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| Boilerpipe Text | This article is about the concept in Chinese religions. For other uses, see
Hungry Ghosts (disambiguation)
. For the Buddhist variant and for the Hindu variant, see
Preta
.
Hungry ghost
Gaki zōshi
餓鬼草紙 "Scroll of Hungry Ghosts", circa 12th century
Creature information
Grouping
Legendary creature
Sub grouping
Nocturnal
,
revenant
Similar entities
Krasue
and
Kalag
Folklore
Chinese Buddhism
,
Japanese Buddhism
,
Chinese traditional religion
Origin
Country
China
,
Japan
Region
East Asia
,
South Asia
,
Southeast Asia
Hungry ghost
is a term in
Buddhism
and
Chinese traditional religion
, representing beings who are driven by intense emotional needs in an
animalistic
way.
The term
Chinese
:
餓鬼
;
pinyin
:
èguǐ
;
lit.
'hungry ghost' is the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit term
preta
[
1
]
in
Buddhism
.
"Hungry ghosts" play a role in
Chinese Buddhism
,
Japanese Buddhism
,
Taoism
, and in
Chinese folk religion
.
The term is not to be confused with the generic term for "
ghost
" or damnation,
鬼
;
guǐ
(i.e. the residual spirit of a deceased ancestor). The understanding is that people first become a regular ghost when they die
[
2
]
and then slowly weaken and eventually die a second time.
[
3
]
[
4
]
The hungry ghosts, along with animals and hell beings, consists of the three realms of existence no one desires.
[
5
]
[
6
]
In these realms it is extremely difficult to be reborn in a better realm (i.e. the realm of humans,
asura
or
deva
) because it is nearly impossible to perform deeds that cultivate good karma.
[
7
]
With the rise in popularity of
Buddhism
, the idea that
souls
would live in space until reincarnation became popular.
[
4
]
In the
Taoist
tradition, it is believed that hungry ghosts can arise from people whose deaths have been violent or unhappy. Both Buddhism
[
4
]
and Taoism
[
8
]
share the idea that hungry ghosts can emerge from neglect or desertion of ancestors. According to the
Huayen Sutra
evil deeds will cause a soul to be reborn in one of six different realms.
[
9
]
The highest degree of evil deed will cause a soul to be reborn as a denizen of
hell
, a lower degree of evil will cause a soul to be reborn as an animal, and the lowest degree will cause a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost.
[
10
]
According to the tradition, evil deeds that lead to becoming a hungry ghost are killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Desire, greed, anger and ignorance are all factors in causing a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost because they are motives for people to perform evil deeds.
[
2
]
The biggest factor is greed as hungry ghosts are ever discontent and anguished because they are unable to satisfy their feelings of greed.
[
11
]
Some traditions imagine hungry ghosts living inside the bowels of earth or they live in the midst of humans but go unnoticed by those around them or they choose to distance themselves.
[
12
]
There are many legends regarding the origin of hungry ghosts. It is likely that the idea of hungry ghosts originated from ancient Indian culture, where they were referred to as
Preta
.
[
citation needed
]
In the
Buddhist
tradition, hungry ghosts appear in stories from the
Chuan-chi po-yuan ching
("Sutra of One Hundred Selected Legends") from the early third century.
[
13
]
[
page needed
]
Some examples of these stories are as follows:
Once, a rich man who travelled was selling
sugar-cane
juice. One day, a
monk
came to his house in search of some juice to cure an illness. The man had to leave, so he instructed his wife to give the monk the drink in his absence. Instead of doing this, she secretly urinated in the monk's bowl, added sugar cane juice to it and gave it to the monk. The monk was not deceived; he poured out the bowl and left. When the wife died, she was reborn as a hungry ghost.
[
13
]
[
page needed
]
Another such tale is of a man who was giving and kind. One day, he was about to leave his house when a monk came by begging. The man instructed his wife to give the monk some food. After the man left his house, his wife was overcome with greed. She took it upon herself to teach the monk a lesson, so she locked the monk in an empty room all day with no food. She was reborn as a hungry ghost for innumerable lifetimes.
[
13
]
[
page needed
]
The legends often speak of hungry ghosts who, in a previous lifetime, were greedy women who refused to give away food.
[
13
]
[
page needed
]
Other stories in the Buddhist tradition come from the "Sutra on Ghosts Questioning Maudgalyāyana" (
鬼問目連經
;
Gui wen Mulian jing
). One of the stories tells of a diviner who constantly misled people due to his own avarice, and thus, he was reborn as a hungry ghost.
[
14
]
[
page needed
]
Another story in "The Legend of Mu-lien Entering the City and Seeing Five Hundred Hungry Ghosts" is about five hundred men that were sons of elders of the city they lived in. When monks came begging to the city for food, the sons denied them because they thought the monks would keep coming back and eventually take all their food. After the sons died, they were reborn as hungry ghosts.
