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| Boilerpipe Text | Louis Armstrong
Armstrong in 1947
Born
Louis Daniel Armstrong
[
1
]
August 4, 1901
New Orleans
, Louisiana, U.S.
Died
July 6, 1971
(aged 69)
New York City, U.S.
Resting place
Flushing Cemetery
, New York City
Other names
Satchmo, Satch, Pops
Education
Colored Waifs' Home for Boys, Fisk School for Boys
Occupations
Musician
singer
Spouses
Daisy Parker
(
m.
1919;
div.
1923)
Lil Hardin Armstrong
(
m.
1924;
div.
1938)
Alpha Smith
(
m.
1938;
div.
1942)
Lucille Wilson
(
m.
1942)
Children
2
Musical career
Genres
Jazz
Dixieland
swing
blues
traditional pop
Instruments
Vocals
trumpet
Works
Discography
filmography
Years active
1918–1971
Labels
OKeh
Columbia
Victor
Bluebird
Decca
Brunswick
RCA Victor
Verve
Audio Fidelity
MGM
Kapp
Mercury
ABC
Buena Vista
United Artists
Vocalion
Signature
Louis Daniel Armstrong
(August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971),
[
2
]
nicknamed "
Satchmo
", "
Satch
", and "
Pops
",
[
3
]
was an American
jazz
and
blues
trumpeter and vocalist.
[
4
]
Among the most influential figures in jazz, his career spanned five decades and several eras in the history of the genre.
[
5
]
Armstrong received numerous accolades including the
Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance
for
Hello, Dolly!
in 1965, as well as a posthumous win for the
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
in 1972. His influence crossed musical genres, with inductions into the
DownBeat
Jazz Hall of Fame
, the
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
, and the
National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame
, among others.
[
6
]
Armstrong was born and raised in
New Orleans
. Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an inventive trumpet and
cornet
player, he was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance.
[
7
]
Around 1922, Armstrong followed his mentor,
Joe "King" Oliver
, to Chicago to play in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band. Armstrong earned a reputation at "
cutting contests
", and his fame reached band leader
Fletcher Henderson
. Armstrong moved to New York City, where he became a featured and musically influential band soloist and recording artist. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an international musical icon, appearing regularly in radio and television broadcasts and on film. Apart from his music, he was also beloved as an entertainer, often joking with the audience and keeping a joyful public image at all times.
Armstrong's best known songs include "
What a Wonderful World
", "
La Vie en Rose
", "
Hello, Dolly!
", "
On the Sunny Side of the Street
", "
Dream a Little Dream of Me
", "
When You're Smiling
" and "
When the Saints Go Marching In
". He collaborated with
Ella Fitzgerald
, producing three records together:
Ella and Louis
(1956),
Ella and Louis Again
(1957), and
Porgy and Bess
(1959). He also appeared in films such as
A Rhapsody in Black and Blue
(1932),
Cabin in the Sky
(1943),
High Society
(1956),
Paris Blues
(1961),
A Man Called Adam
(1966), and
Hello, Dolly!
(1969).
With his instantly recognizable, rich, gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer and skillful improviser. He was also skilled at
scat singing
. By the end of Armstrong's life, his influence had spread to popular music. He was one of the first popular African-American entertainers to "cross over" to wide popularity with white and international audiences. Armstrong rarely publicly discussed racial issues, sometimes to the dismay of fellow black Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for
desegregation
in the
Little Rock Crisis
. He could access the upper echelons of American society at a time when this was difficult for black men. His recording of “Melancholy Blues” is included on the
Voyager Golden Record
, a sample of the sights and sounds of Earth sent into space.
[
8
]
Early life
Armstrong is believed to have been born in
New Orleans
on August 4, 1901, but the accuracy of this date has been heavily debated. Armstrong himself often claimed he was born on July 4, 1900.
[
9
]
[
10
]
[
11
]
His parents were Mary Estelle "Mayann" Albert and William Armstrong. Mary Albert was from
Boutte, Louisiana
, and gave birth at home when she was about 16. Less than a year and a half later, they had a daughter, Beatrice "Mama Lucy" Armstrong (1903–1987), whom Albert raised.
[
12
]
William Armstrong abandoned the family shortly after that.
[
13
]
Louis Armstrong was raised by his grandmother until the age of five, when he was returned to his mother.
[
13
]
Armstrong spent his youth in poverty in a rough neighborhood known as The Battlefield,
[
14
]
on the southern section of
Rampart Street
.
[
15
]
At the age of six, Armstrong started attending the Fisk School for Boys,
[
16
]
a school that accepted black children in the racially segregated school system of New Orleans.
Armstrong lived with his mother and sister during this time and worked for the Karnoffskys,
[
17
]
a family of
Lithuanian Jews
, at
their home
. Armstrong helped their sons Morris and Alex collect "rags and bones" and deliver coal. In 1969, while recovering from heart and kidney problems at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, Armstrong wrote a memoir called
Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the Year of 1907
, describing his time working for the Karnoffsky family.
[
18
]
Armstrong writes about singing "Russian Lullaby" with the Karnoffsky family when their baby son David was put to bed and credits the family with teaching him to sing "from the heart."
[
18
]
Curiously, Armstrong quotes lyrics for it that appear to be the same as the "Russian Lullaby", copyrighted by
Irving Berlin
in 1927, about 20 years after Armstrong remembered singing it as a child.
[
19
]
Gary Zucker, Armstrong's doctor at Beth Israel hospital in 1969, shared Berlin's song lyrics with him, and Armstrong quoted them in the memoir.
[
18
]
This inaccuracy may be because he wrote the memoir over 60 years after the events described. Regardless, the Karnoffskys treated Armstrong exceptionally well. Knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured Armstrong.
[
21
]
In his memoir,
Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907
, he described his discovery that this family was also
subject to discrimination by "other white folks"
who felt that they were better than Jews: "I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the white folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for."
[
18
]
Armstrong wrote about what he learned from them: "how to live—real life and determination."
His first musical performance may have been at the side of the Karnoffskys' junk wagon. Armstrong tried playing a tin horn to attract customers to distinguish them from other hawkers. Morris Karnoffsky gave Armstrong an advance toward purchasing a
cornet
from a pawn shop.
[
22
]
Later, as an adult, Armstrong wore a
Star of David
given to him by his Jewish manager, Joe Glaser, until the end of his life, in part in memory of this family who had raised him.
[
18
]
When Armstrong was 11, he dropped out of school.
[
16
]
His mother moved into a one-room house on Perdido Street with Armstrong, Lucy, and her common-law husband, Tom Lee, next door to her brother Ike and his two sons.
[
23
]
Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. Cornetist
Bunk Johnson
said he taught the eleven-year-old to play by ear at Dago Tony's honky tonk.
[
24
]
In his later years, Armstrong credited King Oliver. Armstrong said about his youth, "Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans ... It has given me something to live for."
[
25
]
A snippet from the January 2, 1913, issue of The Times-Democrat, New Orleans. "
Negro
" is a dated term for black people.
Borrowing his stepfather's gun without permission, Armstrong fired a blank into the air and was arrested on December 31, 1912. He spent the night at New Orleans Juvenile Court and was sentenced the next day to detention at the Colored Waif's [sic] Home.
[
26
]
Life at the home was spartan. Mattresses were absent, and meals were often little more than bread and molasses. Captain Joseph Jones ran the home like a military camp and used corporal punishment.
[
27
]
Armstrong developed his cornet skills by playing in the band.
Peter Davis
, who frequently appeared at the home at the request of Captain Jones,
[
28
]
became Armstrong's first teacher and chose him as the bandleader. With this band, the 13-year-old Armstrong attracted the attention of
Kid Ory
.
[
29
]
On June 14, 1914, Armstrong was released into the custody of his father and his new stepmother, Gertrude. Armstrong lived in this household with two stepbrothers for several months. After Gertrude gave birth to a daughter, Armstrong's father never welcomed him, so Armstrong returned to his mother, Mary Albert. Armstrong had to share a bed in her small home with his mother and sister. His mother still lived in The Battlefield, leaving Armstrong open to old temptations, but he sought work as a musician.
[
30
]
Armstrong found a job at a dance hall owned by Henry Ponce, who had connections to organized crime. He met the six-foot tall drummer
Black Benny
, who became Armstrong's guide and bodyguard.
[
30
]
Around the age of 15, he pimped for a prostitute named Nootsy. However, that relationship failed after she stabbed Armstrong in the shoulder, and his mother choked her nearly to death.
[
31
]
Armstrong briefly studied shipping management at the local community college but was forced to quit after being unable to afford the fees.
[
32
]
While selling coal in
Storyville
, he heard
spasm bands
, groups that played music out of household objects. Armstrong listened to the early sounds of jazz from bands that played in brothels and dance halls, such as Pete Lala's, where
King Oliver
performed.
[
33
]
Career
Riverboat education
Armstrong (fourth from left) was a member of
Fate Marable
's New Orleans Band in 1919, shown here on board the S.S.
Sidney
.
Early in his career, Armstrong played in brass bands and
riverboats
in New Orleans, in the late 1910s. He traveled with the band of
Fate Marable
, which toured on the steamboat
Sidney
with the
Streckfus Steamers
line up and down the Mississippi River.
[
34
]
Marable was proud of Armstrong's musical knowledge, and he insisted that Armstrong and other musicians in his band learn
sight reading
. Armstrong described his time with Marable as "going to the University" since it gave him a wider experience working with written
arrangements
. In 1918, Armstrong's mentor,
King Oliver
, decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. Armstrong also became the second trumpet for the
Tuxedo Brass Band
.
[
35
]
Throughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At age 20, he could read music. Armstrong became one of the first jazz musicians to be featured on extended trumpet solos, injecting his own personality and style. Armstrong also started singing in his performances.
[
36
]
Chicago period recordings
In 1922, Armstrong moved to Chicago at the invitation of King Oliver,
[
37
]
although Armstrong would return to New Orleans periodically for the rest of his life.
[
38
]
Playing second cornet to Oliver in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in the black-only Lincoln Gardens on the
South Side
of Chicago, Armstrong could make enough money to quit his day jobs. Although race relations were poor, Chicago was booming. The city had jobs for blacks, who made good wages at factories, with some left for entertainment.
[
37
]
: 86
Oliver's band was among Chicago's most influential jazz bands in the early 1920s. Armstrong lived luxuriously in his apartment with his first private bath. Excited to be in Chicago, Armstrong began his career-long pastime of writing letters to friends in New Orleans. Armstrong could blow 200
high Cs
in a row. As his reputation grew, Armstrong was challenged to
cutting contests
by other musicians.
[
39
]
Armstrong's first studio recordings were with Oliver for
Gennett Records
on April 5–6, 1923. They endured several hours on the train to remote
Richmond, Indiana
, and the band was paid little. The quality of the performances was affected by a lack of rehearsal, crude recording equipment, bad acoustics, and a cramped studio. These early recordings were true
acoustic
, the band playing directly into a large funnel connected directly to the needle making the groove in the master recording. The much improved Electrical recording system with a better dynamic range was not invented until 1926. Initially, because Armstrong's playing was so loud, Oliver could not be heard on the recording when he played next to Oliver. Armstrong had to stand 15 feet from Oliver in a far corner of the room to remedy this.
[
40
]
Lil Hardin
, whom Armstrong would marry in 1924, urged Armstrong to seek more prominent billing and develop his style apart from the influence of Oliver. At her suggestion, Armstrong began playing classical music in church concerts to broaden his skills and dressing more stylishly to offset his girth. Her influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional money that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members.
[
41
]
Armstrong's mother, Mayann Albert, came to visit him in Chicago during the summer of 1923 after being told that Armstrong was "out of work, out of money, hungry, and sick"; Hardin located and decorated an apartment for her to live in while she stayed.
[
42
]
Fletcher Henderson Orchestra
The Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in 1925. Armstrong is the third person from the left.
Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong was invited to go to New York City to play with the
Fletcher Henderson
Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. He switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. Armstrong's influence on Henderson's tenor sax soloist,
Coleman Hawkins
, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.
[
43
]
[
44
]
Armstrong adapted to Henderson's tightly controlled style, playing the trumpet and experimenting with the trombone. The other members were affected by Armstrong's emotional style. His act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers.
[
45
]
The Henderson Orchestra played in prominent venues for white patrons only, including the
Roseland Ballroom
, with arrangements by
Don Redman
.
Duke Ellington
's orchestra went to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances.
During this time, Armstrong recorded with
Clarence Williams
(a friend from New Orleans), the Williams Blue Five,
Sidney Bechet
, and blues singers
Alberta Hunter
,
Ma Rainey
, and
Bessie Smith
.
[
46
]
[
47
]
The Hot Five
In 1925, Armstrong returned to Chicago because he was disillusioned with New York, and Lil set up a recording session with Okeh for him as well as a gig at the Dreamland Cafe. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed Armstrong as "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player." For a time, he was a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and worked for his wife.
[
48
]
Armstrong formed
Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five
and recorded the hits "
Potato Head Blues
" and "Muggles". The word "muggles" was a
slang term for marijuana
, something Armstrong often used during his life.
[
37
]
"
Heebie Jeebies
" by Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five, 1926
The Hot Five included
Kid Ory
(trombone),
Johnny Dodds
(clarinet),
Johnny St. Cyr
(banjo), Lil Armstrong on piano, and usually no drummer. Over a 12-month period starting in November 1925, this quintet produced twenty-four records.
[
49
]
Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted: "One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual."
[
50
]
Among the Hot Five and Seven records were "Cornet Chop Suey", "Struttin' With Some Barbecue", "Hotter Than That", and "Potato Head Blues", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. According to
Thomas Brothers
, recordings such as "Struttin' with Some Barbeque" were so superb, "planned with density and variety, bluesyness, and showiness", that the arrangements were probably showcased at the Sunset Café.
[
51
]
His recordings soon after with pianist
Earl "Fatha" Hines
, their famous 1928 "
Weather Bird
" duet and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in "
West End Blues
", remain some of the most influential improvisations in jazz history. Young trumpet players across the country bought these recordings and memorized his solos.
Armstrong was now free to develop his style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as "Whip That Thing, Miss Lil" and "Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, Do That Clarinet, Boy!"
[
52
]
Armstrong also played with
Erskine Tate
's Little Symphony, mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as "
Madame Butterfly
", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began
scat singing
(improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it on the Hot Five recording "
Heebie Jeebies
" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had seldom performed live. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz.
[
53
]
After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the
Sunset Café
for
Al Capone
's associate
Joe Glaser
in the
Carroll Dickerson
Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers.
[
54
]
However, Hines was the music director, and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators. It was at the
Sunset Café
that Armstrong accompanied singer
Adelaide Hall
. During Hall's tenure at the venue, she experimented, developed, and expanded her scat singing with Armstrong's guidance and encouragement.
[
55
]
In the first half of 1927, Armstrong assembled his Hot Seven group, which added drummer Al "Baby" Dodds and tuba player
Pete Briggs
while preserving most of his original Hot Five lineup. John Thomas replaced Kid Ory on the trombone. Later that year, Armstrong organized a series of new Hot Five sessions, which resulted in nine more records. In the last half of 1928, he started recording with a new group:
Zutty Singleton
(drums), Earl Hines (piano),
Jimmy Strong
(clarinet), Fred Robinson (trombone), and Mancy Carr (banjo).
[
56
]
The Harlem Renaissance
Armstrong made a huge impact during the 1920s
Harlem Renaissance
.
[
57
]
His music touched well-known writer
Langston Hughes
. Hughes admired Armstrong and acknowledged him as one of the most recognized musicians of the era.
[
58
]
Hughes wrote many books that celebrated jazz and recognized Armstrong as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance's newfound love of African-American culture.
[
59
]
The sound of jazz, along with musicians such as Armstrong, helped shape Hughes as a writer. Just like the musicians, Hughes wrote his words with jazz.
[
60
]
Armstrong changed jazz during the Harlem Renaissance. As "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player" during this time,
[
61
]
Armstrong cemented his legacy and continued a focus on his vocal career. His popularity brought together many black and white audiences.
[
62
]
Emerging as a vocalist
Armstrong returned to New York in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra for the musical
Hot Chocolates
, an all-black revue written by
Andy Razaf
and pianist
Fats Waller
. Armstrong made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of "
Ain't Misbehavin'
." Armstrong's version of the song became his biggest-selling record yet.
[
63
]
Armstrong started to work at
Connie's Inn
in Harlem, chief rival to the
Cotton Club
, a venue for elaborately staged floor shows,
[
64
]
and a front for gangster
Dutch Schultz
. Armstrong had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of songs composed by his old friend
Hoagy Carmichael
. His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the RCA
ribbon microphone
, introduced in 1931, which imparted warmth to vocals and became an intrinsic part of the "
crooning
" sound of artists like
Bing Crosby
. Armstrong's interpretation of Carmichael's "
Stardust
" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that were already standards.
Armstrong's radical re-working of
Sidney Arodin
and Carmichael's "
Lazy River
", recorded in 1931, encapsulated his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo. Then, the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: "Yeah! ..."Uh-huh"..."Sure"..."Way down, way down." In the first verse, Armstrong ignores the notated melody and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza, he breaks into an almost entirely improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong's scat singing.
As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation for jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gravelly coloration of his voice became an archetype that was endlessly imitated. Armstrong's scat singing was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as "Lazy River" greatly influenced younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.
Work during hard times
Armstrong in 1936
The
Great Depression
of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. After a long downward spiral, the Cotton Club closed in 1936, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated.
Bix Beiderbecke
died, and Fletcher Henderson's band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled.
Sidney Bechet
became a tailor, later moving to Paris, and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens.
[
65
]
Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with
Lionel Hampton
on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish nightlife, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie,
Ex-Flame
. He was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence.
[
66
]
Armstrong returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the
Guy Lombardo
vein, and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town,
[
67
]
Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome, and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team called Armstrong's Secret Nine and had a cigar named after him.
[
68
]
However, Armstrong was on the road again soon. After a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, he fled to Europe.
After returning to the United States, Armstrong undertook several exhausting tours. His agent, Johnny Collins's erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Armstrong hired
Joe Glaser
as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer who began straightening out his legal mess, mob troubles, and debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, Armstrong branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. Armstrong appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit
Pennies from Heaven
. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for
Rudy Vallee
on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored national broadcast.
[
69
]
Reviving his career with the All-Stars
Armstrong in 1953
After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York, in 1943 with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of
Tin Pan Alley
and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, Armstrong continued to develop his playing.
Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes. Ballrooms closed, and competition from other types of music, especially pop vocals, became more popular than big band music. Under such circumstances, it became impossible to finance a 16-piece touring band.
A widespread revival of interest in the 1940s in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Armstrong was featured as a guest artist with Lionel Hampton's band at the famed second
Cavalcade of Jazz
concert held at
Wrigley Field
in Los Angeles, produced by
Leon Hefflin Sr.
, on October 12, 1946.
[
70
]
Armstrong also led a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring him with trombonist/singer
Jack Teagarden
. During the concert, Armstrong and Teagarden performed a duet on Hoagy Carmichael's "
Rockin' Chair
" they then recorded for
Okeh Records
.
Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser, changed the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947, into a six-piece traditional jazz group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden,
Earl Hines
and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of whom were previously leaders of big bands. The new group was announced at the opening of
Billy Berg's
Supper Club.
This smaller group was called Louis Armstrong and His All-Stars and included at various times Earl "Fatha" Hines,
Barney Bigard
,
Edmond Hall
, Jack Teagarden,
Trummy Young
,
Arvell Shaw
,
Billy Kyle
,
Marty Napoleon
,
Big Sid "Buddy" Catlett
,
Cozy Cole
,
Tyree Glenn
,
Barrett Deems
,
Mort Herbert
,
Joe Darensbourg
,
Eddie Shu
,
Joe Muranyi
and percussionist
Danny Barcelona
.
On February 28, 1948,
Suzy Delair
sang the French song "
C'est si bon
" at the
Hotel Negresco
during the first
Nice Jazz Festival
. Armstrong was present and loved the song. On June 26, 1950, he recorded the American version of the song (English lyrics by
Jerry Seelen
) in New York City with
Sy Oliver
and his Orchestra. When it was released, the disc was a worldwide success, and the song was then performed by the greatest international singers.
Armstrong was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of
Time
magazine on February 21, 1949. He and his All-Stars were featured at the ninth Cavalcade of Jazz concert also at
Wrigley Field
in Los Angeles produced by
Leon Hefflin Sr.
held on June 7, 1953, along with
Shorty Rogers
,
Roy Brown
, Don Tosti and His Mexican Jazzmen,
Earl Bostic
, and
Nat "King" Cole
.
[
71
]
Over 30 years, Armstrong played more than 300 performances a year, making many recordings and appearing in more than 30 films.
A jazz ambassador
Armstrong in 1955
By the 1950s, Armstrong was a widely beloved American icon and cultural ambassador who commanded an international fanbase. However, a growing generation gap became apparent between him and the young jazz musicians who emerged in the postwar era, such as
Charlie Parker
,
Miles Davis
, and
Sonny Rollins
. The postwar generation regarded their music as abstract art and considered Armstrong's vaudevillian style, half-musician and half-stage entertainer, outmoded and
Uncle Tomism
. "... he seemed a link to
minstrelsy
that we were ashamed of."
[
72
]
Armstrong called bebop "Chinese music".
[
73
]
While touring Australia in 1954, he was asked if he could play bebop. "'Bebop?' he husked. 'I just play music. Guys who invent terms like that are walking the streets with their instruments under their arms.'"
[
74
]
Record of Armstrong's visit to Brazil, 1957
After finishing his contract with
Decca Records
, Armstrong went freelance and recorded for other labels.
[
75
]
[
76
]
He continued an intense international touring schedule, but suffered a heart attack in 1959 while in Italy and had to rest.
[
77
]
In 1964, after more than two years without setting foot in a studio, Armstrong recorded his biggest-selling record, "
Hello, Dolly!
", a song by
Jerry Herman
, originally sung by
Carol Channing
. Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1, making him the oldest person to accomplish that feat at 62 years, nine months, and five days. Armstrong's hit dislodged
The Beatles
from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.
[
78
]
External audio
Louis Daniel Armstrong talks with Studs Terkel on WFMT; 1962/6/24
, 33:43,
Studs Terkel Radio Archive
[
79
]
Armstrong toured well into his 60s, even visiting part of the
Communist Bloc
in 1965. Armstrong also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the
sponsorship of the US State Department
with great success, earning the nickname "Ambassador Satch" and inspiring
Dave Brubeck
to compose his jazz musical
The Real Ambassadors
. His travels included performances in
Egypt
,
Ghana
and
Nigeria
.
[
80
]
[
81
]
By 1968, Armstrong was approaching 70, and his health was failing. His heart and kidney ailments forced him to stop touring, though he continued to record, including "
What a Wonderful World
", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong did not perform publicly in 1969 and spent most of the year recuperating at home. Meanwhile, his longtime manager, Joe Glaser, died. By the summer of 1970, Armstrong's doctors pronounced him fit enough to resume live performances. Armstrong embarked on another world tour, but a heart attack forced him to take a break for two months.
[
82
]
Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album
Disney Songs the Satchmo Way
.
[
83
]
Personal life
Pronunciation of name
The Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:
Judging from home recorded tapes now in our Museum Collections, Louis pronounced his own name as "Lewis." On his 1964 record "Hello, Dolly", he sings, "This is Lewis, Dolly", but in 1933, he made a record called "Laughin' Louie." Many broadcast announcers, fans, and acquaintances called him "Louie", and in a videotaped interview from 1983, Lucille Armstrong calls her late husband "Louie" as well. Musicians and close friends usually called him "Pops".
[
84
]
In a memoir written for
Robert Goffin
between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong stated, "All white folks call me Louie", suggesting that he himself did not, or that no whites addressed him by one of his nicknames such as Pops.
[
85
]
[
86
]
That said, Armstrong was registered as "Lewie" for the
1920 U.S. census
. On various live records, he is called "Louie" on stage, such as on the 1952 "Can Anyone Explain?" from the live album
In Scandinavia vol.1
. The same applies to his 1952 studio recording of the song "Chloe", where the choir in the background sings "Louie ... Louie", with Armstrong responding, "What was that? Somebody called my name?". "Lewie" is the French pronunciation of "Louis" and is commonly used in Louisiana.
Family
Armstrong with Lucille Wilson, c. 1960s
Armstrong was performing at the Brick House in
Gretna, Louisiana
when he met Daisy Parker, a local prostitute, and started an affair as a client. Armstrong returned to Gretna on several occasions to visit her. He found the courage to look for her home to see her away from work. There, Armstrong found out she had a
common-law husband
. Not long after that, Parker traveled to Armstrong's home on Perdido Street
[
87
]
and they checked into Kid Green's hotel that evening. On the next day, March 19, 1919, Armstrong and Parker married at City Hall.
[
87
]
[
88
]
They adopted a three-year-old boy, Clarence, whose mother, Armstrong's cousin Flora, had died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled as a result of a head injury at an early age. Armstrong spent the rest of his life taking care of him.
[
89
]
His marriage to Parker ended when they separated in 1923.
On February 4, 1924, Armstrong married
Lil Hardin Armstrong
, King Oliver's pianist. She had divorced her first husband a few years earlier. Armstrong's second wife helped him develop his career, but they separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938. Armstrong then married Alpha Smith.
[
90
]
His relationship with Alpha began while he was playing at the Vendome during the 1920s and continued long after.
[
91
]
Armstrong's marriage to her lasted four years; they divorced in 1942. He then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the
Cotton Club
in New York, in October 1942. They remained married until his death in 1971.
[
92
]
Armstrong's marriages produced no offspring.
[
93
]
However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille "Sweets" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club.
[
94
]
In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of $400 ($6,009 in 2025 dollars)
[
95
]
to mother and child.
[
96
]
Personality
Armstrong in 1959 during a night concert in the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam
Armstrong was colorful and charismatic. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians because Armstrong had a habit of telling tales, particularly about his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments lack consistency.
[
97
]
In addition to being an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality. He was beloved by an American public that usually offered little access beyond their public celebrity to even the most significant black performers, and Armstrong was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other black Americans during that era.
[
97
]
Armstrong generally remained politically neutral, which sometimes alienated him from other black Americans who expected him to use his prominence within white America to become more outspoken during the
civil rights movement
. However, Armstrong criticized
President Eisenhower
for not acting forcefully on civil rights.
[
97
]
Health problems
The trumpet is notoriously hard on the
lips
, and Armstrong suffered from lip damage over most of his life. This was due to Armstrong's aggressive playing style and preference for narrow mouthpieces that would stay in place more easily but tended to dig into the soft flesh of his inner lip. During his 1930s European tour, Armstrong suffered an ulceration so severe that he had to stop playing entirely for a year. Eventually, Armstrong took to using salves and creams on his lips and also cutting off scar tissue with a razor blade. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an official spokesman for Ansatz-Creme Lip Salve.
[
98
]
During a backstage meeting with trombonist Marshall Brown in 1959, Armstrong was advised to see a doctor and receive proper treatment for his lips instead of relying on home remedies. However, Armstrong did not get around to that until his final years, by which point his health was failing, and the doctors considered surgery too risky.
[
99
]
In 1959, Armstrong was hospitalized for
pneumonia
while on tour in Italy. Doctors were concerned about his lungs and heart, but by the end of June, Armstrong rallied on.
[
100
]
Nicknames
An autograph of Armstrong on the muretto of
Alassio
The nicknames "Satchmo" and "Satch" are short for "Satchelmouth". The nickname origin is uncertain.
[
97
]
The most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy in New Orleans dancing for pennies. He scooped the coins off the street and stuck them into his mouth to prevent bigger children from stealing them. Someone dubbed Armstrong "satchel mouth" for his mouth acting as a
satchel
. Another tale is that because of his large mouth, Armstrong was nicknamed "satchel mouth", which was shortened to "Satchmo."
[
97
]
Early on, Armstrong was also known as "Dipper", short for "Dippermouth", a reference to the piece
Dippermouth Blues
[
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]
and something of a riff on his unusual
embouchure
.
The nickname "Pops" came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them "Pops" instead. The nickname was turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout.
[
97
]
After a competition at the Savoy, he was crowned and nicknamed "King Menelik", after the Emperor of Ethiopia, for slaying "
ofay
jazz demons."
[
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]
Race
Armstrong celebrated his heritage as a black man from a poor New Orleans neighborhood and tried to avoid what he called "putting on airs." Many younger black musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of
segregated
audiences and for not taking a stronger stand in the
American civil rights movement
.
[
103
]
When Armstrong did speak out, it made national news. In 1957, journalism student Larry Lubenow scored a candid interview with Armstrong while the musician was performing in Grand Forks, North Dakota, shortly after the
conflict
over school
desegregation
in
Little Rock, Arkansas
. Armstrong denounced both Arkansas Governor
Orval Faubus
and
President Dwight D. Eisenhower
, saying the President had "no guts" and was "two-faced." Armstrong told his interviewer that he would cancel a planned tour of the
Soviet Union
on behalf of the
State Department
, saying, "The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell"; he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people.
[
104
]
[
105
]
The
FBI
kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration.
[
106
]
Armstrong’s outburst drew both praise and backlash; figures like
Jackie Robinson
and
Lena Horne
publicly supported him, while a Mississippi radio station banned his records. His longtime road manager,
Pierre Tallerie
, attempted to walk back Armstrong’s comments to the press, prompting a sharp public rebuke from Armstrong, who nearly fired Tallerie and insisted on speaking for himself going forward.
[
107
]
[
108
]
Religion
When asked about his religion, Armstrong answered that he was raised a
Baptist
, always wore a
Star of David
, and was friends with the pope.
[
109
]
Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnoffsky family who took him in as a child and lent him money to buy his first cornet. Armstrong was baptized a Catholic in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans,
[
109
]
and he met
Pope Pius XII
and
Pope Paul VI
.
[
97
]
Personal habits
The
Armstrong Secret 9
, 1931
Armstrong was concerned with his health. Armstrong used
laxatives
to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title
Lose Weight the Satchmo Way
.
[
97
]
Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was
Pluto Water
, but when he discovered the herbal remedy
Swiss Kriss
, he became an enthusiastic convert,
[
97
]
extolling its virtues to anyone who would listen and passing out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the
British royal family
.
Armstrong also appeared in humorous risqué cards that he had printed to send to friends. The cards bore a picture of Armstrong sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan "Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!
'
"
[
110
]
The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss.
[
111
]
In a live recording of "
Baby, It's Cold Outside
" with
Velma Middleton
, he changes the lyric from "Put another record on while I pour" to "Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour."
[
112
]
Armstrong's laxative use began as a child when his mother would collect
dandelions
and
peppergrass
around the railroad tracks to give to her children for their health.
[
113
]
Armstrong was a heavy
marijuana
smoker for much of his life and spent nine days in jail in 1930 after being arrested outside a club for drug possession. Armstrong described marijuana as "a thousand times better than whiskey."
[
114
]
Armstrong's concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as "Cheesecake", "Cornet Chop Suey",
[
115
]
and "Struttin' with Some Barbecue", though the latter was written about a fine-looking companion, and not food.
[
116
]
Armstrong kept a strong connection throughout his life to the
cooking of New Orleans
, always signing his letters, "
Red beans and ricely
yours ...".
[
117
]
A fan of Major League Baseball, Armstrong founded a team in New Orleans that was known as Raggedy Nine and transformed the team into his Armstrong's "
Secret Nine Baseball
."
[
118
]
Writings
Armstrong's gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. Armstrong avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy
"medicinal" marijuana
use, and even his bowel movements, which Armstrong gleefully described.
[
119
]
Louis Armstrong was not, as claimed, a
Freemason
. Although he has been cited as a Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) member in New York, no such lodge ever existed. In his autobiography, Armstrong stated that he was a member of the
Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia
, an African American non-Masonic fraternal organization.
[
120
]
During the krewe's 1949
Mardi Gras
parade, Armstrong presided as King of the
Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club
, for which he was featured on the cover of
Time
magazine
.
[
121
]
Music
Horn playing and early jazz
Selmer
trumpet, given as a gift by
King George V
of the United Kingdom to Louis Armstrong in 1933
In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. Along with his "clarinet-like figurations and high notes in his cornet solos", Armstrong was also known for his "intense rhythmic 'swing', a complex conception involving accented upbeats, upbeat to downbeat slurring, and complementary relations among rhythmic patterns.
[
122
]
The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the
Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions
, as well as those of the
Red Onion Jazz Babies
. Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song "
Potato Head Blues
" has long been considered his best solo of that series.
[
97
]
[
123
]
Prior to Armstrong, most collective ensembles playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. He was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.
[
97
]
Often, Armstrong re-composed pop tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, Armstrong's oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. His playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone, and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a piece of collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.
[
97
]
Armstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. Armstrong enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, Armstrong had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio.
[
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]
Vocal popularity
As Armstrong's music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, "
Heebie Jeebies
." At a recording session for
Okeh Records
, when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor, and the music began before Armstrong could pick up the pages, he simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh President E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs.
[
125
]
On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out "I done forgot the words" in the middle of recording "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas."
Such records were hits, and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, and using his voice as creatively as his trumpet.
[
97
]
Armstrong once told
Cab Calloway
that his scat style was derived "from the Jews
rockin
", an Orthodox Jewish style of chanting during prayer.
[
126
]
[
127
]
Composing
Armstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than 50 songs, some of which have become
jazz standards
(e.g., "Gully Low Blues", "Potato Head Blues", and "Swing That Music").
Colleagues and followers
With
Jack Teagarden
(left) and
Barney Bigard
(right), Armstrong plays the trumpet in
Helsinki, Finland
, October 1949
During his long career, Armstrong played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time, including Bing Crosby,
Duke Ellington
,
Fletcher Henderson
,
Earl Hines
,
Jimmie Rodgers
,
Bessie Smith
, and
Ella Fitzgerald
. His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music. Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably "Just One More Chance" (1931).
[
97
]
The
New Grove Dictionary of Jazz
describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:
Crosby ... was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech ... His techniques—easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a
head voice
at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct
enunciation
, singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of
appoggiaturas
,
mordents
, and
slurs
to emphasize the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers.
Armstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald,
Ella and Louis
and
Ella and Louis Again
, for
Verve Records
. The sessions featured the backing musicianship of the
Oscar Peterson
Trio with drummer
Buddy Rich
on the first album and
Louie Bellson
on the second.
Norman Granz
then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record
Porgy and Bess
.
Armstrong's two recordings for
Columbia Records
,
Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy
(1954) and
Satch Plays Fats
(all
Fats Waller
tunes) (1955), were both considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961, the All-Stars participated in two albums,
The Great Summit
and
The Great Reunion
(now together as a single disc) with
Duke Ellington
. The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. Armstrong's participation in
Dave Brubeck
's high-concept jazz musical
The Real Ambassadors
(1963) was critically acclaimed and features "Summer Song", one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.
Louis Armstrong in 1966
In the week beginning May 9, 1964
, Armstrong's recording of the song "
Hello, Dolly!
" went to number one. An
album of the same title
was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one, knocking
The Beatles
off the top of the chart. The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going "Gold" (500,000). His performance of "Hello, Dolly!" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964
Grammy Awards
.
Hits and later career
Armstrong had 19 "Top Ten" records
[
128
]
including "
Stardust
", "
What a Wonderful World
", "
When The Saints Go Marching In
", "
Dream a Little Dream of Me
", "
Ain't Misbehavin'
", "
You Rascal You
", and "
Stompin' at the Savoy
". "
We Have All the Time in the World
" was featured on the soundtrack of the
James Bond
film
On Her Majesty's Secret Service
, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it was featured on a
Guinness
advertisement. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.
In 1964, Armstrong knocked
The Beatles
off the top of the
Billboard
Hot 100
chart with "
Hello, Dolly!
", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song "Bout Time" was later featured in the film
Bewitched
.
[
97
]
In February 1968, Armstrong appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian
RAI
television channel, where he performed "Grassa e Bella", a track Armstrong sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label.
[
129
]
In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the UK with "
What a Wonderful World
", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong appeared on the October 28, 1970,
Johnny Cash Show
, where he sang
Nat King Cole
's hit "
Ramblin' Rose
" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel No. 9".
Stylistic range
Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of
Guy Lombardo
, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
as an
early influence
. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the
hard rocking
version of "
St. Louis Blues
" from the
WC Handy
album, show that the influence went in both directions.
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97
]
Film, television, and radio
Armstrong entertains
Grace Kelly
on the set of
High Society
, 1956
Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a bandleader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader
cum
narrator in the 1956 musical
High Society
, starring Bing Crosby,
Grace Kelly
,
Frank Sinatra
, and
Celeste Holm
. Armstrong appears throughout the film, sings the title song, and performs the duet "
Now You Has Jazz
" with Crosby.
[
130
]
In 1947, Armstrong played himself in the movie
New Orleans
opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the
Storyville district
and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film
The Five Pennies
, Armstrong played himself, sang, and played several classic numbers. He performed a duet of "When the Saints Go Marching In" with
Danny Kaye
, during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. He had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in
The Glenn Miller Story
.
In 1937, Armstrong was the first African American to host a
nationally broadcast radio show
.
[
131
]
In 1969, he had a cameo role in
Gene Kelly
's film version of
Hello, Dolly!
as the bandleader Louis where he sang the title song with actress
Barbra Streisand
. Armstrong's solo recording of "
Hello, Dolly!
" is one of his most recognizable performances.
[
97
]
Armstrong was heard on such radio programs as
The Story of Swing
(1937) and
This Is Jazz
(1947), and he also made television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on
The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson
.
[
97
]
In
1949
, Armstrong's life was
dramatized
by scriptwriter
Richard Durham
in the Chicago
WMAQ
radio series
Destination Freedom
.
[
132
]
[
133
]
Argentine writer
Julio Cortázar
, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the
Théâtre des Champs-Élysées
in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called
Cronopios
that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself "Grandísimo Cronopio" (The Great Cronopio).
[
97
]
There is a pivotal scene in
Stardust Memories
(1980) in which
Woody Allen
is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's "
Stardust
" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany.
[
134
]
In 2022, Armstrong was subject of the documentary film
Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues
.
[
135
]
Death
Louis Armstrong's grave at
Flushing Cemetery
in
Queens
, New York City
Against his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the
Waldorf-Astoria
's Empire Room. At the end of it, he was hospitalized for a
heart attack
.
[
136
]
Armstrong was released from the hospital in May and quickly resumed practicing his trumpet playing. Still hoping to get back on the road, Armstrong died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971. Armstrong was residing in
Corona, Queens
, New York City, at the time of his death.
[
137
]
Armstrong was interred in
Flushing Cemetery
,
Flushing
, in
Queens
, New York City.
His honorary
pallbearers
included
Bing Crosby
,
Ella Fitzgerald
,
Duke Ellington
,
Dizzy Gillespie
,
Pearl Bailey
,
Count Basie
,
Harry James
,
Frank Sinatra
,
Ed Sullivan
,
Earl Wilson
,
Benny Goodman
,
Alan King
,
Johnny Carson
and
David Frost
.
[
138
]
[
139
]
[
140
]
Peggy Lee
sang "
The Lord's Prayer
" at the services while
Al Hibbler
sang "
Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen
" and
Fred Robbins
, a long-time friend, gave the eulogy.
[
141
]
Awards and honors
Grammy Awards
Armstrong was posthumously awarded the
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the recording field.
[
142
]
Year
Category
Title
Genre
Label
Result
1964
Male Vocal Performance
"
Hello, Dolly!
"
Pop
Kapp
Winner
Grammy Hall of Fame
Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the
Grammy Hall of Fame
, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance."
