feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible, [transcendent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_\(religion\) "Transcendence (religion)"), unified, and indivisible [absolute Being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Judaism "God in Judaism") who created and governs the universe. Closeness with the God of [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_peoplehood "Jewish peoplehood") is sought through [prayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_prayer "Jewish prayer"), [Torah study](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah_study "Torah study"), Jewish cultural rites, and adherence to God's *[mitzvot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzvot "Mitzvot")* (divine laws). In traditional Judaism, God established a special [covenant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covenant_\(Israel\) "Covenant (Israel)") with the people of Israel during the [theophany at Sinai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophany_at_Sinai "Theophany at Sinai"), giving the [613 mitzvot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_mitzvot "613 mitzvot"). "Torah" comprises the [written Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_Torah "Written Torah") and the transcribed [Oral Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_Torah "Oral Torah"), further developed through the generations, as well as the other books of the [Tanakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanakh "Tanakh"), the [Midrash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrash "Midrash"), other [Rabbinic literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbinic_literature "Rabbinic literature"), and *[Halakha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha "Halakha")*. The Jewish people are intended as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation"[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-113) and a "[light to the Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_Unto_the_Nations "Light Unto the Nations")", influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio-ethical [Seven Laws of Noah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah "Seven Laws of Noah"). The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God.
Jewish observance involves ethical and ritual, affirmative, and prohibitive injunctions. Modern [Jewish denominations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_denominations "Jewish denominations") differ over the nature, relevance, and emphases of *mitzvot*. [Jewish philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_philosophy "Jewish philosophy") emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] The rationalist [Maimonides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides "Maimonides") viewed the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary but insufficient foundation for a philosophical understanding of God, along with its love and awe.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-114) Among fundamental [values](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_ethics "Jewish ethics") in the Torah are the pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cohn-Sherbok-115)[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Heschel-116) The world to come,[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Shuchat-117) prepared in the present, elevates religious Jews to an everlasting connection with God.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Braham-118) [Simeon the Just](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon_the_Just "Simeon the Just") says, "The world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness." The [prayer book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddur "Siddur") relates, "Blessed is our God who created us for his honor ... and planted within us everlasting life." In this context, the [Talmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud "Talmud") states, "Everything that God does is for the good," including suffering.
The Jewish mystical [Kabbalah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah "Kabbalah") gives complementary esoteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing an [immanent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_immanence "Divine immanence") relationship with God (personal [theism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theism "Theism")), in Kabbalah, the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being ([panentheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panentheism "Panentheism")), related to the [Shekhinah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shekhinah "Shekhinah") (Divine feminine). Jewish observance unites the [sephirot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephirot "Sephirot") (Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. In [Lurianic Kabbalah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurianic_Kabbalah "Lurianic Kabbalah"), the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (the [Kelipot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelipot "Kelipot") shells), through the actions of Jewish observance.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-119) Through this, in [Hasidic Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism "Hasidic Judaism") the ultimate essential "desire" of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-120)
#### Christianity
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christ_the_Redeemer_-_Cristo_Redentor.jpg)
*[Christ the Redeemer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_the_Redeemer_\(statue\) "Christ the Redeemer (statue)")* statue in [Rio de Janeiro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro") is symbolic of Christianity,[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-121) illustrating the concept of seeking [redemption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redemption_\(theology\) "Redemption (theology)") through [Jesus Christ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ "Jesus Christ").
[Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's [ontology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology "Ontology"). Its central beliefs derive from the teachings of [Jesus Christ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ "Jesus Christ") as presented in the [New Testament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament"). Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine [salvation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity "Salvation in Christianity") through the grace of God and intercession of Christ.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-122) The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's [sins are forgiven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity "Atonement in Christianity").[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-123)
In the Christian view, humankind was made in the [Image of God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_of_God "Image of God") and perfect, but the [Fall of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Man "Fall of Man") caused the progeny of the [First Parents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_and_Eve "Adam and Eve") to inherit [Original Sin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Sin "Original Sin") and its consequences. Christ's [passion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_of_Jesus "Passion of Jesus"), [death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus "Crucifixion of Jesus") and [resurrection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus "Resurrection of Jesus") provide the means for transcending that impure state ([Romans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans "Epistle to the Romans") 6:23). That this restoration from sin is possible is called the [gospel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel "Gospel").
The Apostle Paul explains the meaning of life in his speech on the [Areopagus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areopagus "Areopagus") in [Athens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens "Athens"): "And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us."[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-124)
##### Denominations
The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between different [denominations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations "List of Christian denominations") of Christians, but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point. Salvation through faith in God is found in [Ephesians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Ephesians "Epistle to the Ephesians") 2:8–9\[8\] "For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God;\[9\] not as a result of works, that no one should boast." ([NASB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_American_Standard_Bible "New American Standard Bible"); 1973). The gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, thereby allowing believers to be [regenerated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_\(theology\) "Regeneration (theology)") by God and to instill in them a new heart after God's own will with the ability to live righteously before him. This is what the term [saved](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity "Salvation in Christianity") almost always refer to.
In Reformed theology, it is believed the purpose of life is to glorify God. In the *[Westminster Shorter Catechism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Shorter_Catechism "Westminster Shorter Catechism")*, an important creed for Reformed Christians,[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-125) the first question is: "What is the chief end of Man?" (that is, "What is Man's main purpose?"). The answer is: "Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever". God requires one to obey the revealed moral law, saying: "Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as yourself".[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Westminster-126) The *[Baltimore Catechism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_Catechism "Baltimore Catechism")* answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven."[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-127)
[Catholicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism "Catholicism")'s meaning of life is explained in Catechism of the Catholic Church paragraph 294. The Universe exists for the manifestation and communication of God's glory, while mankind exists for the [beatific vision](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatific_vision "Beatific vision").[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-128) Catechism of the Catholic Church 601 explains the meaning of Jesus' life: to fulfill the Scripture, in particular the plan of salvation.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-129)
[Mormonism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormonism "Mormonism") teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gospel_Principles-130) Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him. Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their development—wherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gospel_Principles-130) The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise; rather, the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil.[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-131)[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-132) Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world,[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-133) so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential.
A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering;[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-134) nonetheless, the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the [propitiatory sacrifice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propitiation "Propitiation") of Jesus' death on the cross.
#### Islam
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supplicating_Pilgrim_at_Masjid_Al_Haram._Mecca,_Saudi_Arabia.jpg)
Supplicating [Pilgrim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim "Pilgrim") at [Masjid Al Haram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masjid_Al_Haram "Masjid Al Haram"). [Mecca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca "Mecca")
In [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam "Islam"), humanity's ultimate purpose is to worship their creator, [Allah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah "Allah") (English: The God), through his signs, and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion. This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in the [Qur'an](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an "Qur'an") and the tradition of the [Prophet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad "Muhammad") (with the exception of [Quranists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quranism "Quranism")). Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter. A person will either be close to him and his love in *[Jannah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jannah "Jannah")* (Paradise) or far away in *[Jahannam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahannam "Jahannam")* (Hell).
For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his [angels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels_in_Islam "Angels in Islam"), his [messengers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_in_Islam "Prophets in Islam"), and in the "[Day of Judgment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiyamah "Qiyamah")".[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-135) The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things, who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving." (Qur'an 67:1–2) and "And I (Allâh) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient (to Allah)." (Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to the [oneness of God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid "Tawhid") in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one *acts* (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell).[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-136)\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] However, on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-137)
The [Five Pillars of Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam "Five Pillars of Islam") are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: [Shahadah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahada "Shahada") (profession of faith); [Salat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salah "Salah") (ritual prayer); [Zakat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakat "Zakat") (charity); [Sawm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawm "Sawm") (fasting during [Ramadan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan "Ramadan")), and [Hajj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajj "Hajj") (pilgrimage to [Mecca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca "Mecca")).[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-138) They derive from the [Hadith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith "Hadith") works, notably of [Sahih Al-Bukhari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_Al-Bukhari "Sahih Al-Bukhari") and [Sahih Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_Muslim "Sahih Muslim"). The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran.
Beliefs differ among the [Kalam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam "Kalam"). The [Sunni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni "Sunni") and the [Ahmadiyya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmadiyya "Ahmadiyya") concept of pre-destination is [divine decree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadr_\(doctrine\) "Qadr (doctrine)");[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-139) the [Shi'a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi%27a "Shi'a") concept of pre-destination is [divine justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adalah_\(Islam\) "Adalah (Islam)"); in the [esoteric](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoteric "Esoteric") view of the [Sufis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi "Sufi"), the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.
The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the [hadith qudsi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith_qudsi "Hadith qudsi") that states "I (God) was [a Hidden Treasure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Hidden_Treasure "A Hidden Treasure") and loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known." One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as ['Abdu'l-Bahá](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1 "'Abdu'l-Bahá") of the [Baháʼí Faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith "Baháʼí Faith"),[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Commentary_on_the_Islamic_Tradition_"I_Was_a_Hidden_Treasure_..."-140) and in [Ibn'Arabī](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Arabi "Ibn Arabi")'s Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-SUMMARY_OF_THE_FUS%C3%9BS-141) According to Shaykh [Ibrahim Niass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Niass "Ibrahim Niass"), worship of God is closely linked to [ma'rifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27rifa "Ma'rifa"),[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-142) therefore the perfection of the aspirant's knowledge of God is conditional upon his attainment of ma'rifa.
#### Baháʼí Faith
The [Baháʼí Faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith "Baháʼí Faith") emphasizes the unity of humanity.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-143) To Baháʼís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. People's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and the [prophets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifestation_of_God_\(Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith\) "Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)") were sent by God to facilitate this.[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-144)[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-145)
### South Asian religions
Further information: [Indian religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_religions "Indian religions") and [Indian philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy "Indian philosophy")
#### Hindu philosophies
Further information: [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), [Hindu philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy "Hindu philosophy"), and [Dharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma "Dharma")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golden_Aum.png)
A golden [Aum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Om "Om") written in [Devanagari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devanagari "Devanagari"). The Aum is sacred in [Hindu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), [Jain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism "Jainism") and [Buddhist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") religions.
[Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive, and tolerant in content.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-weightman-146) Most believe that the [ātman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_\(Hinduism\) "Ātman (Hinduism)") (spirit, soul)—the person's true *self*—is eternal.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-monierwilliams-147) In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as the *[purusharthas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purusharthas "Purusharthas")* (ordered from least to greatest): (i) *[Kāma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81ma "Kāma")* (wish, desire, love and sensual pleasure), (ii) *[Artha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artha "Artha")* (wealth, prosperity, glory), (iii) *[Dharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma "Dharma")* (righteousness, duty, morality, [virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue "Virtue"), [ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics "Ethics")), encompassing notions such as *[ahimsa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahimsa "Ahimsa")* (non-violence) and [satya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satya "Satya") (truth) and (iv) *[Moksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha "Moksha")* (liberation, i.e. liberation from [Saṃsāra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra "Saṃsāra"), the cycle of [reincarnation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation "Reincarnation")).[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-148)[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-149)[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-150)
In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of [karma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma "Karma") (causal action), [sansara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sansara "Sansara") (the cycle of birth and rebirth), and [moksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha "Moksha") (liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (similar to the western concept of a [soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_\(spirit\) "Soul (spirit)")) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader [yogas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga "Yoga") (practices) or [dharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma "Dharma") (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship [Devas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_\(Hinduism\) "Deva (Hinduism)") which are manifestations of [Ishvara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishvara "Ishvara") (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.
In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself. This thought is conveyed in the [Mahāvākyas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81v%C4%81kyas "Mahāvākyas") ("[Tat Tvam Asi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tat_Tvam_Asi "Tat Tvam Asi")" (thou art that), "Aham Brahmāsmi", "Prajñānam Brahma" and "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (This Ātman is Brahman)).
##### Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism
Further information: [Advaita Vedanta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta "Advaita Vedanta") and [Dvaita Vedanta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta "Dvaita Vedanta")
Later schools reinterpreted the [vedas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas "Vedas") to focus on [Brahman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman "Brahman"), "The One Without a Second",[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-bhaskaranandaessential-151) as a central God-like figure.
In [monist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monist "Monist") Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's [Ātman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_\(Hinduism\) "Ātman (Hinduism)") (soul) is identical to [Brahman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman "Brahman").[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-152) To the [Upanishads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanishads "Upanishads"), whoever becomes fully aware of the Ātman, as one's core of self, realizes identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves [Moksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha "Moksha") (liberation, freedom).[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-monierwilliams-147)[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-werner-153)[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-154)
Dvaita Vedanta and other [bhakti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti "Bhakti") schools have a [dualist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_dualism "Theistic dualism") interpretation. [Brahman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman "Brahman") is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The Ātman depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through the love of God and upon His grace.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-werner-153)
##### Vaishnavism
[Vaishnavism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishnavism "Vaishnavism") is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification of [Vishnu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu "Vishnu") or [Narayana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narayana "Narayana") as the one supreme God. This belief contrasts with the [Krishna-centered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnaism "Krishnaism") traditions, such as [Vallabha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallabha "Vallabha"), [Nimbaraka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimbaraka "Nimbaraka") and [Gaudiya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudiya "Gaudiya"), in which [Krishna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna "Krishna") is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the [source of all avataras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svayam_Bhagavan "Svayam Bhagavan").[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-155)
Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as [monotheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheism "Monotheism"), [reincarnation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation "Reincarnation"), [samsara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsara "Samsara"), [karma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma "Karma"), and the various [Yoga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga "Yoga") systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion ([bhakti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti "Bhakti")) to Vishnu through the process of [Bhakti yoga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti_yoga "Bhakti yoga"), often including singing Vishnu's name's ([bhajan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhajan "Bhajan")), meditating upon his form ([dharana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharana "Dharana")) and performing [deity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deity "Deity") worship ([puja](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puja_\(Hinduism\) "Puja (Hinduism)")). The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as [Pañcaratra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C3%B1caratra "Pañcaratra") and various [Samhitas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samhita "Samhita").[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-156)
One popular school of thought, [Gaudiya Vaishnavism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudiya_Vaishnavism "Gaudiya Vaishnavism"), teaches the concept of [Achintya Bheda Abheda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda "Achintya Bheda Abheda"). In this, Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna. Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion. The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating, and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna.
#### Jainism
Further information: [Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism "Jainism") and [Jain philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_philosophy "Jain philosophy")
[Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism "Jainism") is a religion originating in [ancient India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_India "Iron Age India"), its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the [ascetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asceticism "Asceticism") teachings of [Jina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirthankara "Tirthankara"), a [human](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") achieves [enlightenment (perfect knowledge)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksa_\(Jainism\) "Moksa (Jainism)"). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the living becomes attached to the non-living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-157)
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal [soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_\(spirit\) "Soul (spirit)"), *[jiva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiva "Jiva")*. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining [Moksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksa_\(Jainism\) "Moksa (Jainism)"). The [Jain view of karma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism "Karma in Jainism") is that every action, every word, every thought has effect on the soul.
Jainism includes strict adherence to [ahimsa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism "Ahimsa in Jainism") (or *ahinsā*), a form of [nonviolence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonviolence "Nonviolence") that goes far beyond [vegetarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarianism "Vegetarianism"). Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to [veganism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veganism "Veganism") due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude [root vegetables](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_vegetable "Root vegetable") from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-158)
#### Buddhism
##### Early Buddhism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tian_Tan_Buddha_by_Beria.jpg)
Statue of [Gautama Buddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha "Gautama Buddha")
Buddhists practice embracing mindfulness, the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that is present in life. Buddhists practice seeing the causes of ill-being and well-being in life. For example, one of the causes of suffering is an unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material. The Buddhist [sūtras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%ABtras "Sūtras") and [tantras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantras_\(Buddhism\) "Tantras (Buddhism)") do not speak about "the meaning of life" or "the purpose of life", but about the potential of human life to end suffering, for example through embracing (not suppressing or denying) cravings and conceptual attachments. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of [Nirvana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana "Nirvana"). Nirvana means freedom from both [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukkha "Dukkha") and [rebirth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebirth_\(Buddhism\) "Rebirth (Buddhism)").[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-159)
[Theravada Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada "Theravada") is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of [Vibhajjavada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibhajjavada "Vibhajjavada") ([Pali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81li "Pāli")), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the [Four Noble Truths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths "Four Noble Truths"). This is attained in the achievement of [Nirvana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana "Nirvana"), or Unbinding which also ends the [repeated cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation "Reincarnation") of birth, old age, sickness, and death. The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the [Noble Eightfold Path](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path "Noble Eightfold Path").
##### Mahayana Buddhism
Further information: [Mahayana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana "Mahayana")
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in [Theravada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada "Theravada")) of the release from individual Suffering ([Duhkha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha "Duḥkha")) and attainment of Awakening ([Nirvana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana "Nirvana")). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, [omnipresent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnipresent "Omnipresent") being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent [Buddha-nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha-nature "Buddha-nature"), which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-160)
Devotional schools such as [Pure Land Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism "Pure Land Buddhism") seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-161)
#### Sikhism
The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten [Sikh Gurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Gurus "Sikh Gurus"), or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the *[Gurū Granth Sāhib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur%C5%AB_Granth_S%C4%81hib "Gurū Granth Sāhib")*, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Singh-162) Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before [God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waheguru "Waheguru").[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mayled-163) Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-164)
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-[anthropomorphic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism#In_religion_and_mythology "Anthropomorphism") concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the [Universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe "Universe") itself ([pantheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheism "Pantheism")). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-p252-165) [Nanak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru_Nanak_Dev "Guru Nanak Dev") described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must [meditate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditate "Meditate") to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-p252-165)
### East Asian religions
#### Taoism
[Taoist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoist "Taoist") [cosmogony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmogony "Cosmogony") emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all men to return to the *primordial* or to rejoin with the *Oneness* of the Universe by way of self-cultivation and self-realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
Taoists believe all things were originally from [Taiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiji_\(philosophy\) "Taiji (philosophy)") and [Tao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao "Tao"), and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves."[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ming-Dao-166)
#### Shinto
[Shinto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto "Shinto") is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of the [kami](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kami "Kami")", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The "divine" crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will"), choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process.
Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mason-167)
#### New religions
There are many [new religious movements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_religious_movements "New religious movements") in East Asia, and some with millions of followers: [Chondogyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondogyo "Chondogyo"), [Tenrikyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenrikyo "Tenrikyo"), [Cao Đài](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_%C4%90%C3%A0i "Cao Đài"), and [Seicho-No-Ie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seicho-No-Ie "Seicho-No-Ie"). New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a [Joyous Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joyous_Life "Joyous Life") by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others.
### Iranian religions
Further information: [Iranian philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_philosophy "Iranian philosophy")
#### Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendent God, [Ahura Mazda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahura_Mazda "Ahura Mazda"), to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's creation is *[asha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asha "Asha")*, truth and order, and it is in conflict with its [antithesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antithesis "Antithesis"), *druj*, falsehood and disorder.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-168)
Since humanity possesses [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will"), people must be responsible for their moral choices. By using free will, people must take an active role in the universal conflict, with good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay.
## Popular views
"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?".[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-WITMOL-15) Some popular answers include:
### To realize one's potential and ideals
- To chase dreams.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To live one's dreams.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ellerton-170)
- To spend it for something that will outlast it.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To expand one's potential in life.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ellerton-170)
- To become the person you've always wanted to be.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Chandler-172)
- To become the best version of yourself.[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kelly-173)
- To seek happiness[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-174) and flourish.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Baggini-8)
- To be a true authentic human being.[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kultgen-175)
- To be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To follow or submit to our destiny.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cappannelli-176)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-West-177)[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Madorsky-178)
- To achieve [eudaimonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia "Eudaimonia"),[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-179) a flourishing of human spirit.
### To evolve, or to achieve biological perfection
- To [evolve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution "Introduction to evolution"),[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-180) changing from generation to generation.
- To [survive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-preservation "Self-preservation"),[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-181) that is, to live as long as possible,[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-182) including pursuit of [immortality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality "Immortality") (through scientific means).[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kurweil_&_Grossmann-183)
- To [live forever](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality "Immortality")[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kurweil_&_Grossmann-183) or die [trying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_extension "Life extension").[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Appleyard-184)
- To maximize one's genes' advantage in terms of natural selection, by having many children or indirect descendants via relatives.[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-185)
- To replicate, to reproduce.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169) "The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells."[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Lane-186)[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Weiss_&_Buchanan-187)[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ackerman-188)[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Rensberger-189)
### To seek wisdom and knowledge
- To expand one's perception of the world.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ellerton-170)
- To follow the clues and walk out the exit.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Chris_Grau-190)
- To learn as many things as possible in life.[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cooper_&_Hutchinson-191)
- To know as much as possible about as many things as possible.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Findling_&_Thackeray-192)
- To seek [wisdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisdom "Wisdom") and [knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge "Knowledge") and to tame the [mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind "Mind"), as to avoid [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering "Suffering") caused by [ignorance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignorance "Ignorance") and find [happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness "Happiness").[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dalai_Lama-193)
- To face our [fears](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear "Fear") and accept the [lessons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson "Lesson") life offers us.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cappannelli-176)
- To find the meaning or purpose of life.[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Simmons-194)[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bowell-195)
- To find a reason to live.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gibbs_&_Basinger_&_Fuller-196)
- To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Tang-197)
### To do good, to do the right thing
See also: [ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics "Ethics")
- To leave the world as a better place than you found it.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To benefit others.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Hua-11)
- To give more than you take.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To end suffering.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Roberts-198)[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Costigan-199)[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Jeffers_&_Smith-200)
- To create [equality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_equality "Social equality").[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Jeffrey-201)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Williams-202)[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Muller-203)
- To challenge [oppression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppression "Oppression").[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nash_&_Stewart-204)
- To [distribute wealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth "Redistribution of income and wealth").[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yao-205)[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Turner_&_Rojek-206)
- To be generous.[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Goonewardene-207)[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ferry-208)
- To contribute to the [well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being "Well-being") and spirit of others.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Stephan_&_Pace-209)[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-210)
- To help others,[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Baggini-8)[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ferry-208) to help one another.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Steinberg-211)
- To take every chance to help another while on your journey here.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To be creative and innovative.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Stephan_&_Pace-209)
- To forgive.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To accept and forgive human flaws.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Caunt-212)[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-213)
- To be emotionally sincere.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To be responsible.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To be honorable.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To [seek peace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacifism "Pacifism").[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
### Meanings relating to religion
- To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine.[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Halevi-214)
- To have a pure soul and experience God.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To understand the mystery of God.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cappannelli-176)
- To know or attain union with God.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Girard-215)[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kashmir_Shaivism-216)
- To know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mahadevan-217)
- To love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To love God[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Girard-215) and all of his creations.[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Scully-218)
- To glorify God by enjoying him forever.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Piper-219)
- To spread your religion and share it with others.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Harrison-220)[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Worsham2-221)
- To act justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with your God.[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Worsham-222)
- To be fruitful and multiply.[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Burke-223) ([Genesis 1:28](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%201:28&version=nrsv))
- To obtain freedom. ([Romans 8:20–21](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%208:20%E2%80%9321&version=nrsv))
- To fill the Earth and subdue it.[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Burke-223) ([Genesis 1:28](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%201:28&version=nrsv))
- To serve humankind,[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-224) to prepare to meet[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-225) and become more like God,[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-226)[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-227)[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-228)[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-229) to choose good over evil,[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-230) and have joy.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-231)[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-232)
- ˹He is the One˺ Who created death and life in order to test which of you is best in deeds. And He is the Almighty, All-Forgiving. —Quran [67:2](https://quran.com/67?startingVerse=2)
- To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Quran-233)
### To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living
- To love more.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To seek [beauty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty "Beauty") in all its forms.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To have fun or enjoy life.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cappannelli-176)[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Stephan_&_Pace-209)
- To seek pleasure[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171) and avoid pain.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mitchell-234)
- To be compassionate.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To love others as best we possibly can.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To eat, drink, and be merry.[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ecclesiastes8:15-235)
### To have power, to be better
- To [strive for power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_to_power "Will to power")[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Reginster-84) and superiority.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mitchell-234)
- To rule the world.[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-West-177)
- To know and master the world.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Harrison-220)[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dillon-236)
- To know and master nature.[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Aron-237)
- To help life become as powerful as possible.[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-238)
### Life has no meaning
- Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random [chance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_\(philosophy\) "Contingency (philosophy)") in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Tang-197)
- Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
### One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life
- The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Tang-197)
- You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- Ultimately, a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is, but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked. In a word, each person is questioned by life; and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life; to life they can only respond by being responsible.[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-239)
## In popular culture
The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject in [popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture "Popular culture"), featured in [entertainment media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media "Mass media") and [various forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts "The arts") of art.
*[Monty Python's The Meaning of Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python%27s_The_Meaning_of_Life "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life")* includes a character played by [Michael Palin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Palin "Michael Palin") being handed an envelope containing "the meaning of life", which she opens and reads out to the audience: "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-useless_website-240)[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Burnham-241)[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Fernandez-242)
In [Douglas Adams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adams "Douglas Adams")' book *[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy")*, the [Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answer_to_the_Ultimate_Question_of_Life,_the_Universe,_and_Everything "Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything") is given the numeric solution "[42](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/42_\(number\) "42 (number)")", after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giant [supercomputer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer "Supercomputer") called [Deep Thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_characters_from_The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy#Deep_Thought "Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy"). When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors, Deep Thought explains that "I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was."[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-243)[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Baggini-8)[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yeffeth-244)[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Badke-245)[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Adams_H2G2_book1-246) Deep Thought then constructs another computer—the Earth—to calculate what the Ultimate Question actually is. Later Ford and Arthur manage to extract the question as the Earth computer would have rendered it. That question turns out to be "what do you get if you multiply six by nine",[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-247) and it is realised that [the program was ruined by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_in,_garbage_out "Garbage in, garbage out") on Earth, and so the actual Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, And Everything remains unknown.