[
4
]
[
page needed
]
Avadānaśataka
"One Hundred Stories"
[
edit
]
The
Avadānaśataka
is one of the earliest collections of stories about hungry ghosts and was compiled by a Buddhist monk from northwest India between the second and fourth centuries CE. The stories in this work may have functioned as a prescription for appropriate behaviour. The text is divided into ten "decades", the fifth decade being stories that concern hungry ghosts. This part of the
Avadānaśataka
recounts the bad thoughts and behavior the hungry ghosts have cultivated in their human existence which led them to the hungry ghost realm. The accumulation of malignancy or meanness is called
mātsarya
.
[
15
]
[
16
]
The notion of
mātsarya
in this volume is explained to understand the logic of mātsarya's development, the actions it evokes, the suffering it causes and in which ways it can be eradicated. Therefore, it describes the causal chain (
pratītyasamutpāda
) that leads to the existence of a hungry ghost. At the end of nearly every story the phrase "Work hard to get rid of your
mātsarya
!"
[
17
]
is repeated.
[
18
]
A Chinese Buddhist monk and his attendants performing the
Yujia Yankou
ritual, a rite that fulfils several different functions, including feeding hungry ghosts.
In
China
,
Taiwan
and other
overseas Chinese communities
, preta is translated as
egui
(
Chinese
: 餓鬼, lit: "hungry ghost"), which descends from the
Middle Chinese
pronunciation of
nga
H
kjwɨj
X
. In
Chinese Buddhism
, the
egui dao
(餓鬼道, lit: "Path of the Hungry Ghosts") is one of the six domains of the
desire realm
of Buddhism.
[
19
]
Many Chinese Buddhist rituals performed throughout the year typically contain sections where the various types of
egui
and spirits are summoned and provided nourishment in the form of food offerings and Buddhist teachings and precepts. The
oral tradition
of Chinese
ancestral worship
believes that the ghosts of the ancestors may be granted permission to return to the world of the living at a certain time of the year. If the spirits are hungry and not given sufficient offerings by their living relatives, they take what they can from the world.
[
20
]
A
festival
called the
Yulanpen Festival
(
simplified Chinese
:
盂兰盆
;
traditional Chinese
:
盂蘭盆
;
pinyin
:
Yúlánpén
;
lit.
'Ullambana') is held to honor the
egui
and food and drink is put out to satisfy their needs. The festival is celebrated during the seventh month of the
Chinese calendar
. It also falls at the same time as a full moon, the new season, the fall harvest, the peak of monastic asceticism, the rebirth of ancestors, and the assembly of the local community.
[
14
]
According to tradition, during this month, the gates of
Diyu
(hell) are opened up and the
egui
are free to roam the earth where they seek food and entertainment. These
egui
are believed to be ancestors of those who have forgotten to pay tribute to them after they died. They have long thin necks because they have not been fed by their families. Tradition states that families should offer prayers to their deceased relatives and burn "
hell money
". It is believed that "hell money" is a valid currency in the underworld and helps ghosts to live comfortably in the afterlife. People also burn other forms of
joss paper
such as paper houses, cars and televisions to please the ghosts.
[
21
]
Families also pay tribute to other unknown wandering
egui
so that these homeless souls do not intrude on their lives and bring misfortune. A big feast is held for the
egui
on the 15th day of the seventh month, where people bring samples of food and place them on the offering table to please the
egui
and ward off bad luck. Live shows are also put on and everyone is invited to attend. The first row of seats is always empty as this is where the ghosts are supposed to sit to better enjoy the live entertainment. The shows are always put on at night and at high volumes, so that the sound attracts and pleases the
egui
. These acts were better known as "Merry-making".
[
22
]
Chinese Buddhist practices
[
edit
]
Yujia Yankou
ritual at
Bangka Lungshan Temple
during the
Yulanpen Festival
.
Chinese Buddhist
rituals that feature the feeding of
egui
are commonly performed as part of regular temple services. A key example is the
Mengshan Shishi
rite (蒙山施食,
Méngshān Shīshí
, lit: "Mengshan food bestowal"), which is commonly performed as part of the
daily evening liturgy
in most Chinese Buddhist temples.
[
23
]
[
24
]
Another key rite that is often performed is the
Yujia Yankou
ritual (
Chinese
: 瑜伽燄口,
pinyin
:
Yújiā Yànkǒu
, lit: "Yoga Flaming-Mouth Food Bestowal"), also known as the
Yuqie Yankou
ritual.