[
143
]
[
144
]
Year recorded
Title
Label
Year inducted
Notes
1925
"
St. Louis Blues
"
Columbia
1993
Bessie Smith
with Louis Armstrong, cornet
1926
"
Heebie Jeebies
"
OKeh
1999
1928
"
West End Blues
"
OKeh
1974
1928
"
Weather Bird
"
OKeh
2008
with
Earl Hines
1929
"
St. Louis Blues
"
OKeh
2008
with
Red Allen
1930
"
Blue Yodel No. 9
(Standing on the Corner)
"
Victor
2007
Jimmie Rodgers (featuring Louis Armstrong)
1932
"
All of Me
"
Columbia
2005
1938
"
When the Saints Go Marching In
"
Decca
2016
1955
"
Mack the Knife
"
Columbia
1997
1958
Porgy and Bess
Verve
2001
Album, with
Ella Fitzgerald
1964
"
Hello, Dolly!
"
Kapp
2001
1967
"
What a Wonderful World
"
ABC
1999
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
The
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
listed Armstrong's "West End Blues" on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll.
[
145
]
Year recorded
Title
Label
Group
1928
"
West End Blues
"
Okeh
Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five
Inductions and honors
In 1995, the
U.S. Post Office
issued a Louis Armstrong 32-cent commemorative postage stamp.
Year inducted
Title
Notes
1952
DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame
First inductee into DownBeat Hall of Fame
1960
[
146
]
Hollywood Walk of Fame
Star at 7601 Hollywood Blvd.
1978
Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame
1990
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Early influence
2004
Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame
At
Jazz at Lincoln Center
2007
Louisiana Music Hall of Fame
2007
Gennett Records
Walk of Fame,
Richmond
, Indiana
2007
Long Island Music Hall of Fame
2017
National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame
Early influence
Film honors
In 1999, Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the
American Film Institute
's
100 Years ... 100 Stars
.
[
147
]
Legacy
In 1950,
Bing Crosby
, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, "He is the beginning and the end of music in America."
[
148
]
Duke Ellington,
DownBeat
magazine in 1971, said, "If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong. He was and will continue to be the embodiment of jazz."
[
149
]
Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing,
Ethel Waters
and others preceded his scatting on record in the 1920s according to
Gary Giddins
and others.
[
150
]
According to literary critic Harold Bloom, "The two great American contributions to the world's art, in the end, are Walt Whitman and, after him, Armstrong and jazz ... If I had to choose between the two, ultimately, I wouldn't. I would say that the genius of this nation at its best is indeed Walt Whitman and Louis Armstrong".
[
151
]
In 2023,
Rolling Stone
ranked Armstrong at No. 39 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
[
152
]
In 1991, an asteroid was named
9179 Satchmo
in Armstrong's honor.
[
153
]
In the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of his birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed
Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport
. The entrance to the airport's
former terminal building
houses a statue depicting Armstrong playing his cornet. In 2002, the
Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven
recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of
recordings
selected yearly by the
National Recording Preservation Board
for preservation in the
National Recording Registry
of the
Library of Congress
.
[
154
]
The
US Open
tennis tournament's former main stadium was named
Louis Armstrong Stadium
in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site.
[
155
]
Congo Square
was a common gathering place for blacks in New Orleans for dancing and performing music. The park where Congo Square is located was later renamed
Louis Armstrong Park
.
[
156
]
Dedicated in April 1980, the park includes a 12-foot (3.7 m) statue of Armstrong, trumpet in hand.
[
157
]
A Wonderful World
, a musical based on his life story, had its world premiere run at
Miami New Drama
from December 4, 2021, to January 16, 2021,
[
158
]
after mounting previews beginning March 5, 2020
[
159
]
and canceling opening night (March 14) due to COVID concerns.
[
160
]
Mirroring Armstrong's musical journey, the show stars
James Monroe Iglehart
and makes "pre-Broadway"
[
161
]
stops in New Orleans on October 1–8, 2023, and Chicago on October 11–29, 2023. The new musical charts the rise of Armstrong from the perspective of his four wives. It is conceived by Drama Desk Award winner and Tony Award nominee
Christopher Renshaw
and novelist
Andrew Delaplaine
, and directed by Renshaw,
A Wonderful World
features an original book by
Aurin Squire
. The show will debut on Broadway in 2024.
[
162
]
The Louis Armstrong House Museum
The house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a
National Historic Landmark
and opened to the public for guided tours in 2003.
[
163
]
The
Louis Armstrong House Museum
, at 34–56 107th Street between 34th and 37th avenues in
Corona, Queens
, presents concerts and educational programs,
[
164
]
operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research.
[
165
]
The museum is administered by the
Queens College, City University of New York
, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will and is operated by the nonprofit Louis Armstrong House Museum. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center opened across the street from the Armstrong home in the summer of 2023.
[
166
]
The Museum website also includes the digitized Armstrong Archives, searchable to the public 24 hours a day.
[
167
]
Essential discography
The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings
The Complete Louis Armstrong Decca Sessions (1935–1946) (Mosaic Records, 2009)
All Stars (Louis Armstrong's Town Hall Concert) (1947)
Struttin'
(1947)
Satchmo Serenades (1950)
Satchmo at Pasadena
(1951)
Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy
(1955)
Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1
(1955)
Satch Plays Fats
(1955)
The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve
– contains
Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, Porgy and Bess (1997)
Louis and the Angels
(1957)
Louis and the Good Book
(1958)
Satchmo In Style
(1959)
Hello, Dolly!
(1964)
See also
Black and tan clubs
Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations
Little Satchmo
, 2022 documentary film
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The New York Times
, July 7, 1971. Accessed October 1, 2009. "Louis Armstrong, the celebrated jazz trumpeter and singer, died in his sleep yesterday morning at his home in the Corona section of Queens."
^
Collier, James Lincoln
(1985).
Louis Armstrong
. Pan. p. 333.
ISBN
978-0330286077
.
^
Burton, Anthony (July 10, 1971).
"Louis Armstrong's body is laid to rest in Queens"
.
New York Daily News
.
^
Lelyveld, Joseph (July 10, 1971).
"Friends Bid Louis Armstrong a Nostalgic Farewell at Simple Service"
.
New York Times
.
^
"Louis Armstrong Dies: 1971 Year in Review"
. Upi.com. December 28, 1971. Archived from
the original
on May 3, 2009
. Retrieved
August 17,
2009
.
^
"Lifetime Achievement Award"
. Grammy.com. February 8, 2009. Archived from
the original
on February 12, 2009
. Retrieved
August 17,
2009
.
^
"Grammy Hall of Fame Database"
. Grammy.com. February 8, 2009. Archived from
the original
on January 22, 2011
. Retrieved
August 17,
2009
.
^
"The Recording Academy"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on June 12, 2009
. Retrieved
August 17,
2009
.
^
"Experience The Music: One Hit Wonders and The Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll"
. Rockhall.com.
Archived
from the original on May 9, 2012
. Retrieved
May 7,
2011
.
^
"Louis Armstrong"
.
Hollywood Walk of Fame
. February 8, 1960.
Archived
from the original on March 7, 2021
. Retrieved
October 2,
2011
.
^
"AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Stars Nominees"
(PDF)
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on March 28, 2014
. Retrieved
August 22,
2012
.
^
"A Long Way From Tacoma"
.
movies2.nytimes.com
.
Archived
from the original on September 29, 2018
. Retrieved
September 28,
2018
.
^
Storb, Ilse (2000).
Jazz Meets the World-the World Meets Jazz
. LIT Verlag Münster.
ISBN
978-3825837488
.
^
See
Ken Burns' Jazz
CD Set liner notes.
^
"At Home with Harold Bloom: (3) The Jazz Bridge"
.
Radioopensource.org
. December 30, 2007.
Archived
from the original on May 30, 2023
. Retrieved
October 19,
2019
.
^
"The 200 Greatest Singers of All Time"
.
Rolling Stone
. January 1, 2023.
Archived
from the original on October 6, 2023
. Retrieved
September 12,
2023
.
^
"IAU Minor Planet Center"
.
minorplanetcenter.net
.
Archived
from the original on March 3, 2016
. Retrieved
December 11,
2022
.
^
"Library of Congress archive"
.
Library of Congress
. February 18, 2009.
Archived
from the original on March 15, 2015
. Retrieved
August 17,
2009
.
^
"Ashe & Armstrong Stadiums"
. Usta.com. May 25, 2008. Archived from
the original
on October 1, 2015
. Retrieved
May 7,
2011
.
^
Bergreen (1997), p. 11.
^
"Armstrong Park Dedicated"
.
Daily World
. Opelousas, Louisiana.
UPI
. April 16, 1980. p. 3.
Archived
from the original on October 30, 2018
. Retrieved
October 25,
2018
– via
Newspapers.com
.
^
"A Wonderful World"
.
Miami New Drama
.
Archived
from the original on September 27, 2023
. Retrieved
October 5,
2023
.
^
Clement, Olivia (March 5, 2020).
"Louis Armstrong Musical A Wonderful World Kicks Off World Premiere in Miami"
.
Playbill.com
.
Archived
from the original on October 22, 2023
. Retrieved
October 5,
2023
.
^
"Exclusive Photos/Video: Final Preview of A WONDERFUL WORLD; Opening Night Cancelled at the Colony Theatre"
.
Broadway World
. March 14, 2020.
Archived
from the original on October 22, 2023
. Retrieved
October 5,
2023
.
^
Gans, Andrew (July 12, 2023).
"Cast Complete for A Wonderful World Musical Starring James Monroe Iglehart; Vanessa Williams Joins Producing Team"
.
Playbill.com
.
Archived
from the original on September 25, 2023
. Retrieved
October 5,
2023
.
^
"A Wonderful World: The Louis Armstrong Musical"
.
The Press Room, NYC
.
Archived
from the original on April 6, 2024
. Retrieved
April 6,
2024
.
^
"The Museum – About"
.
Louis Armstrong House Museum
. Retrieved
January 18,
2025
.
^
"Events"
.
Louis Armstrong House Museum
. Retrieved
January 18,
2025
.
^
"Research Archives – Collections"
.
Louis Armstrong House Museum
. Retrieved
January 18,
2025
.
^
"Louis Armstrong House Museum and CUNY Celebrate Opening of New Center"
. The City University of New York. July 7, 2023.
Archived
from the original on November 27, 2023
. Retrieved
November 30,
2023
.
^
"Catalogs"
.
Louis Armstrong House Museum
. Retrieved
January 18,
2025
.
Works cited
External videos
Presentation by Teachout about
Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong
, January 7, 2010
,
C-SPAN
Q&A
interview with Teachout about
Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong
, January 31, 2010
,
C-SPAN
Armstrong, Louis (1954).
Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans
.
ISBN
0306802767
.
Bergreen, Laurence
(1997).
Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life
.
ISBN
0553067680
.
Cogswell, Michael (2003).
Armstrong: The Offstage Story
.
ISBN
1888054816
.
Elie, Lolis Eric.
A Letter from New Orleans
. Originally printed in
Gourmet
. Reprinted in
Best Food Writing 2006
, ed. by Holly Hughes, Da Capo Press, 2006.
ISBN
1569242879
.
Teachout, Terry
(2009).
Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong
.
ISBN
978-0151010899
.
Further readings
Brothers, Thomas
(2006).
Louis Armstrong's New Orleans
,
New York, N.Y. W. W. Norton & Company
Brothers, Thomas (2014).
Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism
. New York: W. W. Norton & Company
Feather, Leonard
(1960).
The Jazz Encyclopedia
. Da Capo.
ISBN
0-306-80214-7
.
Giddins, Gary
(1988).
Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong
. Da Capo Press
Gioia, Ted
(2022).
The History of Jazz (Third Edition)
. Oxford University Press
Jones, Max
, and Chilton, John (1988).
Louis: The Louis Armstrong Story, 1900–1971
. Da Capo Press.
ISBN
978-0306803246
.
Riccardi, Ricky (2012).
What a Wonderful World: The Magic of Louis Armstrong's Later Years
. New York: Vintage.
ISBN
9780307473295
.
OCLC
798285020
.
—— (2020).
Heart Full of Rhythm: The Big Band Years of Louis Armstrong
. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780190914110
.
OCLC
1137836373
.
—— (2025).
Stomp off, Let's Go: The Early Years of Louis Armstrong
. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780197614488
.
OCLC
1427941152
.
Storb, Ilse (1999).
Louis Armstrong: The Definitive Biography
.
ISBN
0820431036
.
Willems, Jos (2006).
All of Me: The Complete Discography of Louis Armstrong
. Scarecrow Press.
ISBN
978-0810857308
.
External links
Louis Armstrong House Museum
Louis Armstrong
at
IMDb
Louis Armstrong
discography at
Discogs
Louis Armstrong
collected news and commentary at
The New York Times
[1] |
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## Contents
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- [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong)
- [1 Early life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Early_life)
- [2 Career](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Career)
Toggle Career subsection
- [2\.1 Riverboat education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Riverboat_education)
- [2\.2 Chicago period recordings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Chicago_period_recordings)
- [2\.3 Fletcher Henderson Orchestra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Fletcher_Henderson_Orchestra)
- [2\.4 The Hot Five](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#The_Hot_Five)
- [2\.5 The Harlem Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#The_Harlem_Renaissance)
- [2\.6 Emerging as a vocalist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Emerging_as_a_vocalist)
- [2\.7 Work during hard times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Work_during_hard_times)
- [2\.8 Reviving his career with the All-Stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Reviving_his_career_with_the_All-Stars)
- [2\.9 A jazz ambassador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#A_jazz_ambassador)
- [3 Personal life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Personal_life)
Toggle Personal life subsection
- [3\.1 Pronunciation of name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Pronunciation_of_name)
- [3\.2 Family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Family)
- [3\.3 Personality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Personality)
- [3\.4 Health problems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Health_problems)
- [3\.5 Nicknames](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Nicknames)
- [3\.6 Race](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Race)
- [3\.7 Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Religion)
- [3\.8 Personal habits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Personal_habits)
- [3\.9 Writings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Writings)
- [3\.10 Social organizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Social_organizations)
- [4 Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Music)
Toggle Music subsection
- [4\.1 Horn playing and early jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Horn_playing_and_early_jazz)
- [4\.2 Vocal popularity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Vocal_popularity)
- [4\.3 Composing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Composing)
- [4\.4 Colleagues and followers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Colleagues_and_followers)
- [4\.5 Hits and later career](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Hits_and_later_career)
- [4\.6 Stylistic range](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Stylistic_range)
- [5 Film, television, and radio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Film,_television,_and_radio)
- [6 Death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Death)
- [7 Awards and honors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Awards_and_honors)
Toggle Awards and honors subsection
- [7\.1 Grammy Awards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Grammy_Awards)
- [7\.2 Grammy Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Grammy_Hall_of_Fame)
- [7\.3 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame)
- [7\.4 Inductions and honors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Inductions_and_honors)
- [7\.5 Film honors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Film_honors)
- [8 Legacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Legacy)
- [9 The Louis Armstrong House Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#The_Louis_Armstrong_House_Museum)
- [10 Essential discography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Essential_discography)
- [11 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#See_also)
- [12 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#References)
- [13 Works cited](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Works_cited)
- [14 Further readings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#Further_readings)
- [15 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#External_links)
Toggle the table of contents
# Louis Armstrong
146 languages
- [Адыгабзэ](https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луи Армстронг – Adyghe")
- [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Afrikaans")
- [Alemannisch](https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Alemannic")
- [Алтай тил](https://alt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3,_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8 "Армстронг, Луи – Southern Altai")
- [አማርኛ](https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%89%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%AD%E1%88%9D%E1%88%B5%E1%89%B5%E1%88%AE%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D "ሉዊ አርምስትሮንግ – Amharic")
- [Aragonés](https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Aragonese")
- [العربية](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B3_%D8%A3%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%BA "لويس أرمسترونغ – Arabic")
- [مصرى](https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AC "لويس ارمسترونج – Egyptian Arabic")
- [অসমীয়া](https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9A_%E0%A6%86%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%82 "লুইচ আৰ্মষ্ট্ৰং – Assamese")
- [Asturianu](https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Asturian")
- [Aymar aru](https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Aymara")
- [Azərbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lui_Armstronq "Lui Armstronq – Azerbaijani")
- [تۆرکجه](https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82 "لویی آرمسترانق – South Azerbaijani")
- [Башҡортса](https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луи Армстронг – Bashkir")
- [Boarisch](https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Bavarian")
- [Žemaitėška](https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loisos_Armstrongos "Loisos Armstrongos – Samogitian")
- [Беларуская (тарашкевіца)](https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D1%96%D1%81_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луіс Армстранг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)")
- [Беларуская](https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D1%96_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луі Армстранг – Belarusian")
- [Български](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луис Армстронг – Bulgarian")
- [भोजपुरी](https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97 "लुई आर्मस्ट्रांग – Bhojpuri")
- [Bislama](https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Bislama")
- [বাংলা](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%87_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%82 "লুই আর্মস্ট্রং – Bangla")
- [Brezhoneg](https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Breton")
- [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Bosnian")
- [Batak Mandailing](https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Batak Mandailing")
- [Català](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Catalan")
- [Нохчийн](https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3,_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8 "Армстронг, Луи – Chechen")
- [کوردی](https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%86%D9%86%DA%AF "لویس ئارمسترۆنگ – Central Kurdish")
- [Qırımtatarca](https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lui_Armstrong "Lui Armstrong – Crimean Tatar")
- [Čeština](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Czech")
- [Чӑвашла](https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луи Армстронг – Chuvash")
- [Cymraeg](https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Welsh")
- [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Danish")
- [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – German")
- [Ελληνικά](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%B9%CF%82_%CE%86%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA "Λούις Άρμστρονγκ – Greek")
- [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Esperanto")
- [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Spanish")
- [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Estonian")
- [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Basque")
- [فارسی](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF "لویی آرمسترانگ – Persian")
- [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Finnish")
- [Føroyskt](https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Faroese")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – French")
- [Nordfriisk](https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Northern Frisian")
- [Frysk](https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Western Frisian")
- [Gaeilge](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Irish")
- [贛語](https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%C2%B7%E6%9A%97%E5%BC%8F%E5%B0%87 "路易·暗式將 – Gan")
- [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Galician")
- [Avañe'ẽ](https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Guarani")
- [Hausa](https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Hausa")
- [עברית](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92 "לואי ארמסטרונג – Hebrew")
- [हिन्दी](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97 "लुईस आर्मस्ट्रांग – Hindi")
- [Fiji Hindi](https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Fiji Hindi")
- [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Croatian")
- [Kreyòl ayisyen](https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Haitian Creole")
- [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Hungarian")
- [Հայերեն](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AB_%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%BD%D5%A9%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A3 "Լուի Արմսթրոնգ – Armenian")
- [Interlingua](https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Interlingua")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Indonesian")
- [Ilokano](https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Iloko")
- [Ido](https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Ido")
- [Íslenska](https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Icelandic")
- [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Italian")
- [日本語](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AB%E3%82%A4%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%AD%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0 "ルイ・アームストロング – Japanese")
- [Patois](https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luuwi_Aamschrang "Luuwi Aamschrang – Jamaican Creole English")
- [Jawa](https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Javanese")
- [ქართული](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98 "ლუი არმსტრონგი – Georgian")
- [Qaraqalpaqsha](https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Kara-Kalpak")
- [Jju](https://kaj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Jju")
- [Адыгэбзэ](https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луи Армстронг – Kabardian")
- [Kabɩyɛ](https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Kabiye")
- [Қазақша](https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луи Армстронг – Kazakh")
- [Yerwa Kanuri](https://knc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Central Kanuri")
- [한국어](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A3%A8%EC%9D%B4_%EC%95%94%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%EB%A1%B1 "루이 암스트롱 – Korean")
- [Kernowek](https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Cornish")
- [Кыргызча](https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луи Армстронг – Kyrgyz")
- [Latina](https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovicus_Armstrong "Ludovicus Armstrong – Latin")
- [Lëtzebuergesch](https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Luxembourgish")
- [Lingua Franca Nova](https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Lingua Franca Nova")
- [Limburgs](https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Limburgish")
- [Lombard](https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Lombard")
- [Lietuvių](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Lithuanian")
- [Latviešu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C5%ABiss_%C4%80rmstrongs "Lūiss Ārmstrongs – Latvian")
- [Madhurâ](https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Madurese")
- [Malagasy](https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Malagasy")
- [Македонски](https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луис Армстронг – Macedonian")
- [മലയാളം](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D "ലൂയിസ് ആംസ്ട്രോംങ് – Malayalam")
- [Монгол](https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луи Армстронг – Mongolian")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Malay")
- [Plattdüütsch](https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Low German")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Dutch")
- [Norsk nynorsk](https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Norwegian Nynorsk")
- [Norsk bokmål](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Norwegian Bokmål")
- [Occitan](https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Occitan")
- [Livvinkarjala](https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Livvi-Karelian")
- [ਪੰਜਾਬੀ](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%97 "ਲੁਈਸ ਆਰਮਸਟਰਾਂਗ – Punjabi")
- [Kapampangan](https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Pampanga")
- [Papiamentu](https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Papiamento")
- [Picard](https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Picard")
- [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Polish")
- [Piemontèis](https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Piedmontese")
- [پنجابی](https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D8%A2%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF "لوئیس آرمسٹرانگ – Western Punjabi")
- [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Portuguese")
- [Runa Simi](https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Quechua")
- [Română](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Romanian")
- [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3,_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8 "Армстронг, Луи – Russian")
- [Русиньскый](https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D1%97_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%91 "Луї Армстронґ – Rusyn")
- [Саха тыла](https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D2%A5 "Луи Армстроҥ – Yakut")
- [ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ](https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9D "ᱞᱩᱭᱤᱥ ᱟᱨᱢᱥᱴᱨᱚᱝ – Santali")
- [Sardu](https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Sardinian")
- [Sicilianu](https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Sicilian")
- [سنڌي](https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A2%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%BD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF "لوئي آرمسرٽرانگ – Sindhi")
- [Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски](https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Serbo-Croatian")
- [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Simple English")
- [Slovenčina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Slovak")
- [Slovenščina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Slovenian")
- [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Albanian")
- [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D1%98_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луј Армстронг – Serbian")
- [SiSwati](https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Swati")
- [Seeltersk](https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Saterland Frisian")
- [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Swedish")
- [Kiswahili](https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Swahili")
- [ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ](https://syl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%A0%9F%EA%A0%A5%EA%A0%81%EA%A0%8D_%EA%A0%80%EA%A0%9D%EA%A0%86%EA%A0%81%EA%A0%A1%EA%A0%86%EA%A0%90%EA%A0%8B "ꠟꠥꠁꠍ ꠀꠝ꠆ꠁꠡ꠆ꠐꠋ – Sylheti")
- [தமிழ்](https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D "லூயிசு ஆம்சுட்ராங் – Tamil")
- [Tayal](https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Atayal")
- [Тоҷикӣ](https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луис Армстронг – Tajik")
- [ไทย](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87 "หลุยส์ อาร์มสตรอง – Thai")
- [Tagalog](https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Tagalog")
- [Tolışi](https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lui_Armstrong "Lui Armstrong – Talysh")
- [Toki pona](https://tok.wikipedia.org/wiki/jan_Luwi_Anson "jan Luwi Anson – Toki Pona")
- [Türkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Turkish")
- [Татарча / tatarça](https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lui_Armstrong "Lui Armstrong – Tatar")
- [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D1%97_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3 "Луї Армстронг – Ukrainian")
- [اردو](https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF "لوئی آرمسٹرانگ – Urdu")
- [Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Lui_Daniel "Armstrong Lui Daniel – Uzbek")
- [Vepsän kel’](https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Lui "Armstrong Lui – Veps")
- [Tiếng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Vietnamese")
- [Volapük](https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Volapük")
- [Winaray](https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Waray")
- [吴语](https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%E6%9C%97 "路易斯·阿姆斯特朗 – Wu")
- [მარგალური](https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98 "ლუი არმსტრონგი – Mingrelian")
- [ייִדיש](https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92 "לואי ארמסטראנג – Yiddish")
- [Yorùbá](https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Yoruba")
- [閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí](https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong "Louis Armstrong – Minnan")
- [粵語](https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF%E5%B2%A9%E5%A3%AB%E5%94%90 "路易斯岩士唐 – Cantonese")
- [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%E6%9C%97 "路易斯·阿姆斯特朗 – Chinese")
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
American jazz trumpeter and singer (1901–1971)
| Louis Armstrong | |
|---|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_in_Color_\(restored\).jpg)Armstrong in 1947 | |
| Born | Louis Daniel Armstrong[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-anderson-1) (1901-08-04)August 4, 1901 [New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), Louisiana, U.S. |
| Died | July 6, 1971(1971-07-06) (aged 69) New York City, U.S. |
| Resting place | [Flushing Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_Cemetery "Flushing Cemetery"), New York City |
| Other names | Satchmo, Satch, Pops |
| Education | Colored Waifs' Home for Boys, Fisk School for Boys |
| Occupations | Musician singer |
| Spouses | Daisy Parker ( m. 1919; div. 1923\) [Lil Hardin Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Hardin_Armstrong "Lil Hardin Armstrong") ( m. 1924; div. 1938\) Alpha Smith ( m. 1938; div. 1942\) Lucille Wilson ( m. 1942\) |
| Children | 2 |
| **Musical career** | |
| Genres | [Jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") [Dixieland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixieland_jazz "Dixieland jazz") [swing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swing_music "Swing music") [blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues "Blues") [traditional pop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_pop "Traditional pop") |
| Instruments | Vocals trumpet |
| Works | [Discography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_discography "Louis Armstrong discography") [filmography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_filmography "Louis Armstrong filmography") |
| Years active | 1918–1971 |
| Labels | [OKeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OKeh_Records "OKeh Records") [Columbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records") [Victor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Records "Victor Records") [Bluebird](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluebird_Records "Bluebird Records") [Decca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") [Brunswick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunswick_Records "Brunswick Records") [RCA Victor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Victor "RCA Victor") [Verve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verve_Records "Verve Records") [Audio Fidelity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Fidelity "Audio Fidelity") [MGM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM_Records "MGM Records") [Kapp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapp_Records "Kapp Records") [Mercury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Records "Mercury Records") [ABC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_Records "ABC Records") [Buena Vista](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buena_Vista_Records "Buena Vista Records") [United Artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Artists_Records "United Artists Records") [Vocalion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocalion "Vocalion") |
| Musical artist | |
| Signature | |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_signature.svg) | |
**Louis Daniel Armstrong** (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971),[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-NYTOBit-2) nicknamed "**Satchmo**", "**Satch**", and "**Pops**",[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-3) was an American [jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") and [blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues "Blues") trumpeter and vocalist.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-4) Among the most influential figures in jazz, his career spanned five decades and several eras in the history of the genre.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-RCJE-5) Armstrong received numerous accolades including the [Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_Pop_Vocal_Performance "Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance") for *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")* in 1965, as well as a posthumous win for the [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award") in 1972. His influence crossed musical genres, with inductions into the [*DownBeat* Jazz Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DownBeat "DownBeat"), the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame"), and the [National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rhythm_%26_Blues_Hall_of_Fame "National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame"), among others.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-6)
Armstrong was born and raised in [New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"). Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an inventive trumpet and [cornet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornet "Cornet") player, he was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-7) Around 1922, Armstrong followed his mentor, [Joe "King" Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Oliver "King Oliver"), to Chicago to play in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band. Armstrong earned a reputation at "[cutting contests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_contest "Cutting contest")", and his fame reached band leader [Fletcher Henderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson "Fletcher Henderson"). Armstrong moved to New York City, where he became a featured and musically influential band soloist and recording artist. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an international musical icon, appearing regularly in radio and television broadcasts and on film. Apart from his music, he was also beloved as an entertainer, often joking with the audience and keeping a joyful public image at all times.
Armstrong's best known songs include "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")", "[La Vie en Rose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Vie_en_Rose "La Vie en Rose")", "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")", "[On the Sunny Side of the Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Sunny_Side_of_the_Street "On the Sunny Side of the Street")", "[Dream a Little Dream of Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_a_Little_Dream_of_Me "Dream a Little Dream of Me")", "[When You're Smiling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_You%27re_Smiling "When You're Smiling")" and "[When the Saints Go Marching In](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_In "When the Saints Go Marching In")". He collaborated with [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald"), producing three records together: *[Ella and Louis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis "Ella and Louis")* (1956), *[Ella and Louis Again](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis_Again "Ella and Louis Again")* (1957), and *[Porgy and Bess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess_\(Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Porgy and Bess (Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong album)")* (1959). He also appeared in films such as *[A Rhapsody in Black and Blue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Rhapsody_in_Black_and_Blue "A Rhapsody in Black and Blue")* (1932), *[Cabin in the Sky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabin_in_the_Sky_\(film\) "Cabin in the Sky (film)")* (1943), *[High Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Society_\(1956_film\) "High Society (1956 film)")* (1956), *[Paris Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Blues "Paris Blues")* (1961), *[A Man Called Adam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Man_Called_Adam_\(film\) "A Man Called Adam (film)")* (1966), and *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(film\) "Hello, Dolly! (film)")* (1969).
With his instantly recognizable, rich, gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer and skillful improviser. He was also skilled at [scat singing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scat_singing "Scat singing"). By the end of Armstrong's life, his influence had spread to popular music. He was one of the first popular African-American entertainers to "cross over" to wide popularity with white and international audiences. Armstrong rarely publicly discussed racial issues, sometimes to the dismay of fellow black Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for [desegregation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States "School integration in the United States") in the [Little Rock Crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine "Little Rock Nine"). He could access the upper echelons of American society at a time when this was difficult for black men. His recording of “Melancholy Blues” is included on the [Voyager Golden Record](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record "Voyager Golden Record"), a sample of the sights and sounds of Earth sent into space.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-8)
## Early life
Armstrong is believed to have been born in [New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans") on August 4, 1901, but the accuracy of this date has been heavily debated. Armstrong himself often claimed he was born on July 4, 1900.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-11) His parents were Mary Estelle "Mayann" Albert and William Armstrong. Mary Albert was from [Boutte, Louisiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boutte,_Louisiana "Boutte, Louisiana"), and gave birth at home when she was about 16. Less than a year and a half later, they had a daughter, Beatrice "Mama Lucy" Armstrong (1903–1987), whom Albert raised.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-12) William Armstrong abandoned the family shortly after that.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-giddins22-13)
Louis Armstrong was raised by his grandmother until the age of five, when he was returned to his mother.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-giddins22-13) Armstrong spent his youth in poverty in a rough neighborhood known as The Battlefield,[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-14) on the southern section of [Rampart Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampart_Street "Rampart Street").[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-15) At the age of six, Armstrong started attending the Fisk School for Boys,[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen-16) a school that accepted black children in the racially segregated school system of New Orleans.
Armstrong lived with his mother and sister during this time and worked for the Karnoffskys,[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-17) a family of [Lithuanian Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews "Lithuanian Jews"), at [their home](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnofsky_Tailor_Shop%E2%80%93House "Karnofsky Tailor Shop–House"). Armstrong helped their sons Morris and Alex collect "rags and bones" and deliver coal. In 1969, while recovering from heart and kidney problems at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, Armstrong wrote a memoir called *Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the Year of 1907*, describing his time working for the Karnoffsky family.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18)
Armstrong writes about singing "Russian Lullaby" with the Karnoffsky family when their baby son David was put to bed and credits the family with teaching him to sing "from the heart."[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18) Curiously, Armstrong quotes lyrics for it that appear to be the same as the "Russian Lullaby", copyrighted by [Irving Berlin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Berlin "Irving Berlin") in 1927, about 20 years after Armstrong remembered singing it as a child.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-19) Gary Zucker, Armstrong's doctor at Beth Israel hospital in 1969, shared Berlin's song lyrics with him, and Armstrong quoted them in the memoir.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18) This inaccuracy may be because he wrote the memoir over 60 years after the events described. Regardless, the Karnoffskys treated Armstrong exceptionally well. Knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured Armstrong.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Commentary-20)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-21)
In his memoir, *Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907*, he described his discovery that this family was also [subject to discrimination by "other white folks"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States "History of antisemitism in the United States") who felt that they were better than Jews: "I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the white folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for."[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18) Armstrong wrote about what he learned from them: "how to live—real life and determination."[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Commentary-20) His first musical performance may have been at the side of the Karnoffskys' junk wagon. Armstrong tried playing a tin horn to attract customers to distinguish them from other hawkers. Morris Karnoffsky gave Armstrong an advance toward purchasing a [cornet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornet "Cornet") from a pawn shop.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-22) Later, as an adult, Armstrong wore a [Star of David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_of_David "Star of David") given to him by his Jewish manager, Joe Glaser, until the end of his life, in part in memory of this family who had raised him.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18)
When Armstrong was 11, he dropped out of school.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen-16) His mother moved into a one-room house on Perdido Street with Armstrong, Lucy, and her common-law husband, Tom Lee, next door to her brother Ike and his two sons.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-23) Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. Cornetist [Bunk Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunk_Johnson "Bunk Johnson") said he taught the eleven-year-old to play by ear at Dago Tony's honky tonk.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-24) In his later years, Armstrong credited King Oliver. Armstrong said about his youth, "Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans ... It has given me something to live for."[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-25)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_Arrest_2_Jan_1913_Times-Democrat.jpg)
A snippet from the January 2, 1913, issue of The Times-Democrat, New Orleans. "[Negro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negro "Negro")" is a dated term for black people.
Borrowing his stepfather's gun without permission, Armstrong fired a blank into the air and was arrested on December 31, 1912. He spent the night at New Orleans Juvenile Court and was sentenced the next day to detention at the Colored Waif's \[sic\] Home.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-26) Life at the home was spartan. Mattresses were absent, and meals were often little more than bread and molasses. Captain Joseph Jones ran the home like a military camp and used corporal punishment.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-27)
Armstrong developed his cornet skills by playing in the band. [Peter Davis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Davis_\(New_Orleans_musician/_teacher\) "Peter Davis (New Orleans musician/ teacher)"), who frequently appeared at the home at the request of Captain Jones,[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-28) became Armstrong's first teacher and chose him as the bandleader. With this band, the 13-year-old Armstrong attracted the attention of [Kid Ory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kid_Ory "Kid Ory").[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-29)
On June 14, 1914, Armstrong was released into the custody of his father and his new stepmother, Gertrude. Armstrong lived in this household with two stepbrothers for several months. After Gertrude gave birth to a daughter, Armstrong's father never welcomed him, so Armstrong returned to his mother, Mary Albert. Armstrong had to share a bed in her small home with his mother and sister. His mother still lived in The Battlefield, leaving Armstrong open to old temptations, but he sought work as a musician.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen_1997,_pp._80%E2%80%9389-30)
Armstrong found a job at a dance hall owned by Henry Ponce, who had connections to organized crime. He met the six-foot tall drummer [Black Benny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Benny "Black Benny"), who became Armstrong's guide and bodyguard.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen_1997,_pp._80%E2%80%9389-30) Around the age of 15, he pimped for a prostitute named Nootsy. However, that relationship failed after she stabbed Armstrong in the shoulder, and his mother choked her nearly to death.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-31)
Armstrong briefly studied shipping management at the local community college but was forced to quit after being unable to afford the fees.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen_1997,_p.44-32) While selling coal in [Storyville](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storyville,_New_Orleans "Storyville, New Orleans"), he heard [spasm bands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasm_band "Spasm band"), groups that played music out of household objects. Armstrong listened to the early sounds of jazz from bands that played in brothels and dance halls, such as Pete Lala's, where [King Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Oliver "King Oliver") performed.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen_1997_pp.45-33)
## Career
### Riverboat education
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fate_Marable%27s_New_Orleans_Band_on_the_S._S._Sidney.jpg)
Armstrong (fourth from left) was a member of [Fate Marable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fate_Marable "Fate Marable")'s New Orleans Band in 1919, shown here on board the S.S. *Sidney*.
Early in his career, Armstrong played in brass bands and [riverboats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverboat "Riverboat") in New Orleans, in the late 1910s. He traveled with the band of [Fate Marable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fate_Marable "Fate Marable"), which toured on the steamboat *Sidney* with the [Streckfus Steamers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streckfus_Steamers "Streckfus Steamers") line up and down the Mississippi River.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-34) Marable was proud of Armstrong's musical knowledge, and he insisted that Armstrong and other musicians in his band learn [sight reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sight_reading "Sight reading"). Armstrong described his time with Marable as "going to the University" since it gave him a wider experience working with written [arrangements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrangement "Arrangement"). In 1918, Armstrong's mentor, [King Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Oliver "King Oliver"), decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. Armstrong also became the second trumpet for the [Tuxedo Brass Band](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuxedo_Brass_Band "Tuxedo Brass Band").[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-35)
Throughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At age 20, he could read music. Armstrong became one of the first jazz musicians to be featured on extended trumpet solos, injecting his own personality and style. Armstrong also started singing in his performances.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-36)
### Chicago period recordings
[Dippermouth Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dippermouth_Blues_-_KING_OLIVER%27S_JAZZ_BAND.flac "File:Dippermouth Blues - KING OLIVER'S JAZZ BAND.flac")
1923 recording by [King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Oliver%27s_Creole_Jazz_Band "King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band") featuring Louis Armstrong playing the cornet
***
*Problems playing this file? See [media help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media "Help:Media").*
In 1922, Armstrong moved to Chicago at the invitation of King Oliver,[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier-37) although Armstrong would return to New Orleans periodically for the rest of his life.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-38) Playing second cornet to Oliver in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in the black-only Lincoln Gardens on the [South Side](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Side,_Chicago "South Side, Chicago") of Chicago, Armstrong could make enough money to quit his day jobs. Although race relations were poor, Chicago was booming. The city had jobs for blacks, who made good wages at factories, with some left for entertainment.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier-37): 86
Oliver's band was among Chicago's most influential jazz bands in the early 1920s. Armstrong lived luxuriously in his apartment with his first private bath. Excited to be in Chicago, Armstrong began his career-long pastime of writing letters to friends in New Orleans. Armstrong could blow 200 [high Cs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_\(musical_note\)#Other_octaves "C (musical note)") in a row. As his reputation grew, Armstrong was challenged to [cutting contests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_contest "Cutting contest") by other musicians.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-39)
Armstrong's first studio recordings were with Oliver for [Gennett Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gennett_Records "Gennett Records") on April 5–6, 1923. They endured several hours on the train to remote [Richmond, Indiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_Indiana "Richmond, Indiana"), and the band was paid little. The quality of the performances was affected by a lack of rehearsal, crude recording equipment, bad acoustics, and a cramped studio. These early recordings were true [acoustic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record#78_rpm_disc_developments "Gramophone record"), the band playing directly into a large funnel connected directly to the needle making the groove in the master recording. The much improved Electrical recording system with a better dynamic range was not invented until 1926. Initially, because Armstrong's playing was so loud, Oliver could not be heard on the recording when he played next to Oliver. Armstrong had to stand 15 feet from Oliver in a far corner of the room to remedy this.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-40)
[Lil Hardin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Hardin_Armstrong "Lil Hardin Armstrong"), whom Armstrong would marry in 1924, urged Armstrong to seek more prominent billing and develop his style apart from the influence of Oliver. At her suggestion, Armstrong began playing classical music in church concerts to broaden his skills and dressing more stylishly to offset his girth. Her influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional money that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-41) Armstrong's mother, Mayann Albert, came to visit him in Chicago during the summer of 1923 after being told that Armstrong was "out of work, out of money, hungry, and sick"; Hardin located and decorated an apartment for her to live in while she stayed.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-42)
### Fletcher Henderson Orchestra
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FletcherHendersonOrchestra1925.jpg)
The Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in 1925. Armstrong is the third person from the left.
Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong was invited to go to New York City to play with the [Fletcher Henderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson "Fletcher Henderson") Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. He switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. Armstrong's influence on Henderson's tenor sax soloist, [Coleman Hawkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Hawkins "Coleman Hawkins"), can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-44)
Armstrong adapted to Henderson's tightly controlled style, playing the trumpet and experimenting with the trombone. The other members were affected by Armstrong's emotional style. His act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-45) The Henderson Orchestra played in prominent venues for white patrons only, including the [Roseland Ballroom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roseland_Ballroom "Roseland Ballroom"), with arrangements by [Don Redman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Redman "Don Redman"). [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington")'s orchestra went to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances.
During this time, Armstrong recorded with [Clarence Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Williams_\(musician\) "Clarence Williams (musician)") (a friend from New Orleans), the Williams Blue Five, [Sidney Bechet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Bechet "Sidney Bechet"), and blues singers [Alberta Hunter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta_Hunter "Alberta Hunter"), [Ma Rainey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Rainey "Ma Rainey"), and [Bessie Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith").[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-46)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-47)
### The Hot Five
In 1925, Armstrong returned to Chicago because he was disillusioned with New York, and Lil set up a recording session with Okeh for him as well as a gig at the Dreamland Cafe. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed Armstrong as "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player." For a time, he was a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and worked for his wife.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-48) Armstrong formed [Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_and_his_Hot_Five "Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five") and recorded the hits "[Potato Head Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_Head_Blues "Potato Head Blues")" and "Muggles". The word "muggles" was a [slang term for marijuana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_slang_names_for_cannabis "List of slang names for cannabis"), something Armstrong often used during his life.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier-37)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heebie_Jeebies.jpg)
"[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")" by Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five, 1926
The Hot Five included [Kid Ory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kid_Ory "Kid Ory") (trombone), [Johnny Dodds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Dodds "Johnny Dodds") (clarinet), [Johnny St. Cyr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_St._Cyr "Johnny St. Cyr") (banjo), Lil Armstrong on piano, and usually no drummer. Over a 12-month period starting in November 1925, this quintet produced twenty-four records.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-harker-49) Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted: "One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual."[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-50)
Among the Hot Five and Seven records were "Cornet Chop Suey", "Struttin' With Some Barbecue", "Hotter Than That", and "Potato Head Blues", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. According to [Thomas Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brothers "Thomas Brothers"), recordings such as "Struttin' with Some Barbeque" were so superb, "planned with density and variety, bluesyness, and showiness", that the arrangements were probably showcased at the Sunset Café.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-51) His recordings soon after with pianist [Earl "Fatha" Hines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines"), their famous 1928 "[Weather Bird](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Bird "Weather Bird")" duet and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in "[West End Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_Blues "West End Blues")", remain some of the most influential improvisations in jazz history. Young trumpet players across the country bought these recordings and memorized his solos.
Armstrong was now free to develop his style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as "Whip That Thing, Miss Lil" and "Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, Do That Clarinet, Boy!"[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-52)
Armstrong also played with [Erskine Tate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erskine_Tate "Erskine Tate")'s Little Symphony, mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as "[Madame Butterfly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_Butterfly "Madame Butterfly")", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began [scat singing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scat_singing "Scat singing") (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it on the Hot Five recording "[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had seldom performed live. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-53)
After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the [Sunset Café](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_Cafe "Sunset Cafe") for [Al Capone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Capone "Al Capone")'s associate [Joe Glaser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Glaser "Joe Glaser") in the [Carroll Dickerson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carroll_Dickerson "Carroll Dickerson") Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-54) However, Hines was the music director, and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators. It was at the [Sunset Café](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_Cafe "Sunset Cafe") that Armstrong accompanied singer [Adelaide Hall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide_Hall "Adelaide Hall"). During Hall's tenure at the venue, she experimented, developed, and expanded her scat singing with Armstrong's guidance and encouragement.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-55)
In the first half of 1927, Armstrong assembled his Hot Seven group, which added drummer Al "Baby" Dodds and tuba player [Pete Briggs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Briggs "Pete Briggs") while preserving most of his original Hot Five lineup. John Thomas replaced Kid Ory on the trombone. Later that year, Armstrong organized a series of new Hot Five sessions, which resulted in nine more records. In the last half of 1928, he started recording with a new group: [Zutty Singleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zutty_Singleton "Zutty Singleton") (drums), Earl Hines (piano), [Jimmy Strong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Strong_\(musician\) "Jimmy Strong (musician)") (clarinet), Fred Robinson (trombone), and Mancy Carr (banjo).[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-56)
### The Harlem Renaissance
Armstrong made a huge impact during the 1920s [Harlem Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance "Harlem Renaissance").[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-57) His music touched well-known writer [Langston Hughes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langston_Hughes "Langston Hughes"). Hughes admired Armstrong and acknowledged him as one of the most recognized musicians of the era.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-58) Hughes wrote many books that celebrated jazz and recognized Armstrong as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance's newfound love of African-American culture.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-59) The sound of jazz, along with musicians such as Armstrong, helped shape Hughes as a writer. Just like the musicians, Hughes wrote his words with jazz.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-60)
Armstrong changed jazz during the Harlem Renaissance. As "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player" during this time,[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-61) Armstrong cemented his legacy and continued a focus on his vocal career. His popularity brought together many black and white audiences.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-62)
### Emerging as a vocalist
Armstrong returned to New York in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra for the musical *[Hot Chocolates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Chocolates "Hot Chocolates")*, an all-black revue written by [Andy Razaf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Razaf "Andy Razaf") and pianist [Fats Waller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats_Waller "Fats Waller"). Armstrong made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of "[Ain't Misbehavin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t_Misbehavin%27_\(song\) "Ain't Misbehavin' (song)")." Armstrong's version of the song became his biggest-selling record yet.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-63)
Armstrong started to work at [Connie's Inn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connie%27s_Inn "Connie's Inn") in Harlem, chief rival to the [Cotton Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Club "Cotton Club"), a venue for elaborately staged floor shows,[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-morgenstern-64) and a front for gangster [Dutch Schultz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Schultz "Dutch Schultz"). Armstrong had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of songs composed by his old friend [Hoagy Carmichael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoagy_Carmichael "Hoagy Carmichael"). His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the RCA [ribbon microphone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribbon_microphone "Ribbon microphone"), introduced in 1931, which imparted warmth to vocals and became an intrinsic part of the "[crooning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crooning "Crooning")" sound of artists like [Bing Crosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby "Bing Crosby"). Armstrong's interpretation of Carmichael's "[Stardust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_\(1927_song\) "Stardust (1927 song)")" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that were already standards.
Armstrong's radical re-working of [Sidney Arodin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Arodin "Sidney Arodin") and Carmichael's "[Lazy River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_River "Lazy River")", recorded in 1931, encapsulated his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo. Then, the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: "Yeah! ..."Uh-huh"..."Sure"..."Way down, way down." In the first verse, Armstrong ignores the notated melody and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza, he breaks into an almost entirely improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong's scat singing.
As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation for jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gravelly coloration of his voice became an archetype that was endlessly imitated. Armstrong's scat singing was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as "Lazy River" greatly influenced younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.
### Work during hard times
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maud_Cuney_Hare-154-Louis_Armstrong.jpg)
Armstrong in 1936
The [Great Depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. After a long downward spiral, the Cotton Club closed in 1936, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. [Bix Beiderbecke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bix_Beiderbecke "Bix Beiderbecke") died, and Fletcher Henderson's band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. [Sidney Bechet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Bechet "Sidney Bechet") became a tailor, later moving to Paris, and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-65)
Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with [Lionel Hampton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Hampton "Lionel Hampton") on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish nightlife, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, *Ex-Flame*. He was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-66)
Armstrong returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the [Guy Lombardo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Lombardo "Guy Lombardo") vein, and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town,[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-ArmstrongInThe30s-67) Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome, and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team called Armstrong's Secret Nine and had a cigar named after him.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-68) However, Armstrong was on the road again soon. After a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, he fled to Europe.
After returning to the United States, Armstrong undertook several exhausting tours. His agent, Johnny Collins's erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Armstrong hired [Joe Glaser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Glaser "Joe Glaser") as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer who began straightening out his legal mess, mob troubles, and debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, Armstrong branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. Armstrong appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit *[Pennies from Heaven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennies_from_Heaven_\(1936_film\) "Pennies from Heaven (1936 film)")*. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for [Rudy Vallee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudy_Vallee "Rudy Vallee") on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored national broadcast.[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-69)
### Reviving his career with the All-Stars
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong2.jpg)
Armstrong in 1953
After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York, in 1943 with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of [Tin Pan Alley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley "Tin Pan Alley") and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, Armstrong continued to develop his playing.
Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes. Ballrooms closed, and competition from other types of music, especially pop vocals, became more popular than big band music. Under such circumstances, it became impossible to finance a 16-piece touring band.
A widespread revival of interest in the 1940s in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Armstrong was featured as a guest artist with Lionel Hampton's band at the famed second [Cavalcade of Jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalcade_of_Jazz "Cavalcade of Jazz") concert held at [Wrigley Field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrigley_Field_\(Los_Angeles\) "Wrigley Field (Los Angeles)") in Los Angeles, produced by [Leon Hefflin Sr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Hefflin,_Sr. "Leon Hefflin, Sr."), on October 12, 1946.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-70) Armstrong also led a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring him with trombonist/singer [Jack Teagarden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Teagarden "Jack Teagarden"). During the concert, Armstrong and Teagarden performed a duet on Hoagy Carmichael's "[Rockin' Chair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockin%27_Chair_\(1929_song\) "Rockin' Chair (1929 song)")" they then recorded for [Okeh Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okeh_Records "Okeh Records").
Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser, changed the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947, into a six-piece traditional jazz group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, [Earl Hines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines") and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of whom were previously leaders of big bands. The new group was announced at the opening of [Billy Berg's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Berg%27s "Billy Berg's") Supper Club.
This smaller group was called Louis Armstrong and His All-Stars and included at various times Earl "Fatha" Hines, [Barney Bigard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barney_Bigard "Barney Bigard"), [Edmond Hall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Hall "Edmond Hall"), Jack Teagarden, [Trummy Young](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trummy_Young "Trummy Young"), [Arvell Shaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvell_Shaw "Arvell Shaw"), [Billy Kyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Kyle "Billy Kyle"), [Marty Napoleon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marty_Napoleon "Marty Napoleon"), [Big Sid "Buddy" Catlett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sid_Catlett "Sid Catlett"), [Cozy Cole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cozy_Cole "Cozy Cole"), [Tyree Glenn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyree_Glenn "Tyree Glenn"), [Barrett Deems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrett_Deems "Barrett Deems"), [Mort Herbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mort_Herbert "Mort Herbert"), [Joe Darensbourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Darensbourg "Joe Darensbourg"), [Eddie Shu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Shu "Eddie Shu"), [Joe Muranyi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Muranyi "Joe Muranyi") and percussionist [Danny Barcelona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Barcelona "Danny Barcelona").
On February 28, 1948, [Suzy Delair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzy_Delair "Suzy Delair") sang the French song "[C'est si bon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%27est_si_bon "C'est si bon")" at the [Hotel Negresco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel_Negresco "Hotel Negresco") during the first [Nice Jazz Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_Jazz_Festival "Nice Jazz Festival"). Armstrong was present and loved the song. On June 26, 1950, he recorded the American version of the song (English lyrics by [Jerry Seelen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seelen "Jerry Seelen")) in New York City with [Sy Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sy_Oliver "Sy Oliver") and his Orchestra. When it was released, the disc was a worldwide success, and the song was then performed by the greatest international singers.
Armstrong was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of [*Time*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_\(magazine\) "Time (magazine)") magazine on February 21, 1949. He and his All-Stars were featured at the ninth Cavalcade of Jazz concert also at [Wrigley Field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrigley_Field_\(Los_Angeles\) "Wrigley Field (Los Angeles)") in Los Angeles produced by [Leon Hefflin Sr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Hefflin,_Sr. "Leon Hefflin, Sr.") held on June 7, 1953, along with [Shorty Rogers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorty_Rogers "Shorty Rogers"), [Roy Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Brown_\(blues_musician\) "Roy Brown (blues musician)"), Don Tosti and His Mexican Jazzmen, [Earl Bostic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Bostic "Earl Bostic"), and [Nat "King" Cole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_King_Cole "Nat King Cole").[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-71)
Over 30 years, Armstrong played more than 300 performances a year, making many recordings and appearing in more than 30 films.
### A jazz ambassador
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_\(1955\).jpg)
Armstrong in 1955
By the 1950s, Armstrong was a widely beloved American icon and cultural ambassador who commanded an international fanbase. However, a growing generation gap became apparent between him and the young jazz musicians who emerged in the postwar era, such as [Charlie Parker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Parker "Charlie Parker"), [Miles Davis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis"), and [Sonny Rollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonny_Rollins "Sonny Rollins"). The postwar generation regarded their music as abstract art and considered Armstrong's vaudevillian style, half-musician and half-stage entertainer, outmoded and [Uncle Tomism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle_Tom_syndrome "Uncle Tom syndrome"). "... he seemed a link to [minstrelsy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minstrel_show "Minstrel show") that we were ashamed of."[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Starkey2015-72) Armstrong called bebop "Chinese music".[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-73) While touring Australia in 1954, he was asked if he could play bebop. "'Bebop?' he husked. 'I just play music. Guys who invent terms like that are walking the streets with their instruments under their arms.'"[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-reception-74)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ficha_Consular_de_Louis_Armstrong.jpg)
Record of Armstrong's visit to Brazil, 1957
After finishing his contract with [Decca Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records"), Armstrong went freelance and recorded for other labels.[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Nollen2004-75)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-76) He continued an intense international touring schedule, but suffered a heart attack in 1959 while in Italy and had to rest.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-77)
In 1964, after more than two years without setting foot in a studio, Armstrong recorded his biggest-selling record, "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")", a song by [Jerry Herman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Herman "Jerry Herman"), originally sung by [Carol Channing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Channing "Carol Channing"). Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1, making him the oldest person to accomplish that feat at 62 years, nine months, and five days. Armstrong's hit dislodged [The Beatles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Breihan-78)
| External audio |
|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_arts.svg) [Louis Daniel Armstrong talks with Studs Terkel on WFMT; 1962/6/24](https://soundcloud.com/studsterkel-radio-archive/louis-daniel-armstrong-talks-with-studs-terkel-on-wfmt-1962624), 33:43, [Studs Terkel Radio Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studs_Terkel_Radio_Archive "Studs Terkel Radio Archive")[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-studs-79) |
Armstrong toured well into his 60s, even visiting part of the [Communist Bloc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Bloc "Communist Bloc") in 1965. Armstrong also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the [sponsorship of the US State Department](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_ambassadors "Jazz ambassadors") with great success, earning the nickname "Ambassador Satch" and inspiring [Dave Brubeck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Brubeck "Dave Brubeck") to compose his jazz musical *[The Real Ambassadors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Ambassadors "The Real Ambassadors")*. His travels included performances in [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") and [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria").[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Kelley2012-80)[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Company1971-81)
By 1968, Armstrong was approaching 70, and his health was failing. His heart and kidney ailments forced him to stop touring, though he continued to record, including "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong did not perform publicly in 1969 and spent most of the year recuperating at home. Meanwhile, his longtime manager, Joe Glaser, died. By the summer of 1970, Armstrong's doctors pronounced him fit enough to resume live performances. Armstrong embarked on another world tour, but a heart attack forced him to take a break for two months.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Von_Eschen-82)
Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album *[Disney Songs the Satchmo Way](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Songs_the_Satchmo_Way "Disney Songs the Satchmo Way")*.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Whitaker2011-83)
## Personal life
### Pronunciation of name
The Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:
> Judging from home recorded tapes now in our Museum Collections, Louis pronounced his own name as "Lewis." On his 1964 record "Hello, Dolly", he sings, "This is Lewis, Dolly", but in 1933, he made a record called "Laughin' Louie." Many broadcast announcers, fans, and acquaintances called him "Louie", and in a videotaped interview from 1983, Lucille Armstrong calls her late husband "Louie" as well. Musicians and close friends usually called him "Pops".[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-84)
In a memoir written for [Robert Goffin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Goffin "Robert Goffin") between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong stated, "All white folks call me Louie", suggesting that he himself did not, or that no whites addressed him by one of his nicknames such as Pops.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-85)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-86) That said, Armstrong was registered as "Lewie" for the [1920 U.S. census](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census,_1920 "United States Census, 1920"). On various live records, he is called "Louie" on stage, such as on the 1952 "Can Anyone Explain?" from the live album *In Scandinavia vol.1*. The same applies to his 1952 studio recording of the song "Chloe", where the choir in the background sings "Louie ... Louie", with Armstrong responding, "What was that? Somebody called my name?". "Lewie" is the French pronunciation of "Louis" and is commonly used in Louisiana.
### Family
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lucille_Wilson_and_Louis_Armstrong.jpg)
Armstrong with Lucille Wilson, c. 1960s
Armstrong was performing at the Brick House in [Gretna, Louisiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gretna,_Louisiana "Gretna, Louisiana") when he met Daisy Parker, a local prostitute, and started an affair as a client. Armstrong returned to Gretna on several occasions to visit her. He found the courage to look for her home to see her away from work. There, Armstrong found out she had a [common-law husband](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-law_marriage_in_the_United_States "Common-law marriage in the United States"). Not long after that, Parker traveled to Armstrong's home on Perdido Street[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen134-87) and they checked into Kid Green's hotel that evening. On the next day, March 19, 1919, Armstrong and Parker married at City Hall.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen134-87)[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier2-88) They adopted a three-year-old boy, Clarence, whose mother, Armstrong's cousin Flora, had died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled as a result of a head injury at an early age. Armstrong spent the rest of his life taking care of him.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-89) His marriage to Parker ended when they separated in 1923.
On February 4, 1924, Armstrong married [Lil Hardin Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Hardin_Armstrong "Lil Hardin Armstrong"), King Oliver's pianist. She had divorced her first husband a few years earlier. Armstrong's second wife helped him develop his career, but they separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938. Armstrong then married Alpha Smith.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-90) His relationship with Alpha began while he was playing at the Vendome during the 1920s and continued long after.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-91) Armstrong's marriage to her lasted four years; they divorced in 1942. He then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the [Cotton Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Club "Cotton Club") in New York, in October 1942. They remained married until his death in 1971.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-92)
Armstrong's marriages produced no offspring.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-93) However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille "Sweets" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-94) In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of \$400 (\$6,009 in 2025 dollars)[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-inflation-US-95) to mother and child.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier3-96)
### Personality
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LouisArmstrong1959.jpg)
Armstrong in 1959 during a night concert in the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam
Armstrong was colorful and charismatic. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians because Armstrong had a habit of telling tales, particularly about his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments lack consistency.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
In addition to being an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality. He was beloved by an American public that usually offered little access beyond their public celebrity to even the most significant black performers, and Armstrong was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other black Americans during that era.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Armstrong generally remained politically neutral, which sometimes alienated him from other black Americans who expected him to use his prominence within white America to become more outspoken during the [civil rights movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement"). However, Armstrong criticized [President Eisenhower](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_Eisenhower "President Eisenhower") for not acting forcefully on civil rights.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
### Health problems
The trumpet is notoriously hard on the [lips](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lips "Lips"), and Armstrong suffered from lip damage over most of his life. This was due to Armstrong's aggressive playing style and preference for narrow mouthpieces that would stay in place more easily but tended to dig into the soft flesh of his inner lip. During his 1930s European tour, Armstrong suffered an ulceration so severe that he had to stop playing entirely for a year. Eventually, Armstrong took to using salves and creams on his lips and also cutting off scar tissue with a razor blade. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an official spokesman for Ansatz-Creme Lip Salve.[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-98)
During a backstage meeting with trombonist Marshall Brown in 1959, Armstrong was advised to see a doctor and receive proper treatment for his lips instead of relying on home remedies. However, Armstrong did not get around to that until his final years, by which point his health was failing, and the doctors considered surgery too risky.[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-99)
In 1959, Armstrong was hospitalized for [pneumonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia "Pneumonia") while on tour in Italy. Doctors were concerned about his lungs and heart, but by the end of June, Armstrong rallied on.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-100)
### Nicknames
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armstrong-Alassio_\(crop\).jpg)
An autograph of Armstrong on the muretto of [Alassio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alassio "Alassio")
The nicknames "Satchmo" and "Satch" are short for "Satchelmouth". The nickname origin is uncertain.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) The most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy in New Orleans dancing for pennies. He scooped the coins off the street and stuck them into his mouth to prevent bigger children from stealing them. Someone dubbed Armstrong "satchel mouth" for his mouth acting as a [satchel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchel "Satchel"). Another tale is that because of his large mouth, Armstrong was nicknamed "satchel mouth", which was shortened to "Satchmo."[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Early on, Armstrong was also known as "Dipper", short for "Dippermouth", a reference to the piece *Dippermouth Blues*[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-101) and something of a riff on his unusual [embouchure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embouchure "Embouchure").
The nickname "Pops" came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them "Pops" instead. The nickname was turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
After a competition at the Savoy, he was crowned and nicknamed "King Menelik", after the Emperor of Ethiopia, for slaying "[ofay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofay "Ofay") jazz demons."[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-102)
### Race
Armstrong celebrated his heritage as a black man from a poor New Orleans neighborhood and tried to avoid what he called "putting on airs." Many younger black musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of [segregated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States "Racial segregation in the United States") audiences and for not taking a stronger stand in the [American civil rights movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_civil_rights_movement "American civil rights movement").[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-103) When Armstrong did speak out, it made national news. In 1957, journalism student Larry Lubenow scored a candid interview with Armstrong while the musician was performing in Grand Forks, North Dakota, shortly after the [conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine "Little Rock Nine") over school [desegregation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States "School integration in the United States") in [Little Rock, Arkansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock,_Arkansas "Little Rock, Arkansas"). Armstrong denounced both Arkansas Governor [Orval Faubus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orval_Faubus "Orval Faubus") and [President Dwight D. Eisenhower](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower"), saying the President had "no guts" and was "two-faced." Armstrong told his interviewer that he would cancel a planned tour of the [Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") on behalf of the [State Department](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Department "State Department"), saying, "The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell"; he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people.[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Louis_Armstrong,_Barring_Soviet_Tour,_Denounces_Eisenhower_and_Gov._Faubus-104)[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-105) The [FBI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI "FBI") kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration.[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-106) Armstrong’s outburst drew both praise and backlash; figures like [Jackie Robinson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson "Jackie Robinson") and [Lena Horne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lena_Horne "Lena Horne") publicly supported him, while a Mississippi radio station banned his records. His longtime road manager, [Pierre Tallerie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Tallerie "Pierre Tallerie"), attempted to walk back Armstrong’s comments to the press, prompting a sharp public rebuke from Armstrong, who nearly fired Tallerie and insisted on speaking for himself going forward.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-107)[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-108)
### Religion
When asked about his religion, Armstrong answered that he was raised a [Baptist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist "Baptist"), always wore a [Star of David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_of_David "Star of David"), and was friends with the pope.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Gabbard-109) Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnoffsky family who took him in as a child and lent him money to buy his first cornet. Armstrong was baptized a Catholic in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans,[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Gabbard-109) and he met [Pope Pius XII](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII "Pope Pius XII") and [Pope Paul VI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI "Pope Paul VI").[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
### Personal habits
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armstrong_secret_9.jpg)
The [Armstrong Secret 9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Secret_9 "Armstrong Secret 9"), 1931
Armstrong was concerned with his health. Armstrong used [laxatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laxatives "Laxatives") to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title *Lose Weight the Satchmo Way*.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was [Pluto Water](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto_Water "Pluto Water"), but when he discovered the herbal remedy [Swiss Kriss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senna_glycoside "Senna glycoside"), he became an enthusiastic convert,[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) extolling its virtues to anyone who would listen and passing out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the [British royal family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_royal_family "British royal family").
Armstrong also appeared in humorous risqué cards that he had printed to send to friends. The cards bore a picture of Armstrong sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan "Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya\!'"[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-LeaveItAllBehindYa-110) The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss.[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-111) In a live recording of "[Baby, It's Cold Outside](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby,_It%27s_Cold_Outside "Baby, It's Cold Outside")" with [Velma Middleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velma_Middleton "Velma Middleton"), he changes the lyric from "Put another record on while I pour" to "Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour."[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-112) Armstrong's laxative use began as a child when his mother would collect [dandelions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dandelion "Dandelion") and [peppergrass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppergrass "Peppergrass") around the railroad tracks to give to her children for their health.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-113)
Armstrong was a heavy [marijuana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marijuana "Marijuana") smoker for much of his life and spent nine days in jail in 1930 after being arrested outside a club for drug possession. Armstrong described marijuana as "a thousand times better than whiskey."[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-114)
Armstrong's concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as "Cheesecake", "Cornet Chop Suey",[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-115) and "Struttin' with Some Barbecue", though the latter was written about a fine-looking companion, and not food.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-116) Armstrong kept a strong connection throughout his life to the [cooking of New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_cuisine "Louisiana Creole cuisine"), always signing his letters, "[Red beans and ricely](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_beans_and_rice "Red beans and rice") yours ...".[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-117)
A fan of Major League Baseball, Armstrong founded a team in New Orleans that was known as Raggedy Nine and transformed the team into his Armstrong's "[Secret Nine Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Nine_Baseball "Secret Nine Baseball")."[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-118)
### Writings
Armstrong's gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. Armstrong avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy ["medicinal" marijuana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_marijuana "Medical marijuana") use, and even his bowel movements, which Armstrong gleefully described.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-119)
### Social organizations
Louis Armstrong was not, as claimed, a [Freemason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemason "Freemason"). Although he has been cited as a Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) member in New York, no such lodge ever existed. In his autobiography, Armstrong stated that he was a member of the [Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_of_Pythias_of_North_America,_South_America,_Europe,_Asia,_Africa_and_Australia "Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia"), an African American non-Masonic fraternal organization.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-120) During the krewe's 1949 [Mardi Gras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mardi_Gras_in_New_Orleans "Mardi Gras in New Orleans") parade, Armstrong presided as King of the [Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulu_Social_Aid_%26_Pleasure_Club "Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club"), for which he was featured on the cover of [*Time* magazine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_\(magazine\) "Time (magazine)").[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-121)
## Music
### Horn playing and early jazz
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Selmer_Trumpet_given_by_King_George_V_to_Louis_Armstrong.jpg)
[Selmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Selmer_Paris "Henri Selmer Paris") trumpet, given as a gift by [King George V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_George_V "King George V") of the United Kingdom to Louis Armstrong in 1933
In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. Along with his "clarinet-like figurations and high notes in his cornet solos", Armstrong was also known for his "intense rhythmic 'swing', a complex conception involving accented upbeats, upbeat to downbeat slurring, and complementary relations among rhythmic patterns.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-122) The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the [Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Hot_Five_and_Hot_Seven_Sessions "Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions"), as well as those of the [Red Onion Jazz Babies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Onion_Jazz_Babies "Red Onion Jazz Babies"). Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song "[Potato Head Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_Head_Blues "Potato Head Blues")" has long been considered his best solo of that series.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-123)
Prior to Armstrong, most collective ensembles playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. He was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Often, Armstrong re-composed pop tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, Armstrong's oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. His playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone, and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a piece of collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Armstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. Armstrong enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, Armstrong had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio.[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-124)
### Vocal popularity
As Armstrong's music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, "[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")." At a recording session for [Okeh Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okeh_Records "Okeh Records"), when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor, and the music began before Armstrong could pick up the pages, he simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh President E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs.[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-125) On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out "I done forgot the words" in the middle of recording "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas."
Such records were hits, and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, and using his voice as creatively as his trumpet.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) Armstrong once told [Cab Calloway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cab_Calloway "Cab Calloway") that his scat style was derived "from the Jews *rockin*", an Orthodox Jewish style of chanting during prayer.[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-126)[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-127)
### Composing
Armstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than 50 songs, some of which have become [jazz standards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_standards "Jazz standards") (e.g., "Gully Low Blues", "Potato Head Blues", and "Swing That Music").
### Colleagues and followers
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Satchmo_Messuhallissa.jpg)
With [Jack Teagarden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Teagarden "Jack Teagarden") (left) and [Barney Bigard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barney_Bigard "Barney Bigard") (right), Armstrong plays the trumpet in [Helsinki, Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki,_Finland "Helsinki, Finland"), October 1949
During his long career, Armstrong played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time, including Bing Crosby, [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington"), [Fletcher Henderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson "Fletcher Henderson"), [Earl Hines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines"), [Jimmie Rodgers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie_Rodgers_\(country_singer\) "Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)"), [Bessie Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith"), and [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald"). His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music. Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably "Just One More Chance" (1931).[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) The *New Grove Dictionary of Jazz* describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:
> Crosby ... was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech ... His techniques—easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a [head voice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_voice "Head voice") at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct [enunciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enunciation "Enunciation"), singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of [appoggiaturas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appoggiatura "Appoggiatura"), [mordents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordent "Mordent"), and [slurs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slur_\(music\) "Slur (music)") to emphasize the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers.
Armstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald, *[Ella and Louis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis "Ella and Louis")* and *[Ella and Louis Again](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis_Again "Ella and Louis Again")*, for [Verve Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verve_Records "Verve Records"). The sessions featured the backing musicianship of the [Oscar Peterson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Peterson "Oscar Peterson") Trio with drummer [Buddy Rich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_Rich "Buddy Rich") on the first album and [Louie Bellson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louie_Bellson "Louie Bellson") on the second. [Norman Granz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Granz "Norman Granz") then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record *[Porgy and Bess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess_\(Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Porgy and Bess (Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong album)")*.
Armstrong's two recordings for [Columbia Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records"), *[Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Plays_W.C._Handy "Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy")* (1954) and *Satch Plays Fats* (all [Fats Waller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats_Waller "Fats Waller") tunes) (1955), were both considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961, the All-Stars participated in two albums, *The Great Summit* and *The Great Reunion* (now together as a single disc) with [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington"). The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. Armstrong's participation in [Dave Brubeck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Brubeck "Dave Brubeck")'s high-concept jazz musical *[The Real Ambassadors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Ambassadors "The Real Ambassadors")* (1963) was critically acclaimed and features "Summer Song", one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_NYWTS_4.jpg)
Louis Armstrong in 1966
[In the week beginning May 9, 1964](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_number_ones_of_1964 "List of Billboard Hot 100 number ones of 1964"), Armstrong's recording of the song "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_Dolly_\(song\) "Hello Dolly (song)")" went to number one. An [album of the same title](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Hello, Dolly! (Louis Armstrong album)") was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one, knocking [The Beatles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") off the top of the chart. The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going "Gold" (500,000). His performance of "Hello, Dolly!" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 [Grammy Awards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Awards "Grammy Awards").
### Hits and later career
Armstrong had 19 "Top Ten" records[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-billboard.com-128) including "[Stardust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_\(1927_song\) "Stardust (1927 song)")", "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")", "[When The Saints Go Marching In](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_The_Saints_Go_Marching_In "When The Saints Go Marching In")", "[Dream a Little Dream of Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_a_Little_Dream_of_Me_\(song\) "Dream a Little Dream of Me (song)")", "[Ain't Misbehavin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t_Misbehavin%27_\(song\) "Ain't Misbehavin' (song)")", "[You Rascal You](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Rascal_You "You Rascal You")", and "[Stompin' at the Savoy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stompin%27_at_the_Savoy "Stompin' at the Savoy")". "[We Have All the Time in the World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Have_All_the_Time_in_the_World "We Have All the Time in the World")" was featured on the soundtrack of the [James Bond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bond "James Bond") film *[On Her Majesty's Secret Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Her_Majesty%27s_Secret_Service_\(film\) "On Her Majesty's Secret Service (film)")*, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it was featured on a [Guinness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness "Guinness") advertisement. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.
In 1964, Armstrong knocked [The Beatles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") off the top of the [*Billboard* Hot 100](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 "Billboard Hot 100") chart with "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song "Bout Time" was later featured in the film *[Bewitched](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bewitched_\(2005_film\) "Bewitched (2005 film)")*.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
In February 1968, Armstrong appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian [RAI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAI "RAI") television channel, where he performed "Grassa e Bella", a track Armstrong sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-129)
In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the UK with "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong appeared on the October 28, 1970, *[Johnny Cash Show](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Johnny_Cash_Show_\(TV_series\) "The Johnny Cash Show (TV series)")*, where he sang [Nat King Cole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_King_Cole "Nat King Cole")'s hit "[Ramblin' Rose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramblin%27_Rose "Ramblin' Rose")" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel No. 9".
### Stylistic range
Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of [Guy Lombardo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Lombardo "Guy Lombardo"), to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame") as an *early influence*. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the [hard rocking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_roll "Rock and roll") version of "[St. Louis Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Blues_\(song\) "St. Louis Blues (song)")" from the *WC Handy* album, show that the influence went in both directions.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
## Film, television, and radio
See also: [Louis Armstrong filmography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_filmography "Louis Armstrong filmography")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_and_Grace_Kelly_on_the_set_of_%22High_Society%22,_1956.jpg)
Armstrong entertains [Grace Kelly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Kelly "Grace Kelly") on the set of *High Society*, 1956
Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a bandleader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader *cum* narrator in the 1956 musical *[High Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Society_\(1956_film\) "High Society (1956 film)")*, starring Bing Crosby, [Grace Kelly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Kelly "Grace Kelly"), [Frank Sinatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra"), and [Celeste Holm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celeste_Holm "Celeste Holm"). Armstrong appears throughout the film, sings the title song, and performs the duet "[Now You Has Jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Now_You_Has_Jazz "Now You Has Jazz")" with Crosby.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-130) In 1947, Armstrong played himself in the movie *[New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans_\(1947_film\) "New Orleans (1947 film)")* opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the [Storyville district](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storyville,_New_Orleans#Closure "Storyville, New Orleans") and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film *[The Five Pennies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Five_Pennies "The Five Pennies")*, Armstrong played himself, sang, and played several classic numbers. He performed a duet of "When the Saints Go Marching In" with [Danny Kaye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Kaye "Danny Kaye"), during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. He had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in *[The Glenn Miller Story](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Glenn_Miller_Story "The Glenn Miller Story")*.