In [*Person of Interest*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person_of_Interest_\(TV_series\) "Person of Interest (TV series)") season 5 episode 13, an [artificial intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence "Artificial intelligence") referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is "Everyone dies alone. But if you mean something to someone, if you help someone, or love someone. If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all." This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-248)
## Related concepts
### Existential crisis
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Allan_Gilbert_-_All_is_Vanity.jpg)
[Charles Allan Gilbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Allan_Gilbert "Charles Allan Gilbert")'s *All is Vanity,* an example of *[vanitas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanitas "Vanitas"),* depicts a young woman amidst her makeup and perfumes, preoccupied with her own beauty at the mirror of her [vanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_table "Vanity table"). But all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear, expressing *[memento mori](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memento_mori "Memento mori")*, that no matter how good she looks, it will not last, as death is inevitable.
[Existential crises](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_crises "Existential crises") are crises of meaning. They are triggered by the impression that life lacks meaning.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-APAExistentialCrisis-249)[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Andrews2016-250)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Butenait%C4%972016-251) This impression can lead to an inner conflict because there is a strong [desire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire "Desire") to find some form of meaning in life. In the [existentialist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism "Existentialism") literature, the discrepancy between the individual's desire for meaning and the world's apparent lack thereof is termed [the absurd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism "Absurdism").[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-StanfordExistentialism-252)[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Blomme2013-253)[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-OxfordAbsurd-254) It may be summarized by the question "How does a being who needs meaning find meaning in a universe that has no meaning?".[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255) While this conflict may affect different people at least to some extent, it reaches a more severe level in the case of existential crises. This level leads to various negative [experiences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiences "Experiences"), such as [stress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_\(biology\) "Stress (biology)"), [anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety "Anxiety"), despair, and [depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\) "Depression (mood)").[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Andrews2016-250)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Butenait%C4%972016-251) In the more serious cases, these symptoms disturb the individual's normal functioning in everyday life. A positive side effect of these negative experiences is that they push the affected individual to address the underlying issue. This opens the opportunity of [developing as a person](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_development "Personal development") and improving one's way of life.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Greer-256)
Therapists often try to treat existential crises by helping their patients discover meaning in life. An important distinction in this regard is the difference between personal meaning and cosmic meaning.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-IEPNihilism-257) In the cosmic sense, the term "meaning of life" refers to the purpose of the world as a whole or why we are here. One way to solve an existential crisis is to discover a satisfying answer to this question. This often takes the form of a [religious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious "Religious") explanation involving a divine entity that created the world for a certain purpose.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yang2010-258)[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Zapffe1933-259) Another approach to solving existential crises is to seek meaning not on the cosmic but on the personal level. This usually takes a more secular form: the therapist helps the individual realize what matters to them or why their life is worth living.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-IEPNihilism-257)[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-BritannicaNihilism-260) In this regard, they may discover how their personal life can be meaningful, for example, by dedicating themselves to their family or their career. This approach may mitigate or solve an existential crisis even if the individual still lacks an answer to the bigger question of the deeper meaning behind everything.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Butenait%C4%972016-251)[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yang2010-258)
### Importance
The question of the meaning of life is closely related to the question of what has [importance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Importance "Importance") or what matters. This is reflected in the fact that finding meaning in life is often associated with dedicating oneself to some kind of higher purpose, which is seen as having special importance.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1981-262) Nonetheless, some theorists have argued that the two concepts are not identical.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1990-263) This distinction is often motivated by the observation that seeking the meaning of life is usually regarded as an admirable goal associated with [self-transcendence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-transcendence "Self-transcendence"). Craving importance, on the other hand, seems to be a more [egoistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoism "Egoism") or [narcissistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism "Narcissism") aim in comparison.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)
Various theorists have argued that to be important means to have an impact on the world or to make a difference. Some only require that this causal impact is big enough. Others include as an additional element that the difference in question has to affect the value of the world.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2021a-264)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1990-263)[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Benatar2017-265) This is often interpreted with reference to [well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being "Well-being"): the degree of importance of a thing is given by the extent to which it affects the well-being of sentient entities.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Benbaji2001-266)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1990-263)[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Tugendhat2016-267) However, the relation to a purpose is usually not required for importance. In this regard, some things may be important accidentally or [unintentionally](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention "Intention") without being guided by a higher goal. For example, a person may by chance bump into something and thereby unwittingly trigger a [butterfly effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_effect "Butterfly effect") of extreme proportions. In such a case, the person's life has acquired high importance due to the consequences it caused. Nonetheless, this does not imply that it has also acquired some form of deeper meaning or higher purpose.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)
Another difference is that seeking and realizing the meaning of life is usually seen by most theorists as a positive and worthwhile undertaking. Importance, however, can be either positive or negative depending on the type of value difference involved.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1990-263) For example, [Alexander Fleming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming "Alexander Fleming") was important in a positive sense since his discovery of [penicillin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin "Penicillin") helped many people cure their [bacterial infections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_infection "Bacterial infection").[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-268) [Adolf Hitler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler"), on the other hand, was important in a negative sense since his policies caused widespread suffering to innumerous people.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2021a-264)
## See also
- [Philosophy portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy "Portal:Philosophy")
Scientific explanations
- [*Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin%27s_Dangerous_Idea "Darwin's Dangerous Idea") – 1995 book by Daniel Dennett
- [*The Death of God and the Meaning of Life*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Death_of_God_and_the_Meaning_of_Life "The Death of God and the Meaning of Life") – 2014 book by Julian Young
- [*Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power,_Sex,_Suicide "Power, Sex, Suicide") – 2005 book by Nick Lane
- [*Sex, Death and the Meaning of Life*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex,_Death_and_the_Meaning_of_Life "Sex, Death and the Meaning of Life") – 2010 three-part television documentary
Origin and nature of life and reality
- [Abiogenesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis "Abiogenesis") – Life arising from non-living matter
- [Awareness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awareness "Awareness") – Perception or knowledge of something
- [Being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being "Being") – State of being realPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
- [Biosemiotics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosemiotics "Biosemiotics") – Biology interpreted as a sign system
- [Dao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dao "Dao") – Philosophical concept native to ChinaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
- [Existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence") – State of being real
- [Human condition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_condition "Human condition") – Ultimate concerns of human existence
- [Logos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logos "Logos") – Concept in philosophy, religion, rhetoric, and psychology
- [Metaphysical naturalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism "Metaphysical naturalism") – Philosophical worldview rejecting anything supernatural
- [Perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception "Perception") – Interpretation of sensory information
- [Reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality "Reality") – Sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent
- [Simulated reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulated_reality "Simulated reality") – Concept of a false version of reality
- [Theory of everything](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_everything "Theory of everything") – Hypothetical physical concept
- [Teleology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology "Teleology") – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose
- [Ultimate fate of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe "Ultimate fate of the universe") – Theories about the end of the universe
Value of life
- [Culture of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_life "Culture of life") – Way of life highlighting life's sanctity
- [Bioethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethics "Bioethics") – Study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and medicine
- [Meaningful life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaningful_life "Meaningful life") – Fulfilling life guided by a purpose
- [Quality of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life "Quality of life") – Degree of individual well-being
- [Value of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_of_life "Value of life") – Economic measure placing a monetary value on reducing the risk of deathPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Purpose of life
- [Destiny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny "Destiny") – Predetermined course of events
- [Ethical living](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_living "Ethical living")
- [Intentional living](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentional_living "Intentional living") – LifestylePages displaying short descriptions with no spaces
- [Life extension](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_extension "Life extension") – Concept of extending human lifespan
- [*Man's Search for Meaning*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27s_Search_for_Meaning "Man's Search for Meaning") – 1946 book by Viktor Frankl
- [Means to an end (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Means_to_an_end_\(disambiguation\) "Means to an end (disambiguation)")
- [Philosophy of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_life "Philosophy of life") – German philosophical movementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Miscellaneous
- [Human extinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction "Human extinction") – End of the human species
- [Ikigai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikigai "Ikigai") – Giving a sense of purpose (Japanese)
- [Life stance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_stance "Life stance") – Person's relation with what they accept as being of ultimate importance
- [Meaning-making](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning-making "Meaning-making") – Process of understanding changes in life
- [Perennial philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_philosophy "Perennial philosophy") – Idea that all religions share a single truth
- [Vale of tears](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vale_of_tears "Vale of tears") – Religious phrase in Christianity
- [World riddle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_riddle "World riddle") – Term in ontology and consciousness studies
- [Worldview](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldview "Worldview") – Fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society
## References
1. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:8_1-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:8_1-1)
O'Brien, Wendell. ["Meaning of Life, The: Early Continental and Analytic Perspectives"](https://iep.utm.edu/mean-ear/). *[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy")*. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-2)**
["Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle"](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1051/1051-h/1051-h.htm). *www.gutenberg.org*. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-3)**
Leach, Stephen; [Tartaglia, James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tartaglia "James Tartaglia") (2018). ["The Original Meaning of Life"](https://philosophynow.org/issues/126/The_Original_Meaning_of_Life). *[Philosophy Now](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_Now "Philosophy Now")*. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-4)**
["How meaning of life was invented: Thomas Carlyle on how to overcome an existential crisis"](https://frankmartela.com/2020/12/04/how-meaning-of-life-was-invented-thomas-carlyle-on-how-to-overcome-an-existential-crisis/). *Frank Martela*. 4 December 2020. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-5)**
["The Essays of Arthur Schopenhauer: on Human Nature., by Arthur Schopenhauer"](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10739/10739-h/10739-h.htm). *www.gutenberg.org*. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Westphal_6-0)**
Jonathan Westphal (1998). *Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy*. Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-415-17053-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17053-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17053-6")
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7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick_7-0)**
[Robert Nozick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Nozick "Robert Nozick") (1981). [*Philosophical Explanations*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Explanations "Philosophical Explanations"). Harvard University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-674-66479-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66479-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66479-1")
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8. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Baggini_8-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Baggini_8-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Baggini_8-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Baggini_8-3)
[Julian Baggini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Baggini "Julian Baggini") (2004). [*What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life*](https://archive.org/details/whatsitallaboutp0000bagg). US: Granta Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-86207-661-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-661-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-661-7")
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9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Thiemann_&_Placher_9-0)**
[Ronald F. Thiemann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_F._Thiemann "Ronald F. Thiemann"); [William Carl Placher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Placher "William Placher") (1998). *Why Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian Life*. Continuum International Publishing Group. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-56338-236-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56338-236-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-56338-236-9")
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10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Marcellino_10-0)**
Dennis Marcellino (1996). *Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand)*. Lighthouse Pub. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-945272-10-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-945272-10-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-945272-10-6")
.
11. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Hua_11-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Hua_11-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Hua_11-2)
Hsuan Hua (2003). [*Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism*](https://archive.org/details/wordsofwisdomv1b0000hsua). Dharma Realm Buddhist Association. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-88139-302-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88139-302-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-88139-302-6")
.
12. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Davies_12-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Davies_12-1)
[Paul Davies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Davies "Paul Davies") (2000). [*The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life*](https://web.archive.org/web/20010616025035/http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/d/davies-miracle.html). Simon & Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-684-86309-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86309-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86309-2")
. Archived from [the original](https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/d/davies-miracle.html) on 16 June 2001. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Christiansen_&_Baum_&_Bass-Haugen_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Christiansen_&_Baum_&_Bass-Haugen_13-1)
Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-Haugen (2005). *Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being*. SLACK Incorporated. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-55642-530-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55642-530-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-55642-530-1")
.
14. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Walker_14-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Walker_14-1)
[Evan Harris Walker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evan_Harris_Walker "Evan Harris Walker") (2000). *The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life*. Perseus Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7382-0436-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0436-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0436-9")
.
15. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-WITMOL_15-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-WITMOL_15-1)
["Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning of Life?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070824210257/http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm). *[Philosophy Now](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_Now "Philosophy Now")*. Issue 59. Archived from [the original](http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm) on 24 August 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
16. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Krishnamurti_16-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Krishnamurti_16-1)
[Jiddu Krishnamurti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddu_Krishnamurti "Jiddu Krishnamurti") (2001). *What Are You Doing With Your Life?*. Krishnamurti Foundation of America. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-888004-24-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-888004-24-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-888004-24-3")
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17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-UIUC_17-0)**
Puolimatka, Tapio; Airaksinen, Timo (2002). ["Education and the Meaning of Life"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070926154148/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf) (PDF). *Philosophy of Education*. [University of Helsinki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Helsinki "University of Helsinki"). Archived from [the original](http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf) (PDF) on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Van_Hooft_18-0)**
Stan Van Hooft (2004). *Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics*. Rodopi. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-90-420-1912-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1912-6 "Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1912-6")
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19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Shafer-Landau_&_Cuneo_19-0)**
Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo (2007). *Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology*. Blackwell Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4051-2951-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2951-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2951-0")
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20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:6_20-0)** E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). "Subjective Well-Being Is Essential to Well-Being." *Psychological Inquiry*, Lawrence Erlbaum.
21. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cs%C3%ADkszentmih%C3%A1lyi,_Mih%C3%A1ly_1990_21-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cs%C3%ADkszentmih%C3%A1lyi,_Mih%C3%A1ly_1990_21-1)
Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). *Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience*. New York: Harper and Row.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-06-092043-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-092043-2 "Special:BookSources/0-06-092043-2")
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22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:4_22-0)**
Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). *Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification*. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-19-516701-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516701-5 "Special:BookSources/0-19-516701-5")
.
["See brief summary"](http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/psychology-research/list-of-personal-strengths.html).
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-23)**
Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). *Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.* New York: Free Press.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-7432-2297-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-2297-0 "Special:BookSources/0-7432-2297-0")
. Paperback edition, 2004, Free Press,
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-7432-2298-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-2298-9 "Special:BookSources/0-7432-2298-9")
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24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:5_24-0)**
Lu, Jun; Gao, Qin (1 May 2017). "Faith and Happiness in China: Roles of Religious Identity, Beliefs, and Practice". *Social Indicators Research*. **132** (1): 273–290\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1007/s11205-016-1372-8](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11205-016-1372-8). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1573-0921](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-0921). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [148091125](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148091125).
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:7_25-0)**
Rizvi, Mohd Ahsan Kabir; Hossain, Mohammad Zakir (1 October 2017). "Relationship Between Religious Belief and Happiness: A Systematic Literature Review". *Journal of Religion and Health*. **56** (5): 1561–1582\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1007/s10943-016-0332-6](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10943-016-0332-6). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1573-6571](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-6571). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [27909930](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909930). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [1389245](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1389245).
26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-26)**
Sutin, DAR; Luchetti, M; Aschwanden, D; Stephan, Y; Sesker, AA; Terracciano, A (February 2023). ["Sense of meaning and purpose in life and risk of incident dementia: New data and meta-analysis"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10015423). *Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics*. **105** 104847. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.archger.2022.104847](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.archger.2022.104847). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0167-4943](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0167-4943). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [10015423](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10015423). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [36347158](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347158).
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:0_27-0)** Boyle PA, Buchman AS, Barnes LL, Bennett DA. Effect of a purpose in life on risk of incident Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment in community-dwelling older persons. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2010;67:304–310.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:1_28-0)** Kim E, Sun J, Park N, [Kubzansky L](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Kubzansky "Laura Kubzansky"), Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older US adults with coronary heart disease: A two-year follow-up. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. (2):124–133.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:2_29-0)** Kim ES, Sun JK, Park N, Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced incidence of stroke in older adults: The Health and Retirement Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2013;74(5):427–432.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-30)** Boyle PA, Barnes LL, Buchman AS, Bennett DA. Purpose in life is associated with mortality among community-dwelling older persons. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2009;71:574–579.
31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-31)**
Sutin, Angelina R.; Luchetti, Martina; Stephan, Yannick; Terracciano, Antonio (13 September 2023). ["Change in Purpose in Life Before and After Onset of Cognitive Impairment"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10500383). *JAMA Network Open*. **6** (9): e2333489. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.33489](https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamanetworkopen.2023.33489). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [2574-3805](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2574-3805). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [10500383](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10500383). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [37703016](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37703016).
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-32)**
["Five steps to mental wellbeing"](http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/stress-anxiety-depression/Pages/improve-mental-wellbeing.aspx). *nhs.uk*. 21 December 2017.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-33)** [Charles Darwin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin "Charles Darwin") (1859). *[On the Origin of Species](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species "On the Origin of Species")*.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Dawkins_selfish_gene_34-0)**
[Richard Dawkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins "Richard Dawkins") (1976). [*The Selfish Gene*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene "The Selfish Gene"). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Dawkins_river_35-0)**
[Richard Dawkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins "Richard Dawkins") (1995). [*River out of Eden*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_out_of_Eden "River out of Eden"). New York: Basic Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-36)**
Dawkins, Richard (2006). [*The God Delusion*](https://archive.org/details/goddelusion00dawk_897). Houghton Mifflin. pp. [99](https://archive.org/details/goddelusion00dawk_897/page/n109)–100. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-618-68000-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-68000-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-618-68000-9")
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37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-37)**
["Complete Archive for Astrobiology Press Release, News Exclusive, News Briefs"](https://web.archive.org/web/20081013130816/http://www.astrobio.net/news/article226). *Astrobiology Magazine*. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-38)**
["Defining Life, Explaining Emergence"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120314095044/http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html). *nbi.dk*. Archived from [the original](http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html) on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-worldtransformation.com_39-0)**
Griffith J. (2012). ["What is the Meaning of Life?"](http://www.worldtransformation.com/what-is-the-meaning-of-life/). *The Book of Real Answers to Everything\!*. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-40)**
Schrödinger, Erwin (1992) \[1944\]. [*What is Life?*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dg2bYMwdaBwC). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-41)**
[Margulis, Lynn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Margulis "Lynn Margulis"); [Sagan, Dorion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorion_Sagan "Dorion Sagan") (1995). *What is Life?*. University of California Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-42)**
Lovelock, James (2000). *Gaia – a New Look at Life on Earth*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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43. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-43)**
Avery, John (2003). *Information Theory and Evolution*. World Scientific. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-981-238-399-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-238-399-0 "Special:BookSources/978-981-238-399-0")
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44. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-44)**
[O'Dowd, Matt, Ph.D.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_O%27Dowd_\(astrophysicist\) "Matt O'Dowd (astrophysicist)") (11 April 2018). ["The Physics of Life (ft. It's Okay to be Smart & PBS Eons!) Space Time"](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/GcfLZSL7YGw). PBS Space Time. Archived from [the original](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcfLZSL7YGw&t=3s&ab_channel=PBSSpaceTime) on 30 October 2021.
`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list "Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list"))
45. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-45)**
Davison, Paul G. ["How to Define Life"](https://web.archive.org/web/20081101024755/http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm). The University of North Alabama. Archived from [the original](http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm) on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
46. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-46)**
Neveu, M.; Kim, H.J.; Benner, S.A. (April 2013). "The "strong" RNA world hypothesis: fifty years old". *Astrobiology*. **13** (4): 391–403\. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2013AsBio..13..391N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AsBio..13..391N). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1089/ast.2012.0868](https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2012.0868). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [23551238](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23551238).
47. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-47)**
Cech, T.R. (July 2012). ["The RNA worlds in context"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3385955). *Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol*. **4** (7) a006742. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2012CSHPB...406742C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012CSHPB...406742C). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1101/cshperspect.a006742](https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a006742). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [3385955](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3385955). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [21441585](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21441585).
48. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bernstein1983_48-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bernstein1983_48-1)
Bernstein, Harris; Byerly, Henry C.; Hopf, Frederick A.; Michod, Richard A.; Vemulapalli, G. Krishna (June 1983). ["The Darwinian Dynamic"](https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/413216). *The Quarterly Review of Biology*. **58** (2): 185–207\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1086/413216](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F413216). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0033-5770](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-5770).
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Michod, Richard E. (30 January 2000). *Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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50. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-50)**
Helge Kragh (1996). [*Cosmology and Controversy*](https://archive.org/details/cosmologycontrov00helg). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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51. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Prantzos_&_Lyle_51-0)**
Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle (2000). *Our Cosmic Future: Humanity's Fate in the Universe*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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52. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Edwards_52-0)**
Rem B. Edwards (2001). *What Caused the Big Bang?*. Rodopi. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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53. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Poplawski_53-0)**
Poplawski, Nikodem J. (April 2010). *Radial motion into an Einstein-Rosen bridge, Physics Letters B*. Vol. 687. pp. 110–113\.
54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Whitehouse_54-0)**
Harvey Whitehouse (2001). [*The Debated Mind: Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography*](https://archive.org/details/debatedmindevolu0000unse). Berg Publishers. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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55. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gray_55-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gray_55-1)
[Jeffrey Alan Gray](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Alan_Gray "Jeffrey Alan Gray") (2004). *Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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56. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Churchland_56-0)**
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57. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Dennett_57-0)**
[Daniel Clement Dennett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Dennett "Daniel Dennett") (1991). [*Consciousness Explained*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness_Explained "Consciousness Explained"). Little, Brown and Co. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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58. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Barrow,_Davies,_Harper_58-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Barrow,_Davies,_Harper_58-1)
[John D. Barrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Barrow "John D. Barrow"); [Paul C.W. Davies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Davies "Paul Davies"); Charles L. Harper (2004). *Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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59. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Millay,_Heinze_59-0)**
Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze (1999). *Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace*. North Atlantic Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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60. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-60)**
McFadden, J. (2002). ["Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness"](https://web.archive.org/web/20051218171922/http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm). *Journal of Consciousness Studies*. **9** (4): 23–50\. Archived from the original on 18 December 2005.
61. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Buccheri_&_Di_Ges%C3%B9_&_Saniga_61-0)**
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62. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bruce_62-0)**
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63. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ho_63-0)**
[Mae-Wan Ho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mae-Wan_Ho "Mae-Wan Ho") (1998). [*The Rainbow and the Worm: The Physics of Organisms*](https://archive.org/details/rainbowwormphysi00homa_253). World Scientific. pp. [218](https://archive.org/details/rainbowwormphysi00homa_253/page/n239)–231. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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64. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Akers_64-0)**
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Child, I.L. (1987). "Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, 1975-1985". [*Advances in Parapsychological Research 5*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223410/http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html). PesquisaPSI. Archived from [the original](http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 30 July 2007.
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Wiseman, Richard; Smith, Matthew; et al. (1996). ["Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments – Psychophysical Research Laboratories"](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809). *The Journal of Parapsychology*. Retrieved 30 July 2007.
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68. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-68)** Reker, G.T., & Wong, P.T.P. (1988). Aging as an individual process: Towards a theory of personal meaning. In J.E. Birren, & V.L. Bengston (Eds.), *Emergent theories of aging* (pp. 214–246). New York: Springer.
69. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-69)** Martela, F., & Steger, M.F. (2016). The three meanings of meaning in life: Distinguishing coherence, purpose, and significance. *The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11*(5), 531–545.
70. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-70)** Wong, P.T.P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life. *Canadian Psychology, 52*(2), 69–81.
71. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:3_71-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:3_71-1) Wong, P.T.P. (2012). From Logotherapy to Meaning-Centered Counseling and Therapy. In P.T.P. Wong (Ed.), *The Human Quest for Meaning: Theories, Research, and Applications* (2nd ed., pp. 619–647). New York: Routledge.
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73. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-73)**
Haybron, Daniel M. (2013). *Happiness: A Very Short Introduction*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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74. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-74)** Kidd, I., "*Cynicism*," in *The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy,* (eds. [J.O. Urmson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.O._Urmson "J.O. Urmson") and [Jonathan Rée](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_R%C3%A9e "Jonathan Rée")), Routledge, (2005).
75. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-75)** Long, A.A., "*The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics,*" in *The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.* (eds. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).
76. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-76)**
["Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"](http://www.iep.utm.edu/). *utm.edu*.
77. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-77)**
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78. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-78)** [Epicurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus "Epicurus"), "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, *Lives of Eminent Philosophers*, Book X.
79. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Russel_79-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Russel_79-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Russel_79-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Russel_79-3) [Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") (1946). *[A History of Western Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Western_Philosophy_\(Russell\) "History of Western Philosophy (Russell)")*, New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin.
80. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-80)**
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81. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-81)**
Rosen, Frederick (2003). *Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill*. Routledge, p. 28.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-415-22094-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-22094-7 "Special:BookSources/0-415-22094-7")
. "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice."
82. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mill_82-0)** Mill, John Stuart. *On Liberty*, ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, ed.'s introduction, p. 11.
83. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bind%C3%A9_83-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bind%C3%A9_83-1)
Jérôme Bindé (2004). *The Future of Values: 21st-Century Talks*. Berghahn Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-57181-442-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-442-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-442-5")
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84. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Reginster_84-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Reginster_84-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Reginster_84-2)
[Bernard Reginster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Reginster "Bernard Reginster") (2006). *The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism*. Harvard University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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85. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-85)** Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61.
86. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-86)** Camus (1946) *L'Etranger.*
87. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-87)** Camus (1955) *The Myth of Sisyphus.*
88. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-88)** For example, see [hygiene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene "Hygiene"), [antibiotics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic "Antibiotic") and [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination").
89. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-James_89-0)**
[William James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James "William James") (1909). *The Meaning of Truth*. Prometheus Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-57392-138-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-138-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-138-1")
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`{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date "Help:CS1 errors"))
90. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Corti_90-0)**
Walter Robert Corti (1976). *The Philosophy of William James*. Meiner Verlag. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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91. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Theistic_Perspectives_on_the_Meaning_of_Life_91-0)**
["Philosophy 446: Theistic Perspectives on the Meaning of Life"](http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~morourke/446-phil/05%20Spring/Handouts/Philosophical/Theistic%20Perspectives-MOL.htm). *www.webpages.uidaho.edu*. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
92. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Hall_92-0)**
Amy Laura Hall (2002). *Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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93. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Jacquette_93-0)**
Dale Jacquette (1996). *Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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94. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Murray_94-0)**
Durno Murray (1999). *Nietzsche's Affirmative Morality*. Walter de Gruyter. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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95. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-KierkegaardSuD_95-0)**
[Kierkegaard, Søren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard "Søren Kierkegaard") (1941). [*The Sickness Unto Death*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.189042). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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`{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date "Help:CS1 errors"))
96. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-96)**
[Kierkegaard, Søren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard "Søren Kierkegaard") (1941). [*The Sickness Unto Death*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.189042). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4486-7502-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4486-7502-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4486-7502-9")
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`{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date "Help:CS1 errors")), Part I, Ch. 3.
97. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto1_97-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto1_97-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto1_97-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto1_97-3)
["Humanist Manifesto I"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070730070437/http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html). *American Humanist Association*. 1933. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html) on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
98. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto2_98-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto2_98-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto2_98-2)
["Humanist Manifesto II"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070809102124/http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html). *American Humanist Association*. 1973. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html) on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
99. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto3_99-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto3_99-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto3_99-2)
["Humanist Manifesto III"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070809103515/http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php). *American Humanist Association*. 2003. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php) on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
100. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-CDSH_100-0)**
["A Secular Humanist Declaration"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080817084107/http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration). *Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism)*. 1980. Archived from [the original](http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration) on 17 August 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
101. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-101)**
[Nick Bostrom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom "Nick Bostrom") (2005). ["Transhumanist Values"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070701062134/http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/values.html). *[Oxford University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University "Oxford University")*. Archived from [the original](http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/values.html) on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 28 July 2007.
102. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-102)** Irvin Yalom, *Existential Psychotherapy*, 1980.
103. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-103)** See also: [Existential therapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_therapy "Existential therapy") and [Irvin D. Yalom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin_D._Yalom "Irvin D. Yalom").
104. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-104)**
[Richard Taylor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Clyde_Taylor "Richard Clyde Taylor") (1970). "Chapter 5: The Meaning of Life". *Good and Evil*. Macmillan Publishing Company. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-02-616690-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-616690-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-02-616690-4")
.
105. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-105)** Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., *Philosophie als Wissenschaft*.
106. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-106)**
McNaughton, David (August 1988). "Section 1.5: Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life". *Moral Vision: An Introduction to Ethics*. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-631-15945-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15945-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15945-2")
.
`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location "Category:CS1 maint: publisher location"))
107. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-107)**
[Russell, Bertrand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") (1961), [*Science and Ethics*](https://web.archive.org/web/20071114144956/http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html), archived from [the original](http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html) on 14 November 2007
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108. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-108)**
["BLENDING AND METAPHOR"](https://markturner.org/blendaphor.html). *markturner.org*. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
109. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-109)**
Landau, Mark J. (March 2018). ["Using Metaphor to Find Meaning in Life"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889147). *Review of General Psychology*. **22** (1): 62–72\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1037/gpr0000105](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fgpr0000105). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [5889147](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889147). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [29632431](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29632431).
110. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-philosophers_110-0)** *One Hundred Philosophers: A Guide to the World's Greatest Thinkers* Peter J. King.
111. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-111)** Tu, Wei-Ming. *Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation.* Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
112. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-112)**
[Talmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud "Talmud"),
y.
[Shabbat 31a:6](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shabbat.31a:6)
113. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-113)** [Exodus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodus "Book of Exodus") 19:6.
114. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-114)** *Maimonides' Confrontation with Mysticism*, Menachem Kellner, Littman Library. Particularly the parable of the King's Palace in divine worship, in the [Guide for the Perplexed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guide_for_the_Perplexed "Guide for the Perplexed").
115. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cohn-Sherbok_115-0)**
Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2003). *Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice*. Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-415-23661-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23661-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23661-4")
.
116. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Heschel_116-0)**
Abraham Joshua Heschel (2005). *Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations*. Continuum International Publishing Group. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8264-0802-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-0802-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-0802-0")
.
117. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Shuchat_117-0)**
Wilfred Shuchat (2006). *The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah*. Devora Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-932687-31-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932687-31-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-932687-31-6")
.
118. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Braham_118-0)**
Randolph L. Braham (1983). *Contemporary Views on the Holocaust*. Springer. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-89838-141-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89838-141-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-89838-141-2")
.
119. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-119)** *Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction*, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press, Chapter "Early modern era: Safed spirituality".
120. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-120)** Habad intellectual Hasidic thought: source text [Tanya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanya_\(Judaism\) "Tanya (Judaism)") I: 36, 49; secondary text *Heaven on Earth*, Faitel Levin, Kehot publications.
121. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-121)**
["The new Seven Wonders of the World"](https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/the-new-seven-wonders-of-the-world/story-s994IbVb38xNOwRFjoCr2L.html). *Hindustan Times*. 8 July 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
122. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-122)** [John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_John "Gospel of John") 11:26.
123. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-123)** John 3:16–21; 2 Peter 3:9.
124. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-124)** [Bible](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible "Bible"), [Acts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts "Acts") 17:26–27, [NKJV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NKJV "NKJV").
125. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-125)**
Bower, John (25 March 2021). ["9 Things You Should Know About The Westminster Confession"](https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/9-things-westminster-confession/).
126. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Westminster_126-0)**
["The Westminster Shorter Catechism"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080311000717/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html) on 11 March 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2008.
127. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-127)**
["The Baltimore Catechism"](http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/balt/balt1.htm). Retrieved 12 June 2008.
128. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-128)** [Catechism of the Catholic Church 294](http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p1s2c1p4.htm#294)
129. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-129)** [Catechism of the Catholic Church 601](http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p122a4p2.htm#601)
130. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gospel_Principles_130-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gospel_Principles_130-1)
["Gospel Principles"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190710171937/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-principles?lang=eng). *churchofjesuschrist.org*. Archived from [the original](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-principles?lang=eng) on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
131. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-131)**
["2 Nephi 2"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/eng/scriptures/bofm/2-ne/2). *www.churchofjesuschrist.org*. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
132. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-132)**
["Moses 6"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/eng/scriptures/pgp/moses/6). *www.churchofjesuschrist.org*. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
133. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-133)**
["Doctrine and Covenants 138"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/138?lang=eng). *churchofjesuschrist.org*.
134. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-134)**
Drake-Brockman, Tom (2012). [*Christian Humanism: The Compassionate Theology of a Jew Called Jesus*](http://christianhumanism.webs.com/).
135. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-135)** Quran [2:4](https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=4), Quran [2:285](https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=285), Quran [4:136](https://quran.com/4?startingVerse=136).
136. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-136)** In most English translations of Qur'an 51:56 translates the last word to "worship", but any Arabic (and Urdu) speaking person can confirm that "ABADON" means to follow the Will of Allah (NOT worship). This is relevant because the Will of Allah is not just to worship HIM; to be just and good with humanity is equally important.
137. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-137)**
["The Day of Judgement"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130530225629/http://iqra.net/Hadith/judgement.php). *Iqra.net*. Archived from [the original](http://iqra.net/Hadith/judgement.php) on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
138. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-138)**
["Pillars of Islam"](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295625/Pillars-of-Islam). *Encyclopædia Britannica Online*. Retrieved 2 May 2007.
139. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-139)** *[Sahih Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_Muslim "Sahih Muslim")*, [1:1](https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/001-smt.php#001.0001).
140. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Commentary_on_the_Islamic_Tradition_"I_Was_a_Hidden_Treasure_..."_140-0)**
Bahá, Abdu'l. ["Commentary on the Islamic Tradition "I Was a Hidden Treasure ...""](http://bahai-library.com/abdulbaha_kuntu_kanzan_makhfiyyan). *Baháʼí Studies Bulletin*. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
141. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-SUMMARY_OF_THE_FUS%C3%9BS_141-0)**
Chittick, William C. ["The Imprint of the Bezels of the Wisdom"](http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/articlespdf/naqshalfusus.pdf) (PDF). *Ibn 'Arabi's Own Summary of the Fusûs*. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
142. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-142)**
Wright, Zachary Valentine (2015). *Living knowledge in West African Islam: the sufi community of Ibrahim Niasse*. Islam in Africa. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p. 133. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-90-04-28807-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28807-2 "Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28807-2")
.
143. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-143)**
[*"Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language*](http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bahaism) (Fourth ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2007.
144. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-144)**
Smith, P. (1999). [*A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith*](https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/325). Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. [325–328](https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/325). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-85168-184-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-184-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-184-6")
.
145. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-145)**
For a more detailed Baháʼí perspective, see
["'The Purpose of Life' Baháʼí Topics An Information Resource of the Baháʼí International Community"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090829233333/http://info.bahai.org/article-1-4-0-6.html). Archived from [the original](http://info.bahai.org/article-1-4-0-6.html) on 29 August 2009. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
146. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-weightman_146-0)**
Simon Weightman (1998). "Hinduism". In Hinnells, John (ed.). [*The new Penguin handbook of living religions*](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780140514070). [Penguin books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_books "Penguin books"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-14-051480-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-051480-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-14-051480-3")
.
147. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-monierwilliams_147-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-monierwilliams_147-1)
[Monier Monier-Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monier_Monier-Williams "Monier Monier-Williams") (1974). [*Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus*](https://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C). Elibron Classics. Adamant Media Corporation. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4212-6531-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4212-6531-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4212-6531-5")
. Retrieved 8 July 2007.
148. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-148)** For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.
149. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-149)** For the *Dharma Śāstras* as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, kama, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.
150. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-150)** For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ (*puruṣa-artha*) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम, and मोक्ष" see: Apte, p. 626, Middle column, Compound \#1.
151. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-bhaskaranandaessential_151-0)**
Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994). [*The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Overview of the World's Oldest Religion*](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781884852022). Seattle, WA: Viveka Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-884852-02-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884852-02-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-884852-02-2")
.
152. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-152)**
[Vivekananda, Swami](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda "Swami Vivekananda") (1987). *Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda*. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-81-85301-75-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85301-75-4 "Special:BookSources/978-81-85301-75-4")
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153. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-werner_153-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-werner_153-1)
Werner, Karel (1994). "Hinduism". In Hinnells, John (ed.). [*A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism*](https://archive.org/details/populardictionar0000wern). Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7007-0279-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0279-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0279-4")
.
154. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-154)** See also the Vedic statement "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (This [Ātman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_\(Hinduism\) "Ātman (Hinduism)") is [Brahman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman "Brahman")).
155. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-155)**
Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Gavin Flood; University of Stirling (eds.). *The Chaitanya Vaishnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami When Knowledge Meets Devotion*. Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-415-40548-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-40548-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-40548-5")
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156. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-156)**
["Tantric Literature And Gaudiya Vaishnavism"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110525061446/http://www.vnn.org/editorials/ET9901/ET05-2795.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.vnn.org/editorials/ET9901/ET05-2795.html) on 25 May 2011.
157. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-157)** Shah, Natubhai. *Jainism: The World of Conquerors.* Sussex Academic Press, 1998.
158. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-158)**
["Viren, Jain"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070614110256/http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf) (PDF). RE Today. Archived from [the original](http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf) (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 14 June 2007.
159. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-159)**
["The Four Noble Truths"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091111202249/http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html). Thebigview.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html) on 11 November 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2009.
160. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-160)**
University, © Stanford (17 February 2015). [""The Chief Characteristics and Doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism""](https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/chief-characteristics-and-doctrines-mahayana-buddhism). *The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute*. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
161. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-161)**
Arana, Juan Hincapié (1 January 2021). ["A SEED IN AMITABHA'S HAND- Pure Land Buddhism's path to peace in this life and the next by Juan Hincapie Arana"](https://www.academia.edu/52849607). *Amazon KDP*. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
162. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Singh_162-0)**
Daljeet Singh (1971). *Guru Tegh Bahadur*. Punjab.
`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher "Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher"))
163. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mayled_163-0)**
Jon Mayled (2002). *Modern World Religions: Sikhism*. Harcourt Heinemann. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-435-33626-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-33626-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-435-33626-4")
.
164. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-164)**
["The Sikh Coalition"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200701031219/https://www.sikhcoalition.org/). *sikhcoalition.org*. Archived from [the original](http://www.sikhcoalition.org/) on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
165. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-p252_165-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-p252_165-1)
[Parrinder, Geoffrey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Parrinder "Geoffrey Parrinder") (1971). *World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present*. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-87196-129-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87196-129-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-87196-129-7")
.
166. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ming-Dao_166-0)**
Ming-Dao Deng (1990). *Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life*. HarperCollins. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-06-250232-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-250232-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-06-250232-2")
.
167. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mason_167-0)**
J.W.T. Mason (2002). *The Meaning of Shinto*. Trafford Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4122-4551-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4122-4551-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4122-4551-7")
.
168. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-168)** See also: [Zoroastrian eschatology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrian_eschatology "Zoroastrian eschatology").
169. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-6) [***h***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-7) [***i***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-8) [***j***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-9) [***k***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-10) [***l***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-11) [***m***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-12) [***n***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-13) [***o***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-14) [***p***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-15) [***q***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-16) [***r***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-17)
David Seaman (2005). [*The Real Meaning of Life*](https://archive.org/details/realmeaningoflif0000unse). New World Library. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-57731-514-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57731-514-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-57731-514-8")
.
170. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ellerton_170-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ellerton_170-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ellerton_170-2)
Roger Ellerton, CMC (2013). *Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You*. Renewal Technologies. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-9784452-7-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9784452-7-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-9784452-7-0")
.
171. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-6) [***h***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-7) [***i***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-8) [***j***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-9)
John Cook (2007). [*The Book of Positive Quotations*](https://archive.org/details/bookofpositivequ00cook). Fairview Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-57749-169-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57749-169-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-57749-169-9")
.
172. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Chandler_172-0)**
Steve Chandler (2005). *Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be*. Career Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-56414-817-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56414-817-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-56414-817-9")
.
173. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kelly_173-0)**
Matthew Kelly (2005). [*The Rhythm of Life: Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose*](https://archive.org/details/rhythmoflife00matt). Simon & Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7432-6510-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6510-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6510-2")
.
174. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-174)**
Lee, Dong Yul; Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Patsult, Philip (June 2000). "What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures". *Social Indicators Research*. **50** (3): 351–362\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1023/A:1004647517069](https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1004647517069). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [141773177](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141773177).
175. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kultgen_175-0)**
John Kultgen (1995). [*Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life*](https://archive.org/details/autonomyinterven0000kult). Oxford University Press US. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-508531-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508531-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508531-0")
.
176. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cappannelli_176-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cappannelli_176-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cappannelli_176-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cappannelli_176-3)
George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli (2004). *Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home*. Emmis Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-57860-148-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57860-148-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-57860-148-6")
.
177. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-West_177-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-West_177-1)
John G. West (2002). *Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization*. Inkling Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-58742-012-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58742-012-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-58742-012-2")
.
178. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Madorsky_178-0)**
Rachel Madorsky (2003). *Create Your Own Destiny!: Spiritual Path to Success*. Avanty House. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-9705349-4-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9705349-4-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-9705349-4-1")
.
179. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-179)** A.C. Grayling. What is Good? The Search for the Best Way to Live*.* Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.
180. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-180)**
Brooks, Mike (8 October 2020). ["What Is the Purpose of Life? Why are we here? Here's a reasonable answer"](https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/tech-happy-life/202010/what-is-the-purpose-life). *Psychology Today*. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
181. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-181)**
Lopez, Mike (22 September 1999). ["Episode III: Relativism? A Jedi craves not these things"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070811185026/http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1999/sep/09-22-99/edit/edit2.html). *The Michigan Daily*. Archived from [the original](http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1999/sep/09-22-99/edit/edit2.html) on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
182. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-182)**
Lovatt, Stephen C. (2007). [*New Skins for Old Wine*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070314071723/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/pharseas.world/Life.html). Universal Publishers. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-58112-960-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-960-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-960-1")
. Archived from [the original](http://homepage.ntlworld.com/pharseas.world/Life.html) on 14 March 2007.
183. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kurweil_&_Grossmann_183-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kurweil_&_Grossmann_183-1)
["Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever"](http://www.fantastic-voyage.net/). *www.fantastic-voyage.net*. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
184. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Appleyard_184-0)**
Bryan Appleyard (2007). *How To Live Forever Or Die Trying: On The New Immortality*. Simon & Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7432-6868-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6868-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6868-4")
.
185. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-185)**
Cameron, Donald (2001). [*The Purpose of Life*](https://web.archive.org/web/20011113210502/http://www.woodhillpublishing.co.uk/summary.asp). Woodhill Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-9540291-0-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9540291-0-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-9540291-0-4")
. Archived from [the original](http://www.woodhillpublishing.co.uk/summary.asp) on 13 November 2001.
186. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Lane_186-0)**
[Nick Lane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Lane "Nick Lane") (2005). [*Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life*](https://archive.org/details/powersexsuicidem0000lane). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-280481-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280481-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280481-5")
.
187. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Weiss_&_Buchanan_187-0)**
Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan (2004). *Genetics and the Logic of Evolution*. Wiley-IEEE. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-471-23805-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-23805-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-471-23805-8")
.
188. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ackerman_188-0)**
Jennifer Ackerman (2001). [*Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Heredity*](https://archive.org/details/chanceinhouseoff00acke_1). Houghton Mifflin Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-618-21909-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-21909-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-618-21909-4")
.
189. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Rensberger_189-0)**
Boyce Rensberger (1996). [*Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell*](https://archive.org/details/lifeitself00boyc). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-512500-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512500-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512500-9")
.
190. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Chris_Grau_190-0)**
Chris Grau (2005). *Philosophers Explore the Matrix*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-518107-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518107-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518107-4")
.
191. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cooper_&_Hutchinson_191-0)**
John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson (1997). [*Plato: Complete Works*](https://archive.org/details/completeworks00plat). Hackett Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-87220-349-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-349-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-349-5")
.
192. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Findling_&_Thackeray_192-0)**
John E. Findling; Frank W. Thackeray (2001). *Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century*. Greenwood Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-313-29079-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29079-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29079-4")
.
193. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Dalai_Lama_193-0)**
[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenzin_Gyatso,_14th_Dalai_Lama "Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama") (1954). *The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect*. Doubleday.
`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list "Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list"))
194. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Simmons_194-0)**
Ernest Joseph Simmons (1973). [*Tolstoy*](https://archive.org/details/tolstoy0000simm). Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7100-7395-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-7395-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-7395-2")
.
195. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bowell_195-0)**
Richard A. Bowell (2004). *The Seven Steps of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness*. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-85788-344-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85788-344-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-85788-344-2")
.
196. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gibbs_&_Basinger_&_Fuller_196-0)**
John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller (1992). [*Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection*](https://archive.org/details/moralmaturitymea0000gibb). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8058-0425-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0425-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0425-6")
.
197. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Tang_197-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Tang_197-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Tang_197-2)
Timothy Tang (2007). *Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness*. iUniverse. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-595-45941-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-45941-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-595-45941-4")
.
198. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Roberts_198-0)**
Tyler T. Roberts (1998). *Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion*. Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-691-00127-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00127-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00127-2")
.
199. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Costigan_199-0)**
Costigan, Lucy (2004). *What is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning*. iUniverse. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-595-33880-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-33880-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-595-33880-1")
.
200. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Jeffers_&_Smith_200-0)**
Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith (2007). *Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care*. Radcliffe Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-84619-181-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84619-181-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-84619-181-7")
.
201. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Jeffrey_201-0)**
David L. Jeffrey (1992). [*A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature*](https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbibl0000unse). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8028-3634-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3634-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3634-2")
.
202. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Williams_202-0)**
Williams, Dana A. (2005). *In the Light of Likeness-Transformed: The Literary Art of Leon Forrest*. Ohio State University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8142-0994-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-0994-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-0994-3")
.
203. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Muller_203-0)**
[Jerry Z. Muller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Z._Muller "Jerry Z. Muller") (1997). [*Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present*](https://archive.org/details/conservatismanth00mull). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-691-03711-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03711-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03711-0")
.
204. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nash_&_Stewart_204-0)**
Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart (2002). *Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being*. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-84310-024-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84310-024-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-84310-024-9")
.
205. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yao_205-0)**
Xinzhong Yao (2000). *An Introduction to Confucianism*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-521-64430-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64430-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64430-3")
.
206. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Turner_&_Rojek_206-0)**
Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek (2001). [*Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity*](https://archive.org/details/societyculturepr0000turn). SAGE. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7619-7049-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-7049-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-7049-1")
.
207. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Goonewardene_207-0)**
Anil Goonewardene (1994). *Buddhist Scriptures*. Harcourt Heinemann. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-435-30355-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-30355-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-435-30355-6")
.
208. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ferry_208-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ferry_208-1)
Luc Ferry (2002). *Man Made God: The Meaning of Life*. University of Chicago Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-226-24484-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24484-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24484-6")
.
209. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Stephan_&_Pace_209-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Stephan_&_Pace_209-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Stephan_&_Pace_209-2)
Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace (2002). *Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life*. FT Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-13-066836-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-066836-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-13-066836-3")
.
210. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-210)**
Cumberland, Dan (18 May 2015). ["Finding Purpose in Life"](http://themeaningmovement.com/finding-purpose-in-life-finding-your-vocation/). *TheMeaningMovement*. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
211. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Steinberg_211-0)**
Dominique Moyse Steinberg (2004). [*The Mutual-Aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another*](https://archive.org/details/mutualaidapproac00stei). Haworth Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7890-1462-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7890-1462-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7890-1462-7")
.
212. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Caunt_212-0)**
John Caunt (2002). *Boost Your Self-Esteem*. Kogan Page. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7494-3871-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7494-3871-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7494-3871-5")
.
213. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-213)** [Ho'oponopono](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%27oponopono "Ho'oponopono").
214. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Halevi_214-0)**
[Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%27ev_ben_Shimon_Halevi "Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi") (1993). *The Work of the Kabbalist*. Weiser. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-87728-637-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87728-637-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-87728-637-0")
.
215. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Girard_215-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Girard_215-1)
Michael Joachim Girard (2006). *Essential Believing for the Christian Soul*. Xulon Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-59781-596-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59781-596-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-59781-596-3")
.
216. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kashmir_Shaivism_216-0)**
Jaideva Singh (2003). *Vijñanabhairava*. Motilal Banarsidass. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-81-208-0820-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0820-1 "Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0820-1")
.
217. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mahadevan_217-0)**
T.M.P. Mahadevan (1974). *Philosophy: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy)*. Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras.
218. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Scully_218-0)**
John T. Scully (2007). *The Five Commandments*. Trafford Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4251-1910-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4251-1910-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4251-1910-2")
.
219. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Piper_219-0)**
John Piper (2006). *Desiring God*. Multnomah Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-59052-119-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59052-119-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-59052-119-9")
.
220. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Harrison_220-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Harrison_220-1)
[Peter Harrison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Harrison_\(historian\) "Peter Harrison (historian)") (2001). *The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-521-00096-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00096-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00096-3")
.
221. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Worsham2_221-0)** [Matthew 28:18–20](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2028:18%E2%80%9320&version=nrsv).
222. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Worsham_222-0)** [Micah 6:8](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Micah%206:8&version=nrsv).
223. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Burke_223-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Burke_223-1)
Thomas Patrick Burke (2004). *The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts*. Blackwell Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4051-1049-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1049-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1049-5")
.
224. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-224)**
[*Book of Mormon: Mosiah 2:17*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/mosiah/2.17?lang=eng). 1830. "And behold, I tell you these things that ye may learn wisdom; that ye may learn that when ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God."
225. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-225)**
[*Book of Mormon: Alma 32:32*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/alma/34.32-34?lang=eng). 1830. "For behold, this life is the time for men to prepare to meet God; yea, behold the day of this life is the day for men to perform their labors."
226. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-226)**
[*Holy Bible: Genesis 3:22*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/ot/gen/3.22?lang=eng). "And the Lord God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil..."
227. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-227)**
[*Holy Bible: Matthew 5:48*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/nt/matt/5.48?lang=eng). "Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect."
228. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-228)**
[*Pearl of Great Price: Book of Moses 1:37–39*](https://web.archive.org/web/20190715040406/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/1.39?lang=eng). 1830. Archived from [the original](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/1.39?lang=eng) on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019. "And the Lord God spake unto Moses, saying: ... For behold, this is my work and my glory—to bring to pass the immortality and eternal life of man."
229. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-229)**
["Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Lorenzo Snow"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/teachings-of-presidents-of-the-church-lorenzo-snow/chapter-5-the-grand-destiny-of-the-faithful?lang=eng). Lorenzo Snow. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 2011 \[1884\]. p. 83. "As man now is, God once was: As God now is, man may be."
`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: others ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others "Category:CS1 maint: others"))
230. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-230)**
[*Book of Mormon: Alma 29:5*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/alma/29.5?lang=eng). 1830. "Yea, and I know that good and evil have come before all men; he that knoweth not good from evil is blameless; but he that knoweth good and evil, to him it is given according to his desires, whether he desireth good or evil, life or death, joy or remorse of conscience."
231. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-231)**
[*Book of Mormon: 2 Nephi 2:25*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/2-ne/2.25?lang=eng). 1830. "Adam fell that men might be; and men are, that they might have joy."
232. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-232)**
[*Pearl of Great Price: Book of Moses 5:11*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/5.11?lang=eng). 1830. "And Eve, his wife, heard all these things and was glad, saying: Were it not for our transgression we never should have had seed, and never should have known good and evil, and the joy of our redemption, and the eternal life which God giveth unto all the obedient."
233. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Quran_233-0)**
[*Holisiajay Quran 51:56*](http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=51&verse=56). Quranic Arabic Corpus. "I created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me."
234. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mitchell_234-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mitchell_234-1)
T.W. Mitchell (1927). *Problems in Psychopathology*. Harcourt, Brace & Company.
235. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ecclesiastes8:15_235-0)** [Ecclesiastes 8](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ecclesiastes+8&version=15).
236. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Dillon_236-0)**
Steven Dillon (2006). *The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film*. University of Texas Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-292-71345-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71345-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71345-1")
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237. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Aron_237-0)**
Raymond Aron (2000). *The Century of Total War*. Wisdom Publications. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-86171-173-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-173-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-173-4")
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238. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-238)**
Stewart, John (5 March 2010). ["Is this the meaning of life? John Stewart argues that despite the perception that science has stripped the meaning from life, recent developments in evolutionary theory suggest that humans have a central role to play in the future of the universe"](https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2010/mar/05/meaning-life-evolution-universe). *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*.
239. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-239)**
*Man's Search for Meaning*, Viktor Frankl. Beacon Press, 2006,
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8070-1426-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-1426-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-1426-4")
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240. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-useless_website_240-0)**
["Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning of Life: Complete Script"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071215164915/http://www.intriguing.com/mp/_scripts/meanlife.asp). *intriguing.com*. Archived from [the original](http://www.intriguing.com/mp/_scripts/meanlife.asp) on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
241. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Burnham_241-0)**
Terry Burnham (2005). *Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality*. John Wiley and Sons. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-471-71695-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-71695-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-471-71695-2")
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242. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Fernandez_242-0)**
Yolanda Fernandez (2002). *In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders*. Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-885473-48-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885473-48-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-885473-48-6")
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243. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-243)**
Adams, Douglas (29 March 1978). *The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Fit the Fourth)* (Audio, Radio). BBC Radio 4. "I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was."
244. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yeffeth_244-0)**
Glenn Yeffeth (2005). *The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy*. BenBella Books, Inc. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-932100-56-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932100-56-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-932100-56-3")
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245. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Badke_245-0)**
William B. Badke (2005). [*The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything*](https://archive.org/details/hitchhikersguide00badk). Kregel Publications. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8254-2069-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8254-2069-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8254-2069-6")
.
246. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Adams_H2G2_book1_246-0)**
[Douglas Adams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adams "Douglas Adams") (1979). [*The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy_\(book\) "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)"). London: Pan Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-330-25864-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-25864-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-330-25864-7")
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247. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-247)**
Adams, Douglas (12 April 1978). *The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Fit the Sixth)* (Audio, Radio). BBC Radio 4. "That's it. Six by nine… forty-two! I always said there was something fundamentally wrong about the universe\!"
248. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-248)**
[""Person of Interest" recap (5.13): The sound of my voice"](https://www.afterellen.com/tv/492845-person-interest-recap-5-13-sound-voice). *After Ellen*. Retrieved 24 August 2019.
249. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-APAExistentialCrisis_249-0)**
["APA Dictionary of Psychology: existential crisis"](https://dictionary.apa.org/existential-crisis). *dictionary.apa.org*.
250. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Andrews2016_250-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Andrews2016_250-1)
Andrews, Mary (April 2016). ["The existential crisis"](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fbdb0000014). *Behavioral Development Bulletin*. **21** (1): 104–109\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1037/bdb0000014](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fbdb0000014).
251. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Butenait%C4%972016_251-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Butenait%C4%972016_251-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Butenait%C4%972016_251-2)
Butenaitė, Joana; Sondaitė, Jolanta; Mockus, Antanas (2016). ["Components of existential crises: a theoretical analysis"](https://doi.org/10.7220%2F2345-024X.18.1). *International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach*. **18**: 9–27\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.7220/2345-024X.18.1](https://doi.org/10.7220%2F2345-024X.18.1).
252. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-StanfordExistentialism_252-0)**
Crowell, Steven (2020). ["Existentialism"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/). *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
253. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Blomme2013_253-0)**
Blomme, Robert J. (2013). ["Absurdism as a Fundamental Value: Camusian Thoughts on Moral Development in Organisations"](https://philpapers.org/rec/BLOAAA). *International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy*. **7** (2) 55720: 116. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1504/IJMCP.2013.055720](https://doi.org/10.1504%2FIJMCP.2013.055720).
254. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-OxfordAbsurd_254-0)**
Honderich, Ted, ed. (2005). "absurd, the". [*The Oxford Companion to Philosophy*](https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2). Oxford University Press.
255. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-6)
Yalom, Irvin D. (17 March 2020). "10. Meaninglessness". [*Existential Psychotherapy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nI7VDwAAQBAJ). Basic Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-5416-4744-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-4744-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-4744-2")
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256. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Greer_256-0)**
Greer, Frank (October 1980). "Toward a Developmental View of Adult Crisis: a Re-Examination of Crisis Theory". *Journal of Humanistic Psychology*. **20** (4): 17–29\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/002216788002000404](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002216788002000404). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0022-1678](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1678). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [146743538](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146743538).
257. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-IEPNihilism_257-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-IEPNihilism_257-1)
Pratt, Alan. ["Nihilism"](https://iep.utm.edu/nihilism/). *Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
258. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yang2010_258-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yang2010_258-1)
Yang, William; Staps, Ton; Hijmans, Ellen (2010). "Existential crisis and the awareness of dying: the role of meaning and spirituality". *Omega*. **61** (1): 53–69\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.2190/OM.61.1.c](https://doi.org/10.2190%2FOM.61.1.c). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0030-2228](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-2228). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [20533648](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20533648). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [22290227](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22290227).
259. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Zapffe1933_259-0)**
Zapffe, Peter Wessel. ["The Last Messiah"](https://philosophynow.org/issues/45/The_Last_Messiah). *Philosophy Now* (45).
260. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-BritannicaNihilism_260-0)**
["nihilism"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/nihilism). *www.britannica.com*. 14 August 2023.
261. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-4)
Kahane, Guy (10 June 2022). "Meaningfulness and Importance". In Landau, Iddo (ed.). [*The Oxford Handbook of Meaning in Life*](https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190063504.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190063504-e-6). pp. 92–108\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1093/oxfordhb/9780190063504.013.6](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190063504.013.6). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-006350-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006350-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006350-4")
.
262. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1981_262-0)**
Nozick, Robert (1981). "6. Philosophy and the meaning of life". [*Philosophical Explanations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=N4zH86WogYwC). Harvard University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-674-66479-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66479-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66479-1")
.
263. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1990_263-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1990_263-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1990_263-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1990_263-3)
Nozick, Robert (15 December 1990). "16. Importance and Weight". [*Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=R-8SvHlNMXAC). Simon and Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-671-72501-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-72501-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-671-72501-3")
.
264. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2021a_264-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2021a_264-1)
Kahane, Guy (13 August 2021). ["Importance, Value, and Causal Impact"](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F17455243-20213581). *Journal of Moral Philosophy*. **19** (6): 577–601\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1163/17455243-20213581](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F17455243-20213581). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1745-5243](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1745-5243). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [238678531](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238678531).
265. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Benatar2017_265-0)**
Benatar, David (5 May 2017). ["3. Meaninglessness"](https://books.google.com/books?id=VG7JDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36). *The Human Predicament: A Candid Guide to Life's Biggest Questions*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-063382-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-063382-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-063382-0")
.
266. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Benbaji2001_266-0)**
Benbaji, Yitzhak (2001). "The Moral, the Personal, and the Importance of What We Care about". *Philosophy*. **76** (297): 415–433\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1017/S0031819101000365](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0031819101000365). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0031-8191](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8191). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\) "JSTOR (identifier)") [3751779](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3751779). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [143737564](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143737564).
267. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Tugendhat2016_267-0)**
Tugendhat, Ernst (4 October 2016). ["2. "Good" and "Important""](https://books.google.com/books?id=NB_uDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17). *Egocentricity and Mysticism: An Anthropological Study*. Columbia University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-231-54293-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54293-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54293-7")
.
268. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-268)**
Morris, Chris (28 March 2016). ["10 wonder drugs that changed our lives forever"](https://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/28/10-wonder-drugs-that-changed-our-lives-forever.html). *CNBC*. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
## External links
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Look up ***[meaning of life](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/meaning_of_life "wiktionary:meaning of life")*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[Meaning of life](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Meaning_of_life "q:Special:Search/Meaning of life")***.
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Wikiversity has learning resources about ***[What Matters](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/What_Matters "v:What Matters")***
- [Meaning of Life: The Analytic Perspective](https://web.archive.org/web/20140713204824/http://www.iep.utm.edu/mean-ana/) article in the *[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy")*
- [The Meaning of Life](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/) in the *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy")*
- [Wikiversity:Do living things on Earth have a purpose?](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Do_living_things_on_Earth_have_a_purpose%3F "wikiversity:Do living things on Earth have a purpose?")
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Metaphysics "Template:Metaphysics") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics "Template talk:Metaphysics") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics "Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics")[Metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") | |
|---|---|
| Theories | [Abstract object theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_object_theory "Abstract object theory") [Action theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_\(philosophy\) "Action theory (philosophy)") [Anti-realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism "Anti-realism") [Determinism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism "Determinism") [Dualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism "Mind–body dualism") [Enactivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enactivism "Enactivism") [Essentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism "Essentialism") [Existentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism "Existentialism") [Free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will") [Idealism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism "Idealism") [Libertarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism_\(metaphysics\) "Libertarianism (metaphysics)") [Liberty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty "Liberty") [Materialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism "Materialism") [Meaning of life]() [Monism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism "Monism") [Naturalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_\(philosophy\) "Naturalism (philosophy)") [Nihilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism "Nihilism") [Phenomenalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenalism "Phenomenalism") [Physicalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism "Physicalism") [Realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism "Philosophical realism") [Relativism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism "Relativism") [Scientific realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_realism "Scientific realism") [Solipsism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solipsism "Solipsism") [Spiritualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritualism_\(philosophy\) "Spiritualism (philosophy)") [Subjectivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivism "Subjectivism") [Substance theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_theory "Substance theory") [Theory of forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_forms "Theory of forms") [Truthmaker theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthmaker_theory "Truthmaker theory") [Type theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_theory "Type theory") |
| Concepts | [Abstract object](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete "Abstract and concrete") [Anima mundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_mundi "Anima mundi") [Category of being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_being "Category of being") [Causality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality "Causality") [Causal closure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_closure "Causal closure") *[Cogito, ergo sum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum "Cogito, ergo sum")* [Concept](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept "Concept") [Cosmos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos "Cosmos") [Embodied cognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition "Embodied cognition") [Entity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entity "Entity") [Essence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence "Essence") [Existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence") [Experience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience "Experience") [Hypostatic abstraction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction "Hypostatic abstraction") [Idea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea "Idea") [Identity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_\(philosophy\) "Identity (philosophy)") [Importance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Importance "Importance") [Information](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information "Information") [Data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data "Data") [Insight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight "Insight") [Intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence "Intelligence") [Intention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention "Intention") [Linguistic modality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_modality "Linguistic modality") [Matter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter "Philosophy of matter") [Meaning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_\(existential\) "Meaning (existential)") [Mental representation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_representation "Mental representation") [Mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind "Mind") [Motion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion "Motion") [Nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_\(philosophy\) "Nature (philosophy)") [Necessity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity "Metaphysical necessity") [Object](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_\(philosophy\) "Object (philosophy)") [Ontology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology "Ontology") [Pattern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern "Pattern") [Perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception "Perception") [Physical object](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_object "Physical object") [Principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle "Principle") [Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_\(philosophy\) "Property (philosophy)") [Qualia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia "Qualia") [Quality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_\(philosophy\) "Quality (philosophy)") [Reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality "Reality") [Relation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relations_\(philosophy\) "Relations (philosophy)") [Self](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self "Self") [Soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul "Soul") [Subject](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_\(philosophy\) "Subject (philosophy)") [Substantial form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantial_form "Substantial form") [Thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought "Thought") [Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time "Time") [Truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth "Truth") [Type–token distinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction "Type–token distinction") [Universal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_\(metaphysics\) "Universal (metaphysics)") [Unobservable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unobservable "Unobservable") [Value](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_\(ethics\) "Value (ethics)") |
| [Metaphysicians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians "List of metaphysicians") | [Anscombe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe "G. E. M. Anscombe") [Aquinas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas "Thomas Aquinas") [Aristotle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle") [Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong "David Malet Armstrong") [Averroes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes "Averroes") [Avicenna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna "Avicenna") [Baudrillard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard "Jean Baudrillard") [Bergson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson "Henri Bergson") [Berkeley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley "George Berkeley") [Boethius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius "Boethius") [Bolzano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano "Bernard Bolzano") [Carnap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap "Rudolf Carnap") [Collingwood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._G._Collingwood "R. G. Collingwood") [Davidson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davidson_\(philosopher\) "Donald Davidson (philosopher)") [Deleuze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze "Gilles Deleuze") [Descartes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes "René Descartes") [Dummett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dummett "Michael Dummett") [Al-Ghazali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazali "Al-Ghazali") [Hegel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel") [Heidegger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger "Martin Heidegger") [Hume](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume "David Hume") [Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant") [Kierkegaard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard "Søren Kierkegaard") [Al-Kindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi "Al-Kindi") [Kripke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Kripke "Saul Kripke") [Laozi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi "Laozi") [Leibniz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz") [Lewis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lewis_\(philosopher\) "David Lewis (philosopher)") [Locke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke "John Locke") [Lotze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Lotze "Hermann Lotze") [Lucretius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius "Lucretius") [Malebranche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche "Nicolas Malebranche") [Meinong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexius_Meinong "Alexius Meinong") [Moore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._E._Moore "G. E. Moore") [Mozi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozi "Mozi") [Newton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton "Isaac Newton") [Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche "Friedrich Nietzsche") [Parfit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Parfit "Derek Parfit") [Parmenides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides "Parmenides") [Peirce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce "Charles Sanders Peirce") [Plantinga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga "Alvin Plantinga") [Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato "Plato") [Plotinus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinus "Plotinus") [Proclus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus "Proclus") [Putnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Putnam "Hilary Putnam") [Quine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine "Willard Van Orman Quine") [Reid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Reid "Thomas Reid") [Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") [Ryle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle "Gilbert Ryle") [Sartre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre "Jean-Paul Sartre") [Schopenhauer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer "Arthur Schopenhauer") [Scotus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duns_Scotus "Duns Scotus") [Spinoza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza "Baruch Spinoza") [Strawson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._F._Strawson "P. F. Strawson") [Suárez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez "Francisco Suárez") [Whitehead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead "Alfred North Whitehead") [Wittgenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein "Ludwig Wittgenstein") [Wolff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Wolff_\(philosopher\) "Christian Wolff (philosopher)") *[more ...](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians "List of metaphysicians")* |
| Notable works | *[Sophist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophist_\(dialogue\) "Sophist (dialogue)")* (c. 350 BC) *[Timaeus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaeus_\(dialogue\) "Timaeus (dialogue)")* (c. 350 BC) *[Nyāya Sūtras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras "Nyāya Sūtras")* (c. 200 BC) *[De rerum natura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_rerum_natura "De rerum natura")* (c. 80 BC) *[Metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics_\(Aristotle\) "Metaphysics (Aristotle)")* (c. 50) *[Enneads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enneads "Enneads")* (c. 270) *[Daneshnameh-ye Alai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai "Daneshnameh-ye Alai")* and *[Al-Nijat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nijat "Al-Nijat")* (c. 1000) *[Meditations on First Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy "Meditations on First Philosophy")* (1641) *[Ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_\(Spinoza_book\) "Ethics (Spinoza book)")* (1677) *[A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge "A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge")* (1710) *[Monadology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monadology "Monadology")* (1714) *[Critique of Pure Reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason "Critique of Pure Reason")* (1781) *[Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics "Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics")* (1783) *[The Phenomenology of Spirit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit "The Phenomenology of Spirit")* (1807) *[The World as Will and Representation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation "The World as Will and Representation")* (1818) *[Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments "Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments")* (1846) *[Being and Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_and_Time "Being and Time")* (1927) *[Being and Nothingness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness "Being and Nothingness")* (1943) *[Simulacra and Simulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation "Simulacra and Simulation")* (1981) |
| Related topics | [Axiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiology "Axiology") [Cosmology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology "Cosmology") [Epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology "Epistemology") [Feminist metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics "Feminist metaphysics") [Interpretations of quantum mechanics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics "Interpretations of quantum mechanics") [Mereology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mereology "Mereology") [Meta-](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_\(prefix\) "Meta (prefix)") [Phenomenology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_\(philosophy\) "Phenomenology (philosophy)") [Philosophy of mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind "Philosophy of mind") [Philosophy of psychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology "Philosophy of psychology") [Philosophy of self](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_self "Philosophy of self") [Philosophy of space and time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time "Philosophy of space and time") [Teleology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology "Teleology") |
|  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Metaphysics "Category:Metaphysics")  [Philosophy portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy "Portal:Philosophy") | |
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| National | [United States](https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85076807) [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125718&CON_LNG=ENG) [Latvia](https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000352953&P_CON_LNG=ENG) |
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Meaning of life
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| Readable Markdown | The **meaning of life** is the concept of an individual's [life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life "Life"), human life, or [existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence") in general having an [inherent significance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_value_\(ethics\) "Intrinsic value (ethics)") or a [philosophical point](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_\(philosophy\) "Meaning (philosophy)"). There is no consensus on the specifics of such a concept, or whether the concept itself even exists in any [objective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_\(philosophy\) "Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)") sense. [Thinking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking "Thinking") and [discourse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse "Discourse") on the topic is sought in the English language through [questions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question "Question") such as—but not limited to—"What is the meaning of life?", "What is the purpose of existence?", and "Why are we here?". There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many different [cultural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural "Cultural") and [ideological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideological "Ideological") backgrounds. The search for life's meaning has produced much [philosophical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical "Philosophical"), [scientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific "Scientific"), [theological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological "Theological"), and [metaphysical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") speculation throughout history. Different people and cultures believe in different answers to this question. Opinions vary on the usefulness of using [time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time "Time") and [resources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource "Resource") in the pursuit of an answer. Excessive pondering can be indicative of, or lead to, an [existential crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_crisis "Existential crisis").
The meaning of life can be derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about, [existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence"), [social ties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_ties "Social ties"), [consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness "Consciousness"), and [happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness "Happiness"). Many other issues are also involved, such as [symbolic meaning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_meaning "Linguistic meaning"), [ontology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology "Ontology"), [value](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_\(philosophy\) "Value (philosophy)"), [purpose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology "Teleology"), [ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics "Ethics"), [good and evil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_and_evil "Good and evil"), [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will"), the [existence of one or multiple gods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence_of_God "Existence of God"), [conceptions of God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptions_of_God "Conceptions of God"), the [soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_\(spirit\) "Soul (spirit)"), and the [afterlife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife"). Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related [empirical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism "Empiricism") [facts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact "Fact") about the [universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe "Universe"), exploring the context and parameters concerning the "how" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the [pursuit of well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology "Positive psychology") and a related [conception of morality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_morality "Science of morality"). An alternative, [humanistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic "Humanistic") approach poses the question, "What is the meaning of *my* life?"
Origin of the expression
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appears in [Thomas Carlyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle "Thomas Carlyle")'s *[Sartor Resartus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sartor_Resartus "Sartor Resartus")* (1833–1834), book II chapter IX, "[The Everlasting Yea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Everlasting_Yea "The Everlasting Yea")".[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:8-1)
> Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the **meaning of Life** itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-2)
Carlyle may have been inspired by earlier usage of the equivalent German expression *der Sinn des Lebens* by [German Romantic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Romanticism "German Romanticism") writers [Novalis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novalis "Novalis") and [Friedrich Schlegel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel "Friedrich Schlegel"). Schlegel was the first to use it in print by way of his novel *Lucinde* (1799), though Novalis had done so in a 1797–1798 manuscript, in which he wrote: "Only an artist can divine the meaning of life." Additionally, the word *lebenssinn*, translated as life's meaning, had been used by [Goethe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethe "Goethe") in a 1796 letter to [Schiller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiller "Schiller").[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-3) These authors grappled with the [rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism "Rationalism") and [materialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism "Materialism") of modernity. Carlyle called this the "Torch of Science", which burned "more fiercely than ever" and made religion "all parched away, under the Droughts of practical and spiritual Unbelief", resulting in the "[Wilderness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temptation_of_Christ "Temptation of Christ")" of "the wide World in an [Atheistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism "Atheism") Century".[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-4)
Origin of the question
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%A3%CF%89%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82,_%CE%91%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%91%CE%B8%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BD_6616.jpg)
[Socrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates "Socrates")
[Arthur Schopenhauer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer "Arthur Schopenhauer") was the first to explicitly ask the question,[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:8-1) in an essay entitled "Character".
> Since *a man does not alter*, and his *moral character* remains absolutely the same all through his life; since he must play out the part which he has received, without the least deviation from the character; since neither experience, nor philosophy, nor religion can effect any improvement in him, the question arises, **What is the meaning of life at all?** To what purpose is it played, this farce in which everything that is essential is irrevocably fixed and determined?[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-5)
Questions about the meaning of life, and similar, have been expressed in a broad variety of other ways, including:
- What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? Who are we?[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Westphal-6)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick-7)[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Baggini-8)
- Why are we here? What are we here for?[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Thiemann_&_Placher-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Marcellino-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Hua-11)
- What is the [origin of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_life "Origin of life")?[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Davies-12)
- What is the nature of life? What is the nature of [reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality "Reality")?[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Davies-12)[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Christiansen_&_Baum_&_Bass-Haugen-13)[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Walker-14)
- What is the purpose of life? What is the purpose of one's life?[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Christiansen_&_Baum_&_Bass-Haugen-13)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-WITMOL-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Krishnamurti-16)
- What is the significance of life?[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Krishnamurti-16) (See also [\#Psychological significance and value in life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Psychological_significance_and_value_in_life))
- What is meaningful and valuable in life?[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-UIUC-17)
- What is the [value of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_of_life "Value of life")?[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Van_Hooft-18)
- What is the reason to live? What are we living for?[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Hua-11)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Shafer-Landau_&_Cuneo-19)
These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and explications, from [scientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific "Scientific") theories, to [philosophical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical "Philosophical"), [theological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological "Theological"), and [spiritual](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality "Spirituality") explanations.
Scientific inquiry and perspectives
Many members of the [scientific community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community "Scientific community") and [philosophy of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science "Philosophy of science") communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the [science of happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology "Positive psychology") to [death anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_anxiety "Death anxiety"). Scientific inquiry facilitates this through [nomological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomology "Nomology") investigation into various aspects of [life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life "Life") and [reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality "Reality"), such as the [Big Bang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang "Big Bang"), [the origin of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis "Abiogenesis"), and [evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution "Evolution"), and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.
Psychological significance and value in life
Researchers in [positive psychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology "Positive psychology") study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction,[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:6-20) full [engagement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_\(psychology\) "Flow (psychology)") in activities,[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cs%C3%ADkszentmih%C3%A1lyi,_Mih%C3%A1ly_1990-21) making a fuller contribution by using one's personal strengths,[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:4-22) and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-23) Large-data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cs%C3%ADkszentmih%C3%A1lyi,_Mih%C3%A1ly_1990-21) is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast they can make each unit and achieves flow in the process.
[Neuroscience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience "Neuroscience") describes [reward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system "Reward system"), [pleasure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure "Pleasure"), and [motivation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation "Motivation") in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the [limbic system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system "Limbic system") and the [ventral tegmental area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area "Ventral tegmental area") in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a [science of morality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_morality "Science of morality")—the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures.
[Experimental philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_philosophy "Experimental philosophy") and [neuroethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics "Neuroethics") research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as [trolley problems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trolley_problems "Trolley problems"). It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models.
[Neurotheology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotheology "Neurotheology") is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:5-24)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:7-25)
[Sociology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology "Sociology") examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as [value theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_theory#Sociology "Value theory"), norms, [anomie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomie "Anomie"), etc. One value system suggested by [social psychologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology_\(psychology\) "Social psychology (psychology)"), broadly called [Terror Management Theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terror_Management_Theory "Terror Management Theory"), states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.
Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives. For example, [depressive realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressive_realism "Depressive realism") posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, and [David Benatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Benatar "David Benatar") theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life.
Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease,[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-26)[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:0-27) reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease,[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:1-28) reduced risk of stroke,[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:2-29) and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-30) There is also growing evidence for a small decline in purpose in life in the early stages of cognitive impairment.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-31)
In 2014, the British [National Health Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service "National Health Service") began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are:[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-32)
1. Connect with community and family
2. Physical exercise
3. Lifelong learning
4. Giving to others
5. [Mindfulness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness "Mindfulness") of the world around you
Origin and nature of biological life
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_Overview.png)
[DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA "DNA") contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known [organisms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life "Life").
The exact mechanisms of [abiogenesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis "Abiogenesis") are unknown: notable hypotheses include the [RNA world hypothesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis "RNA world hypothesis") (RNA-based replicators) and the [iron-sulfur world hypothesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-sulfur_world_hypothesis "Iron-sulfur world hypothesis") (metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via [genetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene "Gene") [mutation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation "Mutation") and [natural selection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection "Natural selection") is explained by [evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution "Evolution").[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-33) At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the [gene-centered view of evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution "Gene-centered view of evolution"), biologists [George C. Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_C._Williams_\(biologist\) "George C. Williams (biologist)"), [Richard Dawkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins "Richard Dawkins"), and [David Haig](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Haig_\(biologist\) "David Haig (biologist)"), among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dawkins_selfish_gene-34)[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dawkins_river-35) Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about "what it is all for", [James Watson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson "James Watson") stated "I don't think we're *for* anything. We're just the products of evolution."[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-36)
Though scientists have intensively studied [life on Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism "Organism"), defining [life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life "Life") in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-37)[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-38) Physically, one may say that life "feeds on [negative entropy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negentropy "Negentropy")"[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-worldtransformation.com-39)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-40)[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-41) which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal [entropy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy "Entropy") at the expense of some form of [energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy "Energy") taken in from the environment.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-42)[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-44) Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are [self-organizing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-organization "Self-organization") systems [which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis "Homeostasis"), [metabolism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism "Metabolism") serves to provide energy, and [reproduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction "Reproduction") causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-45)
Non-cellular replicating agents, notably [viruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus "Virus"), are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some [parasites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite "Parasite") and [endosymbionts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiont "Endosymbiont") are also incapable of independent life. [Astrobiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobiology "Astrobiology") studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.