[
25
]
It is commonly performed during or at the end of regular religious temple events such as repentance rites (
Chinese
: 懺悔,
pinyin
:
Chànhǔi
),
Buddha recitation
retreats (
Chinese
: 佛七,
pinyin
:
Fóqī
), the dedication of a new monastic complex, gatherings for the transmission of
monastic vows
or the
Yulanpen Festival
. During the ritual, one or more monks execute various esoteric and tantric practices, including
maṇḍala
offerings, recitation of esoteric
mantras
, execution of
mudrās
and visualization practices to deliver both physical nourishment (in the form of food offerings) as well as spiritual nourishment (in the form of Buddhist teachings and conferment of precepts) on
egui
and other hell-beings.
[
25
]
The ritual also combines features of
Chinese operatic tradition
(including a wide range of instrumental music as well as vocal performances such as solo deliveries, antiphonal and choral singing) as well as the recitation of
sūtras
similar to other exoteric
Mahāyāna
rituals.
[
25
]
The ritual is typically open for attendance to the public, and especially
lay people
, who participate as the audience and spectators.
During the ritual, various Buddhist figures such as the
Five Tathāgatas
,
Guanyin
,
Zhunti
and
Dizang
are invoked to help empower the ritual space and offerings as well as other ritual functions.
[
25
]
Another key figure in the ritual is the
egui
king
Mianran Dashi
(
Chinese
: 面燃大士,
pinyin
: Miànrán Dàshì, lit: "Burning-Face Mahāsattva"), who is commonly regarded as a manifestation of the
Bodhisattva
Guanyin
and who features prominently in the sūtra upon which the ritual was based on. During the climax of the ritual, the main performers of the rite toss the offerings into the ritual space before the main altar for the spirits, as well as to the audience of the rite.
[
25
]
Only vegetarian food offerings are allowed as Buddhist precepts promote
compassion
for all
sentient beings
and forbid the taking of any life.
[
25
]
The Buddhist refuge vows as well as precepts are also conferred upon the spirits present at the ritual, and all merits generated from the rite are usually
dedicated to all sentient beings
at the end of the rite.
[
25
]
The chief
Taoist
priest
of the town wears an ornate crown of five gold and red panels, a practice appropriated from
Chinese Buddhism
. This represented the five most powerful deities (The
Jade Emperor
,
Lord Guan
,
Tu Di Gong
,
Mazu
and
Xi Wangmu
) according to Taoist beliefs. He is believed to become their voice on earth.
[
21
]
A sacrificial altar and a chair are built for a priest either at a street entrance or in front of the village. The
Bodhisattva
Dizang
sits in front of the chair. Under the chair are plates of rice flour and peaches. Sitting on the altar are three spirit tablets and three funeral banners. After noon, sheep, pigs, chicken, fruits, and cakes are donated by families that are displayed on the altar. A priest will put a triangular paper banner of three colors with special characters on every sacrifice. After the music begins to play, the priest hits the bell to call the
egui
back to the table. He then throws the rice and peaches into the air in all directions to distribute them to the
egui
.
[
22
]
During the evening,
incense
is burnt in front of the doors of households. Incense stands for prosperity, the more incense burnt, the greater one's prosperity.
[
22
]
During the festival, shops are closed to leave the streets open for the ghosts. In the middle of each street stands an altar of incense with fresh fruit and sacrifices displayed on it. Behind the altar, monks will sing songs that it is believed only the ghosts can understand. This rite is called
shi ge'r
, meaning "singing ghost songs".
[
22
]
Fifteen days after the feast, to make sure all the hungry ghosts find their way back to
hell
, people float lanterns on water and set them outside their houses. These lanterns are made by setting a lotus flower-shaped lantern on a piece of board.
Egui
are believed to have found their way back when the lanterns go out.
[
22
]
A performance held during
Ghost month
in
Kuala Lumpur
,
Malaysia
. People are not supposed to sit in the red chairs at the front because they are reserved for the "hungry ghosts."
There are many folk beliefs and taboos surrounding the
Yulanpen Festival
. Spirits are thought to be dangerous, and can take many forms, including snakes, moths, birds, foxes, wolves, and tigers. Some can even use the guise of a beautiful man or woman to seduce and possess. One story refers to a ghost which takes the form of a pretty girl and seduces a young man until a
priest
intervenes and sends the spirit back to hell. It is believed that
possession
can cause illness and/or mental disorders.
[
26
]
During the seventh month of the
Chinese calendar
, children are advised (usually by an elder in the family) to be home before dark, and not to wander the streets at night for fear a ghost might possess them. Swimming is thought to be dangerous as well, as spirits are believed to have drowned people. People will generally avoid driving at night, for fear of a "collision", or spiritual offence, which is any event leading to illness or misfortune.