In 1937, Armstrong was the first African American to host a [nationally broadcast radio show](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fleischmann%27s_Yeast_Hour#Guests "The Fleischmann's Yeast Hour").[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-LAHM-still-131) In 1969, he had a cameo role in [Gene Kelly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Kelly "Gene Kelly")'s film version of *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(film\) "Hello, Dolly! (film)")* as the bandleader Louis where he sang the title song with actress [Barbra Streisand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbra_Streisand "Barbra Streisand"). Armstrong's solo recording of "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" is one of his most recognizable performances.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) Armstrong was heard on such radio programs as *The Story of Swing* (1937) and *This Is Jazz* (1947), and he also made television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on *[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_Starring_Johnny_Carson "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson")*.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
In [1949](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_in_radio "1949 in radio"), Armstrong's life was [dramatized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_drama "Radio drama") by scriptwriter [Richard Durham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Durham "Richard Durham") in the Chicago [WMAQ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WSCR "WSCR") [radio series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_series "Radio series") *[Destination Freedom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destination_Freedom "Destination Freedom")*.[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-MacDonald-132)[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-133)
Argentine writer [Julio Cortázar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio_Cort%C3%A1zar "Julio Cortázar"), a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the [Théâtre des Champs-Élysées](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es "Théâtre des Champs-Élysées") in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called [Cronopios](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronopio_\(literature\) "Cronopio (literature)") that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself "Grandísimo Cronopio" (The Great Cronopio).[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
There is a pivotal scene in *[Stardust Memories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_Memories "Stardust Memories")* (1980) in which [Woody Allen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_Allen "Woody Allen") is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's "[Stardust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_\(1927_song\) "Stardust (1927 song)")" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-134)
In 2022, Armstrong was subject of the documentary film *[Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong%27s_Black_%26_Blues "Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues")*.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-135)
## Death
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Satchmo%27s_place.jpg)
Louis Armstrong's grave at [Flushing Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_Cemetery "Flushing Cemetery") in [Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens "Queens"), New York City
Against his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the [Waldorf-Astoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldorf-Astoria "Waldorf-Astoria")'s Empire Room. At the end of it, he was hospitalized for a [heart attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_attack "Heart attack").[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-136) Armstrong was released from the hospital in May and quickly resumed practicing his trumpet playing. Still hoping to get back on the road, Armstrong died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971. Armstrong was residing in [Corona, Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona,_Queens "Corona, Queens"), New York City, at the time of his death.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-137)
Armstrong was interred in [Flushing Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_Cemetery "Flushing Cemetery"), [Flushing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing,_Queens "Flushing, Queens"), in [Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens "Queens"), New York City. His honorary [pallbearers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallbearers "Pallbearers") included [Bing Crosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby "Bing Crosby"), [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald"), [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington"), [Dizzy Gillespie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizzy_Gillespie "Dizzy Gillespie"), [Pearl Bailey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Bailey "Pearl Bailey"), [Count Basie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Basie "Count Basie"), [Harry James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_James "Harry James"), [Frank Sinatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra"), [Ed Sullivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Sullivan "Ed Sullivan"), [Earl Wilson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Wilson_\(columnist\) "Earl Wilson (columnist)"), [Benny Goodman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Goodman "Benny Goodman"), [Alan King](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_King "Alan King"), [Johnny Carson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Carson "Johnny Carson") and [David Frost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Frost "David Frost").[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-138)[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-139)[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-140) [Peggy Lee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Lee "Peggy Lee") sang "[The Lord's Prayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord%27s_Prayer "The Lord's Prayer")" at the services while [Al Hibbler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Hibbler "Al Hibbler") sang "[Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobody_Knows_the_Trouble_I%27ve_Seen "Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen")" and [Fred Robbins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Robbins_\(broadcaster\) "Fred Robbins (broadcaster)"), a long-time friend, gave the eulogy.[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-141)
## Awards and honors
### Grammy Awards
Armstrong was posthumously awarded the [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award") in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the recording field.[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-142)
| Year | Category | Title | Genre | Label | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1964 | Male Vocal Performance | "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" | Pop | Kapp | Winner |
### Grammy Hall of Fame
Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the [Grammy Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Hall_of_Fame "Grammy Hall of Fame"), which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance."[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-143)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-144)
| Year recorded | Title | Label | Year inducted | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1925 | "[St. Louis Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Blues_\(song\) "St. Louis Blues (song)")" | Columbia | 1993 | [Bessie Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith") with Louis Armstrong, cornet |
| 1926 | "[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")" | OKeh | 1999 | |
| 1928 | "[West End Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_Blues "West End Blues")" | OKeh | 1974 | |
| 1928 | "[Weather Bird](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Bird "Weather Bird")" | OKeh | 2008 | with [Earl Hines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines") |
| 1929 | "[St. Louis Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Blues_\(song\) "St. Louis Blues (song)")" | OKeh | 2008 | with [Red Allen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Allen "Red Allen") |
| 1930 | "[Blue Yodel No. 9 (Standing on the Corner)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_Corner_\(Blue_Yodel_No._9\) "Standing on the Corner (Blue Yodel No. 9)")" | Victor | 2007 | Jimmie Rodgers (featuring Louis Armstrong) |
| 1932 | "[All of Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_of_Me_\(Ruth_Etting_song\) "All of Me (Ruth Etting song)")" | Columbia | 2005 | |
| 1938 | "[When the Saints Go Marching In](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_In "When the Saints Go Marching In")" | Decca | 2016 | |
| 1955 | "[Mack the Knife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mack_the_Knife "Mack the Knife")" | Columbia | 1997 | |
| 1958 | *[Porgy and Bess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess_\(Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Porgy and Bess (Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong album)")* | Verve | 2001 | Album, with [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald") |
| 1964 | "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" | Kapp | 2001 | |
| 1967 | "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")" | ABC | 1999 | |
### Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
The [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame") listed Armstrong's "West End Blues" on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-145)
| Year recorded | Title | Label | Group |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1928 | "[West End Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_Blues "West End Blues")" | [Okeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okeh_Records "Okeh Records") | [Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_and_his_Hot_Five "Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five") |
### Inductions and honors
In 1995, the [U.S. Post Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_on_stamps_of_the_United_States "List of people on stamps of the United States") issued a Louis Armstrong 32-cent commemorative postage stamp.
| Year inducted | Title | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 1952 | [DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DownBeat "DownBeat") | First inductee into DownBeat Hall of Fame |
| 1960[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-HollywoodWalkOfFame-146) | [Hollywood Walk of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stars_on_the_Hollywood_Walk_of_Fame "List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame") | Star at 7601 Hollywood Blvd. |
| 1978 | Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame | |
| 1990 | [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame_inductees "List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees") | Early influence |
| 2004 | Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame | At [Jazz at Lincoln Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_at_Lincoln_Center "Jazz at Lincoln Center") |
| 2007 | [Louisiana Music Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Music_Hall_of_Fame "Louisiana Music Hall of Fame") | |
| 2007 | [Gennett Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gennett_Records "Gennett Records") Walk of Fame, [Richmond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_Indiana "Richmond, Indiana"), Indiana | |
| 2007 | [Long Island Music Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island_Music_Hall_of_Fame "Long Island Music Hall of Fame") | |
| 2017 | [National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rhythm_%26_Blues_Hall_of_Fame "National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame") | Early influence |
### Film honors
In 1999, Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the [American Film Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Film_Institute "American Film Institute")'s [100 Years ... 100 Stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI%27s_100_Years...100_Stars "AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars").[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-147)
## Legacy
In 1950, [Bing Crosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby "Bing Crosby"), the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, "He is the beginning and the end of music in America."[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-148) Duke Ellington, [DownBeat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DownBeat "DownBeat") magazine in 1971, said, "If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong. He was and will continue to be the embodiment of jazz."[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-149) Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, [Ethel Waters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Waters "Ethel Waters") and others preceded his scatting on record in the 1920s according to [Gary Giddins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Giddins "Gary Giddins") and others.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-150)
According to literary critic Harold Bloom, "The two great American contributions to the world's art, in the end, are Walt Whitman and, after him, Armstrong and jazz ... If I had to choose between the two, ultimately, I wouldn't. I would say that the genius of this nation at its best is indeed Walt Whitman and Louis Armstrong".[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-151)
In 2023, *[Rolling Stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone "Rolling Stone")* ranked Armstrong at No. 39 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-152)
In 1991, an asteroid was named [9179 Satchmo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9179_Satchmo "9179 Satchmo") in Armstrong's honor.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-153) In the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of his birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed [Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_New_Orleans_International_Airport "Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport"). The entrance to the airport's [former terminal building](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former_terminal_of_New_Orleans_International_Airport "Former terminal of New Orleans International Airport") houses a statue depicting Armstrong playing his cornet. In 2002, the [Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_and_his_Hot_Five "Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five") recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of [recordings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction "Sound recording and reproduction") selected yearly by the [National Recording Preservation Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Recording_Preservation_Board "National Recording Preservation Board") for preservation in the [National Recording Registry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Recording_Registry "National Recording Registry") of the [Library of Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress").[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-154) The [US Open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Open_\(tennis\) "US Open (tennis)") tennis tournament's former main stadium was named [Louis Armstrong Stadium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Stadium "Louis Armstrong Stadium") in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site.[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-155)
[Congo Square](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_Square "Congo Square") was a common gathering place for blacks in New Orleans for dancing and performing music. The park where Congo Square is located was later renamed [Louis Armstrong Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Park "Louis Armstrong Park").[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-156) Dedicated in April 1980, the park includes a 12-foot (3.7 m) statue of Armstrong, trumpet in hand.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-157)
*[A Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Wonderful_World_\(musical\) "A Wonderful World (musical)")*, a musical based on his life story, had its world premiere run at [Miami New Drama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_New_Drama "Miami New Drama") from December 4, 2021, to January 16, 2021,[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-158) after mounting previews beginning March 5, 2020[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-159) and canceling opening night (March 14) due to COVID concerns.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-160) Mirroring Armstrong's musical journey, the show stars [James Monroe Iglehart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Monroe_Iglehart "James Monroe Iglehart") and makes "pre-Broadway"[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-161) stops in New Orleans on October 1–8, 2023, and Chicago on October 11–29, 2023. The new musical charts the rise of Armstrong from the perspective of his four wives. It is conceived by Drama Desk Award winner and Tony Award nominee [Christopher Renshaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Renshaw "Christopher Renshaw") and novelist [Andrew Delaplaine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Delaplaine "Andrew Delaplaine"), and directed by Renshaw, *A Wonderful World* features an original book by [Aurin Squire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurin_Squire "Aurin Squire"). The show will debut on Broadway in 2024.[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-162)
## The Louis Armstrong House Museum
The house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a [National Historic Landmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark "National Historic Landmark") and opened to the public for guided tours in 2003.[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-163) The [Louis Armstrong House Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_House "Louis Armstrong House"), at 34–56 107th Street between 34th and 37th avenues in [Corona, Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona,_Queens "Corona, Queens"), presents concerts and educational programs,[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-164) operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research.[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-165) The museum is administered by the [Queens College, City University of New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens_College,_City_University_of_New_York "Queens College, City University of New York"), following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will and is operated by the nonprofit Louis Armstrong House Museum. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center opened across the street from the Armstrong home in the summer of 2023.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-visitorscenter-166) The Museum website also includes the digitized Armstrong Archives, searchable to the public 24 hours a day.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-167)
## Essential discography
Main article: [Louis Armstrong discography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_discography "Louis Armstrong discography")
- *The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings*
- *The Complete Louis Armstrong Decca Sessions (1935–1946) (Mosaic Records, 2009)*
- *All Stars (Louis Armstrong's Town Hall Concert) (1947)*
- *[Struttin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struttin%27_\(Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Struttin' (Louis Armstrong album)") (1947)*
- *Satchmo Serenades (1950)*
- *[Satchmo at Pasadena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchmo_at_Pasadena "Satchmo at Pasadena") (1951)*
- *[Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Plays_W.C._Handy "Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy") (1955)*
- *[Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_at_the_Crescendo,_Vol._1 "Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1") (1955)*
- *[Satch Plays Fats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satch_Plays_Fats "Satch Plays Fats") (1955)*
- *[The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Ella_Fitzgerald_%26_Louis_Armstrong_on_Verve "The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve")* – contains *Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, Porgy and Bess (1997)*
- *[Louis and the Angels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_and_the_Angels "Louis and the Angels") (1957)*
- *[Louis and the Good Book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_and_the_Good_Book "Louis and the Good Book") (1958)*
- *[Satchmo In Style](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchmo_In_Style "Satchmo In Style") (1959)*
- *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Hello, Dolly! (Louis Armstrong album)") (1964)*
## See also
- [Biography portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biography "Portal:Biography")
- [Black and tan clubs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_and_tan_clubs "Black and tan clubs")
- [Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_collaborations "Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations")
- *[Little Satchmo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Satchmo "Little Satchmo")*, 2022 documentary film
## References
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-anderson_1-0)**
Anderson, Gene H. (2015). [*Louis Armstrong*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Cn70BgAAQBAJ&q=louis+daniel+armstrong+baptismal+record&pg=PT6). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0190268756](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190268756 "Special:BookSources/978-0190268756")
.
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-NYTOBit_2-0)**
Krebs, Albin (July 7, 1971). ["Louis Armstrong, Jazz Trumpeter and Singer, Dies"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1971/07/07/79675134.html?pageNumber=1). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-3)**
For background on nicknames, see
Laurence Bergreen (1997). [*Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrong00laur/page/4). New York: Broadway Books. pp. [4–5](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrong00laur/page/4). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0553067682](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0553067682 "Special:BookSources/978-0553067682")
.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-4)**
["Louis Armstrong: All That and More"](https://americansongwriter.com/louis-armstrong/). [American Songwriter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Songwriter "American Songwriter"). August 17, 2021. Retrieved October 12, 2025.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-RCJE_5-0)**
Cook, Richard (2005). *Richard Cook's Jazz Encyclopedia*. London: Penguin Books. pp. 18–19\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0141006468](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141006468 "Special:BookSources/978-0141006468")
.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-6)**
["Louis Armstrong – Artist"](https://www.grammy.com/artists/louis-armstrong/452). *Grammy.com*. November 19, 2019. Retrieved May 27, 2020.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-7)** Bergreen (1997), p. 1.
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-8)**
["Golden Record Contents"](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager/golden-record-contents/sounds/). [NASA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA "NASA").
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-9)**
Gary Giddins (2001). [*Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong*](https://archive.org/details/satchmogeniusofl00gidd). Da Capo. p. [21](https://archive.org/details/satchmogeniusofl00gidd/page/21). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-306-81013-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81013-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81013-8")
.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-10)** Teachout (2009), pp. 26–27.
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-11)** Bergreen (1996), pp. 14–15.
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-12)**
[Teachout, Terry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Teachout "Terry Teachout") (2009). *Pops*. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 30.
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-giddins22_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-giddins22_13-1) Giddins (2001), pp. 22–23
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-14)** Giddins (2001), p. 26.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-15)**
["Jazz Neighborhoods – New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)"](https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazz-map.htm). *nps.gov*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220528143541/https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazz-map.htm) from the original on May 28, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
16. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_16-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_16-1) Bergreen (1997), pp. 27, 57–60.
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-17)** Some sources spell Karnofsky with one "f". This article is spelling it with two "f"s based on Bergreen (1998).
18. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-4)
Armstrong, Louis (1999). ["Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the year of 1907"](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrongin00arms/page/3/mode/). In [Brothers, Thomas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brothers "Thomas Brothers") (ed.). *Louis Armstrong, in His Own Words: Selected Writings*. Annotated index by Charles Kinzer. [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). pp. 3–36\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-19-511958-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511958-4 "Special:BookSources/0-19-511958-4")
– via [Internet Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive").
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-19)**
[Berlin, Irving](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Berlin "Irving Berlin"). ["Irving Berlin's Russian Lullaby"](https://digitalcollections-baylor.quartexcollections.com/Documents/Detail/irving-berlins-russian-lullaby/1127188). Irving Berlin Music Corp. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220509032433/https://digitalcollections-baylor.quartexcollections.com/Documents/Detail/irving-berlins-russian-lullaby/1127188) from the original on May 9, 2022. Retrieved May 8, 2022.
20. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Commentary_20-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Commentary_20-1)
[Teachout, Terry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Teachout "Terry Teachout") (November 1, 2009). ["Satchmo and the Jews"](https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/satchmo-and-the-jews/). *[Commentary Magazine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentary_\(magazine\) "Commentary (magazine)")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150206184934/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/satchmo-and-the-jews/) from the original on February 6, 2015. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-21)**
[Karnow, Stanley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Karnow "Stanley Karnow") (February 21, 2001). ["My Debt to Cousin Louis's Cornet"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090409025810/http://www.nytimes.com:80/2001/02/21/opinion/my-debt-to-cousin-louis-s-cornet.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. Archived from [the original](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9C02E1D91639F932A15751C0A9679C8B63) on April 9, 2009. Retrieved November 14, 2023.
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-22)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 55–57.
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-23)** Giddins (2001), pp. 36–37.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-24)** *Current Biography 1944*, pp. 15–17.
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-25)** Bergreen (1997), p. 6.
26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-26)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 67–68.
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-27)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 70–72.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-28)** *Current Biography 1944*. p. 16.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-29)** Bergreen (1997), p. 78.
30. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_1997,_pp._80%E2%80%9389_30-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_1997,_pp._80%E2%80%9389_30-1) Bergreen (1997), pp. 80–89.
31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-31)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 70–71\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_1997,_p.44_32-0)** Bergreen (1997), p. 44.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_1997_pp.45_33-0)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 45–47.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-34)**
Kenney, William Howland (2005). *Jazz on the River*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 64.
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-35)** Bergreen (1997), p. 142.
36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-36)** Bergreen (1997), p. 170.
37. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier_37-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier_37-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier_37-2)
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1983). [*Louis Armstrong: An American Genius*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam). New York: Oxford University Press. p. [324](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam/page/324). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195033779](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195033779 "Special:BookSources/978-0195033779")
.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-38)** Kenney (2005), pp. 57–59.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-39)** Bergreen (1997), p. 199.
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-40)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 213–218.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-41)**
Stamatel, Janet P. (2003). Henderson, Ashyia N (ed.). ["Hardin Armstrong, Lil 1898–1971"](http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX2874100037/GVRL?u=aubu98092&sid=GVRL&xid=18dcff82). *Contemporary Black Biography*. **39**: 98 – via Gale Virtual Reference Library.
42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-42)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 78–79\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
43. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-43)**
[Lyttelton, Humphrey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Lyttelton "Humphrey Lyttelton") (1979). *The Best of Jazz*. Taplinger. p. 113. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0800807278](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0800807278 "Special:BookSources/0800807278")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [8050573](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8050573).
44. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-44)**
Magee, Jeffrey (2005). *The Uncrowned King of Swing*. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–114\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1093/acprof:oso/9780195090222.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195090222.001.0001). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195090222](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195090222 "Special:BookSources/978-0195090222")
.
45. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-45)** Bergreen (1997), p. 247.
46. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-46)**
Elliot Hurwitt et al., in Cary D. Wintz and Paul Finkelman, eds., [*Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0L0ULjto_OEC) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230116102815/https://books.google.com/books?id=0L0ULjto_OEC) January 16, 2023, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") (London: Routledge, 2012), 533 and elsewhere.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1135455361](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135455361 "Special:BookSources/978-1135455361")
47. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-47)**
Kemp, Larry (2018). *Early Jazz Trumpet Legends*. \[Place of publication not identified\]: Rosedog PR. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1480976375](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1480976375 "Special:BookSources/978-1480976375")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1059329912](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1059329912).
48. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-48)** Bergreen (1997), p. 260.
49. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-harker_49-0)**
Harker, Brian (2011). *Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven Recordings*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 4–5\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195388404](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195388404 "Special:BookSources/978-0195388404")
.
50. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-50)** Bergreen (1997), p. 274.
51. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-51)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 282. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
52. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-52)** Bergreen (1997), p. 264.
53. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-53)** Bergreen (1997), p. 267.
54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-54)**
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1985). *Louis Armstrong*. Pan Books. pp. 160–162\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0330286077](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0330286077 "Special:BookSources/978-0330286077")
.
55. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-55)**
Williams, Iain Cameron [*Underneath a Harlem Moon: The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall*](http://www.bloomsbury.com/us/underneath-a-harlem-moon-9780826458933/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210226182123/https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/underneath-a-harlem-moon-9780826458933/) February 26, 2021, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). Bloomsbury Publishers, 2002.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0826458939](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826458939 "Special:BookSources/0826458939")
.
[OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [51780394](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51780394)
56. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-56)** Harker (2011), p. 145.
57. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-57)**
["Louis Armstrong: 'The Man and His Music', Part 1"](https://www.npr.org/2007/08/01/12208712/louis-armstrong-the-man-and-his-music-part-1). *[National Public Radio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Radio "National Public Radio")*. August 1, 2007. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803154258/https://www.npr.org/2007/08/01/12208712/louis-armstrong-the-man-and-his-music-part-1) from the original on August 3, 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
58. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-58)**
["Satchmo: The Life of Louis Armstrong"](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/louis-armstrong-about-louis-armstrong/528/). *PBS*. July 6, 2005. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190528012453/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/louis-armstrong-about-louis-armstrong/528/) from the original on May 28, 2019. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
59. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-59)**
Jones, Josh (March 31, 2015). ["Langston Hughes Presents the History of Jazz in an Illustrated Children's Book (1995)"](https://www.openculture.com/2015/03/langston-hughes-presents-the-history-of-jazz-i.html). *Open Culture*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190521005205/http://www.openculture.com/2015/03/langston-hughes-presents-the-history-of-jazz-i.html) from the original on May 21, 2019. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
60. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-60)**
Hughes, Langston (October 13, 2009). ["Jazz as Communication (1956)"](https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/69394/jazz-as-communication). *Poetry Foundation*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190528013957/https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/69394/jazz-as-communication) from the original on May 28, 2019. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
61. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-61)**
Andrews, Evan (August 22, 2018). ["9 Things You May Not Know About Louis Armstrong"](https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-louis-armstrong). *[History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_\(American_TV_network\) "History (American TV network)")*. A\&E Television Networks. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201120054543/https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-louis-armstrong) from the original on November 20, 2020. Retrieved April 3, 2021.
62. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-62)**
Collins, Willie (2013). Thomas Riggs (ed.). ["Armstrong, Louis (1901–1971)"](http://0-link.galegroup.com.library.4cd.edu/apps/doc/CX2735800126/GVRL?u=plea38277&sid=GVRL&xid=30818ba4). *St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture*. **1** (Second ed.). [St. James Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._James_Press "St. James Press"): 133–135\.
\[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot "Wikipedia:Link rot")*\]
63. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-63)**
["Louis Armstrong & his Orchestra"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083427/http://www.redhotjazz.com/lao.html). Redhotjazz.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.redhotjazz.com/lao.html) on January 16, 2013. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
64. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-morgenstern_64-0)**
[Morgenstern, Dan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Morgenstern "Dan Morgenstern") (1994), "Louis Armstrong and the Development and Diffusion of Jazz", in Miller, Marc H. (ed.), *Louis Armstrong: A Cultural Legacy*, Queens Museum of Art in association with University of Washington Press, p. 110
65. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-65)** Bergreen (1997), p. 320.
66. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-66)** Collier (1985), pp. 221–222.
67. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-ArmstrongInThe30s_67-0)**
["Louis Armstrong in the 30s"](http://riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu/program/louis-armstrong-30s-tribute-life-and-music-armstrong-30s). *riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130326032953/http://riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu/program/louis-armstrong-30s-tribute-life-and-music-armstrong-30s) from the original on March 26, 2013. Retrieved May 5, 2015.
68. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-68)** Bergreen (1997), p. 344.
69. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-69)** Bergreen (1997), p. 385.
70. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-70)**
Reed, Tom. (1992). *The Black music history of Los Angeles, its roots : 50 years in Black music : a classical pictorial history of Los Angeles Black music of the 20s, 30s, 40s, 50s and 60s: photographic essays that define the people, the artistry and their contributions to the wonderful world of entertainment* (1st limited ed.). Los Angeles: Black Accent on L.A. Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[096329086X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/096329086X "Special:BookSources/096329086X")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [28801394](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/28801394).
71. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-71)** "Satchmo Band Spice To Open Air Show." *Los Angeles Sentinel*, May 28, 1953.
72. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Starkey2015_72-0)**
Starkey, Brando Simeo (2015). [*In Defense of Uncle Tom: Why Blacks Must Police Racial Loyalty*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WzHCBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA147). Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1316214084](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316214084 "Special:BookSources/978-1316214084")
. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
73. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-73)**
Ziegler, Robert, ed. (2013). *Music: the definitive visual history*. London: DK. p. 247. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1465414366](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1465414366 "Special:BookSources/978-1465414366")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [828055596](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/828055596).
74. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-reception_74-0)**
["Louis Armstrong And Band Get A Hot Reception"](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/18448805). *Sydney Morning Herald (NSW: 1842–1954)*. October 28, 1954. p. 1. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180613210841/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/18448805) from the original on June 13, 2018. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
75. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Nollen2004_75-0)**
[Nollen, Scott Allen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Allen_Nollen "Scott Allen Nollen") (2004). [*Louis Armstrong: The Life, Music, and Screen Career*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrongli0000noll). McFarland. p. [127](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrongli0000noll/page/127). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0786418572](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786418572 "Special:BookSources/978-0786418572")
. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
76. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-76)**
["Louis Armstrong"](https://www.allmusic.com/artist/louis-armstrong-mn0000234518/biography). *[AllMusic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic "AllMusic")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191102175628/http://allmusic.com/artist/louis-armstrong-mn0000234518/biography) from the original on November 2, 2019. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
77. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-77)**
["Louis Armstrong"](http://www.biography.com/people/louis-armstrong-9188912). *Biography.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190411104456/https://www.biography.com/people/louis-armstrong-9188912) from the original on April 11, 2019. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
78. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Breihan_78-0)**
Breihan, Tom (June 14, 2018). ["May 9, 1964 The Number Ones: Louis Armstrong's "Hello, Dolly!""](https://www.stereogum.com/2001439/the-number-ones-louis-armstrongs-hello-dolly/columns/the-number-ones/). *www.stereogum.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231226164156/https://www.stereogum.com/2001439/the-number-ones-louis-armstrongs-hello-dolly/columns/the-number-ones/) from the original on December 26, 2023. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
79. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-studs_79-0)**
["Louis Daniel Armstrong talks with Studs Terkel on WFMT; 1962/6/24"](https://soundcloud.com/studsterkel-radio-archive/tracks). [Studs Terkel Radio Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studs_Terkel_Radio_Archive "Studs Terkel Radio Archive"). June 24, 1962. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161002004100/https://soundcloud.com/studsterkel-radio-archive/tracks) from the original on October 2, 2016. Retrieved September 27, 2016.
80. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Kelley2012_80-0)**
[Kelley, Robin D. G.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_D._G._Kelley "Robin D. G. Kelley") (2012). [*Africa Speaks, America Answers: Modern Jazz in Revolutionary Times*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gduqiA16Ng8C&pg=PA72). Harvard University Press. pp. 72–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0674065246](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674065246 "Special:BookSources/978-0674065246")
. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
81. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Company1971_81-0)**
["James Brown Goes Through Some New Changes"](https://books.google.com/books?id=e7EDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA59). *Jet*. December 30, 1971. p. 59. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
82. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Von_Eschen_82-0)**
[Von Eschen, Penny M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny_Von_Eschen "Penny Von Eschen") (2004). *Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univ. Press. pp. 79–91\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0674015012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674015012 "Special:BookSources/978-0674015012")
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83. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Whitaker2011_83-0)**
Whitaker, Matthew C. (2011). [*Icons of Black America: Breaking Barriers and Crossing Boundaries*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bT1jf8PcqAUC). ABC-CLIO. p. 41. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0313376429](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313376429 "Special:BookSources/978-0313376429")
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84. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-84)**
["FAQ – Louis Armstrong House Museum"](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/faq/). *louisarmstronghouse.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170808074334/https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/faq/) from the original on August 8, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
85. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-85)**
Armstrong, Louis; Brothers, Thomas (2001). [*Louis Armstrong, In His Own Words: Selected Writings*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fdxDDe-fb8sC&pg=PA109). New York: [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 109. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195140460](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195140460 "Special:BookSources/978-0195140460")
. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150915205007/https://books.google.com/books?id=fdxDDe-fb8sC&pg=PA109) from the original on September 15, 2015. Retrieved December 8, 2014.
86. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-86)**
Goffin, Robert. *Horn of Plenty: The Story of Louis Armstrong*. Da Capo Press, 1977.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0306774305](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0306774305 "Special:BookSources/0306774305")
\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
87. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen134_87-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen134_87-1) Bergreen (1997), 134–137.
88. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier2_88-0)**
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1983). [*Louis Armstrong: An American Genius*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam). New York: Oxford University Press. p. [81](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam/page/81). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195033779](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195033779 "Special:BookSources/978-0195033779")
.
89. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-89)**
Giddins, Gary (April 16–22, 2003). ["Satchuated"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080605231223/http://www.villagevoice.com/music/0316,giddins,43368,22.html). *[Village Voice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village_Voice "Village Voice")*. Archived from [the original](http://www.villagevoice.com/music/0316,giddins,43368,22.html) on June 5, 2008. Retrieved October 17, 2007.
90. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-90)**
["Lillian Hardin Armstrong"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131023073640/http://www.redhotjazz.com/lil.html). *RedHotJazz.com*. Archived from [the original](http://www.redhotjazz.com/lil.html) on October 23, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
91. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-91)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 318. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
92. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-92)**
["Biography of Louis Daniel Armstrong"](https://web.archive.org/web/20141228222300/http://www.louisarmstrongfoundation.org/louis.php). *LouisArmstrongFoundation.org*. Louis Armstrong Educational Foundation. Archived from [the original](http://www.louisarmstrongfoundation.org/louis.php) on December 28, 2014. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
93. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-93)**
["Louis Armstrong: FAQ"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083432/http://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/about/faq.htm). [Louis Armstrong House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_House "Louis Armstrong House") Museum. Archived from [the original](http://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/about/faq.htm) on January 16, 2013. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
94. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-94)**
Goddard, Jacqui (December 15, 2012). ["Louis Armstrong's secret daughter revealed, 42 years after his death"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/9747518/Louis-Armstrongs-secret-daughter-revealed-42-years-after-his-death.html). *[The Daily Telegraph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph "The Daily Telegraph")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121219071602/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/9747518/Louis-Armstrongs-secret-daughter-revealed-42-years-after-his-death.html) from the original on December 19, 2012.
95. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-inflation-US_95-0)**
1634–1699:
[McCusker, J. J.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._McCusker "John J. McCusker") (1997). [*How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda*](https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf) (PDF). [American Antiquarian Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society "American Antiquarian Society").
1700–1799:
[McCusker, J. J.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._McCusker "John J. McCusker") (1992). [*How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States*](https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf) (PDF). [American Antiquarian Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society "American Antiquarian Society").
1800–present:
Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. ["Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"](https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-). Retrieved February 29, 2024.
96. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier3_96-0)**
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1983). [*Louis Armstrong: An American Genius*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam). New York: Oxford University Press. p. [158](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam/page/158). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195033779](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195033779 "Special:BookSources/978-0195033779")
.
97. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-6) [***h***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-7) [***i***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-8) [***j***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-9) [***k***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-10) [***l***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-11) [***m***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-12) [***n***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-13) [***o***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-14) [***p***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-15) [***q***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-16) [***r***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-17) [***s***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-18) Bergreen (1997), pp. 7–11.
98. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-98)**
Schulz, Bill (August 26, 2016). ["Louis Armstrong's Lip Balm"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160831214922/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/28/nyregion/louis-armstrongs-lip-balm.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. Archived from [the original](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/28/nyregion/louis-armstrongs-lip-balm.html) on August 31, 2016.
99. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-99)** "Louis Armstrong: An American Genius", [James L. Collier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier"), 231 pp.
100. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-100)** "Satchmo Rallies, Jokes" [The Ottawa Citizen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ottawa_Citizen "The Ottawa Citizen"), June 26, 1959, p. 1
101. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-101)** Armstrong, 1954, pp. 27–28
102. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-102)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 291. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
103. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-103)** Collier (1985), pp. 317–320
104. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Louis_Armstrong,_Barring_Soviet_Tour,_Denounces_Eisenhower_and_Gov._Faubus_104-0)**
["Louis Armstrong, Barring Soviet Tour, Denounces Eisenhower and Gov. Faubus"](https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/08/03/reviews/armstrong-eisenhower.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. September 19, 1957. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090410084159/http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/08/03/reviews/armstrong-eisenhower.html) from the original on April 10, 2009. Retrieved August 30, 2007.
105. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-105)**
[Margolick, David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Margolick "David Margolick") (September 23, 2007). ["The Day Louis Armstrong Made Noise"](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/opinion/23margolick.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170221145559/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/opinion/23margolick.html) from the original on February 21, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2017.
106. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-106)** Bergreen (1997), p. 472.
107. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-107)**
Hoople, Major (September 20, 1957). ["Armstrong Cancels Trip Due to Integration Crisis"](https://www.newspapers.com/image/596988965/). *Okmulgee Daily Times*. p. 10.
108. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-108)**
["Satchmo insist that he speaks for himself"](https://www.newspapers.com/image/748725015/). *Daily Record*. September 25, 1957. p. 9.
109. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Gabbard_109-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Gabbard_109-1)
Gabbard, Krin (2001). *Louis and The Good Book* (CD booklet). Louis Armstrong. New York City: [Verve Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verve_Records "Verve Records"). p. 1.
110. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-LeaveItAllBehindYa_110-0)**
Gilstrap, Peter (February 29, 1996). ["Leave It All Behind Ya"](https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/leave-it-all-behind-ya-6431842). *Phoenix New Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214821/https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/leave-it-all-behind-ya-6431842) from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2021.
111. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-111)**
[Teachout, Terry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Teachout "Terry Teachout") (2009). *Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong*. pp. 293–294.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0151010899](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0151010899 "Special:BookSources/978-0151010899")
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112. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-112)** Armstrong, Louis. *Christmas Through the Years*, Laserlight 12744.
113. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-113)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 390. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
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114. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-114)**
Andrews, Evan (October 17, 2022). ["9 Things You May Not Know About Louis Armstrong"](https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-louis-armstrong). *History.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201120054543/https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-louis-armstrong) from the original on November 20, 2020. Retrieved April 3, 2021.
115. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-115)** Satchmo.net. 'Red Beans and Ricely yours, Louis Armstrong.'
116. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-116)** [*Jive Dictionary*](https://web.archive.org/web/20031227020046/http://www.cabcalloway.cc/_vti_bin/shtml.exe/jive_dictionary.htm), by [Cab Calloway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cab_Calloway "Cab Calloway"): "*Barbecue (n.) – the girl friend, a beauty*." Retrieved February 10, 2009.
117. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-117)** Elie p. 327.
118. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-118)**
Hasse, John E. (April 1, 2014). ["Rare Footage of Duke Ellington Highlights When Jazz and Baseball Were in Perfect Harmony"](http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/rare-footage-duke-ellington-highlights-when-jazz-baseball-were-perfect-harmony-180950303/). *Smithsonian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170307050207/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/rare-footage-duke-ellington-highlights-when-jazz-baseball-were-perfect-harmony-180950303/) from the original on March 7, 2017. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
119. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-119)** Bergreen (1997), p. 4.
120. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-120)**
["Louis Armstrong"](http://www.freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/armstrong_l/armstrong_l.html). *Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon*. Retrieved September 3, 2010.
`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_deprecated_archival_service "Category:CS1 maint: deprecated archival service"))
121. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-121)**
["Louis the First"](https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,805063-1,00.html), *Time*, February 21, 1949, [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210616225029/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,805063-1,00.html) from the original on June 16, 2021, retrieved February 5, 2021
122. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-122)**
Harker, Brian Cameron (1997). *The early musical development of Louis Armstrong, 1901–1928* (PhD thesis). Columbia University.
[ProQuest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest "ProQuest") [304443911](https://www.proquest.com/docview/304443911).
123. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-123)** Lynn Rene Bayley, "More Jazz: 'Louis Armstrong – The Early Years." *Fanfare – The Magazine for Serious Record Collectors*. 09 2008: 408–410. ProQuest. Web. July 14, 2016.
124. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-124)**
Michael Cogswell, *Louis Armstrong: The Offstage Story of Satchmo* (Collector's Press, [Portland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregon "Portland, Oregon"), Oregon, 2003)
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[1888054816](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1888054816 "Special:BookSources/1888054816")
pp. 66–68.
125. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-125)**
["NPR's Jazz Profiles from NPR: Louis Armstrong: The Singer"](https://www.npr.org/2007/08/22/13829155/louis-armstrong-the-singer). *NPR*. National Public Radio. August 22, 2007. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210614225900/https://www.npr.org/2007/08/22/13829155/louis-armstrong-the-singer) from the original on June 14, 2021. Retrieved June 16, 2021.
126. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-126)**
["Louis Armstrong's Secret Lessons From Judaism"](https://forward.com/culture/197338/louis-armstrongs-secret-lessons-from-judaism/). *The Forward*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230317114334/https://forward.com/culture/197338/louis-armstrongs-secret-lessons-from-judaism/) from the original on March 17, 2023. Retrieved January 12, 2018.
127. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-127)**
Bergreen, Laurence (1998). [*Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrong00laur) (Reprint ed.). New York: Broadway Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0767901567](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0767901567 "Special:BookSources/978-0767901567")
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128. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-billboard.com_128-0)**
["Louis Armstrong"](https://www.billboard.com/artist/308288/louis-armstrong/biography). *Billboard*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180614200258/https://www.billboard.com/artist/308288/louis-armstrong/biography) from the original on June 14, 2018. Retrieved March 19, 2020.
129. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-129)** Louis Armstrong: "*Grassa e bella*" [Louis Armstrong Discography](http://michaelminn.net/armstrong/index.php?section8) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140111230507/http://michaelminn.net/armstrong/index.php?section8) January 11, 2014, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")
130. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-130)**
["High Society (1956) – High Society Calpyso"](https://www.tcm.com/video/192833/high-society-1956-high-society-calpyso). *[Turner Classic Movies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turner_Classic_Movies "Turner Classic Movies")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210225090502/https://www.tcm.com/video/192833/high-society-1956-high-society-calpyso) from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved November 24, 2020.
131. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-LAHM-still_131-0)**
Riccardi, Ricky (May 11, 2020). ["'I'm Still Louis Armstrong – Colored': Louis Armstrong and the Civil Rights Era"](https://virtualexhibits.louisarmstronghouse.org/2020/05/11/im-still-louis-armstrong-colored-louis-armstrong-and-the-civil-rights-era/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. [Louis Armstrong House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_House "Louis Armstrong House"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210123064520/https://virtualexhibits.louisarmstronghouse.org/2020/05/11/im-still-louis-armstrong-colored-louis-armstrong-and-the-civil-rights-era/) from the original on January 23, 2021. Retrieved April 3, 2021.
132. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-MacDonald_132-0)**
[MacDonald, J. Fred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Fred_MacDonald "J. Fred MacDonald"), ed. (1989). "The Trumpet Talks". *Richard Durham's Destination Freedom*. New York: Praeger. pp. 215–229\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0275931382](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275931382 "Special:BookSources/0275931382")
.
133. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-133)**
Recording
[OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1323055804](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1323055804), [13571274](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13571274), [26452918](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26452918)
134. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-134)**
["Stardust Memories"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130206163732/http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19800101%2FREVIEWS%2F1010330%2F1023). Rogerebert.suntimes.com. January 1, 1980. Archived from [the original](http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19800101%2FREVIEWS%2F1010330%2F1023) on February 6, 2013. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
135. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-135)**
Brody, Richard. ["Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues"](https://www.newyorker.com/goings-on-about-town/movies/louis-armstrongs-black-and-blues). *The New Yorker*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240501074447/https://www.newyorker.com/goings-on-about-town/movies/louis-armstrongs-black-and-blues) from the original on May 1, 2024. Retrieved May 1, 2024.
136. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-136)**
[Morgenstern, Dan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Morgenstern "Dan Morgenstern"), and Sheldon Meyer (2004). [*Living with Jazz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GVWrw0dtuAMC&pg=PT95) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230512103354/https://books.google.com/books?id=GVWrw0dtuAMC&pg=PT95) May 12, 2023, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). New York: Pantheon Books.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[037542072X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/037542072X "Special:BookSources/037542072X")
137. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-137)** Krebs, Albin. ["Louis Armstrong, Jazz Trumpeter and Singer, Dies"](https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0804.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161206142237/http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0804.html) December 6, 2016, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), *The New York Times*, July 7, 1971. Accessed October 1, 2009. "Louis Armstrong, the celebrated jazz trumpeter and singer, died in his sleep yesterday morning at his home in the Corona section of Queens."
138. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-138)**
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1985). [*Louis Armstrong*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrongam00coll). Pan. p. 333. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0330286077](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0330286077 "Special:BookSources/978-0330286077")
.
139. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-139)**
Burton, Anthony (July 10, 1971). ["Louis Armstrong's body is laid to rest in Queens"](https://www.nydailynews.com/2015/07/05/louis-armstrongs-body-is-laid-to-rest-in-queens/). *New York Daily News*.
140. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-140)**
Lelyveld, Joseph (July 10, 1971). ["Friends Bid Louis Armstrong a Nostalgic Farewell at Simple Service"](https://www.nytimes.com/1971/07/10/archives/friends-bid-louis-armstrong-a-nostalgic-farewell-at-simple-service.html). *New York Times*.
141. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-141)**
["Louis Armstrong Dies: 1971 Year in Review"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090503142809/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/). Upi.com. December 28, 1971. Archived from [the original](http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/#title) on May 3, 2009. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
142. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-142)**
["Lifetime Achievement Award"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090212143148/http://grammy.com/Recording_Academy/Awards/Lifetime_Awards/). Grammy.com. February 8, 2009. Archived from [the original](http://www.grammy.com/Recording_Academy/Awards/Lifetime_Awards/) on February 12, 2009. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
143. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-143)**
["Grammy Hall of Fame Database"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110122042616/http://www.grammy.org/recording-academy/awards/hall-of-fame). Grammy.com. February 8, 2009. Archived from [the original](http://www.grammy.org/recording-academy/awards/hall-of-fame) on January 22, 2011. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
144. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-144)**
["The Recording Academy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090612184539/http://www.grammy.com/PressReleases/443_466_Hall%20of%20Fame%20release%20FINAL.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://www.grammy.com/PressReleases/443_466_Hall%20of%20Fame%20release%20FINAL.pdf) (PDF) on June 12, 2009. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
145. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-145)**
["Experience The Music: One Hit Wonders and The Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll"](http://rockhall.com/exhibits/one-hit-wonders-songs-that-shaped-rock-and-roll/). Rockhall.com. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120509180015/http://rockhall.com/exhibits/one-hit-wonders-songs-that-shaped-rock-and-roll/) from the original on May 9, 2012. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
146. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-HollywoodWalkOfFame_146-0)**
["Louis Armstrong"](http://www.walkoffame.com/louis-armstrong). *Hollywood Walk of Fame*. February 8, 1960. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210307214732/http://www.walkoffame.com/louis-armstrong) from the original on March 7, 2021. Retrieved October 2, 2011.
147. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-147)**
["AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Stars Nominees"](http://www.afi.com/Docs/100Years/stars500.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140328082208/http://www.afi.com/Docs/100Years/stars500.pdf) (PDF) from the original on March 28, 2014. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
148. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-148)**
["A Long Way From Tacoma"](https://movies2.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/reviews/010211.11gottlit.html). *movies2.nytimes.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180929000507/http://movies2.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/reviews/010211.11gottlit.html) from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved September 28, 2018.
149. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-149)**
Storb, Ilse (2000). [*Jazz Meets the World-the World Meets Jazz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=40FU7dEiB78C&q=%22%22If%20anybody%20was%20a%20master,%20it%20was%20Louis%20Armstrong.%22%22&pg=PA168). LIT Verlag Münster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-3825837488](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3825837488 "Special:BookSources/978-3825837488")
.
150. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-150)** See *Ken Burns' Jazz* CD Set liner notes.
151. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-151)**
["At Home with Harold Bloom: (3) The Jazz Bridge"](http://radioopensource.org/at-home-with-harold-bloom-3-the-jazz-bridge/). *Radioopensource.org*. December 30, 2007. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230530103832/https://radioopensource.org/at-home-with-harold-bloom-3-the-jazz-bridge/) from the original on May 30, 2023. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
152. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-152)**
["The 200 Greatest Singers of All Time"](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-singers-all-time-1234642307/louis-armstrong-3-1234643140/). *Rolling Stone*. January 1, 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231006045347/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-singers-all-time-1234642307/louis-armstrong-3-1234643140/) from the original on October 6, 2023. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
153. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-153)**
["IAU Minor Planet Center"](https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=9179). *minorplanetcenter.net*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180231/http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=9179) from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved December 11, 2022.
154. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-154)**
["Library of Congress archive"](https://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-2002reg.html). *[Library of Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress")*. February 18, 2009. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150315025418/http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/registry/nrpb-2002reg.html) from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
155. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-155)**
["Ashe & Armstrong Stadiums"](https://web.archive.org/web/20151001025842/http://www.usta.com/Active/News/National-Tennis-Center-News/National-Tennis-Center/14185_Ashe__Armstrong_Stadiums/). Usta.com. May 25, 2008. Archived from [the original](http://www.usta.com/Active/News/National-Tennis-Center-News/National-Tennis-Center/14185_Ashe__Armstrong_Stadiums/) on October 1, 2015. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
156. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-156)** Bergreen (1997), p. 11.
157. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-157)**
["Armstrong Park Dedicated"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24648140/louis_armstrong_louis_armstrong_park/). *Daily World*. Opelousas, Louisiana. [UPI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International "United Press International"). April 16, 1980. p. 3. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181030034956/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24648140/louis_armstrong_louis_armstrong_park/) from the original on October 30, 2018. Retrieved October 25, 2018 – via [Newspapers.com](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com").
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access "open access publication – free to read")
158. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-158)**
["A Wonderful World"](https://miaminewdrama.org/show/a-wonderful-world/). *Miami New Drama*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230927093529/https://miaminewdrama.org/show/a-wonderful-world/) from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
159. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-159)**
Clement, Olivia (March 5, 2020). ["Louis Armstrong Musical A Wonderful World Kicks Off World Premiere in Miami"](https://playbill.com/article/louis-armstrong-musical-a-wonderful-world-kicks-off-world-premiere-in-miami#:~:text=Performances%20begin%20March%205%20at,stars%20as%20jazz%20legend%20Armstrong.). *Playbill.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231022235816/https://playbill.com/article/louis-armstrong-musical-a-wonderful-world-kicks-off-world-premiere-in-miami#:~:text=Performances%20begin%20March%205%20at,stars%20as%20jazz%20legend%20Armstrong.) from the original on October 22, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
160. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-160)**
["Exclusive Photos/Video: Final Preview of A WONDERFUL WORLD; Opening Night Cancelled at the Colony Theatre"](https://www.broadwayworld.com/miami/article/Exclusive-PhotosVideo-Final-Preview-of-A-WONDERFUL-WORLD-Opening-Night-Cancelled-at-the-Colony-Theatre-20200314). *Broadway World*. March 14, 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231022234313/https://www.broadwayworld.com/miami/article/Exclusive-PhotosVideo-Final-Preview-of-A-WONDERFUL-WORLD-Opening-Night-Cancelled-at-the-Colony-Theatre-20200314) from the original on October 22, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
161. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-161)**
Gans, Andrew (July 12, 2023). ["Cast Complete for A Wonderful World Musical Starring James Monroe Iglehart; Vanessa Williams Joins Producing Team"](https://playbill.com/article/cast-complete-for-a-wonderful-world-musical-starring-james-monroe-iglehart-vanessa-williams-joins-producing-team). *Playbill.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230925202808/https://playbill.com/article/cast-complete-for-a-wonderful-world-musical-starring-james-monroe-iglehart-vanessa-williams-joins-producing-team) from the original on September 25, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
162. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-162)**
["A Wonderful World: The Louis Armstrong Musical"](https://www.thepressroomnyc.com/wonderful-world). *The Press Room, NYC*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240406082119/https://www.thepressroomnyc.com/wonderful-world) from the original on April 6, 2024. Retrieved April 6, 2024.
163. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-163)**
["The Museum – About"](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/about/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
164. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-164)**
["Events"](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/events/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
165. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-165)**
["Research Archives – Collections"](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/museum-collections/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
166. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-visitorscenter_166-0)**
["Louis Armstrong House Museum and CUNY Celebrate Opening of New Center"](https://www1.cuny.edu/mu/forum/2023/07/07/louis-armstrong-house-museum-and-cuny-celebrate-opening-of-new-center/). The City University of New York. July 7, 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231127050846/https://www1.cuny.edu/mu/forum/2023/07/07/louis-armstrong-house-museum-and-cuny-celebrate-opening-of-new-center/) from the original on November 27, 2023. Retrieved November 30, 2023.
167. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-167)**
["Catalogs"](https://collections.louisarmstronghouse.org/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
## Works cited
| External videos |
|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg) [Presentation by Teachout about *Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong*, January 7, 2010](https://www.c-span.org/video/?291140-1/pops-life-louis-armstrong), [C-SPAN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-SPAN "C-SPAN") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg) [*Q\&A* interview with Teachout about *Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong*, January 31, 2010](https://www.c-span.org/video/?291150-1/terry-teachout-wall-street-journal-drama-critic-passes-age-65), [C-SPAN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-SPAN "C-SPAN") |
- Armstrong, Louis (1954). *Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans*.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0306802767](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0306802767 "Special:BookSources/0306802767")
.
- [Bergreen, Laurence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Bergreen "Laurence Bergreen") (1997). *Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life*.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0553067680](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0553067680 "Special:BookSources/0553067680")
.
- Cogswell, Michael (2003). *Armstrong: The Offstage Story*.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[1888054816](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1888054816 "Special:BookSources/1888054816")
.
- Elie, Lolis Eric. *A Letter from New Orleans*. Originally printed in *Gourmet*. Reprinted in *Best Food Writing 2006*, ed. by Holly Hughes, Da Capo Press, 2006.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[1569242879](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1569242879 "Special:BookSources/1569242879")
.
- [Teachout, Terry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Teachout "Terry Teachout") (2009). [*Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong*](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Pops/WrDB5XZbXZEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq&printsec=frontcover).
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0151010899](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0151010899 "Special:BookSources/978-0151010899")
.
## Further readings
- [Brothers, Thomas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brothers "Thomas Brothers") (2006). *Louis Armstrong's New Orleans**,*** New York, N.Y. W. W. Norton & Company
- Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W. W. Norton & Company
- [Feather, Leonard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Feather "Leonard Feather") (1960). *The Jazz Encyclopedia*. Da Capo. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-306-80214-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80214-7 "Special:BookSources/0-306-80214-7")
.
`{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date "Help:CS1 errors"))
- [Giddins, Gary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Giddins "Gary Giddins") (1988). *Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong*. Da Capo Press
- [Gioia, Ted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Gioia "Ted Gioia") (2022). *The History of Jazz (Third Edition)*. Oxford University Press
- [Jones, Max](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Jones_\(musician\) "Max Jones (musician)"), and Chilton, John (1988). *Louis: The Louis Armstrong Story, 1900–1971*. Da Capo Press.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0306803246](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306803246 "Special:BookSources/978-0306803246")
.
- Riccardi, Ricky (2012). *What a Wonderful World: The Magic of Louis Armstrong's Later Years*. New York: Vintage. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780307473295](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307473295 "Special:BookSources/9780307473295")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [798285020](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/798285020).
- —— (2020). *Heart Full of Rhythm: The Big Band Years of Louis Armstrong*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780190914110](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190914110 "Special:BookSources/9780190914110")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1137836373](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1137836373).
- —— (2025). *Stomp off, Let's Go: The Early Years of Louis Armstrong*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780197614488](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197614488 "Special:BookSources/9780197614488")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1427941152](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1427941152).
- Storb, Ilse (1999). *Louis Armstrong: The Definitive Biography*.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0820431036](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0820431036 "Special:BookSources/0820431036")
.
- Willems, Jos (2006). *All of Me: The Complete Discography of Louis Armstrong*. Scarecrow Press.
[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0810857308](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810857308 "Special:BookSources/978-0810857308")
.
## External links
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Louis Armstrong](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Louis_Armstrong "commons:Category:Louis Armstrong").
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg)
Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[Louis Armstrong](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Louis_Armstrong "q:Special:Search/Louis Armstrong")***.
[Library resources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library "Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library") about
**Louis Armstrong**
***
- [Resources in your library](https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Louis+Armstrong)
- [Resources in other libraries](https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Louis+Armstrong&library=0CHOOSE0)
**By Louis Armstrong**
- [Resources in your library](https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=&au=Louis+Armstrong)
- [Resources in other libraries](https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=&au=Louis+Armstrong&library=0CHOOSE0)
- [Louis Armstrong House Museum](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/)
- [Louis Armstrong](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001918/) at [IMDb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMDb_\(identifier\) "IMDb (identifier)") [](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1779#P345 "Edit this at Wikidata")
- [Louis Armstrong](https://www.discogs.com/artist/Louis+Armstrong) discography at [Discogs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discogs "Discogs")
- [Louis Armstrong](https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/louis-armstrong) collected news and commentary at *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*
- [\[1\]](https://virtualexhibits.louisarmstronghouse.org/2025/11/12/hot-five-centennial-celebration-part-1-birth-of-the-hot/)
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Louis_Armstrong "Template:Louis Armstrong") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Louis_Armstrong "Template talk:Louis Armstrong") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Louis_Armstrong "Special:EditPage/Template:Louis Armstrong")[Louis Armstrong]() | |
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| **[Discography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_discography "Louis Armstrong discography")** **[Filmography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_filmography "Louis Armstrong filmography")** | |
| Top Ten singles | "[Muskrat Ramble](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskrat_Ramble "Muskrat Ramble")" (1926) "Hotter Than That" "[West End Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_Blues "West End Blues")" (1928) "[Ain't Misbehavin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t_Misbehavin%27_\(song\) "Ain't Misbehavin' (song)")" (1929) "[Chinatown, My Chinatown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinatown,_My_Chinatown "Chinatown, My Chinatown")" (1932) "[You Can Depend on Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Can_Depend_on_Me_\(Louis_Armstrong_song\) "You Can Depend on Me (Louis Armstrong song)")" "[All of Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_of_Me_\(jazz_standard\) "All of Me (jazz standard)")" "Love, You Funny Thing" "Sweethearts on Parade" "[Body and Soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_and_Soul_\(1930_song\) "Body and Soul (1930 song)")" (1932) "Hobo, You Can't Ride This Train" (1933) "[I'm in the Mood for Love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m_in_the_Mood_for_Love "I'm in the Mood for Love")/You Are My Lucky Star" (1935) "Public Melody Number One" (1937) "[When the Saints Go Marching In](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_In "When the Saints Go Marching In")" (1939) "[You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Won%27t_Be_Satisfied_\(Until_You_Break_My_Heart\) "You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart)")" (1946) "When We Are Dancing" (1951) "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")" (1968) |
| Albums | *[Satchmo at Pasadena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchmo_at_Pasadena "Satchmo at Pasadena")* (1951) *[Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Plays_W.C._Handy "Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy")* (1955) *[Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_at_the_Crescendo,_Vol._1 "Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1")* (1955) *[Satch Plays Fats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satch_Plays_Fats "Satch Plays Fats")* (1955) *[Louis and the Angels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_and_the_Angels "Louis and the Angels")* (1957) *[Louis and the Good Book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_and_the_Good_Book "Louis and the Good Book")* (1958) *[Satchmo In Style](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchmo_In_Style "Satchmo In Style")* (1959) *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Hello, Dolly! (Louis Armstrong album)")* (1964) *[Struttin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struttin%27_\(Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Struttin' (Louis Armstrong album)")* (1996) |
| With [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald") | [Armstrong-Fitzgerald history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_collaborations "Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations") *[Ella and Louis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis "Ella and Louis")* (1956) *[Ella and Louis Again](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis_Again "Ella and Louis Again")* (1957) *[Porgy and Bess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess_\(Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Porgy and Bess (Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong album)")* (1959) *[The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Ella_Fitzgerald_%26_Louis_Armstrong_on_Verve "The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve")* |
| Other collaborations | *[Louis Armstrong Meets Oscar Peterson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Meets_Oscar_Peterson "Louis Armstrong Meets Oscar Peterson")* (1957) *[Bing & Satchmo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_%26_Satchmo "Bing & Satchmo")* (1960) *[The Great Summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Summit "The Great Summit")* (1961) *[The Real Ambassadors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Ambassadors "The Real Ambassadors")* (1961) |
| Songs | "[Willie the Weeper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_the_Weeper "Willie the Weeper")" "[West End Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_Blues#Louis_Armstrong's_recording "West End Blues")" (1928) "[Ain't Misbehavin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t_Misbehavin%27_\(song\) "Ain't Misbehavin' (song)")" "[When the Saints Go Marching In](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_In "When the Saints Go Marching In")" "[Mack the Knife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mack_the_Knife "Mack the Knife")" (1956) "[Autumn in New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autumn_in_New_York_\(song\) "Autumn in New York (song)")" "[On My Way](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_My_Way_\(Louis_Armstrong_song\) "On My Way (Louis Armstrong song)")" (1959) "[Uncle Satchmo's Lullaby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle_Satchmo%27s_Lullaby "Uncle Satchmo's Lullaby")" (1959) "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" (1964) "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")" (1967) "[We Have All the Time in the World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Have_All_the_Time_in_the_World "We Have All the Time in the World")" (1969) "[Alexander's Ragtime Band](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%27s_Ragtime_Band "Alexander's Ragtime Band")" "[April in Paris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_in_Paris_\(song\) "April in Paris (song)")" "[Back Home Again in Indiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_Home_Again_in_Indiana "Back Home Again in Indiana")" "[Basin Street Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basin_Street_Blues "Basin Street Blues")" "[Big Butter and Egg Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Butter_and_Egg_Man "Big Butter and Egg Man")" "[Blue Turning Grey Over You](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Turning_Grey_Over_You "Blue Turning Grey Over You")" "[Blueberry Hill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueberry_Hill_\(song\) "Blueberry Hill (song)")" "[C'est si bon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%27est_si_bon "C'est si bon")" "[Can't We Be Friends?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can%27t_We_Be_Friends%3F "Can't We Be Friends?")" "[Cheek to Cheek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheek_to_Cheek "Cheek to Cheek")" "[Cold, Cold Heart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold,_Cold_Heart "Cold, Cold Heart")" "[Cool Yule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_Yule_\(song\) "Cool Yule (song)")" "[Dippermouth Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippermouth_Blues "Dippermouth Blues")" "[Do You Know What It Means to Miss New Orleans?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_You_Know_What_It_Means_to_Miss_New_Orleans%3F "Do You Know What It Means to Miss New Orleans?")" "[Dream a Little Dream of Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_a_Little_Dream_of_Me "Dream a Little Dream of Me")" "[East of the Sun (and West of the Moon)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_of_the_Sun_\(and_West_of_the_Moon\) "East of the Sun (and West of the Moon)")" "[El Choclo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Choclo "El Choclo")" "[Everybody Loves My Baby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everybody_Loves_My_Baby "Everybody Loves My Baby")" "[Frankie and Johnny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankie_and_Johnny_\(song\) "Frankie and Johnny (song)")" "[Georgia on My Mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_on_My_Mind "Georgia on My Mind")" "[Get Together](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Together_\(Youngbloods_song\) "Get Together (Youngbloods song)")" "[Gone Fishin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gone_Fishin%27_\(song\) "Gone Fishin' (song)")" "[The Gypsy in My Soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gypsy_in_My_Soul "The Gypsy in My Soul")" "[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")" "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" "[Hey Lawdy Mama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hey_Lawdy_Mama "Hey Lawdy Mama")" "[High Society Calypso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Society_Calypso "High Society Calypso")" "[I Get Ideas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Get_Ideas "I Get Ideas")" "[I Wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Wonder_\(1944_song\) "I Wonder (1944 song)")" "[I've Got the World on a String](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27ve_Got_the_World_on_a_String "I've Got the World on a String")" "[It's Been a Long, Long Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%27s_Been_a_Long,_Long_Time "It's Been a Long, Long Time")" "[Jeepers Creepers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeepers_Creepers_\(song\) "Jeepers Creepers (song)")" "[A Kiss to Build a Dream On](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Kiss_to_Build_a_Dream_On "A Kiss to Build a Dream On")" "[(Up A) Lazy River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/\(Up_A\)_Lazy_River "(Up A) Lazy River")" "[Let's Call the Whole Thing Off](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s_Call_the_Whole_Thing_Off "Let's Call the Whole Thing Off")" "[Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s_Do_It,_Let%27s_Fall_in_Love "Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love")" "[Mame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mame_\(song\) "Mame (song)")" "[Moon River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_River "Moon River")" "[Moonlight in Vermont](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonlight_in_Vermont_\(song\) "Moonlight in Vermont (song)")" "Muggles" "[Muskrat Ramble](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskrat_Ramble "Muskrat Ramble")" "[Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobody_Knows_the_Trouble_I%27ve_Seen "Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen")" "[Now You Has Jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Now_You_Has_Jazz "Now You Has Jazz")" "[On a Little Bamboo Bridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_a_Little_Bamboo_Bridge "On a Little Bamboo Bridge")" "[On My Way](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_My_Way_\(Louis_Armstrong_song\) "On My Way (Louis Armstrong song)")" "[On the Sunny Side of the Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Sunny_Side_of_the_Street "On the Sunny Side of the Street")" "[Pennies from Heaven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennies_from_Heaven_\(song\) "Pennies from Heaven (song)")" "[Potato Head Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_Head_Blues "Potato Head Blues")" "[Red Sails in the Sunset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sails_in_the_Sunset_\(song\) "Red Sails in the Sunset (song)")" "[Rockin' Chair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockin%27_Chair_\(1929_song\) "Rockin' Chair (1929 song)")" "[Saint Louis Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Louis_Blues_\(song\) "Saint Louis Blues (song)")" "[Shine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shine_\(1910_song\) "Shine (1910 song)")" "[Skokiaan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skokiaan "Skokiaan")" "[Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sometimes_I_Feel_Like_a_Motherless_Child "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child")" "[St. James Infirmary Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._James_Infirmary_Blues "St. James Infirmary Blues")" "[Standing on the Corner (Blue Yodel No. 9)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_Corner_\(Blue_Yodel_No._9\) "Standing on the Corner (Blue Yodel No. 9)")" "[Stardust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_\(1927_song\) "Stardust (1927 song)")" "[Stars Fell on Alabama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stars_Fell_on_Alabama "Stars Fell on Alabama")" "[Takes Two to Tango](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takes_Two_to_Tango_\(song\) "Takes Two to Tango (song)")" "[That Lucky Old Sun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That_Lucky_Old_Sun "That Lucky Old Sun")" "[That's My Desire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%27s_My_Desire "That's My Desire")" "[There Must Be Somebody Else](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There_Must_Be_Somebody_Else "There Must Be Somebody Else")" "[They All Laughed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/They_All_Laughed_\(song\) "They All Laughed (song)")" "[Uncle Satchmo's Lullaby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle_Satchmo%27s_Lullaby "Uncle Satchmo's Lullaby")" "[La Vie en rose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Vie_en_rose "La Vie en rose")" "[When It's Sleepy Time Down South](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_It%27s_Sleepy_Time_Down_South "When It's Sleepy Time Down South")" "[When You Wish Upon a Star](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_You_Wish_Upon_a_Star "When You Wish Upon a Star")" "[When You're Smiling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_You%27re_Smiling "When You're Smiling")" "[Willow Weep for Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willow_Weep_for_Me "Willow Weep for Me")" "[Winter Wonderland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Wonderland "Winter Wonderland")" "[Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah "Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah")" |
| Related | *[Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Hot_Five_and_Hot_Seven_Sessions "Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions")* (1925–1928) [Louis Armstrong House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_House "Louis Armstrong House") [Louis Armstrong Stadium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Stadium "Louis Armstrong Stadium") [Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_New_Orleans_International_Airport "Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport") *[Satchmo the Great](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchmo_the_Great "Satchmo the Great")* *[A Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Wonderful_World_\(musical\) "A Wonderful World (musical)")* |
| ** [Discography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Louis_Armstrong_albums "Category:Louis Armstrong albums")** **[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg "Portal") [Jazz Portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Jazz "Portal:Jazz")** | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Voyager_Golden_Record "Template:Voyager Golden Record") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Voyager_Golden_Record "Template talk:Voyager Golden Record") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Voyager_Golden_Record "Special:EditPage/Template:Voyager Golden Record")[Voyager Golden Record](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record "Voyager Golden Record") | |
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| [Contents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contents_of_the_Voyager_Golden_Record "Contents of the Voyager Golden Record") [Voyager program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_program "Voyager program") *[Voyager 1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1 "Voyager 1")* *[Voyager 2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2 "Voyager 2")* | |
| Sound | first movement of *[Brandenburg Concerto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandenburg_Concertos "Brandenburg Concertos")* No. 2, BWV 1047 "Cavatina" from [Beethoven's String Quartet No. 13](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_Quartet_No._13_\(Beethoven\) "String Quartet No. 13 (Beethoven)") [Chakrulo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakrulo "Chakrulo") "[Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Was_the_Night,_Cold_Was_the_Ground "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground")" "Gavotte en Rondeau" from [Partita for Violin No. 3, BWV 1006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partita_for_Violin_No._3_\(Bach\) "Partita for Violin No. 3 (Bach)") "[Izlel ye Delyo Haydutin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izlel_ye_Delyo_Haydutin "Izlel ye Delyo Haydutin")" "[Johnny B. Goode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_B._Goode "Johnny B. Goode")" [Mugham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mugham "Mugham") [Prelude and Fugue in C major, BWV 870, from *The Well-Tempered Clavier*, Book II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelude_and_Fugue_in_C_major,_BWV_870 "Prelude and Fugue in C major, BWV 870") [Puspawarna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puspawarna "Puspawarna") [Queen of the Night aria from *The Magic Flute*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_of_the_Night_aria "Queen of the Night aria") "Sacrificial Dance" from *[The Rite of Spring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rite_of_Spring "The Rite of Spring")* *[Songs of the Humpback Whale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songs_of_the_Humpback_Whale_\(album\) "Songs of the Humpback Whale (album)")* first movement of [Beethoven's Symphony No. 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._5_\(Beethoven\) "Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)") |
| Contributors | [Louis Armstrong]() [and His Hot Seven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_and_His_Hot_Seven "Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven") [Valya Balkanska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valya_Balkanska "Valya Balkanska") [Bavarian State Opera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_State_Opera "Bavarian State Opera") with [Edda Moser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edda_Moser "Edda Moser"), conductor: [Wolfgang Sawallisch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Sawallisch "Wolfgang Sawallisch") [Budapest String Quartet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest_String_Quartet "Budapest String Quartet") [Johann Sebastian Bach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach") [Ludwig van Beethoven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven") [Chuck Berry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Berry "Chuck Berry") [Columbia Symphony Orchestra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Symphony_Orchestra "Columbia Symphony Orchestra") conductor: [Igor Stravinsky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky") [John Cohen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cohen_\(musician\) "John Cohen (musician)") [Tom Djäwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Dj%C3%A4wa "Tom Djäwa") [Ann Druyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Druyan "Ann Druyan") [Glenn Gould](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Gould "Glenn Gould") [Arthur Grumiaux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Grumiaux "Arthur Grumiaux") [Guan Pinghu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan_Pinghu "Guan Pinghu") [Anthony Holborne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Holborne "Anthony Holborne") [Kamil Jalilov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamil_Jalilov "Kamil Jalilov") [Blind Willie Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_Willie_Johnson "Blind Willie Johnson") [Kesarbai Kerkar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesarbai_Kerkar "Kesarbai Kerkar") [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart") [Münchener Bach-Orchester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnchener_Bach-Orchester "Münchener Bach-Orchester") conductor: [Karl Richter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Richter_\(conductor\) "Karl Richter (conductor)") [David Munrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Munrow "David Munrow") with the [Early Music Consort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Music_Consort "Early Music Consort") [K. P. H. Notoprojo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._P._H._Notoprojo "K. P. H. Notoprojo") [Philharmonia Orchestra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philharmonia_Orchestra "Philharmonia Orchestra") conductor: [Otto Klemperer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Klemperer "Otto Klemperer") [Carl Sagan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Sagan "Carl Sagan") [Nick Sagan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Sagan "Nick Sagan") [Laurie Spiegel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurie_Spiegel "Laurie Spiegel") [Gorō Yamaguchi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gor%C5%8D_Yamaguchi "Gorō Yamaguchi") |
|  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Contents_of_the_Voyager_Golden_Record "Category:Contents of the Voyager Golden Record") [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg "Commons page") [Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Contents_of_the_Voyager_Golden_Record "commons:Category:Contents of the Voyager Golden Record") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_Pop_Vocal_Performance "Template:Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_Pop_Vocal_Performance "Template talk:Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_Pop_Vocal_Performance "Special:EditPage/Template:Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance")[Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_Pop_Vocal_Performance "Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance") | |
|---|---|
| 1950s | "[Catch a Falling Star](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch_a_Falling_Star "Catch a Falling Star")" – [Perry Como](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perry_Como "Perry Como") (1959) |
| 1960s | *[Come Dance with Me\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Come_Dance_with_Me!_\(album\) "Come Dance with Me! (album)")* – [Frank Sinatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra") (1960) "[Georgia on My Mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_on_My_Mind "Georgia on My Mind")" – [Ray Charles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles") / *[The Genius of Ray Charles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Genius_of_Ray_Charles "The Genius of Ray Charles")* – [Ray Charles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles") (1961) "[Lollipops and Roses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lollipops_and_Roses_\(song\) "Lollipops and Roses (song)")" – [Jack Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Jones_\(American_singer\) "Jack Jones (American singer)") (1962) "[I Left My Heart in San Francisco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Left_My_Heart_in_San_Francisco "I Left My Heart in San Francisco")" – [Tony Bennett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Bennett "Tony Bennett") (1963) "[Wives and Lovers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wives_and_Lovers "Wives and Lovers")" – [Jack Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Jones_\(American_singer\) "Jack Jones (American singer)") (1964) "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" – [Louis Armstrong]() (1965) "[It Was a Very Good Year](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_Was_a_Very_Good_Year "It Was a Very Good Year")" – [Frank Sinatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra") (1966) "[Strangers in the Night](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangers_in_the_Night "Strangers in the Night")" – [Frank Sinatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra") (1967) "[By the Time I Get to Phoenix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By_the_Time_I_Get_to_Phoenix "By the Time I Get to Phoenix")" – [Glen Campbell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Campbell "Glen Campbell") (1968) "[Light My Fire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_My_Fire#Jos.C3.A9_Feliciano_cover "Light My Fire")" – [José Feliciano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Feliciano "José Feliciano") (1969) |
| 1970s | "[Everybody's Talkin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everybody%27s_Talkin%27 "Everybody's Talkin'")" – [Harry Nilsson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Nilsson "Harry Nilsson") (1970) "[Everything Is Beautiful](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everything_Is_Beautiful "Everything Is Beautiful")" – [Ray Stevens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Stevens "Ray Stevens") (1971) "[You've Got a Friend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You%27ve_Got_a_Friend "You've Got a Friend")" – [James Taylor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Taylor "James Taylor") (1972) "[Without You](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Without_You_\(Badfinger_song\)#Harry_Nilsson_version "Without You (Badfinger song)")" – [Harry Nilsson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Nilsson "Harry Nilsson") (1973) "[You Are the Sunshine of My Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Are_the_Sunshine_of_My_Life "You Are the Sunshine of My Life")" – [Stevie Wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Wonder "Stevie Wonder") (1974) *[Fulfillingness' First Finale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulfillingness%27_First_Finale "Fulfillingness' First Finale")* – [Stevie Wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Wonder "Stevie Wonder") (1975) *[Still Crazy After All These Years](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_Crazy_After_All_These_Years "Still Crazy After All These Years")* – [Paul Simon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Simon "Paul Simon") (1976) *[Songs in the Key of Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songs_in_the_Key_of_Life "Songs in the Key of Life")* – [Stevie Wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Wonder "Stevie Wonder") (1977) "[Handy Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handy_Man_\(song\) "Handy Man (song)")" – [James Taylor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Taylor "James Taylor") (1978) "[Copacabana (At the Copa)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copacabana_\(song\) "Copacabana (song)")" – [Barry Manilow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Manilow "Barry Manilow") (1979) |
| 1980s | *[52nd Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/52nd_Street_\(album\) "52nd Street (album)")* – [Billy Joel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Joel "Billy Joel") (1980) "[This Is It](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_It_\(Kenny_Loggins_song\) "This Is It (Kenny Loggins song)")" – [Kenny Loggins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Loggins "Kenny Loggins") (1981) *[Breakin' Away](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakin%27_Away_\(album\) "Breakin' Away (album)")* – [Al Jarreau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jarreau "Al Jarreau") (1982) "[Truly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truly_\(Lionel_Richie_song\) "Truly (Lionel Richie song)")" – [Lionel Richie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Richie "Lionel Richie") (1983) *[Thriller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thriller_\(album\) "Thriller (album)")* – [Michael Jackson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson "Michael Jackson") (1984) "[Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_All_Odds_\(Take_a_Look_at_Me_Now\) "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)")" – [Phil Collins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Collins "Phil Collins") (1985) *[No Jacket Required](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Jacket_Required "No Jacket Required")* – [Phil Collins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Collins "Phil Collins") (1986) "[Higher Love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Love "Higher Love")" – [Steve Winwood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Winwood "Steve Winwood") (1987) *[Bring On the Night](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bring_On_the_Night "Bring On the Night")* – [Sting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting_\(musician\) "Sting (musician)") (1988) "[Don't Worry, Be Happy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Worry,_Be_Happy "Don't Worry, Be Happy")" – [Bobby McFerrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_McFerrin "Bobby McFerrin") (1989) |
| 1990s | "[How Am I Supposed to Live Without You](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_Am_I_Supposed_to_Live_Without_You#Michael_Bolton_version "How Am I Supposed to Live Without You")" – [Michael Bolton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Bolton "Michael Bolton") (1990) "[Oh, Pretty Woman (live 1987)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh,_Pretty_Woman "Oh, Pretty Woman")" – [Roy Orbison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Orbison "Roy Orbison") (1991) "[When a Man Loves a Woman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_a_Man_Loves_a_Woman_\(song\) "When a Man Loves a Woman (song)")" – [Michael Bolton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Bolton "Michael Bolton") (1992) "[Tears in Heaven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tears_in_Heaven "Tears in Heaven")" – [Eric Clapton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Clapton "Eric Clapton") (1993) "[If I Ever Lose My Faith in You](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_I_Ever_Lose_My_Faith_in_You "If I Ever Lose My Faith in You")" – [Sting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting_\(musician\) "Sting (musician)") (1994) "[Can You Feel the Love Tonight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can_You_Feel_the_Love_Tonight "Can You Feel the Love Tonight")" – [Elton John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_John "Elton John") (1995) "[Kiss from a Rose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiss_from_a_Rose "Kiss from a Rose")" – [Seal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_\(musician\) "Seal (musician)") (1996) "[Change the World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_the_World "Change the World")" – [Eric Clapton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Clapton "Eric Clapton") (1997) "[Candle in the Wind 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candle_in_the_Wind_1997 "Candle in the Wind 1997")" – [Elton John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_John "Elton John") (1998) "[My Father's Eyes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Father%27s_Eyes_\(song\) "My Father's Eyes (song)")" – [Eric Clapton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Clapton "Eric Clapton") (1999) |
| 2000s | "[Brand New Day](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_New_Day_\(Sting_song\) "Brand New Day (Sting song)")" – [Sting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting_\(musician\) "Sting (musician)") (2000) "She Walks This Earth" – [Sting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting_\(musician\) "Sting (musician)") (2001) "[Don't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Let_Me_Be_Lonely_Tonight "Don't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight")" – [James Taylor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Taylor "James Taylor") (2002) "[Your Body Is a Wonderland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Body_Is_a_Wonderland "Your Body Is a Wonderland")" – [John Mayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayer "John Mayer") (2003) "[Cry Me a River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cry_Me_a_River_\(Justin_Timberlake_song\) "Cry Me a River (Justin Timberlake song)")" – [Justin Timberlake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Timberlake "Justin Timberlake") (2004) "[Daughters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daughters_\(John_Mayer_song\) "Daughters (John Mayer song)")" – [John Mayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayer "John Mayer") (2005) "[From the Bottom of My Heart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_the_Bottom_of_My_Heart_\(Stevie_Wonder_song\) "From the Bottom of My Heart (Stevie Wonder song)")" – [Stevie Wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Wonder "Stevie Wonder") (2006) "[Waiting on the World to Change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waiting_on_the_World_to_Change "Waiting on the World to Change")" – [John Mayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayer "John Mayer") (2007) "[What Goes Around... Comes Around](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Goes_Around..._Comes_Around "What Goes Around... Comes Around")" – [Justin Timberlake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Timberlake "Justin Timberlake") (2008) "[Say](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Say_\(John_Mayer_song\) "Say (John Mayer song)")" – [John Mayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayer "John Mayer") (2009) |
| 2010s | "[Make It Mine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_It_Mine "Make It Mine")" – [Jason Mraz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Mraz "Jason Mraz") (2010) "[Just the Way You Are](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_the_Way_You_Are_\(Bruno_Mars_song\) "Just the Way You Are (Bruno Mars song)")" – [Bruno Mars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Mars "Bruno Mars") (2011) |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award "Template:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award "Template talk:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award "Special:EditPage/Template:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award")[Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award") | |
|---|---|
| 1963–1990 | 1963 [Bing Crosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby "Bing Crosby") 1965 [Frank Sinatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra") 1966 [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington") 1967 [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald") 1968 [Irving Berlin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Berlin "Irving Berlin") 1971 [Elvis Presley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_Presley "Elvis Presley") 1972 [Louis Armstrong]() [Mahalia Jackson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahalia_Jackson "Mahalia Jackson") 1984 [Chuck Berry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Berry "Chuck Berry") [Charlie Parker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Parker "Charlie Parker") 1985 [Leonard Bernstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein "Leonard Bernstein") 1986 [Benny Goodman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Goodman "Benny Goodman") [The Rolling Stones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones "The Rolling Stones") [Andrés Segovia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Segovia "Andrés Segovia") 1987 [Roy Acuff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Acuff "Roy Acuff") [Benny Carter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Carter "Benny Carter") [Enrico Caruso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Caruso "Enrico Caruso") [Ray Charles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles") [Fats Domino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats_Domino "Fats Domino") [Woody Herman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_Herman "Woody Herman") [Billie Holiday](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billie_Holiday "Billie Holiday") [B. B. King](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._King "B. B. King") [Isaac Stern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Stern "Isaac Stern") [Igor Stravinsky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky") [Arturo Toscanini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arturo_Toscanini "Arturo Toscanini") [Hank Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Williams "Hank Williams") 1989 [Fred Astaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Astaire "Fred Astaire") [Pablo Casals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Casals "Pablo Casals") [Dizzy Gillespie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizzy_Gillespie "Dizzy Gillespie") [Jascha Heifetz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jascha_Heifetz "Jascha Heifetz") [Lena Horne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lena_Horne "Lena Horne") [Leontyne Price](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leontyne_Price "Leontyne Price") [Bessie Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith") [Art Tatum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Tatum "Art Tatum") [Sarah Vaughan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Vaughan "Sarah Vaughan") 1990 [Nat King Cole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_King_Cole "Nat King Cole") [Miles Davis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis") [Vladimir Horowitz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Horowitz "Vladimir Horowitz") [Paul McCartney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McCartney "Paul McCartney") |
| 1991–2000 | 1991 [Marian Anderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Anderson "Marian Anderson") [Bob Dylan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan") [John Lennon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lennon "John Lennon") [Kitty Wells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitty_Wells "Kitty Wells") 1992 [James Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Brown "James Brown") [John Coltrane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Coltrane "John Coltrane") [Jimi Hendrix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix "Jimi Hendrix") [Muddy Waters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muddy_Waters "Muddy Waters") 1993 [Chet Atkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chet_Atkins "Chet Atkins") [Little Richard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Richard "Little Richard") [Thelonious Monk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thelonious_Monk "Thelonious Monk") [Bill Monroe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Monroe "Bill Monroe") [Pete Seeger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Seeger "Pete Seeger") [Fats Waller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats_Waller "Fats Waller") 1994 [Bill Evans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Evans "Bill Evans") [Aretha Franklin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aretha_Franklin "Aretha Franklin") [Arthur Rubinstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Rubinstein "Arthur Rubinstein") 1995 [Patsy Cline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patsy_Cline "Patsy Cline") [Peggy Lee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Lee "Peggy Lee") [Henry Mancini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Mancini "Henry Mancini") [Curtis Mayfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_Mayfield "Curtis Mayfield") [Barbra Streisand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbra_Streisand "Barbra Streisand") 1996 [Dave Brubeck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Brubeck "Dave Brubeck") [Marvin Gaye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvin_Gaye "Marvin Gaye") [Georg Solti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Solti "Georg Solti") [Stevie Wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Wonder "Stevie Wonder") 1997 [Bobby "Blue" Bland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Bland "Bobby Bland") [The Everly Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Everly_Brothers "The Everly Brothers") [Judy Garland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Garland "Judy Garland") [Stéphane Grappelli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Grappelli "Stéphane Grappelli") [Buddy Holly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_Holly "Buddy Holly") [Charles Mingus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mingus "Charles Mingus") [Oscar Peterson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Peterson "Oscar Peterson") [Frank Zappa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Zappa "Frank Zappa") 1998 [Bo Diddley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bo_Diddley "Bo Diddley") [The Mills Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mills_Brothers "The Mills Brothers") [Roy Orbison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Orbison "Roy Orbison") [Paul Robeson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Robeson "Paul Robeson") 1999 [Johnny Cash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Cash "Johnny Cash") [Sam Cooke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Cooke "Sam Cooke") [Otis Redding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otis_Redding "Otis Redding") [Smokey Robinson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smokey_Robinson "Smokey Robinson") [Mel Tormé](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mel_Torm%C3%A9 "Mel Tormé") 2000 [Harry Belafonte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Belafonte "Harry Belafonte") [Woody Guthrie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_Guthrie "Woody Guthrie") [John Lee Hooker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lee_Hooker "John Lee Hooker") [Mitch Miller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitch_Miller "Mitch Miller") [Willie Nelson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Nelson "Willie Nelson") |
| 2001–2010 | 2001 [The Beach Boys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beach_Boys "The Beach Boys") [Tony Bennett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Bennett "Tony Bennett") [Sammy Davis Jr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Davis_Jr. "Sammy Davis Jr.") [Bob Marley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Marley "Bob Marley") [The Who](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Who "The Who") 2002 [Count Basie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Basie "Count Basie") [Rosemary Clooney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary_Clooney "Rosemary Clooney") [Perry Como](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perry_Como "Perry Como") [Al Green](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Green "Al Green") [Joni Mitchell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joni_Mitchell "Joni Mitchell") 2003 [Etta James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etta_James "Etta James") [Johnny Mathis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Mathis "Johnny Mathis") [Glenn Miller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Miller "Glenn Miller") [Tito Puente](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tito_Puente "Tito Puente") [Simon & Garfunkel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Garfunkel "Simon & Garfunkel") 2004 [Van Cliburn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Cliburn "Van Cliburn") [The Funk Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Funk_Brothers "The Funk Brothers") [Ella Jenkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Jenkins "Ella Jenkins") [Sonny Rollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonny_Rollins "Sonny Rollins") [Artie Shaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artie_Shaw "Artie Shaw") [Doc Watson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doc_Watson "Doc Watson") 2005 [Eddy Arnold](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_Arnold "Eddy Arnold") [Art Blakey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Blakey "Art Blakey") The [Carter Family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Family "Carter Family") [Morton Gould](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Gould "Morton Gould") [Janis Joplin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janis_Joplin "Janis Joplin") [Led Zeppelin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led_Zeppelin "Led Zeppelin") [Jerry Lee Lewis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Lee_Lewis "Jerry Lee Lewis") [Jelly Roll Morton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jelly_Roll_Morton "Jelly Roll Morton") [Pinetop Perkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinetop_Perkins "Pinetop Perkins") [The Staple Singers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Staple_Singers "The Staple Singers") 2006 [David Bowie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie "David Bowie") [Cream](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cream_\(band\) "Cream (band)") [Merle Haggard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merle_Haggard "Merle Haggard") [Robert Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Johnson "Robert Johnson") [Jessye Norman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessye_Norman "Jessye Norman") [Richard Pryor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pryor "Richard Pryor") [The Weavers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weavers "The Weavers") 2007 [Joan Baez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Baez "Joan Baez") [Booker T. & the M.G.'s](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._%26_the_M.G.%27s "Booker T. & the M.G.'s") [Maria Callas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Callas "Maria Callas") [Ornette Coleman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornette_Coleman "Ornette Coleman") [The Doors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doors "The Doors") The [Grateful Dead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead "Grateful Dead") [Bob Wills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Wills "Bob Wills") 2008 [Burt Bacharach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Bacharach "Burt Bacharach") [The Band](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Band "The Band") [Cab Calloway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cab_Calloway "Cab Calloway") [Doris Day](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Day "Doris Day") [Itzhak Perlman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itzhak_Perlman "Itzhak Perlman") [Max Roach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Roach "Max Roach") [Earl Scruggs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Scruggs "Earl Scruggs") 2009 [Gene Autry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Autry "Gene Autry") [The Blind Boys of Alabama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blind_Boys_of_Alabama "The Blind Boys of Alabama") [The Four Tops](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Tops "Four Tops") [Hank Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Jones "Hank Jones") [Brenda Lee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Lee "Brenda Lee") [Dean Martin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_Martin "Dean Martin") [Tom Paxton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Paxton "Tom Paxton") 2010 [Leonard Cohen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Cohen "Leonard Cohen") [Bobby Darin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Darin "Bobby Darin") [David "Honeyboy" Edwards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_%22Honeyboy%22_Edwards "David \"Honeyboy\" Edwards") [Michael Jackson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson "Michael Jackson") [Loretta Lynn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loretta_Lynn "Loretta Lynn") [André Previn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Previn "André Previn") [Clark Terry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Terry "Clark Terry") |