All forms of life that are in existence today possess a self-replicating informational molecule (genome), and such an informational molecule is presumably intrinsic to life. Thus the earliest forms of life also likely possessed a self-replicating informational molecule, possibly RNA[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-46)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-47) or perhaps an informational molecule more primitive than RNA. The specific genomic sequences in all currently extant organisms contain order generating information that promotes survival, [reproduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction "Reproduction"), and the ability to acquire resources necessary for reproduction. Sequences with such basic functions probably emerged early in the evolution of life.
It has been proposed[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bernstein1983-48) that both the evolution of macroscopic order in life (including its basic functions) and the evolution of order in particular physical systems obey a common fundamental principle that was termed the [Darwinian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwinism "Darwinism") [dynamic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_dynamics "Evolutionary dynamics"). This principal was formulated by considering, first, how macroscopic order is generated in a simple physical, non-biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short RNA replicating molecules and then further to more complex forms of life. It was concluded that the fundamental order-generating process was basically similar for both types of process.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bernstein1983-48)[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-49)
Origins and ultimate fate of the universe
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg)
Timeline of the [expansion of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe "Expansion of the universe"), where space is represented schematically at each time by circular sections. On the left, the dramatic expansion of [inflation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_inflation "Cosmic inflation"); at the center, the expansion [accelerates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe "Accelerating expansion of the universe") (artist's concept; neither time nor size are to scale)
Though the [Big Bang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang "Big Bang") theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-50) However, current physics can only describe the early universe from around 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of [quantum gravity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravity "Quantum gravity") would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Prantzos_&_Lyle-51) For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the [anthropic principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle "Anthropic principle"), it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a [multiverse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse "Multiverse").[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Edwards-52)
The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly of humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through a [Big Freeze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Freeze "Big Freeze"), [Big Rip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Rip "Big Rip"), or [Big Crunch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch "Big Crunch").
Theoretical [cosmology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology "Cosmology") studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside [black holes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holes "Black holes"), with our own [Big Bang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang "Big Bang") being a [white hole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_hole "White hole") on the inside of a [black hole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole "Black hole") in another parent universe.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Poplawski-53) [Many-worlds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds "Many-worlds") theories claim that every possibility of [quantum mechanics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics") is played out in parallel universes.
Scientific questions about the mind
The nature and origin of [consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness "Consciousness") and the [mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind "Mind") are also widely debated in science. The [explanatory gap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanatory_gap "Explanatory gap") is generally equated with the [hard problem of consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness "Hard problem of consciousness"), and the question of [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will") is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of [cognitive science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science "Cognitive science"), [neuroscience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience "Neuroscience") (e.g. the [neuroscience of free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will "Neuroscience of free will")) and [philosophy of mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind "Philosophy of mind"), though some [evolutionary biologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biologist "Evolutionary biologist") and [theoretical physicists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicist "Theoretical physicist") have also made several allusions to the subject.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Whitehouse-54)[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gray-55)
[Reductionistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionistic "Reductionistic") and [eliminative materialistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliminative_materialism "Eliminative materialism") approaches, for example the [Multiple Drafts Model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_Drafts_Model "Multiple Drafts Model"), hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the [brain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain "Human brain") and its [neurons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron "Neuron"), thus adhering to [biological naturalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_naturalism "Biological naturalism").[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gray-55)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Churchland-56)[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dennett-57)
On the other hand, some scientists, like [Andrei Linde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Linde "Andrei Linde"), have considered that [consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness "Consciousness"), like [spacetime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime "Spacetime"), might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Barrow,_Davies,_Harper-58) Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements",[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Barrow,_Davies,_Harper-58) often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Millay,_Heinze-59) [Electromagnetic theories of consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_theories_of_consciousness "Electromagnetic theories of consciousness") solve the [binding problem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem "Binding problem") of consciousness in saying that the [electromagnetic field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_field "Electromagnetic field") generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-60)[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Buccheri_&_Di_Ges%C3%B9_&_Saniga-61) [Quantum mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind "Quantum mind") theories use [quantum theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics") in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will") through [quantum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum "Quantum") phenomena is an alternative to [determinism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism "Determinism").
Parapsychology
Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a [cosmic consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_consciousness "Cosmic consciousness"), asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Walker-14)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bruce-62)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ho-63) Proponents of this view cite accounts of [paranormal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranormal "Paranormal") phenomena, primarily [extrasensory perceptions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrasensory_perception "Extrasensory perception") and [psychic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychic "Psychic") powers, as evidence for an [incorporeal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporeal "Incorporeal") [higher consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_consciousness "Higher consciousness"). In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, [parapsychologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychologist "Parapsychologist") have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Akers-64)[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-65)[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-67)
Nature of meaning in life
Reker and [Wong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_T._P._Wong "Paul T. P. Wong") define personal meaning as the "cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment" (p. 221).[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-68) In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance.[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-69) In contrast, Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life,[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-70)[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:3-71) with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE):
1. You need to choose a worthy *purpose* or a significant life goal.
2. You need to have sufficient *understanding* of who you are, what life demands of you, and how you can play a significant role in life.
3. You and you alone are *responsible* for deciding what kind of life you want to live, and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal.
4. You will *enjoy* a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for [self-determination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") and actively pursue a worthy life-goal.
Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor.
Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g., [Thaddeus Metz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Metz "Thaddeus Metz"), Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-72)[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-73) Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective [normative standard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics "Normative ethics").[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-:3-71)
Western philosophical perspectives
Philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans.
Ancient Greek philosophy
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg)
Plato and Aristotle in *[The School of Athens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_School_of_Athens "The School of Athens")* fresco by [Raphael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael "Raphael"). Plato is pointing heavenwards, and Aristotle is gesturing to the world.
Platonism
[Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato "Plato"), a pupil of [Socrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates "Socrates"), was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his [idealism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_idealism "Philosophical idealism") of believing in the existence of [universals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universals_\(metaphysics\) "Universals (metaphysics)"). His [theory of forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_forms "Theory of forms") proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the [dialogue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue "Dialogue") of the *[Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_\(Plato\) "Republic (Plato)")*, the character of Socrates describes the [Form of the Good](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_the_Good "Form of the Good"). His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life.
In [Platonism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism "Platonism"), the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the [Idea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_idealism "Platonic idealism") ([Form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_realism "Platonic realism")) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value.
Aristotelianism
[Aristotle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle"), an apprentice of [Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato "Plato"), was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not *certain* knowledge (such as [metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") and [epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology "Epistemology")), but is *general* knowledge. Because it is not a [theoretical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical "Theoretical") discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become "good"; thus, if the person were to become [virtuous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtuous "Virtuous"), he could not simply study what virtue *is*, he had to *be* virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous:
> Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor \[...\]
> Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is "good".
Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B would have a goal, goal C, and goal C would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern until something stopped its [infinite regression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_regression "Infinite regression"). Aristotle's solution is the *[Highest Good](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summum_bonum "Summum bonum")*, which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other "goods" are desirable for its sake. This involves achieving *[eudaemonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaemonia "Eudaemonia")*, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence".
> What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is an almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness.
Cynicism
[Antisthenes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisthenes "Antisthenes"), a pupil of [Socrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates "Socrates"), first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of [Virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue "Virtue") which agrees with [Nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature "Nature"). Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and mastering one's mental attitude; suffering results from false judgments of value, which cause negative [emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions "Emotions") and a concomitant vicious character.
The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for [wealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth "Wealth"), [power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_\(sociology\) "Power (sociology)"), [health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health "Health"), and [fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebrity "Celebrity"), by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-74)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-75) As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to [human](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") beings. The [world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World "World") equally belongs to everyone, so [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering "Suffering") is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the [customs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition "Tradition") and [conventions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_\(norm\) "Convention (norm)") of [society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society "Society").
Cyrenaicism
[Aristippus of Cyrene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristippus_of_Cyrene "Aristippus of Cyrene"), a pupil of [Socrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates "Socrates"), founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings—that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a [hedonistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonistic "Hedonistic") world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-76)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-77)
Epicureanism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Agostino_Scilla._The_philosopher_Epicurus.jpg)
[Epicurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus "Epicurus") by Agostino Scilla, circa 1670–1680. The philosopher holds a text that reads "whatever you do, do wisely and think of consequences."
[Epicurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus "Epicurus"), a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear ([ataraxia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataraxia "Ataraxia")) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain ([aponia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aponia "Aponia")) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic "abstention" from sex and the appetites:
> "When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation. By pleasure, we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul."[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-78)
The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no [afterlife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife"), yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Russel-79)
Stoicism
[Zeno of Citium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium "Zeno of Citium"), a pupil of [Crates of Thebes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes "Crates of Thebes"), established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal *[logos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logos "Logos")*, or reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is "freedom from [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering "Suffering")" through *[apatheia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apatheia "Apatheia")* (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being [objective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_\(philosophy\) "Objectivity (philosophy)") and having "clear judgement", *not* indifference.
Stoicism's prime directives are [virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue "Virtue"), [reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason "Reason"), and [natural law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law "Natural law"), abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive [emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion "Emotion"). The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.
The Stoic ethical foundation is that "good lies in the state of the soul", itself exemplified in [wisdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisdom "Wisdom") and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "*Virtue* consists in a *will* which is in agreement with Nature."[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Russel-79) The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Russel-79)
Enlightenment philosophy
The [Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment "Age of Enlightenment") and the [colonial era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism") both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship.
The meaning of life also changed, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era has theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.
Kantianism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg)
[Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant")
[Kantianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantianism "Kantianism") is a philosophy based on the [ethical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical "Ethical"), [epistemological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological "Epistemological"), and [metaphysical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") works of [Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant "Immanuel Kant"). Kant is known for his [deontological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontology "Deontology") theory, where there is a single moral obligation, the "[Categorical Imperative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_Imperative "Categorical Imperative")", derived from the concept of [duty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty "Duty"). Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying [maxim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim_\(philosophy\) "Maxim (philosophy)") or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.
Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim—i.e., imagine that all people acted this way—and then see if it would still be possible to perform it in the world without contradiction. In *Groundwork*, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a [universal action](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_universalism "Moral universalism"), no person would lend money anymore, as they know that they will never be paid back. According to Kant, the maxim of this action results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).
Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.
19th-century philosophy
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appeared in [Thomas Carlyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle "Thomas Carlyle")'s *[Sartor Resartus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sartor_Resartus "Sartor Resartus")* (1833–August 1834): "Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle."[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-80)
Utilitarianism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill.jpg)
[Jeremy Bentham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham "Jeremy Bentham")
The origins of [utilitarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism "Utilitarianism") can be traced back as far as [Epicurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus "Epicurus"), but, as a school of thought, it is credited to [Jeremy Bentham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham "Jeremy Bentham"),[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-81) who found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"; then, from that moral insight, he derived the *Rule of Utility*: "that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". He defined the meaning of life as the "[greatest happiness principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_happiness_principle "Greatest happiness principle")".
[Jeremy Bentham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham "Jeremy Bentham")'s foremost proponent was [James Mill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Mill "James Mill"), a significant philosopher in his day, and father of [John Stuart Mill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill "John Stuart Mill"). The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mill-82)
Nihilism
[Nihilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism "Nihilism") suggests that life is without objective meaning.
[Friedrich Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche "Friedrich Nietzsche") characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values".[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bind%C3%A9-83) Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that [God is dead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_is_dead "God is dead"), and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values returned meaning to the Earth.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Reginster-84)
To [Martin Heidegger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger "Martin Heidegger"), nihilism is the movement whereby "[being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being "Being")" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bind%C3%A9-83) Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "[death of God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_is_dead "God is dead")" a potential source for nihilism:
> If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-85)
The French philosopher [Albert Camus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Camus "Albert Camus") asserts that the [absurdity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdity "Absurdity") of the [human condition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_condition "Human condition") is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as [Meursault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stranger_\(Camus_novel\) "The Stranger (Camus novel)"),[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-86) but also of values in a nihilistic world, that people can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-87)
20th-century philosophy
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_photo.jpg)
Philosopher [Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") said: "The good life is one inspired by [love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love "Love") and guided by [knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge "Knowledge")."
The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten humankind's relationship to the natural world. Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras;[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-88) and philosophy—particularly following the [linguistic turn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_turn "Linguistic turn")—has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in [pragmatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Pragmatism) and [logical positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Logical_positivism)) to efforts to meta-theorize about [meaning-making](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning-making "Meaning-making") as a personal, individual-driven activity ([existentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Existentialism), [secular humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Secular_humanism)).
Pragmatism
[Pragmatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism "Pragmatism") originated in the late-19th-century US, concerning itself (mostly) with [truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth "Truth"), and positing that "only in struggling with the environment" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that *consequences*, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that *anything* useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long run is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be *practically verifiable*—i.e., one should be able to predict and test claims—and, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.
Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. [William James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James "William James") argued that truth could be made, but not sought.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-James-89)[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Corti-90) To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.
Theism
Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. Some theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value, and purpose, then life would be absurd.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Theistic_Perspectives_on_the_Meaning_of_Life-91)
Existentialism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edvard_Munch_Friedrich_Nietzsche_Thielska_292.tif)
[Edvard Munch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvard_Munch "Edvard Munch"), *[Friedrich Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche "Friedrich Nietzsche")*, 1906
According to existentialism, each person creates their life's essence (meaning); life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, but one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are *action*, *freedom*, and *decision*, thus, existentialism opposes [rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism "Rationalism") and [positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism_\(philosophy\) "Positivism (philosophy)"). In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of [anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_\(mood\) "Anxiety (mood)") and [dread](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angst "Angst"), felt in considering one's [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will"), and the concomitant awareness of death. According to [Jean-Paul Sartre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre "Jean-Paul Sartre"), [existence precedes essence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence "Existence precedes essence"); the ([essence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence "Essence")) of one's life arises *only* after one comes to [existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence").
[Søren Kierkegaard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard "Søren Kierkegaard") spoke about a "[leap](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard#Misattributed "q:Søren Kierkegaard")", arguing that [life is full of absurdity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism "Absurdism"), and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Hall-92)
[Arthur Schopenhauer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer "Arthur Schopenhauer") answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and [asceticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asceticism "Asceticism").[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Jacquette-93)[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Murray-94)
For [Friedrich Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche "Friedrich Nietzsche"), life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, [all ideations take place from a particular perspective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectivism "Perspectivism").[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Reginster-84)
Absurdism
> "... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible—no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other—no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek the help he would prefer to be himself—with all the tortures of hell if so it must be."
In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe. Humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma as beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, *[The Sickness Unto Death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sickness_Unto_Death "The Sickness Unto Death")* (1849) and *[The Myth of Sisyphus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Myth_of_Sisyphus "The Myth of Sisyphus")* (1942):
- [Suicide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") (or, "escaping existence"): a solution in which a person simply ends one's own life. Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option.
- [Religious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious "Religious") belief in a [transcendent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_\(religion\) "Transcendence (religion)") realm or being: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now commonly referred to as a "[leap of faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_of_faith "Leap of faith")"). However, Camus regarded this solution as "philosophical suicide".
- Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this solution (notably in his 1947 allegorical novel *The Plague* or *La Peste*), while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as "demoniac madness": "*He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him\!*"[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-96)
Secular humanism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HumanismSymbol.svg)
The "[Happy Human](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Human "Happy Human")" symbol representing secular humanism
Per secular humanism, the [human species](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of [unguided evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution "Evolution") as an integral expression of [nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature "Nature"), which is self-existing.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto1-97)[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto2-98) Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the [scientific method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method "Scientific method")), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the [universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe "Universe") is what people discern it to be.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto1-97) Likewise, "[values](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_value_\(ethics\) "Intrinsic value (ethics)") and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto1-97) and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by [critical intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking "Critical thinking").[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto3-99)[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-CDSH-100) "As far as we know, the total personality is \[a function\] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto2-98)
People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life which [humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_humanism "Secular humanism") seeks to develop and fulfill:[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto1-97) "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity".[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto3-99) Humanism aims to promote [enlightened self-interest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlightened_self-interest "Enlightened self-interest") and the [common good](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_good "Common good") for all people. It is based on the premises that the [happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness "Happiness") of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in [personal relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship "Interpersonal relationship") and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture "Culture").[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto2-98)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-humanifesto3-99)
The philosophical subgenres [posthumanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posthumanism "Posthumanism") and [transhumanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism "Transhumanism") (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of [humanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") and of [all life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrism_\(ethics\) "Biocentrism (ethics)") to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile [Renaissance humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_humanism "Renaissance humanism") with the 21st century's [technoscientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscientific "Technoscientific") culture. In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life".[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-101)
From a [humanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_humanism "Secular humanism")\-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of *my* life?"[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-102) This approach emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this question. For example, [Viktor Frankl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl "Viktor Frankl") argues for "Dereflection", which translates largely as to cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what is the meaning of life?—evaporates when one is fully engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?"; "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; "Why do I neglect loved-ones?".)[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-103)
Logical positivism
[Logical positivists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivists "Logical positivists") ask: "What is the meaning of life?", "What is the meaning in asking?"[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-104)[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-105) and "If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?"[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-106) [Ludwig Wittgenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein "Ludwig Wittgenstein") and the logical positivists said:\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] "Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because, *in* life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the *consequences* of x, or the *significance* of x, or *what is notable* about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes [recursive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion "Recursion"), and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.
The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only *in* life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. [Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Russel-79)
> When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case—or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to "values"—that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects—lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-107)
Postmodernism
Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human nature as constructed by language or structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out *[a priori](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori "A priori and a posteriori")* or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing *given* meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a "meaning of life", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see [awareness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awareness "Awareness") of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in [deconstructionism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstructionism "Deconstructionism")) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in [poststructuralism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poststructuralism "Poststructuralism")).
Naturalistic pantheism
According to [naturalistic pantheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistic_pantheism "Naturalistic pantheism"), the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.
Embodied cognition
[Embodied cognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition "Embodied cognition") uses the neurological basis of emotion, speech, and cognition to understand the nature of thought. [Cognitive neuropsychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuropsychology "Cognitive neuropsychology") has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities, and genetic studies show that the gene [FOXP2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOXP2 "FOXP2") affects neuroplasticity, which underlies language fluency.
[George Lakoff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lakoff "George Lakoff"), a professor of [cognitive linguistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics "Cognitive linguistics") and philosophy, advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning, not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-108) Computers use [logic programming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_programming "Logic programming") to effectively query databases, but humans rely on a trained [biological neural network](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neural_network "Biological neural network"). Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of [symbolic language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_language_\(literature\) "Symbolic language (literature)") to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their [interlocutors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlocutor_\(linguistics\) "Interlocutor (linguistics)") know what they mean.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-109) Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains. When combined with more effective training, a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one's life should be straightforward.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
East Asian philosophical perspectives
Mohism
Further information: [Mohism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohism "Mohism")
The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartial [love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love "Love"). Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring—a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship with them.[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-philosophers-110) The expression of this indiscriminate caring makes one righteous in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the [Confucians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian "Confucian") who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers.
Confucianism
[Confucianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism "Confucianism") recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning, as well as minimizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar [Tu Wei-Ming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu_Wei-Ming "Tu Wei-Ming")'s quote, "We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-111)
Legalism
The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practical knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the function and performance of the state.
Religious perspectives
The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans. According to the [Charter for Compassion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_for_Compassion "Charter for Compassion"), signed by many of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, the core of religion is the [golden rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rule "Golden rule") of "treat others as you would have them treat you".\[*[full citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] [Karen Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Armstrong "Karen Armstrong"), founder of the Charter, recalls the teaching of [Rabbi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbi "Rabbi") [Hillel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder "Hillel the Elder") recorded in [Shabbat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat_\(Talmud\) "Shabbat (Talmud)") 31a:6 of the [Talmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud "Talmud"): the essence of the [Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah "Torah") is simply to be good to others; "everything else is just commentary."[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-112) This is not to reduce the commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation, and ritual are the means by which religious people [internalize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalisation_\(sociology\) "Internalisation (sociology)") and live the golden rule.
Abrahamic religions
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ReligionSymbolAbr.PNG)
Symbols of the three largest Abrahamic religions: [Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism "Judaism"), [Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), and [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam "Islam").
Judaism
In the [Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") and its [philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_philosophy "Jewish philosophy"), the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ([Hebrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"): עולם הזה, [romanized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew "Romanization of Hebrew"):*olam ha-zeh*, [lit.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation "Literal translation")'this world') and prepare it for the [Messianic Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messianic_Age#Judaism "Messianic Age") (no: יְמוֹת הַמָשִׁיחַ, [romanized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew "Romanization of Hebrew"):*ye'moht ha-mashiaḥ*) and [World to Come](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_eschatology#World_to_Come "Jewish eschatology") (no: עולם הבא, [romanized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew "Romanization of Hebrew"):*olam ha-ba*, [lit.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation "Literal translation")'coming world'). Engaging in *[tikkun olam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikkun_olam "Tikkun olam")* (no: תִּיקּוּן עוֹלָם, [lit.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation "Literal translation")'repairing the world') is a component of bringing [Jewish eschatology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_eschatology "Jewish eschatology") to bear. *Olam ha-ba* can also refer more generally to the afterlife, and there is debate concerning the order of Jewish eschatological events. However, while personal salvation is a component of Judaism, communal (between humans) and individual (between humans and God) spiritualised actions in this world are its focus.
Judaism's defining feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible, [transcendent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_\(religion\) "Transcendence (religion)"), unified, and indivisible [absolute Being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Judaism "God in Judaism") who created and governs the universe. Closeness with the God of [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_peoplehood "Jewish peoplehood") is sought through [prayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_prayer "Jewish prayer"), [Torah study](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah_study "Torah study"), Jewish cultural rites, and adherence to God's *[mitzvot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzvot "Mitzvot")* (divine laws). In traditional Judaism, God established a special [covenant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covenant_\(Israel\) "Covenant (Israel)") with the people of Israel during the [theophany at Sinai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophany_at_Sinai "Theophany at Sinai"), giving the [613 mitzvot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_mitzvot "613 mitzvot"). "Torah" comprises the [written Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_Torah "Written Torah") and the transcribed [Oral Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_Torah "Oral Torah"), further developed through the generations, as well as the other books of the [Tanakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanakh "Tanakh"), the [Midrash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrash "Midrash"), other [Rabbinic literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbinic_literature "Rabbinic literature"), and *[Halakha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha "Halakha")*. The Jewish people are intended as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation"[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-113) and a "[light to the Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_Unto_the_Nations "Light Unto the Nations")", influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio-ethical [Seven Laws of Noah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah "Seven Laws of Noah"). The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God.
Jewish observance involves ethical and ritual, affirmative, and prohibitive injunctions. Modern [Jewish denominations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_denominations "Jewish denominations") differ over the nature, relevance, and emphases of *mitzvot*. [Jewish philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_philosophy "Jewish philosophy") emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] The rationalist [Maimonides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides "Maimonides") viewed the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary but insufficient foundation for a philosophical understanding of God, along with its love and awe.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-114) Among fundamental [values](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_ethics "Jewish ethics") in the Torah are the pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cohn-Sherbok-115)[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Heschel-116) The world to come,[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Shuchat-117) prepared in the present, elevates religious Jews to an everlasting connection with God.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Braham-118) [Simeon the Just](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon_the_Just "Simeon the Just") says, "The world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness." The [prayer book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddur "Siddur") relates, "Blessed is our God who created us for his honor ... and planted within us everlasting life." In this context, the [Talmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud "Talmud") states, "Everything that God does is for the good," including suffering.
The Jewish mystical [Kabbalah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah "Kabbalah") gives complementary esoteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing an [immanent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_immanence "Divine immanence") relationship with God (personal [theism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theism "Theism")), in Kabbalah, the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being ([panentheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panentheism "Panentheism")), related to the [Shekhinah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shekhinah "Shekhinah") (Divine feminine). Jewish observance unites the [sephirot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephirot "Sephirot") (Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. In [Lurianic Kabbalah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurianic_Kabbalah "Lurianic Kabbalah"), the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (the [Kelipot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelipot "Kelipot") shells), through the actions of Jewish observance.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-119) Through this, in [Hasidic Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism "Hasidic Judaism") the ultimate essential "desire" of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-120)
Christianity
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christ_the_Redeemer_-_Cristo_Redentor.jpg)
*[Christ the Redeemer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_the_Redeemer_\(statue\) "Christ the Redeemer (statue)")* statue in [Rio de Janeiro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro") is symbolic of Christianity,[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-121) illustrating the concept of seeking [redemption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redemption_\(theology\) "Redemption (theology)") through [Jesus Christ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ "Jesus Christ").
[Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's [ontology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology "Ontology"). Its central beliefs derive from the teachings of [Jesus Christ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ "Jesus Christ") as presented in the [New Testament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament"). Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine [salvation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity "Salvation in Christianity") through the grace of God and intercession of Christ.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-122) The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's [sins are forgiven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity "Atonement in Christianity").[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-123)
In the Christian view, humankind was made in the [Image of God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_of_God "Image of God") and perfect, but the [Fall of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Man "Fall of Man") caused the progeny of the [First Parents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_and_Eve "Adam and Eve") to inherit [Original Sin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Sin "Original Sin") and its consequences. Christ's [passion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_of_Jesus "Passion of Jesus"), [death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus "Crucifixion of Jesus") and [resurrection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus "Resurrection of Jesus") provide the means for transcending that impure state ([Romans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans "Epistle to the Romans") 6:23). That this restoration from sin is possible is called the [gospel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel "Gospel").
The Apostle Paul explains the meaning of life in his speech on the [Areopagus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areopagus "Areopagus") in [Athens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens "Athens"): "And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us."[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-124)
Denominations
The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between different [denominations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations "List of Christian denominations") of Christians, but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point. Salvation through faith in God is found in [Ephesians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Ephesians "Epistle to the Ephesians") 2:8–9\[8\] "For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God;\[9\] not as a result of works, that no one should boast." ([NASB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_American_Standard_Bible "New American Standard Bible"); 1973). The gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, thereby allowing believers to be [regenerated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_\(theology\) "Regeneration (theology)") by God and to instill in them a new heart after God's own will with the ability to live righteously before him. This is what the term [saved](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity "Salvation in Christianity") almost always refer to.
In Reformed theology, it is believed the purpose of life is to glorify God. In the *[Westminster Shorter Catechism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Shorter_Catechism "Westminster Shorter Catechism")*, an important creed for Reformed Christians,[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-125) the first question is: "What is the chief end of Man?" (that is, "What is Man's main purpose?"). The answer is: "Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever". God requires one to obey the revealed moral law, saying: "Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as yourself".[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Westminster-126) The *[Baltimore Catechism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_Catechism "Baltimore Catechism")* answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven."[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-127)
[Catholicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism "Catholicism")'s meaning of life is explained in Catechism of the Catholic Church paragraph 294. The Universe exists for the manifestation and communication of God's glory, while mankind exists for the [beatific vision](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatific_vision "Beatific vision").[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-128) Catechism of the Catholic Church 601 explains the meaning of Jesus' life: to fulfill the Scripture, in particular the plan of salvation.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-129)
[Mormonism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormonism "Mormonism") teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gospel_Principles-130) Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him. Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their development—wherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gospel_Principles-130) The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise; rather, the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil.[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-131)[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-132) Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world,[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-133) so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential.
A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering;[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-134) nonetheless, the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the [propitiatory sacrifice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propitiation "Propitiation") of Jesus' death on the cross.
Islam
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supplicating_Pilgrim_at_Masjid_Al_Haram._Mecca,_Saudi_Arabia.jpg)
Supplicating [Pilgrim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim "Pilgrim") at [Masjid Al Haram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masjid_Al_Haram "Masjid Al Haram"). [Mecca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca "Mecca")
In [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam "Islam"), humanity's ultimate purpose is to worship their creator, [Allah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah "Allah") (English: The God), through his signs, and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion. This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in the [Qur'an](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an "Qur'an") and the tradition of the [Prophet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad "Muhammad") (with the exception of [Quranists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quranism "Quranism")). Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter. A person will either be close to him and his love in *[Jannah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jannah "Jannah")* (Paradise) or far away in *[Jahannam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahannam "Jahannam")* (Hell).
For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his [angels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels_in_Islam "Angels in Islam"), his [messengers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_in_Islam "Prophets in Islam"), and in the "[Day of Judgment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiyamah "Qiyamah")".[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-135) The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things, who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving." (Qur'an 67:1–2) and "And I (Allâh) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient (to Allah)." (Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to the [oneness of God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid "Tawhid") in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one *acts* (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell).[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-136)\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] However, on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-137)
The [Five Pillars of Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam "Five Pillars of Islam") are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: [Shahadah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahada "Shahada") (profession of faith); [Salat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salah "Salah") (ritual prayer); [Zakat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakat "Zakat") (charity); [Sawm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawm "Sawm") (fasting during [Ramadan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan "Ramadan")), and [Hajj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajj "Hajj") (pilgrimage to [Mecca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca "Mecca")).[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-138) They derive from the [Hadith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith "Hadith") works, notably of [Sahih Al-Bukhari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_Al-Bukhari "Sahih Al-Bukhari") and [Sahih Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_Muslim "Sahih Muslim"). The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran.
Beliefs differ among the [Kalam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam "Kalam"). The [Sunni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni "Sunni") and the [Ahmadiyya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmadiyya "Ahmadiyya") concept of pre-destination is [divine decree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadr_\(doctrine\) "Qadr (doctrine)");[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-139) the [Shi'a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi%27a "Shi'a") concept of pre-destination is [divine justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adalah_\(Islam\) "Adalah (Islam)"); in the [esoteric](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoteric "Esoteric") view of the [Sufis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi "Sufi"), the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.
The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the [hadith qudsi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith_qudsi "Hadith qudsi") that states "I (God) was [a Hidden Treasure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Hidden_Treasure "A Hidden Treasure") and loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known." One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as ['Abdu'l-Bahá](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Abdu%27l-Bah%C3%A1 "'Abdu'l-Bahá") of the [Baháʼí Faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith "Baháʼí Faith"), and in [Ibn'Arabī](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Arabi "Ibn Arabi")'s Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-SUMMARY_OF_THE_FUS%C3%9BS-141) According to Shaykh [Ibrahim Niass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Niass "Ibrahim Niass"), worship of God is closely linked to [ma'rifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27rifa "Ma'rifa"),[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-142) therefore the perfection of the aspirant's knowledge of God is conditional upon his attainment of ma'rifa.
Baháʼí Faith
The [Baháʼí Faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith "Baháʼí Faith") emphasizes the unity of humanity.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-143) To Baháʼís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. People's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and the [prophets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifestation_of_God_\(Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith\) "Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)") were sent by God to facilitate this.[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-144)[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-145)
South Asian religions
Hindu philosophies
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golden_Aum.png)
A golden [Aum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Om "Om") written in [Devanagari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devanagari "Devanagari"). The Aum is sacred in [Hindu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), [Jain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism "Jainism") and [Buddhist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") religions.
[Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive, and tolerant in content.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-weightman-146) Most believe that the [ātman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_\(Hinduism\) "Ātman (Hinduism)") (spirit, soul)—the person's true *self*—is eternal.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-monierwilliams-147) In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as the *[purusharthas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purusharthas "Purusharthas")* (ordered from least to greatest): (i) *[Kāma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81ma "Kāma")* (wish, desire, love and sensual pleasure), (ii) *[Artha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artha "Artha")* (wealth, prosperity, glory), (iii) *[Dharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma "Dharma")* (righteousness, duty, morality, [virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue "Virtue"), [ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics "Ethics")), encompassing notions such as *[ahimsa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahimsa "Ahimsa")* (non-violence) and [satya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satya "Satya") (truth) and (iv) *[Moksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha "Moksha")* (liberation, i.e. liberation from [Saṃsāra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra "Saṃsāra"), the cycle of [reincarnation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation "Reincarnation")).[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-148)[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-149)[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-150)
In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of [karma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma "Karma") (causal action), [sansara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sansara "Sansara") (the cycle of birth and rebirth), and [moksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha "Moksha") (liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (similar to the western concept of a [soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_\(spirit\) "Soul (spirit)")) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader [yogas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga "Yoga") (practices) or [dharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma "Dharma") (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship [Devas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_\(Hinduism\) "Deva (Hinduism)") which are manifestations of [Ishvara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishvara "Ishvara") (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.
In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself. This thought is conveyed in the [Mahāvākyas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81v%C4%81kyas "Mahāvākyas") ("[Tat Tvam Asi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tat_Tvam_Asi "Tat Tvam Asi")" (thou art that), "Aham Brahmāsmi", "Prajñānam Brahma" and "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (This Ātman is Brahman)).
Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism
Later schools reinterpreted the [vedas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas "Vedas") to focus on [Brahman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman "Brahman"), "The One Without a Second",[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-bhaskaranandaessential-151) as a central God-like figure.
In [monist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monist "Monist") Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's [Ātman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_\(Hinduism\) "Ātman (Hinduism)") (soul) is identical to [Brahman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman "Brahman").[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-152) To the [Upanishads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanishads "Upanishads"), whoever becomes fully aware of the Ātman, as one's core of self, realizes identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves [Moksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha "Moksha") (liberation, freedom).[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-monierwilliams-147)[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-werner-153)[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-154)
Dvaita Vedanta and other [bhakti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti "Bhakti") schools have a [dualist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_dualism "Theistic dualism") interpretation. [Brahman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman "Brahman") is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The Ātman depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through the love of God and upon His grace.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-werner-153)
Vaishnavism
[Vaishnavism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishnavism "Vaishnavism") is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification of [Vishnu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu "Vishnu") or [Narayana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narayana "Narayana") as the one supreme God. This belief contrasts with the [Krishna-centered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnaism "Krishnaism") traditions, such as [Vallabha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallabha "Vallabha"), [Nimbaraka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimbaraka "Nimbaraka") and [Gaudiya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudiya "Gaudiya"), in which [Krishna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna "Krishna") is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the [source of all avataras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svayam_Bhagavan "Svayam Bhagavan").[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-155)
Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as [monotheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheism "Monotheism"), [reincarnation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation "Reincarnation"), [samsara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsara "Samsara"), [karma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma "Karma"), and the various [Yoga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga "Yoga") systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion ([bhakti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti "Bhakti")) to Vishnu through the process of [Bhakti yoga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti_yoga "Bhakti yoga"), often including singing Vishnu's name's ([bhajan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhajan "Bhajan")), meditating upon his form ([dharana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharana "Dharana")) and performing [deity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deity "Deity") worship ([puja](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puja_\(Hinduism\) "Puja (Hinduism)")). The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as [Pañcaratra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C3%B1caratra "Pañcaratra") and various [Samhitas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samhita "Samhita").[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-156)
One popular school of thought, [Gaudiya Vaishnavism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudiya_Vaishnavism "Gaudiya Vaishnavism"), teaches the concept of [Achintya Bheda Abheda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda "Achintya Bheda Abheda"). In this, Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna. Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion. The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating, and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna.
Jainism
[Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism "Jainism") is a religion originating in [ancient India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_India "Iron Age India"), its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the [ascetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asceticism "Asceticism") teachings of [Jina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirthankara "Tirthankara"), a [human](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human "Human") achieves [enlightenment (perfect knowledge)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksa_\(Jainism\) "Moksa (Jainism)"). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the living becomes attached to the non-living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-157)
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal [soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_\(spirit\) "Soul (spirit)"), *[jiva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiva "Jiva")*. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining [Moksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksa_\(Jainism\) "Moksa (Jainism)"). The [Jain view of karma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism "Karma in Jainism") is that every action, every word, every thought has effect on the soul.
Jainism includes strict adherence to [ahimsa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism "Ahimsa in Jainism") (or *ahinsā*), a form of [nonviolence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonviolence "Nonviolence") that goes far beyond [vegetarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarianism "Vegetarianism"). Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to [veganism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veganism "Veganism") due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude [root vegetables](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_vegetable "Root vegetable") from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-158)
Buddhism
Early Buddhism
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tian_Tan_Buddha_by_Beria.jpg)
Statue of [Gautama Buddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha "Gautama Buddha")
Buddhists practice embracing mindfulness, the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that is present in life. Buddhists practice seeing the causes of ill-being and well-being in life. For example, one of the causes of suffering is an unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material. The Buddhist [sūtras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%ABtras "Sūtras") and [tantras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantras_\(Buddhism\) "Tantras (Buddhism)") do not speak about "the meaning of life" or "the purpose of life", but about the potential of human life to end suffering, for example through embracing (not suppressing or denying) cravings and conceptual attachments. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of [Nirvana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana "Nirvana"). Nirvana means freedom from both [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukkha "Dukkha") and [rebirth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebirth_\(Buddhism\) "Rebirth (Buddhism)").[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-159)
[Theravada Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada "Theravada") is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of [Vibhajjavada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibhajjavada "Vibhajjavada") ([Pali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81li "Pāli")), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the [Four Noble Truths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths "Four Noble Truths"). This is attained in the achievement of [Nirvana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana "Nirvana"), or Unbinding which also ends the [repeated cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation "Reincarnation") of birth, old age, sickness, and death. The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the [Noble Eightfold Path](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path "Noble Eightfold Path").
Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in [Theravada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada "Theravada")) of the release from individual Suffering ([Duhkha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha "Duḥkha")) and attainment of Awakening ([Nirvana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana "Nirvana")). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, [omnipresent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnipresent "Omnipresent") being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent [Buddha-nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha-nature "Buddha-nature"), which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-160)
Devotional schools such as [Pure Land Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism "Pure Land Buddhism") seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-161)
Sikhism
The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten [Sikh Gurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Gurus "Sikh Gurus"), or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the *[Gurū Granth Sāhib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur%C5%AB_Granth_S%C4%81hib "Gurū Granth Sāhib")*, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Singh-162) Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before [God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waheguru "Waheguru").[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mayled-163) Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-164)
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-[anthropomorphic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism#In_religion_and_mythology "Anthropomorphism") concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the [Universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe "Universe") itself ([pantheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheism "Pantheism")). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-p252-165) [Nanak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru_Nanak_Dev "Guru Nanak Dev") described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must [meditate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditate "Meditate") to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-p252-165)
East Asian religions
Taoism
[Taoist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoist "Taoist") [cosmogony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmogony "Cosmogony") emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all men to return to the *primordial* or to rejoin with the *Oneness* of the Universe by way of self-cultivation and self-realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
Taoists believe all things were originally from [Taiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiji_\(philosophy\) "Taiji (philosophy)") and [Tao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao "Tao"), and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves."[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ming-Dao-166)
Shinto
[Shinto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto "Shinto") is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of the [kami](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kami "Kami")", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The "divine" crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will"), choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process.
Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mason-167)
New religions
There are many [new religious movements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_religious_movements "New religious movements") in East Asia, and some with millions of followers: [Chondogyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondogyo "Chondogyo"), [Tenrikyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenrikyo "Tenrikyo"), [Cao Đài](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_%C4%90%C3%A0i "Cao Đài"), and [Seicho-No-Ie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seicho-No-Ie "Seicho-No-Ie"). New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a [Joyous Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joyous_Life "Joyous Life") by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others.
Iranian religions
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendent God, [Ahura Mazda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahura_Mazda "Ahura Mazda"), to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's creation is *[asha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asha "Asha")*, truth and order, and it is in conflict with its [antithesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antithesis "Antithesis"), *druj*, falsehood and disorder.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-168)
Since humanity possesses [free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will "Free will"), people must be responsible for their moral choices. By using free will, people must take an active role in the universal conflict, with good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay.
Popular views
"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?".[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-WITMOL-15) Some popular answers include:
To realize one's potential and ideals
- To chase dreams.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To live one's dreams.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ellerton-170)
- To spend it for something that will outlast it.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To expand one's potential in life.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ellerton-170)
- To become the person you've always wanted to be.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Chandler-172)
- To become the best version of yourself.[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kelly-173)
- To seek happiness[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-174) and flourish.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Baggini-8)
- To be a true authentic human being.[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kultgen-175)
- To be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To follow or submit to our destiny.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cappannelli-176)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-West-177)[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Madorsky-178)
- To achieve [eudaimonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia "Eudaimonia"),[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-179) a flourishing of human spirit.
To evolve, or to achieve biological perfection
- To [evolve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution "Introduction to evolution"),[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-180) changing from generation to generation.
- To [survive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-preservation "Self-preservation"),[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-181) that is, to live as long as possible,[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-182) including pursuit of [immortality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality "Immortality") (through scientific means).[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kurweil_&_Grossmann-183)
- To [live forever](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality "Immortality")[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kurweil_&_Grossmann-183) or die [trying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_extension "Life extension").[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Appleyard-184)
- To maximize one's genes' advantage in terms of natural selection, by having many children or indirect descendants via relatives.[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-185)
- To replicate, to reproduce.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169) "The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells."[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Lane-186)[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Weiss_&_Buchanan-187)[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ackerman-188)[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Rensberger-189)
To seek wisdom and knowledge
- To expand one's perception of the world.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ellerton-170)
- To follow the clues and walk out the exit.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Chris_Grau-190)
- To learn as many things as possible in life.[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cooper_&_Hutchinson-191)
- To know as much as possible about as many things as possible.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Findling_&_Thackeray-192)
- To seek [wisdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisdom "Wisdom") and [knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge "Knowledge") and to tame the [mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind "Mind"), as to avoid [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering "Suffering") caused by [ignorance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignorance "Ignorance") and find [happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness "Happiness").[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dalai_Lama-193)
- To face our [fears](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear "Fear") and accept the [lessons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson "Lesson") life offers us.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cappannelli-176)
- To find the meaning or purpose of life.[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Simmons-194)[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Bowell-195)
- To find a reason to live.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Gibbs_&_Basinger_&_Fuller-196)
- To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Tang-197)
To do good, to do the right thing
- To leave the world as a better place than you found it.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To benefit others.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Hua-11)
- To give more than you take.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To end suffering.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Roberts-198)[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Costigan-199)[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Jeffers_&_Smith-200)
- To create [equality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_equality "Social equality").[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Jeffrey-201)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Williams-202)[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Muller-203)
- To challenge [oppression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppression "Oppression").[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nash_&_Stewart-204)
- To [distribute wealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth "Redistribution of income and wealth").[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yao-205)[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Turner_&_Rojek-206)
- To be generous.[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Goonewardene-207)[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ferry-208)
- To contribute to the [well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being "Well-being") and spirit of others.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Stephan_&_Pace-209)[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-210)
- To help others,[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Baggini-8)[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ferry-208) to help one another.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Steinberg-211)
- To take every chance to help another while on your journey here.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To be creative and innovative.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Stephan_&_Pace-209)
- To forgive.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To accept and forgive human flaws.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Caunt-212)[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-213)
- To be emotionally sincere.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To be responsible.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To be honorable.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To [seek peace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacifism "Pacifism").[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
Meanings relating to religion
- To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine.[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Halevi-214)
- To have a pure soul and experience God.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To understand the mystery of God.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cappannelli-176)
- To know or attain union with God.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Girard-215)[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kashmir_Shaivism-216)
- To know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mahadevan-217)
- To love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To love God[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Girard-215) and all of his creations.[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Scully-218)
- To glorify God by enjoying him forever.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Piper-219)
- To spread your religion and share it with others.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Harrison-220)[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Worsham2-221)
- To act justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with your God.[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Worsham-222)
- To be fruitful and multiply.[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Burke-223) ([Genesis 1:28](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%201:28&version=nrsv))
- To obtain freedom. ([Romans 8:20–21](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%208:20%E2%80%9321&version=nrsv))
- To fill the Earth and subdue it.[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Burke-223) ([Genesis 1:28](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%201:28&version=nrsv))
- To serve humankind,[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-224) to prepare to meet[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-225) and become more like God,[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-226)[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-227)[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-228)[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-229) to choose good over evil,[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-230) and have joy.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-231)[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-232)
- ˹He is the One˺ Who created death and life in order to test which of you is best in deeds. And He is the Almighty, All-Forgiving. —Quran [67:2](https://quran.com/67?startingVerse=2)
- To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Quran-233)
To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living
- To love more.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To seek [beauty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty "Beauty") in all its forms.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To have fun or enjoy life.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cappannelli-176)[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Stephan_&_Pace-209)
- To seek pleasure[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171) and avoid pain.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mitchell-234)
- To be compassionate.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Cook-171)
- To be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To love others as best we possibly can.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- To eat, drink, and be merry.[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Ecclesiastes8:15-235)
To have power, to be better
- To [strive for power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_to_power "Will to power")[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Reginster-84) and superiority.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Mitchell-234)
- To rule the world.[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-West-177)
- To know and master the world.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Harrison-220)[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Dillon-236)
- To know and master nature.[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Aron-237)
- To help life become as powerful as possible.[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-238)
Life has no meaning
- Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random [chance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_\(philosophy\) "Contingency (philosophy)") in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Tang-197)
- Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life
- The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Tang-197)
- You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Seaman-169)
- Ultimately, a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is, but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked. In a word, each person is questioned by life; and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life; to life they can only respond by being responsible.[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-239)
In popular culture
The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject in [popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture "Popular culture"), featured in [entertainment media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media "Mass media") and [various forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts "The arts") of art.
*[Monty Python's The Meaning of Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python%27s_The_Meaning_of_Life "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life")* includes a character played by [Michael Palin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Palin "Michael Palin") being handed an envelope containing "the meaning of life", which she opens and reads out to the audience: "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-useless_website-240)[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Burnham-241)[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Fernandez-242)
In [Douglas Adams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adams "Douglas Adams")' book *[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy")*, the [Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answer_to_the_Ultimate_Question_of_Life,_the_Universe,_and_Everything "Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything") is given the numeric solution "[42](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/42_\(number\) "42 (number)")", after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giant [supercomputer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer "Supercomputer") called [Deep Thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_characters_from_The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy#Deep_Thought "Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy"). When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors, Deep Thought explains that "I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was."[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-243)[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Baggini-8)[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yeffeth-244)[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Badke-245)[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Adams_H2G2_book1-246) Deep Thought then constructs another computer—the Earth—to calculate what the Ultimate Question actually is. Later Ford and Arthur manage to extract the question as the Earth computer would have rendered it. That question turns out to be "what do you get if you multiply six by nine",[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-247) and it is realised that [the program was ruined by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_in,_garbage_out "Garbage in, garbage out") on Earth, and so the actual Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, And Everything remains unknown.
In [*Person of Interest*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person_of_Interest_\(TV_series\) "Person of Interest (TV series)") season 5 episode 13, an [artificial intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence "Artificial intelligence") referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is "Everyone dies alone. But if you mean something to someone, if you help someone, or love someone. If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all." This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-248)
Existential crisis
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Allan_Gilbert_-_All_is_Vanity.jpg)
[Charles Allan Gilbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Allan_Gilbert "Charles Allan Gilbert")'s *All is Vanity,* an example of *[vanitas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanitas "Vanitas"),* depicts a young woman amidst her makeup and perfumes, preoccupied with her own beauty at the mirror of her [vanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_table "Vanity table"). But all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear, expressing *[memento mori](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memento_mori "Memento mori")*, that no matter how good she looks, it will not last, as death is inevitable.