| 2011–2020 | 2011 [Julie Andrews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Andrews "Julie Andrews") [Roy Haynes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Haynes "Roy Haynes") [Juilliard String Quartet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juilliard_String_Quartet "Juilliard String Quartet") [The Kingston Trio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kingston_Trio "The Kingston Trio") [Dolly Parton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_Parton "Dolly Parton") [Ramones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramones "Ramones") [George Beverly Shea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Beverly_Shea "George Beverly Shea") 2012 [The Allman Brothers Band](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Allman_Brothers_Band "The Allman Brothers Band") [Glen Campbell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Campbell "Glen Campbell") [Antônio Carlos Jobim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Carlos_Jobim "Antônio Carlos Jobim") [George Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Jones "George Jones") [The Memphis Horns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Memphis_Horns "The Memphis Horns") [Diana Ross](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Ross "Diana Ross") [Gil Scott-Heron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil_Scott-Heron "Gil Scott-Heron") 2013 [Glenn Gould](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Gould "Glenn Gould") [Charlie Haden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Haden "Charlie Haden") [Lightnin' Hopkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightnin%27_Hopkins "Lightnin' Hopkins") [Carole King](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carole_King "Carole King") [Patti Page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patti_Page "Patti Page") [Ravi Shankar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Shankar "Ravi Shankar") [The Temptations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Temptations "The Temptations") 2014 [The Beatles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") [Clifton Chenier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifton_Chenier "Clifton Chenier") [The Isley Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Isley_Brothers "The Isley Brothers") [Kraftwerk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraftwerk "Kraftwerk") [Kris Kristofferson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris_Kristofferson "Kris Kristofferson") [Armando Manzanero](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armando_Manzanero "Armando Manzanero") [Maud Powell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maud_Powell "Maud Powell") 2015 [Bee Gees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee_Gees "Bee Gees") [Pierre Boulez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Boulez "Pierre Boulez") [Buddy Guy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_Guy "Buddy Guy") [George Harrison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Harrison "George Harrison") [Flaco Jiménez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaco_Jim%C3%A9nez "Flaco Jiménez") [The Louvin Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Louvin_Brothers "The Louvin Brothers") [Wayne Shorter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Shorter "Wayne Shorter") 2016 [Ruth Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Brown "Ruth Brown") [Celia Cruz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celia_Cruz "Celia Cruz") [Earth, Wind & Fire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth,_Wind_%26_Fire "Earth, Wind & Fire") [Herbie Hancock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbie_Hancock "Herbie Hancock") [Jefferson Airplane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_Airplane "Jefferson Airplane") [Linda Ronstadt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Ronstadt "Linda Ronstadt") [Run-DMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-DMC "Run-DMC") 2017 [Shirley Caesar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Caesar "Shirley Caesar") [Ahmad Jamal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Jamal "Ahmad Jamal") [Charley Pride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charley_Pride "Charley Pride") [Jimmie Rodgers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie_Rodgers_\(country_singer\) "Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)") [Nina Simone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Simone "Nina Simone") [Sly Stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sly_Stone "Sly Stone") [The Velvet Underground](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Velvet_Underground "The Velvet Underground") 2018 [Hal Blaine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Blaine "Hal Blaine") [Neil Diamond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Diamond "Neil Diamond") [Emmylou Harris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmylou_Harris "Emmylou Harris") [Louis Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Jordan "Louis Jordan") [The Meters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meters "The Meters") [Queen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_\(band\) "Queen (band)") [Tina Turner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tina_Turner "Tina Turner") 2019 [Black Sabbath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sabbath "Black Sabbath") [George Clinton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Clinton_\(funk_musician\) "George Clinton (funk musician)") and [Parliament-Funkadelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament-Funkadelic "Parliament-Funkadelic") [Billy Eckstine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Eckstine "Billy Eckstine") [Donny Hathaway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donny_Hathaway "Donny Hathaway") [Julio Iglesias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio_Iglesias "Julio Iglesias") [Sam & Dave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_%26_Dave "Sam & Dave") [Dionne Warwick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionne_Warwick "Dionne Warwick") 2020 [Chicago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_\(band\) "Chicago (band)") [Roberta Flack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberta_Flack "Roberta Flack") [Isaac Hayes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Hayes "Isaac Hayes") [Iggy Pop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iggy_Pop "Iggy Pop") [John Prine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Prine "John Prine") [Public Enemy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Enemy "Public Enemy") [Sister Rosetta Tharpe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_Rosetta_Tharpe "Sister Rosetta Tharpe") |
| 2021–present | 2021 [Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandmaster_Flash_and_the_Furious_Five "Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five") [Lionel Hampton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Hampton "Lionel Hampton") [Marilyn Horne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn_Horne "Marilyn Horne") [Salt-N-Pepa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt-N-Pepa "Salt-N-Pepa") [Selena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selena "Selena") [Talking Heads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_Heads "Talking Heads") 2022 [Bonnie Raitt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnie_Raitt "Bonnie Raitt") 2023 [Bobby McFerrin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_McFerrin "Bobby McFerrin") [Nirvana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_\(band\) "Nirvana (band)") [Ma Rainey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Rainey "Ma Rainey") [Slick Rick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slick_Rick "Slick Rick") [Nile Rodgers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_Rodgers "Nile Rodgers") [The Supremes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Supremes "The Supremes") [Ann Wilson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Wilson "Ann Wilson") and [Nancy Wilson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Wilson_\(rock_musician\) "Nancy Wilson (rock musician)") 2024 [Laurie Anderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurie_Anderson "Laurie Anderson") [The Clark Sisters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Clark_Sisters "The Clark Sisters") [Gladys Knight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Knight "Gladys Knight") [N.W.A](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N.W.A "N.W.A") [Donna Summer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donna_Summer "Donna Summer") [Tammy Wynette](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tammy_Wynette "Tammy Wynette") 2025 [Frankie Beverly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankie_Beverly "Frankie Beverly") [The Clash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Clash "The Clash") [Bobby Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Jones_\(singer\) "Bobby Jones (singer)") [Taj Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taj_Mahal_\(musician\) "Taj Mahal (musician)") [Prince](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_\(musician\) "Prince (musician)") [Roxanne Shante](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxanne_Shante "Roxanne Shante") [Frankie Valli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankie_Valli "Frankie Valli") 2026 [Cher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cher "Cher") [Whitney Houston](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Houston "Whitney Houston") [Chaka Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaka_Khan "Chaka Khan") [Fela Kuti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fela_Kuti "Fela Kuti") [Carlos Santana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Santana "Carlos Santana") [Paul Simon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Simon "Paul Simon") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:1990_Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Template:1990 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:1990_Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Template talk:1990 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1990_Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Special:EditPage/Template:1990 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame")[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame") – [Class of 1990](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame_inductees "List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees") | |
|---|---|
| Performers | **[Hank Ballard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Ballard "Hank Ballard")** **[Bobby Darin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Darin "Bobby Darin")** **[The Four Seasons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Seasons_\(band\) "The Four Seasons (band)")** [Tom DeVito](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_DeVito_\(musician\) "Tommy DeVito (musician)"), [Bob Gaudio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Gaudio "Bob Gaudio"), [Nick Massi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Massi "Nick Massi"), [Frankie Valli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankie_Valli "Frankie Valli") **[Four Tops](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Tops "Four Tops")** [Renaldo Benson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaldo_Benson "Renaldo Benson"), [Abdul "Duke" Fakir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Fakir "Duke Fakir"), [Lawrence Payton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Payton "Lawrence Payton"), [Levi Stubbs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Stubbs "Levi Stubbs") **[The Kinks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kinks "The Kinks")** [Mick Avory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Avory "Mick Avory"), [Dave Davies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Davies "Dave Davies"), [Ray Davies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Davies "Ray Davies"), [Pete Quaife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Quaife "Pete Quaife") **[The Platters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Platters "The Platters")** [David Lynch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lynch_\(singer\) "David Lynch (singer)"), [Herb Reed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb_Reed "Herb Reed"), [Paul Robi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Robi "Paul Robi"), [Zola Taylor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zola_Taylor "Zola Taylor"), [Tony Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Williams_\(singer\) "Tony Williams (singer)") **[Simon & Garfunkel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Garfunkel "Simon & Garfunkel")** [Art Garfunkel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Garfunkel "Art Garfunkel"), [Paul Simon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Simon "Paul Simon") **[The Who](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Who "The Who")** [Roger Daltrey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Daltrey "Roger Daltrey"), [John Entwistle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Entwistle "John Entwistle"), [Keith Moon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Moon "Keith Moon"), [Pete Townshend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Townshend "Pete Townshend") |
| Early influences | **[Louis Armstrong]()** **[Charlie Christian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Christian "Charlie Christian")** **[Ma Rainey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Rainey "Ma Rainey")** |
| Non-performers (Ahmet Ertegun Award) | **[Gerry Goffin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerry_Goffin "Gerry Goffin")** and **[Carole King](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carole_King "Carole King")** **[Holland–Dozier–Holland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland%E2%80%93Dozier%E2%80%93Holland "Holland–Dozier–Holland")** [Brian Holland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Holland "Brian Holland"), [Lamont Dozier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamont_Dozier "Lamont Dozier"), [Eddie Holland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Holland "Eddie Holland") |
| [Authority control databases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control "Help:Authority control") [](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1779#identifiers "Edit this at Wikidata") | |
|---|---|
| International | [ISNI](https://isni.org/isni/0000000110198071) [2](https://isni.org/isni/0000000368664797) [VIAF](https://viaf.org/viaf/195226) [GND](https://d-nb.info/gnd/118504053) [FAST](https://id.worldcat.org/fast/332) [WorldCat](https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjHh4CxJM43JxK7WBcXVC) |
| National | [United States](https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50001506) [France](https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13890884w) [BnF data](https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13890884w) [Japan](https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00431718) [Italy](https://opac.sbn.it/nome/SBLV184791) [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000600403&CON_LNG=ENG) [Spain](https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX1038745) [Portugal](http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1300035) [Netherlands](http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069981981) [Norway](https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90248263) [Latvia](https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000035742&P_CON_LNG=ENG) [Croatia](http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000069272&local_base=nsk10) [Chile](http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000071768) [Greece](https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=339989) [Korea](https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201907046) [Sweden](https://libris.kb.se/0xbdfcsj4wvtsr4) [Poland](https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810542962105606) [Vatican](https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/283918) [Israel](https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007257844205171) [Finland](https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000187834) [Catalonia](https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058518078906706) [Belgium](https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14700925) |
| Academics | [CiNii](https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA05853215?l=en) |
| Artists | [ULAN](https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500335022) [MusicBrainz](https://musicbrainz.org/artist/eea8a864-fcda-4602-9569-38ab446decd6) [Discography of American Historical Recordings](https://adp.library.ucsb.edu/names/101863) [Grammy Awards](https://www.grammy.com/artists/louis-armstrong/452) [FID](https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118504053) |
| People | [BMLO](https://bmlo.de/a0976) [Trove](https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1307946) [Deutsche Biographie](https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118504053.html?language=en) [DDB](https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118504053) |
| Other | [IdRef](https://www.idref.fr/033205604) [Open Library](https://openlibrary.org/works/OL21394A?mode=all) [NARA](https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10581246) [SNAC](https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6cd1qpd) [RISM](https://rism.online/people/41024050) [Yale LUX](https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/person/fd8caa6e-cea3-4ded-a47e-3978891e5fff) |
Retrieved from "<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_Armstrong&oldid=1346022496>"
[Categories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category "Help:Category"):
- [Louis Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Louis_Armstrong "Category:Louis Armstrong")
- [1901 births](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:1901_births "Category:1901 births")
- [1971 deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:1971_deaths "Category:1971 deaths")
- [20th-century African-American male singers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:20th-century_African-American_male_singers "Category:20th-century African-American male singers")
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- [20th-century American jazz composers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_jazz_composers "Category:20th-century American jazz composers")
- [20th-century American male composers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_male_composers "Category:20th-century American male composers")
- [20th-century American trumpeters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_trumpeters "Category:20th-century American trumpeters")
- [ABC Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:ABC_Records_artists "Category:ABC Records artists")
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- [African-American history in New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:African-American_history_in_New_Orleans "Category:African-American history in New Orleans")
- [African-American jazz composers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:African-American_jazz_composers "Category:African-American jazz composers")
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- [American baritones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_baritones "Category:American baritones")
- [American jazz bandleaders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_jazz_bandleaders "Category:American jazz bandleaders")
- [American jazz cornetists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_jazz_cornetists "Category:American jazz cornetists")
- [American jazz singers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_jazz_singers "Category:American jazz singers")
- [American jazz trumpeters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_jazz_trumpeters "Category:American jazz trumpeters")
- [American male film actors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_male_film_actors "Category:American male film actors")
- [American male jazz composers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_male_jazz_composers "Category:American male jazz composers")
- [American male trumpeters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_male_trumpeters "Category:American male trumpeters")
- [African-American male songwriters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:African-American_male_songwriters "Category:African-American male songwriters")
- [American radio hosts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_radio_hosts "Category:American radio hosts")
- [American street performers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_street_performers "Category:American street performers")
- [American comedy musicians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_comedy_musicians "Category:American comedy musicians")
- [Audio Fidelity Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Audio_Fidelity_Records_artists "Category:Audio Fidelity Records artists")
- [American big band bandleaders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_big_band_bandleaders "Category:American big band bandleaders")
- [Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven members](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Louis_Armstrong_and_His_Hot_Seven_members "Category:Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven members")
- [Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five members](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Louis_Armstrong_and_His_Hot_Five_members "Category:Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five members")
- [Black & Blue Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Black_%26_Blue_Records_artists "Category:Black & Blue Records artists")
- [Burials at Flushing Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Burials_at_Flushing_Cemetery "Category:Burials at Flushing Cemetery")
- [Columbia Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Columbia_Records_artists "Category:Columbia Records artists")
- [Culture of New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Culture_of_New_Orleans "Category:Culture of New Orleans")
- [Decca Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Decca_Records_artists "Category:Decca Records artists")
- [Dixieland bandleaders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Dixieland_bandleaders "Category:Dixieland bandleaders")
- [Dixieland singers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Dixieland_singers "Category:Dixieland singers")
- [Dixieland trumpeters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Dixieland_trumpeters "Category:Dixieland trumpeters")
- [DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame members](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:DownBeat_Jazz_Hall_of_Fame_members "Category:DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame members")
- [Gennett Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Gennett_Records_artists "Category:Gennett Records artists")
- [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award_winners "Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners")
- [Jazz musicians from New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Jazz_musicians_from_New_Orleans "Category:Jazz musicians from New Orleans")
- [Jazz musicians from New York (state)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Jazz_musicians_from_New_York_\(state\) "Category:Jazz musicians from New York (state)")
- [Kapp Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Kapp_Records_artists "Category:Kapp Records artists")
- [MGM Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:MGM_Records_artists "Category:MGM Records artists")
- [Okeh Records artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Okeh_Records_artists "Category:Okeh Records artists")
- [People from Corona, Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:People_from_Corona,_Queens "Category:People from Corona, Queens")
- [RCA Victor artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:RCA_Victor_artists "Category:RCA Victor artists")
- [Red Onion Jazz Babies members](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Red_Onion_Jazz_Babies_members "Category:Red Onion Jazz Babies members")
- [Scat singers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Scat_singers "Category:Scat singers")
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Louis Armstrong
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[Add topic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong) |
| Readable Markdown | | Louis Armstrong | |
|---|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_in_Color_\(restored\).jpg)Armstrong in 1947 | |
| Born | Louis Daniel Armstrong[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-anderson-1) August 4, 1901 [New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), Louisiana, U.S. |
| Died | July 6, 1971 (aged 69)New York City, U.S. |
| Resting place | [Flushing Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_Cemetery "Flushing Cemetery"), New York City |
| Other names | Satchmo, Satch, Pops |
| Education | Colored Waifs' Home for Boys, Fisk School for Boys |
| Occupations | Musician singer |
| Spouses | Daisy Parker (m. 1919; div. 1923) [Lil Hardin Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Hardin_Armstrong "Lil Hardin Armstrong") (m. 1924; div. 1938) Alpha Smith (m. 1938; div. 1942) Lucille Wilson (m. 1942) |
| Children | 2 |
| **Musical career** | |
| Genres | [Jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") [Dixieland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixieland_jazz "Dixieland jazz") [swing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swing_music "Swing music") [blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues "Blues") [traditional pop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_pop "Traditional pop") |
| Instruments | Vocals trumpet |
| Works | [Discography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_discography "Louis Armstrong discography") [filmography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_filmography "Louis Armstrong filmography") |
| Years active | 1918–1971 |
| Labels | [OKeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OKeh_Records "OKeh Records") [Columbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records") [Victor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Records "Victor Records") [Bluebird](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluebird_Records "Bluebird Records") [Decca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") [Brunswick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunswick_Records "Brunswick Records") [RCA Victor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Victor "RCA Victor") [Verve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verve_Records "Verve Records") [Audio Fidelity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Fidelity "Audio Fidelity") [MGM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM_Records "MGM Records") [Kapp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapp_Records "Kapp Records") [Mercury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Records "Mercury Records") [ABC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_Records "ABC Records") [Buena Vista](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buena_Vista_Records "Buena Vista Records") [United Artists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Artists_Records "United Artists Records") [Vocalion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocalion "Vocalion") |
| Signature | |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_signature.svg) | |
**Louis Daniel Armstrong** (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971),[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-NYTOBit-2) nicknamed "**Satchmo**", "**Satch**", and "**Pops**",[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-3) was an American [jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") and [blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues "Blues") trumpeter and vocalist.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-4) Among the most influential figures in jazz, his career spanned five decades and several eras in the history of the genre.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-RCJE-5) Armstrong received numerous accolades including the [Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_Pop_Vocal_Performance "Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance") for *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")* in 1965, as well as a posthumous win for the [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award") in 1972. His influence crossed musical genres, with inductions into the [*DownBeat* Jazz Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DownBeat "DownBeat"), the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame"), and the [National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rhythm_%26_Blues_Hall_of_Fame "National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame"), among others.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-6)
Armstrong was born and raised in [New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"). Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an inventive trumpet and [cornet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornet "Cornet") player, he was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-7) Around 1922, Armstrong followed his mentor, [Joe "King" Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Oliver "King Oliver"), to Chicago to play in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band. Armstrong earned a reputation at "[cutting contests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_contest "Cutting contest")", and his fame reached band leader [Fletcher Henderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson "Fletcher Henderson"). Armstrong moved to New York City, where he became a featured and musically influential band soloist and recording artist. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an international musical icon, appearing regularly in radio and television broadcasts and on film. Apart from his music, he was also beloved as an entertainer, often joking with the audience and keeping a joyful public image at all times.
Armstrong's best known songs include "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")", "[La Vie en Rose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Vie_en_Rose "La Vie en Rose")", "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")", "[On the Sunny Side of the Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Sunny_Side_of_the_Street "On the Sunny Side of the Street")", "[Dream a Little Dream of Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_a_Little_Dream_of_Me "Dream a Little Dream of Me")", "[When You're Smiling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_You%27re_Smiling "When You're Smiling")" and "[When the Saints Go Marching In](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_In "When the Saints Go Marching In")". He collaborated with [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald"), producing three records together: *[Ella and Louis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis "Ella and Louis")* (1956), *[Ella and Louis Again](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis_Again "Ella and Louis Again")* (1957), and *[Porgy and Bess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess_\(Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Porgy and Bess (Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong album)")* (1959). He also appeared in films such as *[A Rhapsody in Black and Blue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Rhapsody_in_Black_and_Blue "A Rhapsody in Black and Blue")* (1932), *[Cabin in the Sky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabin_in_the_Sky_\(film\) "Cabin in the Sky (film)")* (1943), *[High Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Society_\(1956_film\) "High Society (1956 film)")* (1956), *[Paris Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Blues "Paris Blues")* (1961), *[A Man Called Adam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Man_Called_Adam_\(film\) "A Man Called Adam (film)")* (1966), and *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(film\) "Hello, Dolly! (film)")* (1969).
With his instantly recognizable, rich, gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer and skillful improviser. He was also skilled at [scat singing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scat_singing "Scat singing"). By the end of Armstrong's life, his influence had spread to popular music. He was one of the first popular African-American entertainers to "cross over" to wide popularity with white and international audiences. Armstrong rarely publicly discussed racial issues, sometimes to the dismay of fellow black Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for [desegregation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States "School integration in the United States") in the [Little Rock Crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine "Little Rock Nine"). He could access the upper echelons of American society at a time when this was difficult for black men. His recording of “Melancholy Blues” is included on the [Voyager Golden Record](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record "Voyager Golden Record"), a sample of the sights and sounds of Earth sent into space.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-8)
Early life
Armstrong is believed to have been born in [New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans") on August 4, 1901, but the accuracy of this date has been heavily debated. Armstrong himself often claimed he was born on July 4, 1900.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-11) His parents were Mary Estelle "Mayann" Albert and William Armstrong. Mary Albert was from [Boutte, Louisiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boutte,_Louisiana "Boutte, Louisiana"), and gave birth at home when she was about 16. Less than a year and a half later, they had a daughter, Beatrice "Mama Lucy" Armstrong (1903–1987), whom Albert raised.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-12) William Armstrong abandoned the family shortly after that.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-giddins22-13)
Louis Armstrong was raised by his grandmother until the age of five, when he was returned to his mother.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-giddins22-13) Armstrong spent his youth in poverty in a rough neighborhood known as The Battlefield,[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-14) on the southern section of [Rampart Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampart_Street "Rampart Street").[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-15) At the age of six, Armstrong started attending the Fisk School for Boys,[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen-16) a school that accepted black children in the racially segregated school system of New Orleans.
Armstrong lived with his mother and sister during this time and worked for the Karnoffskys,[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-17) a family of [Lithuanian Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews "Lithuanian Jews"), at [their home](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnofsky_Tailor_Shop%E2%80%93House "Karnofsky Tailor Shop–House"). Armstrong helped their sons Morris and Alex collect "rags and bones" and deliver coal. In 1969, while recovering from heart and kidney problems at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, Armstrong wrote a memoir called *Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the Year of 1907*, describing his time working for the Karnoffsky family.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18)
Armstrong writes about singing "Russian Lullaby" with the Karnoffsky family when their baby son David was put to bed and credits the family with teaching him to sing "from the heart."[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18) Curiously, Armstrong quotes lyrics for it that appear to be the same as the "Russian Lullaby", copyrighted by [Irving Berlin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Berlin "Irving Berlin") in 1927, about 20 years after Armstrong remembered singing it as a child.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-19) Gary Zucker, Armstrong's doctor at Beth Israel hospital in 1969, shared Berlin's song lyrics with him, and Armstrong quoted them in the memoir.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18) This inaccuracy may be because he wrote the memoir over 60 years after the events described. Regardless, the Karnoffskys treated Armstrong exceptionally well. Knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured Armstrong.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-21)
In his memoir, *Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907*, he described his discovery that this family was also [subject to discrimination by "other white folks"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States "History of antisemitism in the United States") who felt that they were better than Jews: "I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the white folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for."[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18) Armstrong wrote about what he learned from them: "how to live—real life and determination." His first musical performance may have been at the side of the Karnoffskys' junk wagon. Armstrong tried playing a tin horn to attract customers to distinguish them from other hawkers. Morris Karnoffsky gave Armstrong an advance toward purchasing a [cornet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornet "Cornet") from a pawn shop.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-22) Later, as an adult, Armstrong wore a [Star of David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_of_David "Star of David") given to him by his Jewish manager, Joe Glaser, until the end of his life, in part in memory of this family who had raised him.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-in-his-own-words-karnofskys-18)
When Armstrong was 11, he dropped out of school.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen-16) His mother moved into a one-room house on Perdido Street with Armstrong, Lucy, and her common-law husband, Tom Lee, next door to her brother Ike and his two sons.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-23) Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. Cornetist [Bunk Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunk_Johnson "Bunk Johnson") said he taught the eleven-year-old to play by ear at Dago Tony's honky tonk.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-24) In his later years, Armstrong credited King Oliver. Armstrong said about his youth, "Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans ... It has given me something to live for."[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-25)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_Arrest_2_Jan_1913_Times-Democrat.jpg)
A snippet from the January 2, 1913, issue of The Times-Democrat, New Orleans. "[Negro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negro "Negro")" is a dated term for black people.
Borrowing his stepfather's gun without permission, Armstrong fired a blank into the air and was arrested on December 31, 1912. He spent the night at New Orleans Juvenile Court and was sentenced the next day to detention at the Colored Waif's \[sic\] Home.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-26) Life at the home was spartan. Mattresses were absent, and meals were often little more than bread and molasses. Captain Joseph Jones ran the home like a military camp and used corporal punishment.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-27)
Armstrong developed his cornet skills by playing in the band. [Peter Davis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Davis_\(New_Orleans_musician/_teacher\) "Peter Davis (New Orleans musician/ teacher)"), who frequently appeared at the home at the request of Captain Jones,[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-28) became Armstrong's first teacher and chose him as the bandleader. With this band, the 13-year-old Armstrong attracted the attention of [Kid Ory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kid_Ory "Kid Ory").[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-29)
On June 14, 1914, Armstrong was released into the custody of his father and his new stepmother, Gertrude. Armstrong lived in this household with two stepbrothers for several months. After Gertrude gave birth to a daughter, Armstrong's father never welcomed him, so Armstrong returned to his mother, Mary Albert. Armstrong had to share a bed in her small home with his mother and sister. His mother still lived in The Battlefield, leaving Armstrong open to old temptations, but he sought work as a musician.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen_1997,_pp._80%E2%80%9389-30)
Armstrong found a job at a dance hall owned by Henry Ponce, who had connections to organized crime. He met the six-foot tall drummer [Black Benny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Benny "Black Benny"), who became Armstrong's guide and bodyguard.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen_1997,_pp._80%E2%80%9389-30) Around the age of 15, he pimped for a prostitute named Nootsy. However, that relationship failed after she stabbed Armstrong in the shoulder, and his mother choked her nearly to death.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-31)
Armstrong briefly studied shipping management at the local community college but was forced to quit after being unable to afford the fees.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen_1997,_p.44-32) While selling coal in [Storyville](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storyville,_New_Orleans "Storyville, New Orleans"), he heard [spasm bands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasm_band "Spasm band"), groups that played music out of household objects. Armstrong listened to the early sounds of jazz from bands that played in brothels and dance halls, such as Pete Lala's, where [King Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Oliver "King Oliver") performed.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Bergreen_1997_pp.45-33)
Career
Riverboat education
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fate_Marable%27s_New_Orleans_Band_on_the_S._S._Sidney.jpg)
Armstrong (fourth from left) was a member of [Fate Marable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fate_Marable "Fate Marable")'s New Orleans Band in 1919, shown here on board the S.S. *Sidney*.
Early in his career, Armstrong played in brass bands and [riverboats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverboat "Riverboat") in New Orleans, in the late 1910s. He traveled with the band of [Fate Marable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fate_Marable "Fate Marable"), which toured on the steamboat *Sidney* with the [Streckfus Steamers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streckfus_Steamers "Streckfus Steamers") line up and down the Mississippi River.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-34) Marable was proud of Armstrong's musical knowledge, and he insisted that Armstrong and other musicians in his band learn [sight reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sight_reading "Sight reading"). Armstrong described his time with Marable as "going to the University" since it gave him a wider experience working with written [arrangements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrangement "Arrangement"). In 1918, Armstrong's mentor, [King Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Oliver "King Oliver"), decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. Armstrong also became the second trumpet for the [Tuxedo Brass Band](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuxedo_Brass_Band "Tuxedo Brass Band").[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-35)
Throughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At age 20, he could read music. Armstrong became one of the first jazz musicians to be featured on extended trumpet solos, injecting his own personality and style. Armstrong also started singing in his performances.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-36)
Chicago period recordings
In 1922, Armstrong moved to Chicago at the invitation of King Oliver,[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier-37) although Armstrong would return to New Orleans periodically for the rest of his life.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-38) Playing second cornet to Oliver in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in the black-only Lincoln Gardens on the [South Side](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Side,_Chicago "South Side, Chicago") of Chicago, Armstrong could make enough money to quit his day jobs. Although race relations were poor, Chicago was booming. The city had jobs for blacks, who made good wages at factories, with some left for entertainment.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier-37): 86
Oliver's band was among Chicago's most influential jazz bands in the early 1920s. Armstrong lived luxuriously in his apartment with his first private bath. Excited to be in Chicago, Armstrong began his career-long pastime of writing letters to friends in New Orleans. Armstrong could blow 200 [high Cs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_\(musical_note\)#Other_octaves "C (musical note)") in a row. As his reputation grew, Armstrong was challenged to [cutting contests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_contest "Cutting contest") by other musicians.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-39)
Armstrong's first studio recordings were with Oliver for [Gennett Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gennett_Records "Gennett Records") on April 5–6, 1923. They endured several hours on the train to remote [Richmond, Indiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_Indiana "Richmond, Indiana"), and the band was paid little. The quality of the performances was affected by a lack of rehearsal, crude recording equipment, bad acoustics, and a cramped studio. These early recordings were true [acoustic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record#78_rpm_disc_developments "Gramophone record"), the band playing directly into a large funnel connected directly to the needle making the groove in the master recording. The much improved Electrical recording system with a better dynamic range was not invented until 1926. Initially, because Armstrong's playing was so loud, Oliver could not be heard on the recording when he played next to Oliver. Armstrong had to stand 15 feet from Oliver in a far corner of the room to remedy this.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-40)
[Lil Hardin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Hardin_Armstrong "Lil Hardin Armstrong"), whom Armstrong would marry in 1924, urged Armstrong to seek more prominent billing and develop his style apart from the influence of Oliver. At her suggestion, Armstrong began playing classical music in church concerts to broaden his skills and dressing more stylishly to offset his girth. Her influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional money that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-41) Armstrong's mother, Mayann Albert, came to visit him in Chicago during the summer of 1923 after being told that Armstrong was "out of work, out of money, hungry, and sick"; Hardin located and decorated an apartment for her to live in while she stayed.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-42)
Fletcher Henderson Orchestra
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FletcherHendersonOrchestra1925.jpg)
The Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in 1925. Armstrong is the third person from the left.
Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong was invited to go to New York City to play with the [Fletcher Henderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson "Fletcher Henderson") Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. He switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. Armstrong's influence on Henderson's tenor sax soloist, [Coleman Hawkins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Hawkins "Coleman Hawkins"), can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-44)
Armstrong adapted to Henderson's tightly controlled style, playing the trumpet and experimenting with the trombone. The other members were affected by Armstrong's emotional style. His act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-45) The Henderson Orchestra played in prominent venues for white patrons only, including the [Roseland Ballroom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roseland_Ballroom "Roseland Ballroom"), with arrangements by [Don Redman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Redman "Don Redman"). [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington")'s orchestra went to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances.
During this time, Armstrong recorded with [Clarence Williams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Williams_\(musician\) "Clarence Williams (musician)") (a friend from New Orleans), the Williams Blue Five, [Sidney Bechet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Bechet "Sidney Bechet"), and blues singers [Alberta Hunter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta_Hunter "Alberta Hunter"), [Ma Rainey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Rainey "Ma Rainey"), and [Bessie Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith").[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-46)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-47)
The Hot Five
In 1925, Armstrong returned to Chicago because he was disillusioned with New York, and Lil set up a recording session with Okeh for him as well as a gig at the Dreamland Cafe. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed Armstrong as "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player." For a time, he was a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and worked for his wife.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-48) Armstrong formed [Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_and_his_Hot_Five "Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five") and recorded the hits "[Potato Head Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_Head_Blues "Potato Head Blues")" and "Muggles". The word "muggles" was a [slang term for marijuana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_slang_names_for_cannabis "List of slang names for cannabis"), something Armstrong often used during his life.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier-37)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heebie_Jeebies.jpg)
"[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")" by Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five, 1926
The Hot Five included [Kid Ory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kid_Ory "Kid Ory") (trombone), [Johnny Dodds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Dodds "Johnny Dodds") (clarinet), [Johnny St. Cyr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_St._Cyr "Johnny St. Cyr") (banjo), Lil Armstrong on piano, and usually no drummer. Over a 12-month period starting in November 1925, this quintet produced twenty-four records.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-harker-49) Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted: "One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual."[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-50)
Among the Hot Five and Seven records were "Cornet Chop Suey", "Struttin' With Some Barbecue", "Hotter Than That", and "Potato Head Blues", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. According to [Thomas Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brothers "Thomas Brothers"), recordings such as "Struttin' with Some Barbeque" were so superb, "planned with density and variety, bluesyness, and showiness", that the arrangements were probably showcased at the Sunset Café.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-51) His recordings soon after with pianist [Earl "Fatha" Hines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines"), their famous 1928 "[Weather Bird](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Bird "Weather Bird")" duet and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in "[West End Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_Blues "West End Blues")", remain some of the most influential improvisations in jazz history. Young trumpet players across the country bought these recordings and memorized his solos.
Armstrong was now free to develop his style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as "Whip That Thing, Miss Lil" and "Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, Do That Clarinet, Boy!"[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-52)
Armstrong also played with [Erskine Tate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erskine_Tate "Erskine Tate")'s Little Symphony, mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as "[Madame Butterfly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_Butterfly "Madame Butterfly")", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began [scat singing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scat_singing "Scat singing") (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it on the Hot Five recording "[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had seldom performed live. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-53)
After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the [Sunset Café](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_Cafe "Sunset Cafe") for [Al Capone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Capone "Al Capone")'s associate [Joe Glaser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Glaser "Joe Glaser") in the [Carroll Dickerson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carroll_Dickerson "Carroll Dickerson") Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-54) However, Hines was the music director, and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators. It was at the [Sunset Café](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_Cafe "Sunset Cafe") that Armstrong accompanied singer [Adelaide Hall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide_Hall "Adelaide Hall"). During Hall's tenure at the venue, she experimented, developed, and expanded her scat singing with Armstrong's guidance and encouragement.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-55)
In the first half of 1927, Armstrong assembled his Hot Seven group, which added drummer Al "Baby" Dodds and tuba player [Pete Briggs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Briggs "Pete Briggs") while preserving most of his original Hot Five lineup. John Thomas replaced Kid Ory on the trombone. Later that year, Armstrong organized a series of new Hot Five sessions, which resulted in nine more records. In the last half of 1928, he started recording with a new group: [Zutty Singleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zutty_Singleton "Zutty Singleton") (drums), Earl Hines (piano), [Jimmy Strong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Strong_\(musician\) "Jimmy Strong (musician)") (clarinet), Fred Robinson (trombone), and Mancy Carr (banjo).[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-56)
The Harlem Renaissance
Armstrong made a huge impact during the 1920s [Harlem Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance "Harlem Renaissance").[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-57) His music touched well-known writer [Langston Hughes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langston_Hughes "Langston Hughes"). Hughes admired Armstrong and acknowledged him as one of the most recognized musicians of the era.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-58) Hughes wrote many books that celebrated jazz and recognized Armstrong as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance's newfound love of African-American culture.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-59) The sound of jazz, along with musicians such as Armstrong, helped shape Hughes as a writer. Just like the musicians, Hughes wrote his words with jazz.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-60)
Armstrong changed jazz during the Harlem Renaissance. As "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player" during this time,[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-61) Armstrong cemented his legacy and continued a focus on his vocal career. His popularity brought together many black and white audiences.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-62)
Emerging as a vocalist
Armstrong returned to New York in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra for the musical *[Hot Chocolates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Chocolates "Hot Chocolates")*, an all-black revue written by [Andy Razaf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Razaf "Andy Razaf") and pianist [Fats Waller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats_Waller "Fats Waller"). Armstrong made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of "[Ain't Misbehavin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t_Misbehavin%27_\(song\) "Ain't Misbehavin' (song)")." Armstrong's version of the song became his biggest-selling record yet.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-63)
Armstrong started to work at [Connie's Inn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connie%27s_Inn "Connie's Inn") in Harlem, chief rival to the [Cotton Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Club "Cotton Club"), a venue for elaborately staged floor shows,[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-morgenstern-64) and a front for gangster [Dutch Schultz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Schultz "Dutch Schultz"). Armstrong had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of songs composed by his old friend [Hoagy Carmichael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoagy_Carmichael "Hoagy Carmichael"). His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the RCA [ribbon microphone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribbon_microphone "Ribbon microphone"), introduced in 1931, which imparted warmth to vocals and became an intrinsic part of the "[crooning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crooning "Crooning")" sound of artists like [Bing Crosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby "Bing Crosby"). Armstrong's interpretation of Carmichael's "[Stardust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_\(1927_song\) "Stardust (1927 song)")" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that were already standards.
Armstrong's radical re-working of [Sidney Arodin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Arodin "Sidney Arodin") and Carmichael's "[Lazy River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_River "Lazy River")", recorded in 1931, encapsulated his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo. Then, the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: "Yeah! ..."Uh-huh"..."Sure"..."Way down, way down." In the first verse, Armstrong ignores the notated melody and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza, he breaks into an almost entirely improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong's scat singing.
As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation for jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gravelly coloration of his voice became an archetype that was endlessly imitated. Armstrong's scat singing was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as "Lazy River" greatly influenced younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.
Work during hard times
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maud_Cuney_Hare-154-Louis_Armstrong.jpg)
Armstrong in 1936
The [Great Depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. After a long downward spiral, the Cotton Club closed in 1936, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. [Bix Beiderbecke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bix_Beiderbecke "Bix Beiderbecke") died, and Fletcher Henderson's band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. [Sidney Bechet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Bechet "Sidney Bechet") became a tailor, later moving to Paris, and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-65)
Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with [Lionel Hampton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Hampton "Lionel Hampton") on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish nightlife, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, *Ex-Flame*. He was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-66)
Armstrong returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the [Guy Lombardo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Lombardo "Guy Lombardo") vein, and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town,[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-ArmstrongInThe30s-67) Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome, and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team called Armstrong's Secret Nine and had a cigar named after him.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-68) However, Armstrong was on the road again soon. After a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, he fled to Europe.
After returning to the United States, Armstrong undertook several exhausting tours. His agent, Johnny Collins's erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Armstrong hired [Joe Glaser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Glaser "Joe Glaser") as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer who began straightening out his legal mess, mob troubles, and debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, Armstrong branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. Armstrong appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit *[Pennies from Heaven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennies_from_Heaven_\(1936_film\) "Pennies from Heaven (1936 film)")*. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for [Rudy Vallee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudy_Vallee "Rudy Vallee") on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored national broadcast.[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-69)
Reviving his career with the All-Stars
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong2.jpg)
Armstrong in 1953
After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York, in 1943 with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of [Tin Pan Alley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley "Tin Pan Alley") and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, Armstrong continued to develop his playing.
Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes. Ballrooms closed, and competition from other types of music, especially pop vocals, became more popular than big band music. Under such circumstances, it became impossible to finance a 16-piece touring band.
A widespread revival of interest in the 1940s in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Armstrong was featured as a guest artist with Lionel Hampton's band at the famed second [Cavalcade of Jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalcade_of_Jazz "Cavalcade of Jazz") concert held at [Wrigley Field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrigley_Field_\(Los_Angeles\) "Wrigley Field (Los Angeles)") in Los Angeles, produced by [Leon Hefflin Sr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Hefflin,_Sr. "Leon Hefflin, Sr."), on October 12, 1946.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-70) Armstrong also led a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring him with trombonist/singer [Jack Teagarden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Teagarden "Jack Teagarden"). During the concert, Armstrong and Teagarden performed a duet on Hoagy Carmichael's "[Rockin' Chair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockin%27_Chair_\(1929_song\) "Rockin' Chair (1929 song)")" they then recorded for [Okeh Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okeh_Records "Okeh Records").
Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser, changed the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947, into a six-piece traditional jazz group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, [Earl Hines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines") and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of whom were previously leaders of big bands. The new group was announced at the opening of [Billy Berg's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Berg%27s "Billy Berg's") Supper Club.
This smaller group was called Louis Armstrong and His All-Stars and included at various times Earl "Fatha" Hines, [Barney Bigard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barney_Bigard "Barney Bigard"), [Edmond Hall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Hall "Edmond Hall"), Jack Teagarden, [Trummy Young](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trummy_Young "Trummy Young"), [Arvell Shaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvell_Shaw "Arvell Shaw"), [Billy Kyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Kyle "Billy Kyle"), [Marty Napoleon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marty_Napoleon "Marty Napoleon"), [Big Sid "Buddy" Catlett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sid_Catlett "Sid Catlett"), [Cozy Cole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cozy_Cole "Cozy Cole"), [Tyree Glenn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyree_Glenn "Tyree Glenn"), [Barrett Deems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrett_Deems "Barrett Deems"), [Mort Herbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mort_Herbert "Mort Herbert"), [Joe Darensbourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Darensbourg "Joe Darensbourg"), [Eddie Shu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Shu "Eddie Shu"), [Joe Muranyi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Muranyi "Joe Muranyi") and percussionist [Danny Barcelona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Barcelona "Danny Barcelona").
On February 28, 1948, [Suzy Delair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzy_Delair "Suzy Delair") sang the French song "[C'est si bon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%27est_si_bon "C'est si bon")" at the [Hotel Negresco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel_Negresco "Hotel Negresco") during the first [Nice Jazz Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_Jazz_Festival "Nice Jazz Festival"). Armstrong was present and loved the song. On June 26, 1950, he recorded the American version of the song (English lyrics by [Jerry Seelen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Seelen "Jerry Seelen")) in New York City with [Sy Oliver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sy_Oliver "Sy Oliver") and his Orchestra. When it was released, the disc was a worldwide success, and the song was then performed by the greatest international singers.
Armstrong was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of [*Time*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_\(magazine\) "Time (magazine)") magazine on February 21, 1949. He and his All-Stars were featured at the ninth Cavalcade of Jazz concert also at [Wrigley Field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrigley_Field_\(Los_Angeles\) "Wrigley Field (Los Angeles)") in Los Angeles produced by [Leon Hefflin Sr.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Hefflin,_Sr. "Leon Hefflin, Sr.") held on June 7, 1953, along with [Shorty Rogers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorty_Rogers "Shorty Rogers"), [Roy Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Brown_\(blues_musician\) "Roy Brown (blues musician)"), Don Tosti and His Mexican Jazzmen, [Earl Bostic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Bostic "Earl Bostic"), and [Nat "King" Cole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_King_Cole "Nat King Cole").[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-71)
Over 30 years, Armstrong played more than 300 performances a year, making many recordings and appearing in more than 30 films.
A jazz ambassador
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_\(1955\).jpg)
Armstrong in 1955
By the 1950s, Armstrong was a widely beloved American icon and cultural ambassador who commanded an international fanbase. However, a growing generation gap became apparent between him and the young jazz musicians who emerged in the postwar era, such as [Charlie Parker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Parker "Charlie Parker"), [Miles Davis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_Davis "Miles Davis"), and [Sonny Rollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonny_Rollins "Sonny Rollins"). The postwar generation regarded their music as abstract art and considered Armstrong's vaudevillian style, half-musician and half-stage entertainer, outmoded and [Uncle Tomism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle_Tom_syndrome "Uncle Tom syndrome"). "... he seemed a link to [minstrelsy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minstrel_show "Minstrel show") that we were ashamed of."[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Starkey2015-72) Armstrong called bebop "Chinese music".[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-73) While touring Australia in 1954, he was asked if he could play bebop. "'Bebop?' he husked. 'I just play music. Guys who invent terms like that are walking the streets with their instruments under their arms.'"[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-reception-74)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ficha_Consular_de_Louis_Armstrong.jpg)
Record of Armstrong's visit to Brazil, 1957
After finishing his contract with [Decca Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records"), Armstrong went freelance and recorded for other labels.[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Nollen2004-75)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-76) He continued an intense international touring schedule, but suffered a heart attack in 1959 while in Italy and had to rest.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-77)
In 1964, after more than two years without setting foot in a studio, Armstrong recorded his biggest-selling record, "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")", a song by [Jerry Herman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Herman "Jerry Herman"), originally sung by [Carol Channing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Channing "Carol Channing"). Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1, making him the oldest person to accomplish that feat at 62 years, nine months, and five days. Armstrong's hit dislodged [The Beatles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Breihan-78)
| External audio |
|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_arts.svg) [Louis Daniel Armstrong talks with Studs Terkel on WFMT; 1962/6/24](https://soundcloud.com/studsterkel-radio-archive/louis-daniel-armstrong-talks-with-studs-terkel-on-wfmt-1962624), 33:43, [Studs Terkel Radio Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studs_Terkel_Radio_Archive "Studs Terkel Radio Archive")[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-studs-79) |
Armstrong toured well into his 60s, even visiting part of the [Communist Bloc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Bloc "Communist Bloc") in 1965. Armstrong also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the [sponsorship of the US State Department](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_ambassadors "Jazz ambassadors") with great success, earning the nickname "Ambassador Satch" and inspiring [Dave Brubeck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Brubeck "Dave Brubeck") to compose his jazz musical *[The Real Ambassadors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Ambassadors "The Real Ambassadors")*. His travels included performances in [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") and [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria").[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Kelley2012-80)[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Company1971-81)
By 1968, Armstrong was approaching 70, and his health was failing. His heart and kidney ailments forced him to stop touring, though he continued to record, including "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong did not perform publicly in 1969 and spent most of the year recuperating at home. Meanwhile, his longtime manager, Joe Glaser, died. By the summer of 1970, Armstrong's doctors pronounced him fit enough to resume live performances. Armstrong embarked on another world tour, but a heart attack forced him to take a break for two months.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Von_Eschen-82)
Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album *[Disney Songs the Satchmo Way](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Songs_the_Satchmo_Way "Disney Songs the Satchmo Way")*.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Whitaker2011-83)
Personal life
Pronunciation of name
The Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:
> Judging from home recorded tapes now in our Museum Collections, Louis pronounced his own name as "Lewis." On his 1964 record "Hello, Dolly", he sings, "This is Lewis, Dolly", but in 1933, he made a record called "Laughin' Louie." Many broadcast announcers, fans, and acquaintances called him "Louie", and in a videotaped interview from 1983, Lucille Armstrong calls her late husband "Louie" as well. Musicians and close friends usually called him "Pops".[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-84)
In a memoir written for [Robert Goffin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Goffin "Robert Goffin") between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong stated, "All white folks call me Louie", suggesting that he himself did not, or that no whites addressed him by one of his nicknames such as Pops.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-85)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-86) That said, Armstrong was registered as "Lewie" for the [1920 U.S. census](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census,_1920 "United States Census, 1920"). On various live records, he is called "Louie" on stage, such as on the 1952 "Can Anyone Explain?" from the live album *In Scandinavia vol.1*. The same applies to his 1952 studio recording of the song "Chloe", where the choir in the background sings "Louie ... Louie", with Armstrong responding, "What was that? Somebody called my name?". "Lewie" is the French pronunciation of "Louis" and is commonly used in Louisiana.
Family
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lucille_Wilson_and_Louis_Armstrong.jpg)
Armstrong with Lucille Wilson, c. 1960s
Armstrong was performing at the Brick House in [Gretna, Louisiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gretna,_Louisiana "Gretna, Louisiana") when he met Daisy Parker, a local prostitute, and started an affair as a client. Armstrong returned to Gretna on several occasions to visit her. He found the courage to look for her home to see her away from work. There, Armstrong found out she had a [common-law husband](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-law_marriage_in_the_United_States "Common-law marriage in the United States"). Not long after that, Parker traveled to Armstrong's home on Perdido Street[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen134-87) and they checked into Kid Green's hotel that evening. On the next day, March 19, 1919, Armstrong and Parker married at City Hall.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen134-87)[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier2-88) They adopted a three-year-old boy, Clarence, whose mother, Armstrong's cousin Flora, had died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled as a result of a head injury at an early age. Armstrong spent the rest of his life taking care of him.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-89) His marriage to Parker ended when they separated in 1923.
On February 4, 1924, Armstrong married [Lil Hardin Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Hardin_Armstrong "Lil Hardin Armstrong"), King Oliver's pianist. She had divorced her first husband a few years earlier. Armstrong's second wife helped him develop his career, but they separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938. Armstrong then married Alpha Smith.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-90) His relationship with Alpha began while he was playing at the Vendome during the 1920s and continued long after.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-91) Armstrong's marriage to her lasted four years; they divorced in 1942. He then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the [Cotton Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Club "Cotton Club") in New York, in October 1942. They remained married until his death in 1971.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-92)
Armstrong's marriages produced no offspring.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-93) However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille "Sweets" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-94) In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of \$400 (\$6,009 in 2025 dollars)[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-inflation-US-95) to mother and child.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Collier3-96)
Personality
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LouisArmstrong1959.jpg)
Armstrong in 1959 during a night concert in the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam
Armstrong was colorful and charismatic. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians because Armstrong had a habit of telling tales, particularly about his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments lack consistency.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
In addition to being an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality. He was beloved by an American public that usually offered little access beyond their public celebrity to even the most significant black performers, and Armstrong was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other black Americans during that era.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Armstrong generally remained politically neutral, which sometimes alienated him from other black Americans who expected him to use his prominence within white America to become more outspoken during the [civil rights movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement"). However, Armstrong criticized [President Eisenhower](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_Eisenhower "President Eisenhower") for not acting forcefully on civil rights.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Health problems
The trumpet is notoriously hard on the [lips](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lips "Lips"), and Armstrong suffered from lip damage over most of his life. This was due to Armstrong's aggressive playing style and preference for narrow mouthpieces that would stay in place more easily but tended to dig into the soft flesh of his inner lip. During his 1930s European tour, Armstrong suffered an ulceration so severe that he had to stop playing entirely for a year. Eventually, Armstrong took to using salves and creams on his lips and also cutting off scar tissue with a razor blade. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an official spokesman for Ansatz-Creme Lip Salve.[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-98)
During a backstage meeting with trombonist Marshall Brown in 1959, Armstrong was advised to see a doctor and receive proper treatment for his lips instead of relying on home remedies. However, Armstrong did not get around to that until his final years, by which point his health was failing, and the doctors considered surgery too risky.[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-99)
In 1959, Armstrong was hospitalized for [pneumonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia "Pneumonia") while on tour in Italy. Doctors were concerned about his lungs and heart, but by the end of June, Armstrong rallied on.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-100)
Nicknames
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armstrong-Alassio_\(crop\).jpg)
An autograph of Armstrong on the muretto of [Alassio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alassio "Alassio")
The nicknames "Satchmo" and "Satch" are short for "Satchelmouth". The nickname origin is uncertain.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) The most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy in New Orleans dancing for pennies. He scooped the coins off the street and stuck them into his mouth to prevent bigger children from stealing them. Someone dubbed Armstrong "satchel mouth" for his mouth acting as a [satchel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchel "Satchel"). Another tale is that because of his large mouth, Armstrong was nicknamed "satchel mouth", which was shortened to "Satchmo."[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Early on, Armstrong was also known as "Dipper", short for "Dippermouth", a reference to the piece *Dippermouth Blues*[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-101) and something of a riff on his unusual [embouchure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embouchure "Embouchure").
The nickname "Pops" came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them "Pops" instead. The nickname was turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
After a competition at the Savoy, he was crowned and nicknamed "King Menelik", after the Emperor of Ethiopia, for slaying "[ofay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofay "Ofay") jazz demons."[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-102)
Race
Armstrong celebrated his heritage as a black man from a poor New Orleans neighborhood and tried to avoid what he called "putting on airs." Many younger black musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of [segregated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States "Racial segregation in the United States") audiences and for not taking a stronger stand in the [American civil rights movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_civil_rights_movement "American civil rights movement").[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-103) When Armstrong did speak out, it made national news. In 1957, journalism student Larry Lubenow scored a candid interview with Armstrong while the musician was performing in Grand Forks, North Dakota, shortly after the [conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine "Little Rock Nine") over school [desegregation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States "School integration in the United States") in [Little Rock, Arkansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock,_Arkansas "Little Rock, Arkansas"). Armstrong denounced both Arkansas Governor [Orval Faubus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orval_Faubus "Orval Faubus") and [President Dwight D. Eisenhower](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower"), saying the President had "no guts" and was "two-faced." Armstrong told his interviewer that he would cancel a planned tour of the [Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") on behalf of the [State Department](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Department "State Department"), saying, "The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell"; he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people.[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Louis_Armstrong,_Barring_Soviet_Tour,_Denounces_Eisenhower_and_Gov._Faubus-104)[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-105) The [FBI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI "FBI") kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration.[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-106) Armstrong’s outburst drew both praise and backlash; figures like [Jackie Robinson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson "Jackie Robinson") and [Lena Horne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lena_Horne "Lena Horne") publicly supported him, while a Mississippi radio station banned his records. His longtime road manager, [Pierre Tallerie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Tallerie "Pierre Tallerie"), attempted to walk back Armstrong’s comments to the press, prompting a sharp public rebuke from Armstrong, who nearly fired Tallerie and insisted on speaking for himself going forward.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-107)[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-108)
Religion
When asked about his religion, Armstrong answered that he was raised a [Baptist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist "Baptist"), always wore a [Star of David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_of_David "Star of David"), and was friends with the pope.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Gabbard-109) Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnoffsky family who took him in as a child and lent him money to buy his first cornet. Armstrong was baptized a Catholic in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans,[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-Gabbard-109) and he met [Pope Pius XII](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII "Pope Pius XII") and [Pope Paul VI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI "Pope Paul VI").[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Personal habits
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armstrong_secret_9.jpg)
The [Armstrong Secret 9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Secret_9 "Armstrong Secret 9"), 1931
Armstrong was concerned with his health. Armstrong used [laxatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laxatives "Laxatives") to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title *Lose Weight the Satchmo Way*.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was [Pluto Water](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto_Water "Pluto Water"), but when he discovered the herbal remedy [Swiss Kriss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senna_glycoside "Senna glycoside"), he became an enthusiastic convert,[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) extolling its virtues to anyone who would listen and passing out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the [British royal family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_royal_family "British royal family").
Armstrong also appeared in humorous risqué cards that he had printed to send to friends. The cards bore a picture of Armstrong sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan "Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya\!'"[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-LeaveItAllBehindYa-110) The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss.[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-111) In a live recording of "[Baby, It's Cold Outside](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby,_It%27s_Cold_Outside "Baby, It's Cold Outside")" with [Velma Middleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velma_Middleton "Velma Middleton"), he changes the lyric from "Put another record on while I pour" to "Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour."[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-112) Armstrong's laxative use began as a child when his mother would collect [dandelions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dandelion "Dandelion") and [peppergrass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppergrass "Peppergrass") around the railroad tracks to give to her children for their health.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-113)
Armstrong was a heavy [marijuana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marijuana "Marijuana") smoker for much of his life and spent nine days in jail in 1930 after being arrested outside a club for drug possession. Armstrong described marijuana as "a thousand times better than whiskey."[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-114)
Armstrong's concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as "Cheesecake", "Cornet Chop Suey",[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-115) and "Struttin' with Some Barbecue", though the latter was written about a fine-looking companion, and not food.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-116) Armstrong kept a strong connection throughout his life to the [cooking of New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_cuisine "Louisiana Creole cuisine"), always signing his letters, "[Red beans and ricely](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_beans_and_rice "Red beans and rice") yours ...".[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-117)
A fan of Major League Baseball, Armstrong founded a team in New Orleans that was known as Raggedy Nine and transformed the team into his Armstrong's "[Secret Nine Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Nine_Baseball "Secret Nine Baseball")."[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-118)
Writings
Armstrong's gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. Armstrong avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy ["medicinal" marijuana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_marijuana "Medical marijuana") use, and even his bowel movements, which Armstrong gleefully described.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-119)
Louis Armstrong was not, as claimed, a [Freemason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemason "Freemason"). Although he has been cited as a Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) member in New York, no such lodge ever existed. In his autobiography, Armstrong stated that he was a member of the [Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_of_Pythias_of_North_America,_South_America,_Europe,_Asia,_Africa_and_Australia "Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia"), an African American non-Masonic fraternal organization.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-120) During the krewe's 1949 [Mardi Gras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mardi_Gras_in_New_Orleans "Mardi Gras in New Orleans") parade, Armstrong presided as King of the [Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulu_Social_Aid_%26_Pleasure_Club "Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club"), for which he was featured on the cover of [*Time* magazine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_\(magazine\) "Time (magazine)").[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-121)
Music
Horn playing and early jazz
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Selmer_Trumpet_given_by_King_George_V_to_Louis_Armstrong.jpg)
[Selmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Selmer_Paris "Henri Selmer Paris") trumpet, given as a gift by [King George V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_George_V "King George V") of the United Kingdom to Louis Armstrong in 1933
In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. Along with his "clarinet-like figurations and high notes in his cornet solos", Armstrong was also known for his "intense rhythmic 'swing', a complex conception involving accented upbeats, upbeat to downbeat slurring, and complementary relations among rhythmic patterns.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-122) The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the [Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Hot_Five_and_Hot_Seven_Sessions "Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions"), as well as those of the [Red Onion Jazz Babies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Onion_Jazz_Babies "Red Onion Jazz Babies"). Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song "[Potato Head Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_Head_Blues "Potato Head Blues")" has long been considered his best solo of that series.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-123)
Prior to Armstrong, most collective ensembles playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. He was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Often, Armstrong re-composed pop tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, Armstrong's oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. His playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone, and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a piece of collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Armstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. Armstrong enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, Armstrong had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio.[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-124)
Vocal popularity
As Armstrong's music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, "[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")." At a recording session for [Okeh Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okeh_Records "Okeh Records"), when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor, and the music began before Armstrong could pick up the pages, he simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh President E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs.[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-125) On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out "I done forgot the words" in the middle of recording "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas."
Such records were hits, and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, and using his voice as creatively as his trumpet.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) Armstrong once told [Cab Calloway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cab_Calloway "Cab Calloway") that his scat style was derived "from the Jews *rockin*", an Orthodox Jewish style of chanting during prayer.[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-126)[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-127)
Composing
Armstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than 50 songs, some of which have become [jazz standards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_standards "Jazz standards") (e.g., "Gully Low Blues", "Potato Head Blues", and "Swing That Music").
Colleagues and followers
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Satchmo_Messuhallissa.jpg)
With [Jack Teagarden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Teagarden "Jack Teagarden") (left) and [Barney Bigard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barney_Bigard "Barney Bigard") (right), Armstrong plays the trumpet in [Helsinki, Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki,_Finland "Helsinki, Finland"), October 1949
During his long career, Armstrong played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time, including Bing Crosby, [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington"), [Fletcher Henderson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson "Fletcher Henderson"), [Earl Hines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines"), [Jimmie Rodgers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie_Rodgers_\(country_singer\) "Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)"), [Bessie Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith"), and [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald"). His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music. Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably "Just One More Chance" (1931).[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) The *New Grove Dictionary of Jazz* describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:
> Crosby ... was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech ... His techniques—easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a [head voice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_voice "Head voice") at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct [enunciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enunciation "Enunciation"), singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of [appoggiaturas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appoggiatura "Appoggiatura"), [mordents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordent "Mordent"), and [slurs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slur_\(music\) "Slur (music)") to emphasize the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers.
Armstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald, *[Ella and Louis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis "Ella and Louis")* and *[Ella and Louis Again](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_and_Louis_Again "Ella and Louis Again")*, for [Verve Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verve_Records "Verve Records"). The sessions featured the backing musicianship of the [Oscar Peterson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Peterson "Oscar Peterson") Trio with drummer [Buddy Rich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_Rich "Buddy Rich") on the first album and [Louie Bellson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louie_Bellson "Louie Bellson") on the second. [Norman Granz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Granz "Norman Granz") then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record *[Porgy and Bess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess_\(Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Porgy and Bess (Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong album)")*.
Armstrong's two recordings for [Columbia Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records"), *[Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Plays_W.C._Handy "Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy")* (1954) and *Satch Plays Fats* (all [Fats Waller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats_Waller "Fats Waller") tunes) (1955), were both considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961, the All-Stars participated in two albums, *The Great Summit* and *The Great Reunion* (now together as a single disc) with [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington"). The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. Armstrong's participation in [Dave Brubeck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Brubeck "Dave Brubeck")'s high-concept jazz musical *[The Real Ambassadors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Ambassadors "The Real Ambassadors")* (1963) was critically acclaimed and features "Summer Song", one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_NYWTS_4.jpg)
Louis Armstrong in 1966
[In the week beginning May 9, 1964](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_number_ones_of_1964 "List of Billboard Hot 100 number ones of 1964"), Armstrong's recording of the song "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_Dolly_\(song\) "Hello Dolly (song)")" went to number one. An [album of the same title](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Hello, Dolly! (Louis Armstrong album)") was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one, knocking [The Beatles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") off the top of the chart. The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going "Gold" (500,000). His performance of "Hello, Dolly!" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 [Grammy Awards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Awards "Grammy Awards").
Hits and later career
Armstrong had 19 "Top Ten" records[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-billboard.com-128) including "[Stardust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_\(1927_song\) "Stardust (1927 song)")", "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")", "[When The Saints Go Marching In](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_The_Saints_Go_Marching_In "When The Saints Go Marching In")", "[Dream a Little Dream of Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_a_Little_Dream_of_Me_\(song\) "Dream a Little Dream of Me (song)")", "[Ain't Misbehavin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%27t_Misbehavin%27_\(song\) "Ain't Misbehavin' (song)")", "[You Rascal You](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Rascal_You "You Rascal You")", and "[Stompin' at the Savoy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stompin%27_at_the_Savoy "Stompin' at the Savoy")". "[We Have All the Time in the World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Have_All_the_Time_in_the_World "We Have All the Time in the World")" was featured on the soundtrack of the [James Bond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bond "James Bond") film *[On Her Majesty's Secret Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Her_Majesty%27s_Secret_Service_\(film\) "On Her Majesty's Secret Service (film)")*, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it was featured on a [Guinness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness "Guinness") advertisement. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.
In 1964, Armstrong knocked [The Beatles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") off the top of the [*Billboard* Hot 100](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 "Billboard Hot 100") chart with "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song "Bout Time" was later featured in the film *[Bewitched](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bewitched_\(2005_film\) "Bewitched (2005 film)")*.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
In February 1968, Armstrong appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian [RAI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAI "RAI") television channel, where he performed "Grassa e Bella", a track Armstrong sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-129)
In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the UK with "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong appeared on the October 28, 1970, *[Johnny Cash Show](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Johnny_Cash_Show_\(TV_series\) "The Johnny Cash Show (TV series)")*, where he sang [Nat King Cole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_King_Cole "Nat King Cole")'s hit "[Ramblin' Rose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramblin%27_Rose "Ramblin' Rose")" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel No. 9".
Stylistic range
Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of [Guy Lombardo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Lombardo "Guy Lombardo"), to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame") as an *early influence*. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the [hard rocking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_roll "Rock and roll") version of "[St. Louis Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Blues_\(song\) "St. Louis Blues (song)")" from the *WC Handy* album, show that the influence went in both directions.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
Film, television, and radio
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Armstrong_and_Grace_Kelly_on_the_set_of_%22High_Society%22,_1956.jpg)
Armstrong entertains [Grace Kelly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Kelly "Grace Kelly") on the set of *High Society*, 1956
Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a bandleader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader *cum* narrator in the 1956 musical *[High Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Society_\(1956_film\) "High Society (1956 film)")*, starring Bing Crosby, [Grace Kelly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Kelly "Grace Kelly"), [Frank Sinatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra"), and [Celeste Holm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celeste_Holm "Celeste Holm"). Armstrong appears throughout the film, sings the title song, and performs the duet "[Now You Has Jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Now_You_Has_Jazz "Now You Has Jazz")" with Crosby.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-130) In 1947, Armstrong played himself in the movie *[New Orleans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans_\(1947_film\) "New Orleans (1947 film)")* opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the [Storyville district](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storyville,_New_Orleans#Closure "Storyville, New Orleans") and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film *[The Five Pennies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Five_Pennies "The Five Pennies")*, Armstrong played himself, sang, and played several classic numbers. He performed a duet of "When the Saints Go Marching In" with [Danny Kaye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Kaye "Danny Kaye"), during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. He had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in *[The Glenn Miller Story](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Glenn_Miller_Story "The Glenn Miller Story")*.
In 1937, Armstrong was the first African American to host a [nationally broadcast radio show](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fleischmann%27s_Yeast_Hour#Guests "The Fleischmann's Yeast Hour").[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-LAHM-still-131) In 1969, he had a cameo role in [Gene Kelly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Kelly "Gene Kelly")'s film version of *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(film\) "Hello, Dolly! (film)")* as the bandleader Louis where he sang the title song with actress [Barbra Streisand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbra_Streisand "Barbra Streisand"). Armstrong's solo recording of "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" is one of his most recognizable performances.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97) Armstrong was heard on such radio programs as *The Story of Swing* (1937) and *This Is Jazz* (1947), and he also made television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on *[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_Starring_Johnny_Carson "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson")*.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
In [1949](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_in_radio "1949 in radio"), Armstrong's life was [dramatized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_drama "Radio drama") by scriptwriter [Richard Durham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Durham "Richard Durham") in the Chicago [WMAQ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WSCR "WSCR") [radio series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_series "Radio series") *[Destination Freedom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destination_Freedom "Destination Freedom")*.[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-MacDonald-132)[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-133)
Argentine writer [Julio Cortázar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio_Cort%C3%A1zar "Julio Cortázar"), a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the [Théâtre des Champs-Élysées](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es "Théâtre des Champs-Élysées") in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called [Cronopios](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronopio_\(literature\) "Cronopio (literature)") that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself "Grandísimo Cronopio" (The Great Cronopio).[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-bergreen7-97)
There is a pivotal scene in *[Stardust Memories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_Memories "Stardust Memories")* (1980) in which [Woody Allen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_Allen "Woody Allen") is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's "[Stardust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_\(1927_song\) "Stardust (1927 song)")" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-134)
In 2022, Armstrong was subject of the documentary film *[Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong%27s_Black_%26_Blues "Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues")*.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-135)
Death
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Satchmo%27s_place.jpg)
Louis Armstrong's grave at [Flushing Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_Cemetery "Flushing Cemetery") in [Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens "Queens"), New York City
Against his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the [Waldorf-Astoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldorf-Astoria "Waldorf-Astoria")'s Empire Room. At the end of it, he was hospitalized for a [heart attack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_attack "Heart attack").[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-136) Armstrong was released from the hospital in May and quickly resumed practicing his trumpet playing. Still hoping to get back on the road, Armstrong died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971. Armstrong was residing in [Corona, Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona,_Queens "Corona, Queens"), New York City, at the time of his death.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-137)
Armstrong was interred in [Flushing Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_Cemetery "Flushing Cemetery"), [Flushing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing,_Queens "Flushing, Queens"), in [Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens "Queens"), New York City. His honorary [pallbearers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallbearers "Pallbearers") included [Bing Crosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby "Bing Crosby"), [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald"), [Duke Ellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Ellington "Duke Ellington"), [Dizzy Gillespie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizzy_Gillespie "Dizzy Gillespie"), [Pearl Bailey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Bailey "Pearl Bailey"), [Count Basie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Basie "Count Basie"), [Harry James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_James "Harry James"), [Frank Sinatra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra "Frank Sinatra"), [Ed Sullivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Sullivan "Ed Sullivan"), [Earl Wilson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Wilson_\(columnist\) "Earl Wilson (columnist)"), [Benny Goodman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Goodman "Benny Goodman"), [Alan King](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_King "Alan King"), [Johnny Carson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Carson "Johnny Carson") and [David Frost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Frost "David Frost").[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-138)[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-139)[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-140) [Peggy Lee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Lee "Peggy Lee") sang "[The Lord's Prayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord%27s_Prayer "The Lord's Prayer")" at the services while [Al Hibbler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Hibbler "Al Hibbler") sang "[Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobody_Knows_the_Trouble_I%27ve_Seen "Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen")" and [Fred Robbins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Robbins_\(broadcaster\) "Fred Robbins (broadcaster)"), a long-time friend, gave the eulogy.[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-141)
Awards and honors
Grammy Awards
Armstrong was posthumously awarded the [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award") in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the recording field.[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-142)
| Year | Category | Title | Genre | Label | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1964 | Male Vocal Performance | "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" | Pop | Kapp | Winner |
Grammy Hall of Fame
Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the [Grammy Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Hall_of_Fame "Grammy Hall of Fame"), which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance."[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-143)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-144)
| Year recorded | Title | Label | Year inducted | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1925 | "[St. Louis Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Blues_\(song\) "St. Louis Blues (song)")" | Columbia | 1993 | [Bessie Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith "Bessie Smith") with Louis Armstrong, cornet |
| 1926 | "[Heebie Jeebies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebie_Jeebies_\(composition\) "Heebie Jeebies (composition)")" | OKeh | 1999 | |
| 1928 | "[West End Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_Blues "West End Blues")" | OKeh | 1974 | |
| 1928 | "[Weather Bird](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Bird "Weather Bird")" | OKeh | 2008 | with [Earl Hines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Hines "Earl Hines") |
| 1929 | "[St. Louis Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Blues_\(song\) "St. Louis Blues (song)")" | OKeh | 2008 | with [Red Allen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Allen "Red Allen") |
| 1930 | "[Blue Yodel No. 9 (Standing on the Corner)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_Corner_\(Blue_Yodel_No._9\) "Standing on the Corner (Blue Yodel No. 9)")" | Victor | 2007 | Jimmie Rodgers (featuring Louis Armstrong) |
| 1932 | "[All of Me](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_of_Me_\(Ruth_Etting_song\) "All of Me (Ruth Etting song)")" | Columbia | 2005 | |
| 1938 | "[When the Saints Go Marching In](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_In "When the Saints Go Marching In")" | Decca | 2016 | |
| 1955 | "[Mack the Knife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mack_the_Knife "Mack the Knife")" | Columbia | 1997 | |
| 1958 | *[Porgy and Bess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess_\(Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Porgy and Bess (Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong album)")* | Verve | 2001 | Album, with [Ella Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald "Ella Fitzgerald") |
| 1964 | "[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(song\) "Hello, Dolly! (song)")" | Kapp | 2001 | |
| 1967 | "[What a Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World "What a Wonderful World")" | ABC | 1999 | |
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
The [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame") listed Armstrong's "West End Blues" on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-145)
| Year recorded | Title | Label | Group |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1928 | "[West End Blues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_Blues "West End Blues")" | [Okeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okeh_Records "Okeh Records") | [Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_and_his_Hot_Five "Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five") |
Inductions and honors
In 1995, the [U.S. Post Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_on_stamps_of_the_United_States "List of people on stamps of the United States") issued a Louis Armstrong 32-cent commemorative postage stamp.
| Year inducted | Title | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 1952 | [DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DownBeat "DownBeat") | First inductee into DownBeat Hall of Fame |
| 1960[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-HollywoodWalkOfFame-146) | [Hollywood Walk of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stars_on_the_Hollywood_Walk_of_Fame "List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame") | Star at 7601 Hollywood Blvd. |
| 1978 | Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame | |
| 1990 | [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame_inductees "List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees") | Early influence |
| 2004 | Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame | At [Jazz at Lincoln Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_at_Lincoln_Center "Jazz at Lincoln Center") |
| 2007 | [Louisiana Music Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Music_Hall_of_Fame "Louisiana Music Hall of Fame") | |
| 2007 | [Gennett Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gennett_Records "Gennett Records") Walk of Fame, [Richmond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_Indiana "Richmond, Indiana"), Indiana | |
| 2007 | [Long Island Music Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island_Music_Hall_of_Fame "Long Island Music Hall of Fame") | |
| 2017 | [National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rhythm_%26_Blues_Hall_of_Fame "National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame") | Early influence |
Film honors
In 1999, Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the [American Film Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Film_Institute "American Film Institute")'s [100 Years ... 100 Stars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI%27s_100_Years...100_Stars "AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars").[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-147)
Legacy
In 1950, [Bing Crosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby "Bing Crosby"), the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, "He is the beginning and the end of music in America."[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-148) Duke Ellington, [DownBeat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DownBeat "DownBeat") magazine in 1971, said, "If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong. He was and will continue to be the embodiment of jazz."[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-149) Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, [Ethel Waters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Waters "Ethel Waters") and others preceded his scatting on record in the 1920s according to [Gary Giddins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Giddins "Gary Giddins") and others.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-150)
According to literary critic Harold Bloom, "The two great American contributions to the world's art, in the end, are Walt Whitman and, after him, Armstrong and jazz ... If I had to choose between the two, ultimately, I wouldn't. I would say that the genius of this nation at its best is indeed Walt Whitman and Louis Armstrong".[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-151)
In 2023, *[Rolling Stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone "Rolling Stone")* ranked Armstrong at No. 39 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-152)
In 1991, an asteroid was named [9179 Satchmo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9179_Satchmo "9179 Satchmo") in Armstrong's honor.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-153) In the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of his birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed [Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_New_Orleans_International_Airport "Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport"). The entrance to the airport's [former terminal building](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former_terminal_of_New_Orleans_International_Airport "Former terminal of New Orleans International Airport") houses a statue depicting Armstrong playing his cornet. In 2002, the [Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_and_his_Hot_Five "Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five") recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of [recordings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction "Sound recording and reproduction") selected yearly by the [National Recording Preservation Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Recording_Preservation_Board "National Recording Preservation Board") for preservation in the [National Recording Registry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Recording_Registry "National Recording Registry") of the [Library of Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress").[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-154) The [US Open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Open_\(tennis\) "US Open (tennis)") tennis tournament's former main stadium was named [Louis Armstrong Stadium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Stadium "Louis Armstrong Stadium") in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site.[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-155)
[Congo Square](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_Square "Congo Square") was a common gathering place for blacks in New Orleans for dancing and performing music. The park where Congo Square is located was later renamed [Louis Armstrong Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Park "Louis Armstrong Park").[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-156) Dedicated in April 1980, the park includes a 12-foot (3.7 m) statue of Armstrong, trumpet in hand.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-157)
*[A Wonderful World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Wonderful_World_\(musical\) "A Wonderful World (musical)")*, a musical based on his life story, had its world premiere run at [Miami New Drama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_New_Drama "Miami New Drama") from December 4, 2021, to January 16, 2021,[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-158) after mounting previews beginning March 5, 2020[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-159) and canceling opening night (March 14) due to COVID concerns.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-160) Mirroring Armstrong's musical journey, the show stars [James Monroe Iglehart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Monroe_Iglehart "James Monroe Iglehart") and makes "pre-Broadway"[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-161) stops in New Orleans on October 1–8, 2023, and Chicago on October 11–29, 2023. The new musical charts the rise of Armstrong from the perspective of his four wives. It is conceived by Drama Desk Award winner and Tony Award nominee [Christopher Renshaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Renshaw "Christopher Renshaw") and novelist [Andrew Delaplaine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Delaplaine "Andrew Delaplaine"), and directed by Renshaw, *A Wonderful World* features an original book by [Aurin Squire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurin_Squire "Aurin Squire"). The show will debut on Broadway in 2024.[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-162)
The Louis Armstrong House Museum
The house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a [National Historic Landmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark "National Historic Landmark") and opened to the public for guided tours in 2003.[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-163) The [Louis Armstrong House Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_House "Louis Armstrong House"), at 34–56 107th Street between 34th and 37th avenues in [Corona, Queens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona,_Queens "Corona, Queens"), presents concerts and educational programs,[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-164) operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research.[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-165) The museum is administered by the [Queens College, City University of New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens_College,_City_University_of_New_York "Queens College, City University of New York"), following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will and is operated by the nonprofit Louis Armstrong House Museum. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center opened across the street from the Armstrong home in the summer of 2023.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-visitorscenter-166) The Museum website also includes the digitized Armstrong Archives, searchable to the public 24 hours a day.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_note-167)
Essential discography
- *The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings*
- *The Complete Louis Armstrong Decca Sessions (1935–1946) (Mosaic Records, 2009)*
- *All Stars (Louis Armstrong's Town Hall Concert) (1947)*
- *[Struttin'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struttin%27_\(Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Struttin' (Louis Armstrong album)") (1947)*
- *Satchmo Serenades (1950)*
- *[Satchmo at Pasadena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchmo_at_Pasadena "Satchmo at Pasadena") (1951)*
- *[Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_Plays_W.C._Handy "Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy") (1955)*
- *[Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_at_the_Crescendo,_Vol._1 "Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1") (1955)*
- *[Satch Plays Fats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satch_Plays_Fats "Satch Plays Fats") (1955)*
- *[The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Ella_Fitzgerald_%26_Louis_Armstrong_on_Verve "The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve")* – contains *Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, Porgy and Bess (1997)*
- *[Louis and the Angels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_and_the_Angels "Louis and the Angels") (1957)*
- *[Louis and the Good Book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_and_the_Good_Book "Louis and the Good Book") (1958)*
- *[Satchmo In Style](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satchmo_In_Style "Satchmo In Style") (1959)*
- *[Hello, Dolly\!](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_\(Louis_Armstrong_album\) "Hello, Dolly! (Louis Armstrong album)") (1964)*
See also
- [Black and tan clubs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_and_tan_clubs "Black and tan clubs")
- [Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ella_Fitzgerald_and_Louis_Armstrong_collaborations "Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations")
- *[Little Satchmo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Satchmo "Little Satchmo")*, 2022 documentary film
References
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-anderson_1-0)**
Anderson, Gene H. (2015). [*Louis Armstrong*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Cn70BgAAQBAJ&q=louis+daniel+armstrong+baptismal+record&pg=PT6). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0190268756](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190268756 "Special:BookSources/978-0190268756")
.