[Existential crises](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_crises "Existential crises") are crises of meaning. They are triggered by the impression that life lacks meaning.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-APAExistentialCrisis-249)[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Andrews2016-250)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Butenait%C4%972016-251) This impression can lead to an inner conflict because there is a strong [desire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire "Desire") to find some form of meaning in life. In the [existentialist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism "Existentialism") literature, the discrepancy between the individual's desire for meaning and the world's apparent lack thereof is termed [the absurd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism "Absurdism").[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-StanfordExistentialism-252)[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Blomme2013-253)[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-OxfordAbsurd-254) It may be summarized by the question "How does a being who needs meaning find meaning in a universe that has no meaning?".[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255) While this conflict may affect different people at least to some extent, it reaches a more severe level in the case of existential crises. This level leads to various negative [experiences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiences "Experiences"), such as [stress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_\(biology\) "Stress (biology)"), [anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety "Anxiety"), despair, and [depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\) "Depression (mood)").[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Andrews2016-250)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Butenait%C4%972016-251) In the more serious cases, these symptoms disturb the individual's normal functioning in everyday life. A positive side effect of these negative experiences is that they push the affected individual to address the underlying issue. This opens the opportunity of [developing as a person](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_development "Personal development") and improving one's way of life.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Greer-256)
Therapists often try to treat existential crises by helping their patients discover meaning in life. An important distinction in this regard is the difference between personal meaning and cosmic meaning.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-IEPNihilism-257) In the cosmic sense, the term "meaning of life" refers to the purpose of the world as a whole or why we are here. One way to solve an existential crisis is to discover a satisfying answer to this question. This often takes the form of a [religious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious "Religious") explanation involving a divine entity that created the world for a certain purpose.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yang2010-258)[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Zapffe1933-259) Another approach to solving existential crises is to seek meaning not on the cosmic but on the personal level. This usually takes a more secular form: the therapist helps the individual realize what matters to them or why their life is worth living.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-IEPNihilism-257)[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-BritannicaNihilism-260) In this regard, they may discover how their personal life can be meaningful, for example, by dedicating themselves to their family or their career. This approach may mitigate or solve an existential crisis even if the individual still lacks an answer to the bigger question of the deeper meaning behind everything.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yalom2020-255)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Butenait%C4%972016-251)[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Yang2010-258)
Importance
The question of the meaning of life is closely related to the question of what has [importance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Importance "Importance") or what matters. This is reflected in the fact that finding meaning in life is often associated with dedicating oneself to some kind of higher purpose, which is seen as having special importance.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1981-262) Nonetheless, some theorists have argued that the two concepts are not identical.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1990-263) This distinction is often motivated by the observation that seeking the meaning of life is usually regarded as an admirable goal associated with [self-transcendence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-transcendence "Self-transcendence"). Craving importance, on the other hand, seems to be a more [egoistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoism "Egoism") or [narcissistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism "Narcissism") aim in comparison.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)
Various theorists have argued that to be important means to have an impact on the world or to make a difference. Some only require that this causal impact is big enough. Others include as an additional element that the difference in question has to affect the value of the world.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2021a-264)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1990-263)[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Benatar2017-265) This is often interpreted with reference to [well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being "Well-being"): the degree of importance of a thing is given by the extent to which it affects the well-being of sentient entities.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Benbaji2001-266)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1990-263)[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Tugendhat2016-267) However, the relation to a purpose is usually not required for importance. In this regard, some things may be important accidentally or [unintentionally](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention "Intention") without being guided by a higher goal. For example, a person may by chance bump into something and thereby unwittingly trigger a [butterfly effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_effect "Butterfly effect") of extreme proportions. In such a case, the person's life has acquired high importance due to the consequences it caused. Nonetheless, this does not imply that it has also acquired some form of deeper meaning or higher purpose.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)
Another difference is that seeking and realizing the meaning of life is usually seen by most theorists as a positive and worthwhile undertaking. Importance, however, can be either positive or negative depending on the type of value difference involved.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2022-261)[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Nozick1990-263) For example, [Alexander Fleming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming "Alexander Fleming") was important in a positive sense since his discovery of [penicillin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin "Penicillin") helped many people cure their [bacterial infections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_infection "Bacterial infection").[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-268) [Adolf Hitler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler"), on the other hand, was important in a negative sense since his policies caused widespread suffering to innumerous people.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_note-Kahane2021a-264)
See also
Scientific explanations
- [*Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin%27s_Dangerous_Idea "Darwin's Dangerous Idea") – 1995 book by Daniel Dennett
- [*The Death of God and the Meaning of Life*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Death_of_God_and_the_Meaning_of_Life "The Death of God and the Meaning of Life") – 2014 book by Julian Young
- [*Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power,_Sex,_Suicide "Power, Sex, Suicide") – 2005 book by Nick Lane
- [*Sex, Death and the Meaning of Life*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex,_Death_and_the_Meaning_of_Life "Sex, Death and the Meaning of Life") – 2010 three-part television documentary
Origin and nature of life and reality
- [Abiogenesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis "Abiogenesis") – Life arising from non-living matter
- [Awareness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awareness "Awareness") – Perception or knowledge of something
- [Being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being "Being") – State of being real
- [Biosemiotics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosemiotics "Biosemiotics") – Biology interpreted as a sign system
- [Dao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dao "Dao") – Philosophical concept native to China
- [Existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence "Existence") – State of being real
- [Human condition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_condition "Human condition") – Ultimate concerns of human existence
- [Logos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logos "Logos") – Concept in philosophy, religion, rhetoric, and psychology
- [Metaphysical naturalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism "Metaphysical naturalism") – Philosophical worldview rejecting anything supernatural
- [Perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception "Perception") – Interpretation of sensory information
- [Reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality "Reality") – Sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent
- [Simulated reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulated_reality "Simulated reality") – Concept of a false version of reality
- [Theory of everything](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_everything "Theory of everything") – Hypothetical physical concept
- [Teleology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology "Teleology") – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose
- [Ultimate fate of the universe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe "Ultimate fate of the universe") – Theories about the end of the universe
Value of life
- [Culture of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_life "Culture of life") – Way of life highlighting life's sanctity
- [Bioethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethics "Bioethics") – Study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and medicine
- [Meaningful life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaningful_life "Meaningful life") – Fulfilling life guided by a purpose
- [Quality of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life "Quality of life") – Degree of individual well-being
- [Value of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_of_life "Value of life") – Economic measure placing a monetary value on reducing the risk of death
Purpose of life
- [Destiny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny "Destiny") – Predetermined course of events
- [Ethical living](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_living "Ethical living")
- [Intentional living](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentional_living "Intentional living") – Lifestyle
- [Life extension](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_extension "Life extension") – Concept of extending human lifespan
- [*Man's Search for Meaning*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27s_Search_for_Meaning "Man's Search for Meaning") – 1946 book by Viktor Frankl
- [Means to an end (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Means_to_an_end_\(disambiguation\) "Means to an end (disambiguation)")
- [Philosophy of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_life "Philosophy of life") – German philosophical movement
Miscellaneous
- [Human extinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction "Human extinction") – End of the human species
- [Ikigai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikigai "Ikigai") – Giving a sense of purpose (Japanese)
- [Life stance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_stance "Life stance") – Person's relation with what they accept as being of ultimate importance
- [Meaning-making](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning-making "Meaning-making") – Process of understanding changes in life
- [Perennial philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_philosophy "Perennial philosophy") – Idea that all religions share a single truth
- [Vale of tears](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vale_of_tears "Vale of tears") – Religious phrase in Christianity
- [World riddle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_riddle "World riddle") – Term in ontology and consciousness studies
- [Worldview](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldview "Worldview") – Fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society
References
1. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:8_1-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:8_1-1)
O'Brien, Wendell. ["Meaning of Life, The: Early Continental and Analytic Perspectives"](https://iep.utm.edu/mean-ear/). *[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy")*. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-2)**
["Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle"](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1051/1051-h/1051-h.htm). *www.gutenberg.org*. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-3)**
Leach, Stephen; [Tartaglia, James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tartaglia "James Tartaglia") (2018). ["The Original Meaning of Life"](https://philosophynow.org/issues/126/The_Original_Meaning_of_Life). *[Philosophy Now](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_Now "Philosophy Now")*. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-4)**
["How meaning of life was invented: Thomas Carlyle on how to overcome an existential crisis"](https://frankmartela.com/2020/12/04/how-meaning-of-life-was-invented-thomas-carlyle-on-how-to-overcome-an-existential-crisis/). *Frank Martela*. 4 December 2020. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-5)**
["The Essays of Arthur Schopenhauer: on Human Nature., by Arthur Schopenhauer"](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10739/10739-h/10739-h.htm). *www.gutenberg.org*. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Westphal_6-0)**
Jonathan Westphal (1998). *Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy*. Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick_7-0)**
[Robert Nozick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Nozick "Robert Nozick") (1981). [*Philosophical Explanations*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Explanations "Philosophical Explanations"). Harvard University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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8. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Baggini_8-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Baggini_8-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Baggini_8-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Baggini_8-3)
[Julian Baggini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Baggini "Julian Baggini") (2004). [*What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life*](https://archive.org/details/whatsitallaboutp0000bagg). US: Granta Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Thiemann_&_Placher_9-0)**
[Ronald F. Thiemann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_F._Thiemann "Ronald F. Thiemann"); [William Carl Placher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Placher "William Placher") (1998). *Why Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian Life*. Continuum International Publishing Group. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Marcellino_10-0)**
Dennis Marcellino (1996). *Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand)*. Lighthouse Pub. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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11. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Hua_11-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Hua_11-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Hua_11-2)
Hsuan Hua (2003). [*Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism*](https://archive.org/details/wordsofwisdomv1b0000hsua). Dharma Realm Buddhist Association. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-88139-302-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88139-302-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-88139-302-6")
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12. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Davies_12-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Davies_12-1)
[Paul Davies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Davies "Paul Davies") (2000). [*The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life*](https://web.archive.org/web/20010616025035/http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/d/davies-miracle.html). Simon & Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-684-86309-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86309-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86309-2")
. Archived from [the original](https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/d/davies-miracle.html) on 16 June 2001. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Christiansen_&_Baum_&_Bass-Haugen_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Christiansen_&_Baum_&_Bass-Haugen_13-1)
Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-Haugen (2005). *Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being*. SLACK Incorporated. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-55642-530-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55642-530-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-55642-530-1")
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14. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Walker_14-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Walker_14-1)
[Evan Harris Walker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evan_Harris_Walker "Evan Harris Walker") (2000). *The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life*. Perseus Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7382-0436-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0436-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0436-9")
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15. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-WITMOL_15-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-WITMOL_15-1)
["Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning of Life?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070824210257/http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm). *[Philosophy Now](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_Now "Philosophy Now")*. Issue 59. Archived from [the original](http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm) on 24 August 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
16. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Krishnamurti_16-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Krishnamurti_16-1)
[Jiddu Krishnamurti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddu_Krishnamurti "Jiddu Krishnamurti") (2001). *What Are You Doing With Your Life?*. Krishnamurti Foundation of America. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-888004-24-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-888004-24-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-888004-24-3")
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17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-UIUC_17-0)**
Puolimatka, Tapio; Airaksinen, Timo (2002). ["Education and the Meaning of Life"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070926154148/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf) (PDF). *Philosophy of Education*. [University of Helsinki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Helsinki "University of Helsinki"). Archived from [the original](http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf) (PDF) on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Van_Hooft_18-0)**
Stan Van Hooft (2004). *Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics*. Rodopi. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-90-420-1912-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1912-6 "Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1912-6")
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19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Shafer-Landau_&_Cuneo_19-0)**
Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo (2007). *Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology*. Blackwell Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4051-2951-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2951-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2951-0")
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20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:6_20-0)** E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). "Subjective Well-Being Is Essential to Well-Being." *Psychological Inquiry*, Lawrence Erlbaum.
21. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cs%C3%ADkszentmih%C3%A1lyi,_Mih%C3%A1ly_1990_21-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cs%C3%ADkszentmih%C3%A1lyi,_Mih%C3%A1ly_1990_21-1)
Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). *Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience*. New York: Harper and Row. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-06-092043-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-092043-2 "Special:BookSources/0-06-092043-2")
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22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:4_22-0)**
Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). *Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-19-516701-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516701-5 "Special:BookSources/0-19-516701-5")
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["See brief summary"](http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/psychology-research/list-of-personal-strengths.html).
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-23)**
Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). *Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.* New York: Free Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-7432-2297-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-2297-0 "Special:BookSources/0-7432-2297-0")
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24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:5_24-0)**
Lu, Jun; Gao, Qin (1 May 2017). "Faith and Happiness in China: Roles of Religious Identity, Beliefs, and Practice". *Social Indicators Research*. **132** (1): 273–290\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1007/s11205-016-1372-8](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11205-016-1372-8). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1573-0921](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-0921). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [148091125](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148091125).
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:7_25-0)**
Rizvi, Mohd Ahsan Kabir; Hossain, Mohammad Zakir (1 October 2017). "Relationship Between Religious Belief and Happiness: A Systematic Literature Review". *Journal of Religion and Health*. **56** (5): 1561–1582\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1007/s10943-016-0332-6](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10943-016-0332-6). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1573-6571](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-6571). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [27909930](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909930). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [1389245](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1389245).
26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-26)**
Sutin, DAR; Luchetti, M; Aschwanden, D; Stephan, Y; Sesker, AA; Terracciano, A (February 2023). ["Sense of meaning and purpose in life and risk of incident dementia: New data and meta-analysis"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10015423). *Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics*. **105** 104847. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.archger.2022.104847](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.archger.2022.104847). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0167-4943](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0167-4943). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [10015423](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10015423). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [36347158](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36347158).
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:0_27-0)** Boyle PA, Buchman AS, Barnes LL, Bennett DA. Effect of a purpose in life on risk of incident Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment in community-dwelling older persons. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2010;67:304–310.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:1_28-0)** Kim E, Sun J, Park N, [Kubzansky L](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Kubzansky "Laura Kubzansky"), Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older US adults with coronary heart disease: A two-year follow-up. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. (2):124–133.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:2_29-0)** Kim ES, Sun JK, Park N, Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced incidence of stroke in older adults: The Health and Retirement Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2013;74(5):427–432.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-30)** Boyle PA, Barnes LL, Buchman AS, Bennett DA. Purpose in life is associated with mortality among community-dwelling older persons. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2009;71:574–579.
31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-31)**
Sutin, Angelina R.; Luchetti, Martina; Stephan, Yannick; Terracciano, Antonio (13 September 2023). ["Change in Purpose in Life Before and After Onset of Cognitive Impairment"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10500383). *JAMA Network Open*. **6** (9): e2333489. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.33489](https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamanetworkopen.2023.33489). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [2574-3805](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2574-3805). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [10500383](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10500383). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [37703016](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37703016).
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-32)**
["Five steps to mental wellbeing"](http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/stress-anxiety-depression/Pages/improve-mental-wellbeing.aspx). *nhs.uk*. 21 December 2017.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-33)** [Charles Darwin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin "Charles Darwin") (1859). *[On the Origin of Species](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species "On the Origin of Species")*.
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[Richard Dawkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins "Richard Dawkins") (1976). [*The Selfish Gene*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene "The Selfish Gene"). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-36)**
Dawkins, Richard (2006). [*The God Delusion*](https://archive.org/details/goddelusion00dawk_897). Houghton Mifflin. pp. [99](https://archive.org/details/goddelusion00dawk_897/page/n109)–100. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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["Defining Life, Explaining Emergence"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120314095044/http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html). *nbi.dk*. Archived from [the original](http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html) on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-worldtransformation.com_39-0)**
Griffith J. (2012). ["What is the Meaning of Life?"](http://www.worldtransformation.com/what-is-the-meaning-of-life/). *The Book of Real Answers to Everything\!*. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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Schrödinger, Erwin (1992) \[1944\]. [*What is Life?*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dg2bYMwdaBwC). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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44. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-44)**
[O'Dowd, Matt, Ph.D.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_O%27Dowd_\(astrophysicist\) "Matt O'Dowd (astrophysicist)") (11 April 2018). ["The Physics of Life (ft. It's Okay to be Smart & PBS Eons!) Space Time"](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/GcfLZSL7YGw). PBS Space Time. Archived from [the original](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcfLZSL7YGw&t=3s&ab_channel=PBSSpaceTime) on 30 October 2021.
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Davison, Paul G. ["How to Define Life"](https://web.archive.org/web/20081101024755/http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm). The University of North Alabama. Archived from [the original](http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm) on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
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Neveu, M.; Kim, H.J.; Benner, S.A. (April 2013). "The "strong" RNA world hypothesis: fifty years old". *Astrobiology*. **13** (4): 391–403\. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2013AsBio..13..391N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AsBio..13..391N). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1089/ast.2012.0868](https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2012.0868). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [23551238](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23551238).
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Cech, T.R. (July 2012). ["The RNA worlds in context"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3385955). *Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol*. **4** (7) a006742. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2012CSHPB...406742C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012CSHPB...406742C). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1101/cshperspect.a006742](https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fcshperspect.a006742). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [3385955](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3385955). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [21441585](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21441585).
48. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bernstein1983_48-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bernstein1983_48-1)
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Michod, Richard E. (30 January 2000). *Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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50. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-50)**
Helge Kragh (1996). [*Cosmology and Controversy*](https://archive.org/details/cosmologycontrov00helg). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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51. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Prantzos_&_Lyle_51-0)**
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52. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Edwards_52-0)**
Rem B. Edwards (2001). *What Caused the Big Bang?*. Rodopi. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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53. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Poplawski_53-0)**
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54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Whitehouse_54-0)**
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55. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gray_55-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gray_55-1)
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57. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Dennett_57-0)**
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58. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Barrow,_Davies,_Harper_58-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Barrow,_Davies,_Harper_58-1)
[John D. Barrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Barrow "John D. Barrow"); [Paul C.W. Davies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Davies "Paul Davies"); Charles L. Harper (2004). *Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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59. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Millay,_Heinze_59-0)**
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McFadden, J. (2002). ["Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness"](https://web.archive.org/web/20051218171922/http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm). *Journal of Consciousness Studies*. **9** (4): 23–50\. Archived from the original on 18 December 2005.
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63. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ho_63-0)**
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68. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-68)** Reker, G.T., & Wong, P.T.P. (1988). Aging as an individual process: Towards a theory of personal meaning. In J.E. Birren, & V.L. Bengston (Eds.), *Emergent theories of aging* (pp. 214–246). New York: Springer.
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71. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:3_71-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-:3_71-1) Wong, P.T.P. (2012). From Logotherapy to Meaning-Centered Counseling and Therapy. In P.T.P. Wong (Ed.), *The Human Quest for Meaning: Theories, Research, and Applications* (2nd ed., pp. 619–647). New York: Routledge.
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74. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-74)** Kidd, I., "*Cynicism*," in *The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy,* (eds. [J.O. Urmson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.O._Urmson "J.O. Urmson") and [Jonathan Rée](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_R%C3%A9e "Jonathan Rée")), Routledge, (2005).
75. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-75)** Long, A.A., "*The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics,*" in *The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.* (eds. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).
76. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-76)**
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78. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-78)** [Epicurus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus "Epicurus"), "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, *Lives of Eminent Philosophers*, Book X.
79. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Russel_79-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Russel_79-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Russel_79-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Russel_79-3) [Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") (1946). *[A History of Western Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Western_Philosophy_\(Russell\) "History of Western Philosophy (Russell)")*, New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin.
80. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-80)**
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81. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-81)**
Rosen, Frederick (2003). *Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill*. Routledge, p. 28. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-415-22094-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-22094-7 "Special:BookSources/0-415-22094-7")
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82. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mill_82-0)** Mill, John Stuart. *On Liberty*, ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, ed.'s introduction, p. 11.
83. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bind%C3%A9_83-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bind%C3%A9_83-1)
Jérôme Bindé (2004). *The Future of Values: 21st-Century Talks*. Berghahn Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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84. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Reginster_84-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Reginster_84-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Reginster_84-2)
[Bernard Reginster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Reginster "Bernard Reginster") (2006). *The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism*. Harvard University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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85. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-85)** Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61.
86. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-86)** Camus (1946) *L'Etranger.*
87. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-87)** Camus (1955) *The Myth of Sisyphus.*
88. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-88)** For example, see [hygiene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene "Hygiene"), [antibiotics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic "Antibiotic") and [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination").
89. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-James_89-0)**
[William James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James "William James") (1909). *The Meaning of Truth*. Prometheus Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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90. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Corti_90-0)**
Walter Robert Corti (1976). *The Philosophy of William James*. Meiner Verlag. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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91. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Theistic_Perspectives_on_the_Meaning_of_Life_91-0)**
["Philosophy 446: Theistic Perspectives on the Meaning of Life"](http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~morourke/446-phil/05%20Spring/Handouts/Philosophical/Theistic%20Perspectives-MOL.htm). *www.webpages.uidaho.edu*. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
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Amy Laura Hall (2002). *Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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93. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Jacquette_93-0)**
Dale Jacquette (1996). *Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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94. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Murray_94-0)**
Durno Murray (1999). *Nietzsche's Affirmative Morality*. Walter de Gruyter. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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95. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-KierkegaardSuD_95-0)**
[Kierkegaard, Søren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard "Søren Kierkegaard") (1941). [*The Sickness Unto Death*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.189042). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4486-7502-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4486-7502-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4486-7502-9")
.
96. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-96)**
[Kierkegaard, Søren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard "Søren Kierkegaard") (1941). [*The Sickness Unto Death*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.189042). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4486-7502-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4486-7502-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4486-7502-9")
.
, Part I, Ch. 3.
97. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto1_97-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto1_97-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto1_97-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto1_97-3)
["Humanist Manifesto I"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070730070437/http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html). *American Humanist Association*. 1933. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html) on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
98. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto2_98-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto2_98-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto2_98-2)
["Humanist Manifesto II"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070809102124/http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html). *American Humanist Association*. 1973. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html) on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
99. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto3_99-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto3_99-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-humanifesto3_99-2)
["Humanist Manifesto III"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070809103515/http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php). *American Humanist Association*. 2003. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php) on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
100. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-CDSH_100-0)**
["A Secular Humanist Declaration"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080817084107/http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration). *Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism)*. 1980. Archived from [the original](http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration) on 17 August 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
101. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-101)**
[Nick Bostrom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bostrom "Nick Bostrom") (2005). ["Transhumanist Values"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070701062134/http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/values.html). *[Oxford University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University "Oxford University")*. Archived from [the original](http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/values.html) on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 28 July 2007.
102. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-102)** Irvin Yalom, *Existential Psychotherapy*, 1980.
103. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-103)** See also: [Existential therapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_therapy "Existential therapy") and [Irvin D. Yalom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin_D._Yalom "Irvin D. Yalom").
104. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-104)**
[Richard Taylor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Clyde_Taylor "Richard Clyde Taylor") (1970). "Chapter 5: The Meaning of Life". *Good and Evil*. Macmillan Publishing Company. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-02-616690-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-616690-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-02-616690-4")
.
105. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-105)** Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., *Philosophie als Wissenschaft*.
106. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-106)**
McNaughton, David (August 1988). "Section 1.5: Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life". *Moral Vision: An Introduction to Ethics*. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-631-15945-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15945-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15945-2")
.
`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location "Category:CS1 maint: publisher location"))
107. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-107)**
[Russell, Bertrand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") (1961), [*Science and Ethics*](https://web.archive.org/web/20071114144956/http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html), archived from [the original](http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html) on 14 November 2007
.
108. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-108)**
["BLENDING AND METAPHOR"](https://markturner.org/blendaphor.html). *markturner.org*. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
109. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-109)**
Landau, Mark J. (March 2018). ["Using Metaphor to Find Meaning in Life"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889147). *Review of General Psychology*. **22** (1): 62–72\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1037/gpr0000105](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fgpr0000105). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [5889147](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889147). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [29632431](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29632431).
110. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-philosophers_110-0)** *One Hundred Philosophers: A Guide to the World's Greatest Thinkers* Peter J. King.
111. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-111)** Tu, Wei-Ming. *Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation.* Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
112. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-112)**
[Talmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud "Talmud"),
y.
[Shabbat 31a:6](https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Shabbat.31a:6)
113. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-113)** [Exodus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodus "Book of Exodus") 19:6.
114. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-114)** *Maimonides' Confrontation with Mysticism*, Menachem Kellner, Littman Library. Particularly the parable of the King's Palace in divine worship, in the [Guide for the Perplexed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guide_for_the_Perplexed "Guide for the Perplexed").
115. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cohn-Sherbok_115-0)**
Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2003). *Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice*. Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-415-23661-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23661-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23661-4")
.
116. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Heschel_116-0)**
Abraham Joshua Heschel (2005). *Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations*. Continuum International Publishing Group. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8264-0802-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-0802-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-0802-0")
.
117. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Shuchat_117-0)**
Wilfred Shuchat (2006). *The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah*. Devora Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-932687-31-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932687-31-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-932687-31-6")
.
118. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Braham_118-0)**
Randolph L. Braham (1983). *Contemporary Views on the Holocaust*. Springer. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-89838-141-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89838-141-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-89838-141-2")
.
119. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-119)** *Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction*, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press, Chapter "Early modern era: Safed spirituality".
120. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-120)** Habad intellectual Hasidic thought: source text [Tanya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanya_\(Judaism\) "Tanya (Judaism)") I: 36, 49; secondary text *Heaven on Earth*, Faitel Levin, Kehot publications.
121. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-121)**
["The new Seven Wonders of the World"](https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/the-new-seven-wonders-of-the-world/story-s994IbVb38xNOwRFjoCr2L.html). *Hindustan Times*. 8 July 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
122. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-122)** [John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_John "Gospel of John") 11:26.
123. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-123)** John 3:16–21; 2 Peter 3:9.
124. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-124)** [Bible](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible "Bible"), [Acts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts "Acts") 17:26–27, [NKJV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NKJV "NKJV").
125. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-125)**
Bower, John (25 March 2021). ["9 Things You Should Know About The Westminster Confession"](https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/9-things-westminster-confession/).
126. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Westminster_126-0)**
["The Westminster Shorter Catechism"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080311000717/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html) on 11 March 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2008.
127. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-127)**
["The Baltimore Catechism"](http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/balt/balt1.htm). Retrieved 12 June 2008.
128. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-128)** [Catechism of the Catholic Church 294](http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p1s2c1p4.htm#294)
129. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-129)** [Catechism of the Catholic Church 601](http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p122a4p2.htm#601)
130. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gospel_Principles_130-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gospel_Principles_130-1)
["Gospel Principles"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190710171937/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-principles?lang=eng). *churchofjesuschrist.org*. Archived from [the original](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-principles?lang=eng) on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
131. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-131)**
["2 Nephi 2"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/eng/scriptures/bofm/2-ne/2). *www.churchofjesuschrist.org*. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
132. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-132)**
["Moses 6"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/eng/scriptures/pgp/moses/6). *www.churchofjesuschrist.org*. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
133. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-133)**
["Doctrine and Covenants 138"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/138?lang=eng). *churchofjesuschrist.org*.
134. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-134)**
Drake-Brockman, Tom (2012). [*Christian Humanism: The Compassionate Theology of a Jew Called Jesus*](http://christianhumanism.webs.com/).
135. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-135)** Quran [2:4](https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=4), Quran [2:285](https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=285), Quran [4:136](https://quran.com/4?startingVerse=136).
136. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-136)** In most English translations of Qur'an 51:56 translates the last word to "worship", but any Arabic (and Urdu) speaking person can confirm that "ABADON" means to follow the Will of Allah (NOT worship). This is relevant because the Will of Allah is not just to worship HIM; to be just and good with humanity is equally important.
137. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-137)**
["The Day of Judgement"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130530225629/http://iqra.net/Hadith/judgement.php). *Iqra.net*. Archived from [the original](http://iqra.net/Hadith/judgement.php) on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
138. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-138)**
["Pillars of Islam"](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295625/Pillars-of-Islam). *Encyclopædia Britannica Online*. Retrieved 2 May 2007.
139. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-139)** *[Sahih Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_Muslim "Sahih Muslim")*, [1:1](https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/001-smt.php#001.0001).
140. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-SUMMARY_OF_THE_FUS%C3%9BS_141-0)**
Chittick, William C. ["The Imprint of the Bezels of the Wisdom"](http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/articlespdf/naqshalfusus.pdf) (PDF). *Ibn 'Arabi's Own Summary of the Fusûs*. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
141. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-142)**
Wright, Zachary Valentine (2015). *Living knowledge in West African Islam: the sufi community of Ibrahim Niasse*. Islam in Africa. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p. 133. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-90-04-28807-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28807-2 "Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28807-2")
.
142. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-143)**
[*"Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language*](http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bahaism) (Fourth ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2007.
143. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-144)**
Smith, P. (1999). [*A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith*](https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/325). Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. [325–328](https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/325). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-85168-184-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-184-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-184-6")
.
144. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-145)**
For a more detailed Baháʼí perspective, see
["'The Purpose of Life' Baháʼí Topics An Information Resource of the Baháʼí International Community"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090829233333/http://info.bahai.org/article-1-4-0-6.html). Archived from [the original](http://info.bahai.org/article-1-4-0-6.html) on 29 August 2009. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
145. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-weightman_146-0)**
Simon Weightman (1998). "Hinduism". In Hinnells, John (ed.). [*The new Penguin handbook of living religions*](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780140514070). [Penguin books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_books "Penguin books"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-14-051480-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-051480-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-14-051480-3")
.
146. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-monierwilliams_147-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-monierwilliams_147-1)
[Monier Monier-Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monier_Monier-Williams "Monier Monier-Williams") (1974). [*Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus*](https://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C). Elibron Classics. Adamant Media Corporation. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4212-6531-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4212-6531-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4212-6531-5")
. Retrieved 8 July 2007.
147. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-148)** For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.
148. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-149)** For the *Dharma Śāstras* as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, kama, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.
149. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-150)** For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ (*puruṣa-artha*) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम, and मोक्ष" see: Apte, p. 626, Middle column, Compound \#1.
150. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-bhaskaranandaessential_151-0)**
Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994). [*The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Overview of the World's Oldest Religion*](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781884852022). Seattle, WA: Viveka Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-884852-02-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884852-02-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-884852-02-2")
.
151. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-152)**
[Vivekananda, Swami](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda "Swami Vivekananda") (1987). *Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda*. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-81-85301-75-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85301-75-4 "Special:BookSources/978-81-85301-75-4")
.
152. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-werner_153-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-werner_153-1)
Werner, Karel (1994). "Hinduism". In Hinnells, John (ed.). [*A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism*](https://archive.org/details/populardictionar0000wern). Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7007-0279-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0279-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0279-4")
.
153. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-154)** See also the Vedic statement "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (This [Ātman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_\(Hinduism\) "Ātman (Hinduism)") is [Brahman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman "Brahman")).
154. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-155)**
Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Gavin Flood; University of Stirling (eds.). *The Chaitanya Vaishnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami When Knowledge Meets Devotion*. Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-415-40548-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-40548-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-40548-5")
.
155. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-156)**
["Tantric Literature And Gaudiya Vaishnavism"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110525061446/http://www.vnn.org/editorials/ET9901/ET05-2795.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.vnn.org/editorials/ET9901/ET05-2795.html) on 25 May 2011.
156. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-157)** Shah, Natubhai. *Jainism: The World of Conquerors.* Sussex Academic Press, 1998.
157. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-158)**
["Viren, Jain"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070614110256/http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf) (PDF). RE Today. Archived from [the original](http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf) (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 14 June 2007.
158. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-159)**
["The Four Noble Truths"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091111202249/http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html). Thebigview.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html) on 11 November 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2009.
159. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-160)**
University, © Stanford (17 February 2015). [""The Chief Characteristics and Doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism""](https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/chief-characteristics-and-doctrines-mahayana-buddhism). *The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute*. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
160. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-161)**
Arana, Juan Hincapié (1 January 2021). ["A SEED IN AMITABHA'S HAND- Pure Land Buddhism's path to peace in this life and the next by Juan Hincapie Arana"](https://www.academia.edu/52849607). *Amazon KDP*. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
161. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Singh_162-0)**
Daljeet Singh (1971). *Guru Tegh Bahadur*. Punjab.
`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher "Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher"))
162. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mayled_163-0)**
Jon Mayled (2002). *Modern World Religions: Sikhism*. Harcourt Heinemann. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-435-33626-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-33626-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-435-33626-4")
.
163. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-164)**
["The Sikh Coalition"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200701031219/https://www.sikhcoalition.org/). *sikhcoalition.org*. Archived from [the original](http://www.sikhcoalition.org/) on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
164. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-p252_165-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-p252_165-1)
[Parrinder, Geoffrey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Parrinder "Geoffrey Parrinder") (1971). *World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present*. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-87196-129-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87196-129-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-87196-129-7")
.
165. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ming-Dao_166-0)**
Ming-Dao Deng (1990). *Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life*. HarperCollins. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-06-250232-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-250232-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-06-250232-2")
.
166. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mason_167-0)**
J.W.T. Mason (2002). *The Meaning of Shinto*. Trafford Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4122-4551-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4122-4551-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4122-4551-7")
.
167. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-168)** See also: [Zoroastrian eschatology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrian_eschatology "Zoroastrian eschatology").
168. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-6) [***h***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-7) [***i***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-8) [***j***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-9) [***k***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-10) [***l***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-11) [***m***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-12) [***n***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-13) [***o***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-14) [***p***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-15) [***q***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-16) [***r***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Seaman_169-17)
David Seaman (2005). [*The Real Meaning of Life*](https://archive.org/details/realmeaningoflif0000unse). New World Library. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-57731-514-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57731-514-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-57731-514-8")
.
169. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ellerton_170-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ellerton_170-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ellerton_170-2)
Roger Ellerton, CMC (2013). *Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You*. Renewal Technologies. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-9784452-7-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9784452-7-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-9784452-7-0")
.
170. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-6) [***h***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-7) [***i***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-8) [***j***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cook_171-9)
John Cook (2007). [*The Book of Positive Quotations*](https://archive.org/details/bookofpositivequ00cook). Fairview Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-57749-169-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57749-169-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-57749-169-9")
.
171. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Chandler_172-0)**
Steve Chandler (2005). *Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be*. Career Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-56414-817-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56414-817-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-56414-817-9")
.
172. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kelly_173-0)**
Matthew Kelly (2005). [*The Rhythm of Life: Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose*](https://archive.org/details/rhythmoflife00matt). Simon & Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7432-6510-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6510-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6510-2")
.
173. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-174)**
Lee, Dong Yul; Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Patsult, Philip (June 2000). "What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures". *Social Indicators Research*. **50** (3): 351–362\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1023/A:1004647517069](https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1004647517069). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [141773177](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141773177).
174. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kultgen_175-0)**
John Kultgen (1995). [*Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life*](https://archive.org/details/autonomyinterven0000kult). Oxford University Press US. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-508531-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508531-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508531-0")
.
175. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cappannelli_176-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cappannelli_176-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cappannelli_176-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cappannelli_176-3)
George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli (2004). *Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home*. Emmis Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-57860-148-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57860-148-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-57860-148-6")
.
176. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-West_177-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-West_177-1)
John G. West (2002). *Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization*. Inkling Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-58742-012-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58742-012-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-58742-012-2")
.
177. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Madorsky_178-0)**
Rachel Madorsky (2003). *Create Your Own Destiny!: Spiritual Path to Success*. Avanty House. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-9705349-4-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9705349-4-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-9705349-4-1")
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178. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-179)** A.C. Grayling. What is Good? The Search for the Best Way to Live*.* Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.
179. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-180)**
Brooks, Mike (8 October 2020). ["What Is the Purpose of Life? Why are we here? Here's a reasonable answer"](https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/tech-happy-life/202010/what-is-the-purpose-life). *Psychology Today*. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
180. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-181)**
Lopez, Mike (22 September 1999). ["Episode III: Relativism? A Jedi craves not these things"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070811185026/http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1999/sep/09-22-99/edit/edit2.html). *The Michigan Daily*. Archived from [the original](http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1999/sep/09-22-99/edit/edit2.html) on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
181. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-182)**
Lovatt, Stephen C. (2007). [*New Skins for Old Wine*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070314071723/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/pharseas.world/Life.html). Universal Publishers. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-58112-960-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-960-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-960-1")
. Archived from [the original](http://homepage.ntlworld.com/pharseas.world/Life.html) on 14 March 2007.
182. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kurweil_&_Grossmann_183-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kurweil_&_Grossmann_183-1)
["Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever"](http://www.fantastic-voyage.net/). *www.fantastic-voyage.net*. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
183. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Appleyard_184-0)**
Bryan Appleyard (2007). *How To Live Forever Or Die Trying: On The New Immortality*. Simon & Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7432-6868-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6868-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-6868-4")
.
184. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-185)**
Cameron, Donald (2001). [*The Purpose of Life*](https://web.archive.org/web/20011113210502/http://www.woodhillpublishing.co.uk/summary.asp). Woodhill Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-9540291-0-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9540291-0-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-9540291-0-4")
. Archived from [the original](http://www.woodhillpublishing.co.uk/summary.asp) on 13 November 2001.
185. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Lane_186-0)**
[Nick Lane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Lane "Nick Lane") (2005). [*Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life*](https://archive.org/details/powersexsuicidem0000lane). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-280481-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280481-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280481-5")
.
186. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Weiss_&_Buchanan_187-0)**
Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan (2004). *Genetics and the Logic of Evolution*. Wiley-IEEE. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-471-23805-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-23805-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-471-23805-8")
.
187. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ackerman_188-0)**
Jennifer Ackerman (2001). [*Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Heredity*](https://archive.org/details/chanceinhouseoff00acke_1). Houghton Mifflin Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-618-21909-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-21909-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-618-21909-4")
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188. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Rensberger_189-0)**
Boyce Rensberger (1996). [*Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell*](https://archive.org/details/lifeitself00boyc). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-512500-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512500-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512500-9")
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189. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Chris_Grau_190-0)**
Chris Grau (2005). *Philosophers Explore the Matrix*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-518107-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518107-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518107-4")
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190. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Cooper_&_Hutchinson_191-0)**
John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson (1997). [*Plato: Complete Works*](https://archive.org/details/completeworks00plat). Hackett Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-87220-349-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-349-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-349-5")
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191. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Findling_&_Thackeray_192-0)**
John E. Findling; Frank W. Thackeray (2001). *Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century*. Greenwood Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-313-29079-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29079-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29079-4")
.
192. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Dalai_Lama_193-0)**
[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenzin_Gyatso,_14th_Dalai_Lama "Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama") (1954). *The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect*. Doubleday.
`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list "Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list"))
193. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Simmons_194-0)**
Ernest Joseph Simmons (1973). [*Tolstoy*](https://archive.org/details/tolstoy0000simm). Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7100-7395-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-7395-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-7395-2")
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194. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Bowell_195-0)**
Richard A. Bowell (2004). *The Seven Steps of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness*. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-85788-344-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85788-344-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-85788-344-2")
.
195. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Gibbs_&_Basinger_&_Fuller_196-0)**
John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller (1992). [*Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection*](https://archive.org/details/moralmaturitymea0000gibb). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8058-0425-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0425-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0425-6")
.
196. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Tang_197-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Tang_197-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Tang_197-2)
Timothy Tang (2007). *Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness*. iUniverse. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-595-45941-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-45941-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-595-45941-4")
.
197. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Roberts_198-0)**
Tyler T. Roberts (1998). *Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion*. Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-691-00127-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00127-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00127-2")
.
198. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Costigan_199-0)**
Costigan, Lucy (2004). *What is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning*. iUniverse. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-595-33880-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-33880-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-595-33880-1")
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199. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Jeffers_&_Smith_200-0)**
Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith (2007). *Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care*. Radcliffe Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-84619-181-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84619-181-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-84619-181-7")
.
200. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Jeffrey_201-0)**
David L. Jeffrey (1992). [*A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature*](https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbibl0000unse). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8028-3634-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3634-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3634-2")
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201. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Williams_202-0)**
Williams, Dana A. (2005). *In the Light of Likeness-Transformed: The Literary Art of Leon Forrest*. Ohio State University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8142-0994-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-0994-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-0994-3")
.
202. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Muller_203-0)**
[Jerry Z. Muller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Z._Muller "Jerry Z. Muller") (1997). [*Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present*](https://archive.org/details/conservatismanth00mull). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-691-03711-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03711-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03711-0")
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203. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nash_&_Stewart_204-0)**
Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart (2002). *Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being*. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-84310-024-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84310-024-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-84310-024-9")
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204. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yao_205-0)**
Xinzhong Yao (2000). *An Introduction to Confucianism*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-521-64430-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64430-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64430-3")
.
205. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Turner_&_Rojek_206-0)**
Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek (2001). [*Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity*](https://archive.org/details/societyculturepr0000turn). SAGE. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7619-7049-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-7049-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-7049-1")
.
206. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Goonewardene_207-0)**
Anil Goonewardene (1994). *Buddhist Scriptures*. Harcourt Heinemann. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-435-30355-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-30355-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-435-30355-6")
.
207. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ferry_208-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ferry_208-1)
Luc Ferry (2002). *Man Made God: The Meaning of Life*. University of Chicago Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-226-24484-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24484-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24484-6")
.
208. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Stephan_&_Pace_209-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Stephan_&_Pace_209-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Stephan_&_Pace_209-2)
Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace (2002). *Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life*. FT Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-13-066836-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-066836-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-13-066836-3")
.
209. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-210)**
Cumberland, Dan (18 May 2015). ["Finding Purpose in Life"](http://themeaningmovement.com/finding-purpose-in-life-finding-your-vocation/). *TheMeaningMovement*. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
210. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Steinberg_211-0)**
Dominique Moyse Steinberg (2004). [*The Mutual-Aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another*](https://archive.org/details/mutualaidapproac00stei). Haworth Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7890-1462-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7890-1462-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7890-1462-7")
.
211. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Caunt_212-0)**
John Caunt (2002). *Boost Your Self-Esteem*. Kogan Page. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-7494-3871-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7494-3871-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7494-3871-5")
.
212. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-213)** [Ho'oponopono](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%27oponopono "Ho'oponopono").
213. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Halevi_214-0)**
[Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%27ev_ben_Shimon_Halevi "Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi") (1993). *The Work of the Kabbalist*. Weiser. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-87728-637-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87728-637-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-87728-637-0")
.
214. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Girard_215-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Girard_215-1)
Michael Joachim Girard (2006). *Essential Believing for the Christian Soul*. Xulon Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-59781-596-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59781-596-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-59781-596-3")
.
215. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kashmir_Shaivism_216-0)**
Jaideva Singh (2003). *Vijñanabhairava*. Motilal Banarsidass. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-81-208-0820-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0820-1 "Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0820-1")
.
216. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mahadevan_217-0)**
T.M.P. Mahadevan (1974). *Philosophy: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy)*. Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras.
217. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Scully_218-0)**
John T. Scully (2007). *The Five Commandments*. Trafford Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4251-1910-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4251-1910-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4251-1910-2")
.
218. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Piper_219-0)**
John Piper (2006). *Desiring God*. Multnomah Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-59052-119-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59052-119-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-59052-119-9")
.
219. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Harrison_220-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Harrison_220-1)
[Peter Harrison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Harrison_\(historian\) "Peter Harrison (historian)") (2001). *The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-521-00096-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00096-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00096-3")
.
220. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Worsham2_221-0)** [Matthew 28:18–20](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2028:18%E2%80%9320&version=nrsv).
221. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Worsham_222-0)** [Micah 6:8](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Micah%206:8&version=nrsv).
222. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Burke_223-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Burke_223-1)
Thomas Patrick Burke (2004). *The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts*. Blackwell Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4051-1049-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1049-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1049-5")
.
223. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-224)**
[*Book of Mormon: Mosiah 2:17*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/mosiah/2.17?lang=eng). 1830. "And behold, I tell you these things that ye may learn wisdom; that ye may learn that when ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God."
224. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-225)**
[*Book of Mormon: Alma 32:32*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/alma/34.32-34?lang=eng). 1830. "For behold, this life is the time for men to prepare to meet God; yea, behold the day of this life is the day for men to perform their labors."
225. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-226)**
[*Holy Bible: Genesis 3:22*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/ot/gen/3.22?lang=eng). "And the Lord God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil..."
226. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-227)**
[*Holy Bible: Matthew 5:48*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/nt/matt/5.48?lang=eng). "Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect."
227. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-228)**
[*Pearl of Great Price: Book of Moses 1:37–39*](https://web.archive.org/web/20190715040406/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/1.39?lang=eng). 1830. Archived from [the original](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/1.39?lang=eng) on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019. "And the Lord God spake unto Moses, saying: ... For behold, this is my work and my glory—to bring to pass the immortality and eternal life of man."
228. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-229)**
["Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Lorenzo Snow"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/teachings-of-presidents-of-the-church-lorenzo-snow/chapter-5-the-grand-destiny-of-the-faithful?lang=eng). Lorenzo Snow. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 2011 \[1884\]. p. 83. "As man now is, God once was: As God now is, man may be."
`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: others ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others "Category:CS1 maint: others"))
229. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-230)**
[*Book of Mormon: Alma 29:5*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/alma/29.5?lang=eng). 1830. "Yea, and I know that good and evil have come before all men; he that knoweth not good from evil is blameless; but he that knoweth good and evil, to him it is given according to his desires, whether he desireth good or evil, life or death, joy or remorse of conscience."
230. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-231)**
[*Book of Mormon: 2 Nephi 2:25*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/2-ne/2.25?lang=eng). 1830. "Adam fell that men might be; and men are, that they might have joy."
231. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-232)**
[*Pearl of Great Price: Book of Moses 5:11*](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/5.11?lang=eng). 1830. "And Eve, his wife, heard all these things and was glad, saying: Were it not for our transgression we never should have had seed, and never should have known good and evil, and the joy of our redemption, and the eternal life which God giveth unto all the obedient."
232. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Quran_233-0)**
[*Holisiajay Quran 51:56*](http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=51&verse=56). Quranic Arabic Corpus. "I created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me."
233. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mitchell_234-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Mitchell_234-1)
T.W. Mitchell (1927). *Problems in Psychopathology*. Harcourt, Brace & Company.
234. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Ecclesiastes8:15_235-0)** [Ecclesiastes 8](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ecclesiastes+8&version=15).
235. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Dillon_236-0)**
Steven Dillon (2006). *The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film*. University of Texas Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-292-71345-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71345-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71345-1")
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236. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Aron_237-0)**
Raymond Aron (2000). *The Century of Total War*. Wisdom Publications. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-86171-173-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-173-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-173-4")
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237. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-238)**
Stewart, John (5 March 2010). ["Is this the meaning of life? John Stewart argues that despite the perception that science has stripped the meaning from life, recent developments in evolutionary theory suggest that humans have a central role to play in the future of the universe"](https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2010/mar/05/meaning-life-evolution-universe). *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*.
238. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-239)**
*Man's Search for Meaning*, Viktor Frankl. Beacon Press, 2006, [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8070-1426-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-1426-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-1426-4")
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239. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-useless_website_240-0)**
["Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning of Life: Complete Script"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071215164915/http://www.intriguing.com/mp/_scripts/meanlife.asp). *intriguing.com*. Archived from [the original](http://www.intriguing.com/mp/_scripts/meanlife.asp) on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
240. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Burnham_241-0)**
Terry Burnham (2005). *Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality*. John Wiley and Sons. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-471-71695-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-71695-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-471-71695-2")
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241. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Fernandez_242-0)**
Yolanda Fernandez (2002). *In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders*. Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-885473-48-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885473-48-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-885473-48-6")
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242. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-243)**
Adams, Douglas (29 March 1978). *The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Fit the Fourth)* (Audio, Radio). BBC Radio 4. "I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was."
243. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yeffeth_244-0)**
Glenn Yeffeth (2005). *The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy*. BenBella Books, Inc. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-932100-56-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932100-56-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-932100-56-3")
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244. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Badke_245-0)**
William B. Badke (2005). [*The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything*](https://archive.org/details/hitchhikersguide00badk). Kregel Publications. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8254-2069-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8254-2069-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8254-2069-6")
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245. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Adams_H2G2_book1_246-0)**
[Douglas Adams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adams "Douglas Adams") (1979). [*The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy_\(book\) "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)"). London: Pan Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-330-25864-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-25864-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-330-25864-7")
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246. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-247)**
Adams, Douglas (12 April 1978). *The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Fit the Sixth)* (Audio, Radio). BBC Radio 4. "That's it. Six by nine… forty-two! I always said there was something fundamentally wrong about the universe\!"
247. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-248)**
[""Person of Interest" recap (5.13): The sound of my voice"](https://www.afterellen.com/tv/492845-person-interest-recap-5-13-sound-voice). *After Ellen*. Retrieved 24 August 2019.
248. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-APAExistentialCrisis_249-0)**
["APA Dictionary of Psychology: existential crisis"](https://dictionary.apa.org/existential-crisis). *dictionary.apa.org*.
249. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Andrews2016_250-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Andrews2016_250-1)
Andrews, Mary (April 2016). ["The existential crisis"](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fbdb0000014). *Behavioral Development Bulletin*. **21** (1): 104–109\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1037/bdb0000014](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fbdb0000014).
250. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Butenait%C4%972016_251-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Butenait%C4%972016_251-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Butenait%C4%972016_251-2)
Butenaitė, Joana; Sondaitė, Jolanta; Mockus, Antanas (2016). ["Components of existential crises: a theoretical analysis"](https://doi.org/10.7220%2F2345-024X.18.1). *International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach*. **18**: 9–27\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.7220/2345-024X.18.1](https://doi.org/10.7220%2F2345-024X.18.1).
251. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-StanfordExistentialism_252-0)**
Crowell, Steven (2020). ["Existentialism"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/). *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
252. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Blomme2013_253-0)**
Blomme, Robert J. (2013). ["Absurdism as a Fundamental Value: Camusian Thoughts on Moral Development in Organisations"](https://philpapers.org/rec/BLOAAA). *International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy*. **7** (2) 55720: 116. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1504/IJMCP.2013.055720](https://doi.org/10.1504%2FIJMCP.2013.055720).
253. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-OxfordAbsurd_254-0)**
Honderich, Ted, ed. (2005). "absurd, the". [*The Oxford Companion to Philosophy*](https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2). Oxford University Press.
254. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yalom2020_255-6)
Yalom, Irvin D. (17 March 2020). "10. Meaninglessness". [*Existential Psychotherapy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nI7VDwAAQBAJ). Basic Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-5416-4744-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-4744-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-4744-2")
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255. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Greer_256-0)**
Greer, Frank (October 1980). "Toward a Developmental View of Adult Crisis: a Re-Examination of Crisis Theory". *Journal of Humanistic Psychology*. **20** (4): 17–29\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/002216788002000404](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002216788002000404). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0022-1678](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1678). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [146743538](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146743538).
256. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-IEPNihilism_257-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-IEPNihilism_257-1)
Pratt, Alan. ["Nihilism"](https://iep.utm.edu/nihilism/). *Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
257. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yang2010_258-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Yang2010_258-1)
Yang, William; Staps, Ton; Hijmans, Ellen (2010). "Existential crisis and the awareness of dying: the role of meaning and spirituality". *Omega*. **61** (1): 53–69\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.2190/OM.61.1.c](https://doi.org/10.2190%2FOM.61.1.c). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0030-2228](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-2228). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [20533648](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20533648). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [22290227](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22290227).
258. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Zapffe1933_259-0)**
Zapffe, Peter Wessel. ["The Last Messiah"](https://philosophynow.org/issues/45/The_Last_Messiah). *Philosophy Now* (45).
259. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-BritannicaNihilism_260-0)**
["nihilism"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/nihilism). *www.britannica.com*. 14 August 2023.
260. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2022_261-4)
Kahane, Guy (10 June 2022). "Meaningfulness and Importance". In Landau, Iddo (ed.). [*The Oxford Handbook of Meaning in Life*](https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190063504.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190063504-e-6). pp. 92–108\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1093/oxfordhb/9780190063504.013.6](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190063504.013.6). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-006350-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006350-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006350-4")
.
261. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1981_262-0)**
Nozick, Robert (1981). "6. Philosophy and the meaning of life". [*Philosophical Explanations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=N4zH86WogYwC). Harvard University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-674-66479-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66479-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66479-1")
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262. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1990_263-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1990_263-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1990_263-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Nozick1990_263-3)
Nozick, Robert (15 December 1990). "16. Importance and Weight". [*Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=R-8SvHlNMXAC). Simon and Schuster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-671-72501-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-72501-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-671-72501-3")
.
263. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2021a_264-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Kahane2021a_264-1)
Kahane, Guy (13 August 2021). ["Importance, Value, and Causal Impact"](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F17455243-20213581). *Journal of Moral Philosophy*. **19** (6): 577–601\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1163/17455243-20213581](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F17455243-20213581). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1745-5243](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1745-5243). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [238678531](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238678531).
264. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Benatar2017_265-0)**
Benatar, David (5 May 2017). ["3. Meaninglessness"](https://books.google.com/books?id=VG7JDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36). *The Human Predicament: A Candid Guide to Life's Biggest Questions*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-19-063382-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-063382-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-063382-0")
.
265. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Benbaji2001_266-0)**
Benbaji, Yitzhak (2001). "The Moral, the Personal, and the Importance of What We Care about". *Philosophy*. **76** (297): 415–433\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1017/S0031819101000365](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0031819101000365). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0031-8191](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8191). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_\(identifier\) "JSTOR (identifier)") [3751779](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3751779). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [143737564](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143737564).
266. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-Tugendhat2016_267-0)**
Tugendhat, Ernst (4 October 2016). ["2. "Good" and "Important""](https://books.google.com/books?id=NB_uDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17). *Egocentricity and Mysticism: An Anthropological Study*. Columbia University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-231-54293-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54293-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54293-7")
.
267. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life#cite_ref-268)**
Morris, Chris (28 March 2016). ["10 wonder drugs that changed our lives forever"](https://www.cnbc.com/2016/03/28/10-wonder-drugs-that-changed-our-lives-forever.html). *CNBC*. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[Life](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Life "q:Life")***.
- [Meaning of Life: The Analytic Perspective](https://web.archive.org/web/20140713204824/http://www.iep.utm.edu/mean-ana/) article in the *[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy")*
- [The Meaning of Life](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/) in the *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy")*
- [Wikiversity:Do living things on Earth have a purpose?](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Do_living_things_on_Earth_have_a_purpose%3F "wikiversity:Do living things on Earth have a purpose?") |
| Shard | 152 (laksa) |
| Root Hash | 17790707453426894952 |
| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/Meaning_of_life s443 |