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-NYTOBit_2-0)**
Krebs, Albin (July 7, 1971). ["Louis Armstrong, Jazz Trumpeter and Singer, Dies"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1971/07/07/79675134.html?pageNumber=1). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-3)**
For background on nicknames, see
Laurence Bergreen (1997). [*Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrong00laur/page/4). New York: Broadway Books. pp. [4–5](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrong00laur/page/4). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0553067682](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0553067682 "Special:BookSources/978-0553067682")
.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-4)**
["Louis Armstrong: All That and More"](https://americansongwriter.com/louis-armstrong/). [American Songwriter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Songwriter "American Songwriter"). August 17, 2021. Retrieved October 12, 2025.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-RCJE_5-0)**
Cook, Richard (2005). *Richard Cook's Jazz Encyclopedia*. London: Penguin Books. pp. 18–19\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0141006468](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141006468 "Special:BookSources/978-0141006468")
.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-6)**
["Louis Armstrong – Artist"](https://www.grammy.com/artists/louis-armstrong/452). *Grammy.com*. November 19, 2019. Retrieved May 27, 2020.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-7)** Bergreen (1997), p. 1.
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-8)**
["Golden Record Contents"](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager/golden-record-contents/sounds/). [NASA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA "NASA").
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-9)**
Gary Giddins (2001). [*Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong*](https://archive.org/details/satchmogeniusofl00gidd). Da Capo. p. [21](https://archive.org/details/satchmogeniusofl00gidd/page/21). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-306-81013-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81013-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81013-8")
.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-10)** Teachout (2009), pp. 26–27.
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-11)** Bergreen (1996), pp. 14–15.
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-12)**
[Teachout, Terry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Teachout "Terry Teachout") (2009). *Pops*. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 30.
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-giddins22_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-giddins22_13-1) Giddins (2001), pp. 22–23
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-14)** Giddins (2001), p. 26.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-15)**
["Jazz Neighborhoods – New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)"](https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazz-map.htm). *nps.gov*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220528143541/https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazz-map.htm) from the original on May 28, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
16. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_16-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_16-1) Bergreen (1997), pp. 27, 57–60.
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-17)** Some sources spell Karnofsky with one "f". This article is spelling it with two "f"s based on Bergreen (1998).
18. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-in-his-own-words-karnofskys_18-4)
Armstrong, Louis (1999). ["Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the year of 1907"](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrongin00arms/page/3/mode/). In [Brothers, Thomas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brothers "Thomas Brothers") (ed.). *Louis Armstrong, in His Own Words: Selected Writings*. Annotated index by Charles Kinzer. [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). pp. 3–36\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-19-511958-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511958-4 "Special:BookSources/0-19-511958-4")
– via [Internet Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive").
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-19)**
[Berlin, Irving](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Berlin "Irving Berlin"). ["Irving Berlin's Russian Lullaby"](https://digitalcollections-baylor.quartexcollections.com/Documents/Detail/irving-berlins-russian-lullaby/1127188). Irving Berlin Music Corp. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220509032433/https://digitalcollections-baylor.quartexcollections.com/Documents/Detail/irving-berlins-russian-lullaby/1127188) from the original on May 9, 2022. Retrieved May 8, 2022.
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-21)**
[Karnow, Stanley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Karnow "Stanley Karnow") (February 21, 2001). ["My Debt to Cousin Louis's Cornet"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090409025810/http://www.nytimes.com:80/2001/02/21/opinion/my-debt-to-cousin-louis-s-cornet.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. Archived from [the original](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9C02E1D91639F932A15751C0A9679C8B63) on April 9, 2009. Retrieved November 14, 2023.
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-22)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 55–57.
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-23)** Giddins (2001), pp. 36–37.
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-24)** *Current Biography 1944*, pp. 15–17.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-25)** Bergreen (1997), p. 6.
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-26)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 67–68.
26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-27)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 70–72.
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-28)** *Current Biography 1944*. p. 16.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-29)** Bergreen (1997), p. 78.
29. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_1997,_pp._80%E2%80%9389_30-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_1997,_pp._80%E2%80%9389_30-1) Bergreen (1997), pp. 80–89.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-31)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 70–71\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_1997,_p.44_32-0)** Bergreen (1997), p. 44.
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Bergreen_1997_pp.45_33-0)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 45–47.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-34)**
Kenney, William Howland (2005). *Jazz on the River*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 64.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-35)** Bergreen (1997), p. 142.
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-36)** Bergreen (1997), p. 170.
36. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier_37-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier_37-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier_37-2)
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1983). [*Louis Armstrong: An American Genius*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam). New York: Oxford University Press. p. [324](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam/page/324). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195033779](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195033779 "Special:BookSources/978-0195033779")
.
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-38)** Kenney (2005), pp. 57–59.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-39)** Bergreen (1997), p. 199.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-40)** Bergreen (1997), pp. 213–218.
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-41)**
Stamatel, Janet P. (2003). Henderson, Ashyia N (ed.). ["Hardin Armstrong, Lil 1898–1971"](http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX2874100037/GVRL?u=aubu98092&sid=GVRL&xid=18dcff82). *Contemporary Black Biography*. **39**: 98 – via Gale Virtual Reference Library.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-42)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 78–79\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-43)**
[Lyttelton, Humphrey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Lyttelton "Humphrey Lyttelton") (1979). *The Best of Jazz*. Taplinger. p. 113. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0800807278](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0800807278 "Special:BookSources/0800807278")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [8050573](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8050573).
43. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-44)**
Magee, Jeffrey (2005). *The Uncrowned King of Swing*. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–114\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1093/acprof:oso/9780195090222.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195090222.001.0001). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195090222](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195090222 "Special:BookSources/978-0195090222")
.
44. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-45)** Bergreen (1997), p. 247.
45. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-46)**
Elliot Hurwitt et al., in Cary D. Wintz and Paul Finkelman, eds., [*Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0L0ULjto_OEC) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230116102815/https://books.google.com/books?id=0L0ULjto_OEC) January 16, 2023, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") (London: Routledge, 2012), 533 and elsewhere. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1135455361](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135455361 "Special:BookSources/978-1135455361")
46. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-47)**
Kemp, Larry (2018). *Early Jazz Trumpet Legends*. \[Place of publication not identified\]: Rosedog PR. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1480976375](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1480976375 "Special:BookSources/978-1480976375")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1059329912](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1059329912).
47. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-48)** Bergreen (1997), p. 260.
48. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-harker_49-0)**
Harker, Brian (2011). *Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven Recordings*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 4–5\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195388404](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195388404 "Special:BookSources/978-0195388404")
.
49. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-50)** Bergreen (1997), p. 274.
50. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-51)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 282. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
51. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-52)** Bergreen (1997), p. 264.
52. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-53)** Bergreen (1997), p. 267.
53. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-54)**
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1985). *Louis Armstrong*. Pan Books. pp. 160–162\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0330286077](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0330286077 "Special:BookSources/978-0330286077")
.
54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-55)**
Williams, Iain Cameron [*Underneath a Harlem Moon: The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall*](http://www.bloomsbury.com/us/underneath-a-harlem-moon-9780826458933/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210226182123/https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/underneath-a-harlem-moon-9780826458933/) February 26, 2021, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). Bloomsbury Publishers, 2002. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0826458939](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826458939 "Special:BookSources/0826458939")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [51780394](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51780394)
55. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-56)** Harker (2011), p. 145.
56. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-57)**
["Louis Armstrong: 'The Man and His Music', Part 1"](https://www.npr.org/2007/08/01/12208712/louis-armstrong-the-man-and-his-music-part-1). *[National Public Radio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Radio "National Public Radio")*. August 1, 2007. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803154258/https://www.npr.org/2007/08/01/12208712/louis-armstrong-the-man-and-his-music-part-1) from the original on August 3, 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
57. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-58)**
["Satchmo: The Life of Louis Armstrong"](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/louis-armstrong-about-louis-armstrong/528/). *PBS*. July 6, 2005. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190528012453/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/louis-armstrong-about-louis-armstrong/528/) from the original on May 28, 2019. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
58. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-59)**
Jones, Josh (March 31, 2015). ["Langston Hughes Presents the History of Jazz in an Illustrated Children's Book (1995)"](https://www.openculture.com/2015/03/langston-hughes-presents-the-history-of-jazz-i.html). *Open Culture*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190521005205/http://www.openculture.com/2015/03/langston-hughes-presents-the-history-of-jazz-i.html) from the original on May 21, 2019. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
59. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-60)**
Hughes, Langston (October 13, 2009). ["Jazz as Communication (1956)"](https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/69394/jazz-as-communication). *Poetry Foundation*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190528013957/https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/69394/jazz-as-communication) from the original on May 28, 2019. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
60. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-61)**
Andrews, Evan (August 22, 2018). ["9 Things You May Not Know About Louis Armstrong"](https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-louis-armstrong). *[History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_\(American_TV_network\) "History (American TV network)")*. A\&E Television Networks. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201120054543/https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-louis-armstrong) from the original on November 20, 2020. Retrieved April 3, 2021.
61. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-62)**
Collins, Willie (2013). Thomas Riggs (ed.). ["Armstrong, Louis (1901–1971)"](http://0-link.galegroup.com.library.4cd.edu/apps/doc/CX2735800126/GVRL?u=plea38277&sid=GVRL&xid=30818ba4). *St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture*. **1** (Second ed.). [St. James Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._James_Press "St. James Press"): 133–135\.
\[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot "Wikipedia:Link rot")*\]
62. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-63)**
["Louis Armstrong & his Orchestra"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083427/http://www.redhotjazz.com/lao.html). Redhotjazz.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.redhotjazz.com/lao.html) on January 16, 2013. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
63. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-morgenstern_64-0)**
[Morgenstern, Dan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Morgenstern "Dan Morgenstern") (1994), "Louis Armstrong and the Development and Diffusion of Jazz", in Miller, Marc H. (ed.), *Louis Armstrong: A Cultural Legacy*, Queens Museum of Art in association with University of Washington Press, p. 110
64. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-65)** Bergreen (1997), p. 320.
65. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-66)** Collier (1985), pp. 221–222.
66. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-ArmstrongInThe30s_67-0)**
["Louis Armstrong in the 30s"](http://riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu/program/louis-armstrong-30s-tribute-life-and-music-armstrong-30s). *riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130326032953/http://riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu/program/louis-armstrong-30s-tribute-life-and-music-armstrong-30s) from the original on March 26, 2013. Retrieved May 5, 2015.
67. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-68)** Bergreen (1997), p. 344.
68. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-69)** Bergreen (1997), p. 385.
69. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-70)**
Reed, Tom. (1992). *The Black music history of Los Angeles, its roots : 50 years in Black music : a classical pictorial history of Los Angeles Black music of the 20s, 30s, 40s, 50s and 60s: photographic essays that define the people, the artistry and their contributions to the wonderful world of entertainment* (1st limited ed.). Los Angeles: Black Accent on L.A. Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[096329086X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/096329086X "Special:BookSources/096329086X")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [28801394](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/28801394).
70. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-71)** "Satchmo Band Spice To Open Air Show." *Los Angeles Sentinel*, May 28, 1953.
71. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Starkey2015_72-0)**
Starkey, Brando Simeo (2015). [*In Defense of Uncle Tom: Why Blacks Must Police Racial Loyalty*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WzHCBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA147). Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1316214084](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316214084 "Special:BookSources/978-1316214084")
. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
72. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-73)**
Ziegler, Robert, ed. (2013). *Music: the definitive visual history*. London: DK. p. 247. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1465414366](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1465414366 "Special:BookSources/978-1465414366")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [828055596](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/828055596).
73. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-reception_74-0)**
["Louis Armstrong And Band Get A Hot Reception"](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/18448805). *Sydney Morning Herald (NSW: 1842–1954)*. October 28, 1954. p. 1. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180613210841/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/18448805) from the original on June 13, 2018. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
74. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Nollen2004_75-0)**
[Nollen, Scott Allen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Allen_Nollen "Scott Allen Nollen") (2004). [*Louis Armstrong: The Life, Music, and Screen Career*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrongli0000noll). McFarland. p. [127](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrongli0000noll/page/127). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0786418572](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786418572 "Special:BookSources/978-0786418572")
. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
75. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-76)**
["Louis Armstrong"](https://www.allmusic.com/artist/louis-armstrong-mn0000234518/biography). *[AllMusic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic "AllMusic")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191102175628/http://allmusic.com/artist/louis-armstrong-mn0000234518/biography) from the original on November 2, 2019. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
76. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-77)**
["Louis Armstrong"](http://www.biography.com/people/louis-armstrong-9188912). *Biography.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190411104456/https://www.biography.com/people/louis-armstrong-9188912) from the original on April 11, 2019. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
77. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Breihan_78-0)**
Breihan, Tom (June 14, 2018). ["May 9, 1964 The Number Ones: Louis Armstrong's "Hello, Dolly!""](https://www.stereogum.com/2001439/the-number-ones-louis-armstrongs-hello-dolly/columns/the-number-ones/). *www.stereogum.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231226164156/https://www.stereogum.com/2001439/the-number-ones-louis-armstrongs-hello-dolly/columns/the-number-ones/) from the original on December 26, 2023. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
78. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-studs_79-0)**
["Louis Daniel Armstrong talks with Studs Terkel on WFMT; 1962/6/24"](https://soundcloud.com/studsterkel-radio-archive/tracks). [Studs Terkel Radio Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studs_Terkel_Radio_Archive "Studs Terkel Radio Archive"). June 24, 1962. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161002004100/https://soundcloud.com/studsterkel-radio-archive/tracks) from the original on October 2, 2016. Retrieved September 27, 2016.
79. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Kelley2012_80-0)**
[Kelley, Robin D. G.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_D._G._Kelley "Robin D. G. Kelley") (2012). [*Africa Speaks, America Answers: Modern Jazz in Revolutionary Times*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gduqiA16Ng8C&pg=PA72). Harvard University Press. pp. 72–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0674065246](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674065246 "Special:BookSources/978-0674065246")
. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
80. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Company1971_81-0)**
["James Brown Goes Through Some New Changes"](https://books.google.com/books?id=e7EDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA59). *Jet*. December 30, 1971. p. 59. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
81. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Von_Eschen_82-0)**
[Von Eschen, Penny M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny_Von_Eschen "Penny Von Eschen") (2004). *Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univ. Press. pp. 79–91\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0674015012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674015012 "Special:BookSources/978-0674015012")
.
82. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Whitaker2011_83-0)**
Whitaker, Matthew C. (2011). [*Icons of Black America: Breaking Barriers and Crossing Boundaries*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bT1jf8PcqAUC). ABC-CLIO. p. 41. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0313376429](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313376429 "Special:BookSources/978-0313376429")
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83. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-84)**
["FAQ – Louis Armstrong House Museum"](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/faq/). *louisarmstronghouse.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170808074334/https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/faq/) from the original on August 8, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
84. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-85)**
Armstrong, Louis; Brothers, Thomas (2001). [*Louis Armstrong, In His Own Words: Selected Writings*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fdxDDe-fb8sC&pg=PA109). New York: [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 109. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195140460](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195140460 "Special:BookSources/978-0195140460")
. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150915205007/https://books.google.com/books?id=fdxDDe-fb8sC&pg=PA109) from the original on September 15, 2015. Retrieved December 8, 2014.
85. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-86)**
Goffin, Robert. *Horn of Plenty: The Story of Louis Armstrong*. Da Capo Press, 1977. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0306774305](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0306774305 "Special:BookSources/0306774305")
\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
86. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen134_87-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen134_87-1) Bergreen (1997), 134–137.
87. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier2_88-0)**
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1983). [*Louis Armstrong: An American Genius*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam). New York: Oxford University Press. p. [81](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam/page/81). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195033779](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195033779 "Special:BookSources/978-0195033779")
.
88. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-89)**
Giddins, Gary (April 16–22, 2003). ["Satchuated"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080605231223/http://www.villagevoice.com/music/0316,giddins,43368,22.html). *[Village Voice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village_Voice "Village Voice")*. Archived from [the original](http://www.villagevoice.com/music/0316,giddins,43368,22.html) on June 5, 2008. Retrieved October 17, 2007.
89. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-90)**
["Lillian Hardin Armstrong"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131023073640/http://www.redhotjazz.com/lil.html). *RedHotJazz.com*. Archived from [the original](http://www.redhotjazz.com/lil.html) on October 23, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
90. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-91)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 318. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
91. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-92)**
["Biography of Louis Daniel Armstrong"](https://web.archive.org/web/20141228222300/http://www.louisarmstrongfoundation.org/louis.php). *LouisArmstrongFoundation.org*. Louis Armstrong Educational Foundation. Archived from [the original](http://www.louisarmstrongfoundation.org/louis.php) on December 28, 2014. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
92. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-93)**
["Louis Armstrong: FAQ"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083432/http://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/about/faq.htm). [Louis Armstrong House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_House "Louis Armstrong House") Museum. Archived from [the original](http://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/about/faq.htm) on January 16, 2013. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
93. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-94)**
Goddard, Jacqui (December 15, 2012). ["Louis Armstrong's secret daughter revealed, 42 years after his death"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/9747518/Louis-Armstrongs-secret-daughter-revealed-42-years-after-his-death.html). *[The Daily Telegraph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph "The Daily Telegraph")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121219071602/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/9747518/Louis-Armstrongs-secret-daughter-revealed-42-years-after-his-death.html) from the original on December 19, 2012.
94. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-inflation-US_95-0)**
1634–1699:
[McCusker, J. J.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._McCusker "John J. McCusker") (1997). [*How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda*](https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf) (PDF). [American Antiquarian Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society "American Antiquarian Society").
1700–1799:
[McCusker, J. J.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._McCusker "John J. McCusker") (1992). [*How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States*](https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf) (PDF). [American Antiquarian Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society "American Antiquarian Society").
1800–present:
Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. ["Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"](https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-). Retrieved February 29, 2024.
95. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Collier3_96-0)**
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1983). [*Louis Armstrong: An American Genius*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam). New York: Oxford University Press. p. [158](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstro00jam/page/158). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0195033779](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195033779 "Special:BookSources/978-0195033779")
.
96. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-6) [***h***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-7) [***i***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-8) [***j***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-9) [***k***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-10) [***l***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-11) [***m***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-12) [***n***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-13) [***o***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-14) [***p***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-15) [***q***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-16) [***r***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-17) [***s***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-bergreen7_97-18) Bergreen (1997), pp. 7–11.
97. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-98)**
Schulz, Bill (August 26, 2016). ["Louis Armstrong's Lip Balm"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160831214922/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/28/nyregion/louis-armstrongs-lip-balm.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. Archived from [the original](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/28/nyregion/louis-armstrongs-lip-balm.html) on August 31, 2016.
98. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-99)** "Louis Armstrong: An American Genius", [James L. Collier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier"), 231 pp.
99. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-100)** "Satchmo Rallies, Jokes" [The Ottawa Citizen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ottawa_Citizen "The Ottawa Citizen"), June 26, 1959, p. 1
100. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-101)** Armstrong, 1954, pp. 27–28
101. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-102)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 291. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
.
102. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-103)** Collier (1985), pp. 317–320
103. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Louis_Armstrong,_Barring_Soviet_Tour,_Denounces_Eisenhower_and_Gov._Faubus_104-0)**
["Louis Armstrong, Barring Soviet Tour, Denounces Eisenhower and Gov. Faubus"](https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/08/03/reviews/armstrong-eisenhower.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. September 19, 1957. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090410084159/http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/08/03/reviews/armstrong-eisenhower.html) from the original on April 10, 2009. Retrieved August 30, 2007.
104. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-105)**
[Margolick, David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Margolick "David Margolick") (September 23, 2007). ["The Day Louis Armstrong Made Noise"](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/opinion/23margolick.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170221145559/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/opinion/23margolick.html) from the original on February 21, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2017.
105. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-106)** Bergreen (1997), p. 472.
106. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-107)**
Hoople, Major (September 20, 1957). ["Armstrong Cancels Trip Due to Integration Crisis"](https://www.newspapers.com/image/596988965/). *Okmulgee Daily Times*. p. 10.
107. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-108)**
["Satchmo insist that he speaks for himself"](https://www.newspapers.com/image/748725015/). *Daily Record*. September 25, 1957. p. 9.
108. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Gabbard_109-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-Gabbard_109-1)
Gabbard, Krin (2001). *Louis and The Good Book* (CD booklet). Louis Armstrong. New York City: [Verve Records](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verve_Records "Verve Records"). p. 1.
109. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-LeaveItAllBehindYa_110-0)**
Gilstrap, Peter (February 29, 1996). ["Leave It All Behind Ya"](https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/leave-it-all-behind-ya-6431842). *Phoenix New Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214821/https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/news/leave-it-all-behind-ya-6431842) from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2021.
110. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-111)**
[Teachout, Terry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Teachout "Terry Teachout") (2009). *Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong*. pp. 293–294.[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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111. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-112)** Armstrong, Louis. *Christmas Through the Years*, Laserlight 12744.
112. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-113)**
Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 390. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0393065824](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393065824 "Special:BookSources/978-0393065824")
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113. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-114)**
Andrews, Evan (October 17, 2022). ["9 Things You May Not Know About Louis Armstrong"](https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-louis-armstrong). *History.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201120054543/https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-louis-armstrong) from the original on November 20, 2020. Retrieved April 3, 2021.
114. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-115)** Satchmo.net. 'Red Beans and Ricely yours, Louis Armstrong.'
115. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-116)** [*Jive Dictionary*](https://web.archive.org/web/20031227020046/http://www.cabcalloway.cc/_vti_bin/shtml.exe/jive_dictionary.htm), by [Cab Calloway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cab_Calloway "Cab Calloway"): "*Barbecue (n.) – the girl friend, a beauty*." Retrieved February 10, 2009.
116. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-117)** Elie p. 327.
117. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-118)**
Hasse, John E. (April 1, 2014). ["Rare Footage of Duke Ellington Highlights When Jazz and Baseball Were in Perfect Harmony"](http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/rare-footage-duke-ellington-highlights-when-jazz-baseball-were-perfect-harmony-180950303/). *Smithsonian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170307050207/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/rare-footage-duke-ellington-highlights-when-jazz-baseball-were-perfect-harmony-180950303/) from the original on March 7, 2017. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
118. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-119)** Bergreen (1997), p. 4.
119. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-120)**
["Louis Armstrong"](http://www.freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/armstrong_l/armstrong_l.html). *Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon*. Retrieved September 3, 2010.
`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_deprecated_archival_service "Category:CS1 maint: deprecated archival service"))
120. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-121)**
["Louis the First"](https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,805063-1,00.html), *Time*, February 21, 1949, [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210616225029/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,805063-1,00.html) from the original on June 16, 2021, retrieved February 5, 2021
121. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-122)**
Harker, Brian Cameron (1997). *The early musical development of Louis Armstrong, 1901–1928* (PhD thesis). Columbia University. [ProQuest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest "ProQuest") [304443911](https://www.proquest.com/docview/304443911).
122. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-123)** Lynn Rene Bayley, "More Jazz: 'Louis Armstrong – The Early Years." *Fanfare – The Magazine for Serious Record Collectors*. 09 2008: 408–410. ProQuest. Web. July 14, 2016.
123. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-124)**
Michael Cogswell, *Louis Armstrong: The Offstage Story of Satchmo* (Collector's Press, [Portland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregon "Portland, Oregon"), Oregon, 2003) [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[1888054816](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1888054816 "Special:BookSources/1888054816")
pp. 66–68.
124. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-125)**
["NPR's Jazz Profiles from NPR: Louis Armstrong: The Singer"](https://www.npr.org/2007/08/22/13829155/louis-armstrong-the-singer). *NPR*. National Public Radio. August 22, 2007. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210614225900/https://www.npr.org/2007/08/22/13829155/louis-armstrong-the-singer) from the original on June 14, 2021. Retrieved June 16, 2021.
125. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-126)**
["Louis Armstrong's Secret Lessons From Judaism"](https://forward.com/culture/197338/louis-armstrongs-secret-lessons-from-judaism/). *The Forward*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230317114334/https://forward.com/culture/197338/louis-armstrongs-secret-lessons-from-judaism/) from the original on March 17, 2023. Retrieved January 12, 2018.
126. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-127)**
Bergreen, Laurence (1998). [*Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrong00laur) (Reprint ed.). New York: Broadway Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0767901567](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0767901567 "Special:BookSources/978-0767901567")
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127. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-billboard.com_128-0)**
["Louis Armstrong"](https://www.billboard.com/artist/308288/louis-armstrong/biography). *Billboard*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180614200258/https://www.billboard.com/artist/308288/louis-armstrong/biography) from the original on June 14, 2018. Retrieved March 19, 2020.
128. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-129)** Louis Armstrong: "*Grassa e bella*" [Louis Armstrong Discography](http://michaelminn.net/armstrong/index.php?section8) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140111230507/http://michaelminn.net/armstrong/index.php?section8) January 11, 2014, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")
129. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-130)**
["High Society (1956) – High Society Calpyso"](https://www.tcm.com/video/192833/high-society-1956-high-society-calpyso). *[Turner Classic Movies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turner_Classic_Movies "Turner Classic Movies")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210225090502/https://www.tcm.com/video/192833/high-society-1956-high-society-calpyso) from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved November 24, 2020.
130. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-LAHM-still_131-0)**
Riccardi, Ricky (May 11, 2020). ["'I'm Still Louis Armstrong – Colored': Louis Armstrong and the Civil Rights Era"](https://virtualexhibits.louisarmstronghouse.org/2020/05/11/im-still-louis-armstrong-colored-louis-armstrong-and-the-civil-rights-era/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. [Louis Armstrong House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong_House "Louis Armstrong House"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210123064520/https://virtualexhibits.louisarmstronghouse.org/2020/05/11/im-still-louis-armstrong-colored-louis-armstrong-and-the-civil-rights-era/) from the original on January 23, 2021. Retrieved April 3, 2021.
131. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-MacDonald_132-0)**
[MacDonald, J. Fred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Fred_MacDonald "J. Fred MacDonald"), ed. (1989). "The Trumpet Talks". *Richard Durham's Destination Freedom*. New York: Praeger. pp. 215–229\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0275931382](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275931382 "Special:BookSources/0275931382")
.
132. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-133)** Recording [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1323055804](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1323055804), [13571274](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13571274), [26452918](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26452918)
133. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-134)**
["Stardust Memories"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130206163732/http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19800101%2FREVIEWS%2F1010330%2F1023). Rogerebert.suntimes.com. January 1, 1980. Archived from [the original](http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19800101%2FREVIEWS%2F1010330%2F1023) on February 6, 2013. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
134. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-135)**
Brody, Richard. ["Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues"](https://www.newyorker.com/goings-on-about-town/movies/louis-armstrongs-black-and-blues). *The New Yorker*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240501074447/https://www.newyorker.com/goings-on-about-town/movies/louis-armstrongs-black-and-blues) from the original on May 1, 2024. Retrieved May 1, 2024.
135. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-136)**
[Morgenstern, Dan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Morgenstern "Dan Morgenstern"), and Sheldon Meyer (2004). [*Living with Jazz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GVWrw0dtuAMC&pg=PT95) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230512103354/https://books.google.com/books?id=GVWrw0dtuAMC&pg=PT95) May 12, 2023, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). New York: Pantheon Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[037542072X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/037542072X "Special:BookSources/037542072X")
136. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-137)** Krebs, Albin. ["Louis Armstrong, Jazz Trumpeter and Singer, Dies"](https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0804.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161206142237/http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0804.html) December 6, 2016, at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"), *The New York Times*, July 7, 1971. Accessed October 1, 2009. "Louis Armstrong, the celebrated jazz trumpeter and singer, died in his sleep yesterday morning at his home in the Corona section of Queens."
137. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-138)**
[Collier, James Lincoln](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier "James Lincoln Collier") (1985). [*Louis Armstrong*](https://archive.org/details/louisarmstrongam00coll). Pan. p. 333. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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138. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-139)**
Burton, Anthony (July 10, 1971). ["Louis Armstrong's body is laid to rest in Queens"](https://www.nydailynews.com/2015/07/05/louis-armstrongs-body-is-laid-to-rest-in-queens/). *New York Daily News*.
139. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-140)**
Lelyveld, Joseph (July 10, 1971). ["Friends Bid Louis Armstrong a Nostalgic Farewell at Simple Service"](https://www.nytimes.com/1971/07/10/archives/friends-bid-louis-armstrong-a-nostalgic-farewell-at-simple-service.html). *New York Times*.
140. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-141)**
["Louis Armstrong Dies: 1971 Year in Review"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090503142809/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/). Upi.com. December 28, 1971. Archived from [the original](http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/#title) on May 3, 2009. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
141. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-142)**
["Lifetime Achievement Award"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090212143148/http://grammy.com/Recording_Academy/Awards/Lifetime_Awards/). Grammy.com. February 8, 2009. Archived from [the original](http://www.grammy.com/Recording_Academy/Awards/Lifetime_Awards/) on February 12, 2009. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
142. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-143)**
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143. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-144)**
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144. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-145)**
["Experience The Music: One Hit Wonders and The Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll"](http://rockhall.com/exhibits/one-hit-wonders-songs-that-shaped-rock-and-roll/). Rockhall.com. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120509180015/http://rockhall.com/exhibits/one-hit-wonders-songs-that-shaped-rock-and-roll/) from the original on May 9, 2012. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
145. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-HollywoodWalkOfFame_146-0)**
["Louis Armstrong"](http://www.walkoffame.com/louis-armstrong). *Hollywood Walk of Fame*. February 8, 1960. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210307214732/http://www.walkoffame.com/louis-armstrong) from the original on March 7, 2021. Retrieved October 2, 2011.
146. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-147)**
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147. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-148)**
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148. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-149)**
Storb, Ilse (2000). [*Jazz Meets the World-the World Meets Jazz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=40FU7dEiB78C&q=%22%22If%20anybody%20was%20a%20master,%20it%20was%20Louis%20Armstrong.%22%22&pg=PA168). LIT Verlag Münster. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-3825837488](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3825837488 "Special:BookSources/978-3825837488")
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149. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-150)** See *Ken Burns' Jazz* CD Set liner notes.
150. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-151)**
["At Home with Harold Bloom: (3) The Jazz Bridge"](http://radioopensource.org/at-home-with-harold-bloom-3-the-jazz-bridge/). *Radioopensource.org*. December 30, 2007. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230530103832/https://radioopensource.org/at-home-with-harold-bloom-3-the-jazz-bridge/) from the original on May 30, 2023. Retrieved October 19, 2019.
151. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-152)**
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152. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-153)**
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153. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-154)**
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154. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-155)**
["Ashe & Armstrong Stadiums"](https://web.archive.org/web/20151001025842/http://www.usta.com/Active/News/National-Tennis-Center-News/National-Tennis-Center/14185_Ashe__Armstrong_Stadiums/). Usta.com. May 25, 2008. Archived from [the original](http://www.usta.com/Active/News/National-Tennis-Center-News/National-Tennis-Center/14185_Ashe__Armstrong_Stadiums/) on October 1, 2015. Retrieved May 7, 2011.
155. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-156)** Bergreen (1997), p. 11.
156. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-157)**
["Armstrong Park Dedicated"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24648140/louis_armstrong_louis_armstrong_park/). *Daily World*. Opelousas, Louisiana. [UPI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International "United Press International"). April 16, 1980. p. 3. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181030034956/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24648140/louis_armstrong_louis_armstrong_park/) from the original on October 30, 2018. Retrieved October 25, 2018 – via [Newspapers.com](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com").
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access "open access publication – free to read")
157. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-158)**
["A Wonderful World"](https://miaminewdrama.org/show/a-wonderful-world/). *Miami New Drama*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230927093529/https://miaminewdrama.org/show/a-wonderful-world/) from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
158. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-159)**
Clement, Olivia (March 5, 2020). ["Louis Armstrong Musical A Wonderful World Kicks Off World Premiere in Miami"](https://playbill.com/article/louis-armstrong-musical-a-wonderful-world-kicks-off-world-premiere-in-miami#:~:text=Performances%20begin%20March%205%20at,stars%20as%20jazz%20legend%20Armstrong.). *Playbill.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231022235816/https://playbill.com/article/louis-armstrong-musical-a-wonderful-world-kicks-off-world-premiere-in-miami#:~:text=Performances%20begin%20March%205%20at,stars%20as%20jazz%20legend%20Armstrong.) from the original on October 22, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
159. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-160)**
["Exclusive Photos/Video: Final Preview of A WONDERFUL WORLD; Opening Night Cancelled at the Colony Theatre"](https://www.broadwayworld.com/miami/article/Exclusive-PhotosVideo-Final-Preview-of-A-WONDERFUL-WORLD-Opening-Night-Cancelled-at-the-Colony-Theatre-20200314). *Broadway World*. March 14, 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231022234313/https://www.broadwayworld.com/miami/article/Exclusive-PhotosVideo-Final-Preview-of-A-WONDERFUL-WORLD-Opening-Night-Cancelled-at-the-Colony-Theatre-20200314) from the original on October 22, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
160. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-161)**
Gans, Andrew (July 12, 2023). ["Cast Complete for A Wonderful World Musical Starring James Monroe Iglehart; Vanessa Williams Joins Producing Team"](https://playbill.com/article/cast-complete-for-a-wonderful-world-musical-starring-james-monroe-iglehart-vanessa-williams-joins-producing-team). *Playbill.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230925202808/https://playbill.com/article/cast-complete-for-a-wonderful-world-musical-starring-james-monroe-iglehart-vanessa-williams-joins-producing-team) from the original on September 25, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
161. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-162)**
["A Wonderful World: The Louis Armstrong Musical"](https://www.thepressroomnyc.com/wonderful-world). *The Press Room, NYC*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240406082119/https://www.thepressroomnyc.com/wonderful-world) from the original on April 6, 2024. Retrieved April 6, 2024.
162. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-163)**
["The Museum – About"](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/about/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
163. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-164)**
["Events"](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/events/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
164. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-165)**
["Research Archives – Collections"](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/museum-collections/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
165. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-visitorscenter_166-0)**
["Louis Armstrong House Museum and CUNY Celebrate Opening of New Center"](https://www1.cuny.edu/mu/forum/2023/07/07/louis-armstrong-house-museum-and-cuny-celebrate-opening-of-new-center/). The City University of New York. July 7, 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231127050846/https://www1.cuny.edu/mu/forum/2023/07/07/louis-armstrong-house-museum-and-cuny-celebrate-opening-of-new-center/) from the original on November 27, 2023. Retrieved November 30, 2023.
166. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong#cite_ref-167)**
["Catalogs"](https://collections.louisarmstronghouse.org/). *Louis Armstrong House Museum*. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
Works cited
| External videos |
|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg) [Presentation by Teachout about *Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong*, January 7, 2010](https://www.c-span.org/video/?291140-1/pops-life-louis-armstrong), [C-SPAN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-SPAN "C-SPAN") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg) [*Q\&A* interview with Teachout about *Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong*, January 31, 2010](https://www.c-span.org/video/?291150-1/terry-teachout-wall-street-journal-drama-critic-passes-age-65), [C-SPAN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-SPAN "C-SPAN") |
- Armstrong, Louis (1954). *Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans*. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0306802767](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0306802767 "Special:BookSources/0306802767")
.
- [Bergreen, Laurence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Bergreen "Laurence Bergreen") (1997). *Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life*. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0553067680](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0553067680 "Special:BookSources/0553067680")
.
- Cogswell, Michael (2003). *Armstrong: The Offstage Story*. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[1888054816](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1888054816 "Special:BookSources/1888054816")
.
- Elie, Lolis Eric. *A Letter from New Orleans*. Originally printed in *Gourmet*. Reprinted in *Best Food Writing 2006*, ed. by Holly Hughes, Da Capo Press, 2006. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[1569242879](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1569242879 "Special:BookSources/1569242879")
.
- [Teachout, Terry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Teachout "Terry Teachout") (2009). [*Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong*](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Pops/WrDB5XZbXZEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq&printsec=frontcover). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0151010899](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0151010899 "Special:BookSources/978-0151010899")
.
Further readings
- [Brothers, Thomas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brothers "Thomas Brothers") (2006). *Louis Armstrong's New Orleans**,*** New York, N.Y. W. W. Norton & Company
- Brothers, Thomas (2014). *Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism*. New York: W. W. Norton & Company
- [Feather, Leonard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Feather "Leonard Feather") (1960). *The Jazz Encyclopedia*. Da Capo. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0-306-80214-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80214-7 "Special:BookSources/0-306-80214-7")
.
- [Giddins, Gary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Giddins "Gary Giddins") (1988). *Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong*. Da Capo Press
- [Gioia, Ted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Gioia "Ted Gioia") (2022). *The History of Jazz (Third Edition)*. Oxford University Press
- [Jones, Max](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Jones_\(musician\) "Max Jones (musician)"), and Chilton, John (1988). *Louis: The Louis Armstrong Story, 1900–1971*. Da Capo Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0306803246](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306803246 "Special:BookSources/978-0306803246")
.
- Riccardi, Ricky (2012). *What a Wonderful World: The Magic of Louis Armstrong's Later Years*. New York: Vintage. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780307473295](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307473295 "Special:BookSources/9780307473295")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [798285020](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/798285020).
- —— (2020). *Heart Full of Rhythm: The Big Band Years of Louis Armstrong*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780190914110](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190914110 "Special:BookSources/9780190914110")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1137836373](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1137836373).
- —— (2025). *Stomp off, Let's Go: The Early Years of Louis Armstrong*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[9780197614488](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197614488 "Special:BookSources/9780197614488")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1427941152](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1427941152).
- Storb, Ilse (1999). *Louis Armstrong: The Definitive Biography*. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[0820431036](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0820431036 "Special:BookSources/0820431036")
.
- Willems, Jos (2006). *All of Me: The Complete Discography of Louis Armstrong*. Scarecrow Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0810857308](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810857308 "Special:BookSources/978-0810857308")
.
External links
- [Louis Armstrong House Museum](https://www.louisarmstronghouse.org/)
- [Louis Armstrong](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001918/) at [IMDb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMDb_\(identifier\) "IMDb (identifier)") [](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1779#P345 "Edit this at Wikidata")
- [Louis Armstrong](https://www.discogs.com/artist/Louis+Armstrong) discography at [Discogs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discogs "Discogs")
- [Louis Armstrong](https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/louis-armstrong) collected news and commentary at *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*
- [\[1\]](https://virtualexhibits.louisarmstronghouse.org/2025/11/12/hot-five-centennial-celebration-part-1-birth-of-the-hot/) |
| Shard | 152 (laksa) |
| Root Hash | 17790707453426894952 |
| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/Louis_Armstrong s443 |