[
27
]
[
page needed
]
While "ghost" is a commonly used term throughout the year, many people use the phrase "backdoor god" or "good brother" instead during the 7th month, so as not to anger the ghosts. Another thing to avoid is sampling any of the food placed on the offering table, as doing this can result in "mysterious illness". Any person attending a show at indoor entertainment venues (
getai
) will notice the first row of chairs is left empty. These seats are reserved for the spirits, and it is considered bad form to sit in them. After an
offering
has been burnt for the spirits, stepping on or near the burnt area should be avoided, as it is considered an "opening" to the spirit world and touching it may cause the person to be possessed.
[
citation needed
]
In
Tibetan Buddhism
, Hungry Ghosts (
Standard Tibetan
:
ཡི་དྭགས
་,
Wylie
:
yi dwags
,
Sanskrit
:
preta
) have their own realm depicted on the
Bhavacakra
and are represented as teardrop or
paisley
-shaped with bloated stomachs and necks too thin to pass food so that attempting to eat is also incredibly painful. Some are described as having "mouths the size of a needle's eye and a stomach the size of a mountain". This is a metaphor for people futilely attempting to fulfill their illusory physical desires.
According to the
History of Buddhism
, as elements of Chinese Buddhism entered a dialogue with Indian Buddhism in the
Tibetan Plateau
, this synthesis is evident in the compassion rendered in the form of blessed remains of food, etc., offered to the
pretas
in rites such as
Ganachakra
.
[
citation needed
]
In
Mahayana Buddhism
Chenrezig
offers the hungry ghosts the nectar flowing from his fingers that relieves their suffering. This buddha helps the hungry ghosts as he is the manifestation of the Lotus Family that has the special ability to support those who suffer, in this case the hungry ghost realm that is filled with suffering. This nectar symbolises purification which is able to cleanse all negativities, karma, obscurations, and defilements.
[
28
]
Image from a Japanese scroll which describes the realm of the hungry ghosts and how to placate them. Currently housed at the
Kyoto National Museum
, artist unknown.
Section of the Hungry Ghosts Scroll depicting one of the thirty-six types of hungry ghosts who constantly seeks water to drink and explaining how those who have been born as such are saved by the offerings of the living. Kyoto Museum
In
Japanese Buddhism
, the Hungry Ghosts are considered to have two variants: the
gaki
and the
jikininki
. Gaki (
餓鬼
) are the spirits of
jealous
or greedy people who, as punishment for their mortal vices, have been cursed with an insatiable hunger for a particular substance or object. Traditionally, this is something repugnant or humiliating, such as human
corpses
or
feces
, though in more recent legends, it may be virtually anything, no matter how bizarre. Jikininki (
食人鬼
"people-eating ghosts") are the spirits of greedy,
selfish
or
impious
individuals who are cursed after death to seek out and eat human corpses. They do this at night, scavenging for newly dead bodies and food offerings left for the dead. They sometimes also loot the corpses they eat for valuables. Nevertheless, jikininki lament their condition and hate their repugnant cravings for dead human flesh.
[
citation needed
]
Japanese ghost-feeding rites, known as
segaki
, are also performed regularly by all Japanese Buddhist traditions.
The Hungry Ghosts Scroll kept at the
Kyoto National Museum
depicts the world of the hungry ghosts and the suffering of these creatures, and contains tales of salvation of the ghosts. The whole scroll has been designated as National Treasure of Japan and it was possibly part of a set of scrolls depicting the six realms which was kept at
Sanjūsangen-dō
.
[
29
]
LaFleur comments that these depictions symbolise that hungry ghosts are not just hungry but they are constituted by their very hunger. Unlike mankind's impermanent hunger, for hungry ghosts "there is only an ongoing, alleviated gnawing of the stomach and parching of the throat." The body of the hungry ghost is important as it has a huge stomach and a throat as narrow as a needle which leaves the hungry ghost in the dilemma of always having appetite but no way to ever satisfy that hunger.
[
30
]
The hungry ghost depicted in art in medieval Japan were thought of as "consumer of fires" because they mistook fire for something edible in their constant strive to satisfy their hunger. This only makes their hunger worse, they start to emit fire from their mouths and start to consume even more fire.
[
31
]
LaFleur interprets that the art of hungry ghosts might have provided viewers of a look into the world they inhabit and which they normally do not see clearly. Therefore, the images might offer the insights that hungry ghosts interact with the world of humans from their world and that the human realm is oblivious to these beings affecting them.
[
32
]
It is believed that the
soul
contains elements of both
yin and yang
. The yin is the
gui
, or demon part, and the yang is the
shen
, or spirit part. When death occurs, the
gui
should return to earth, and the
shen
to the grave or family shrine. If a ghost is neglected, it will become a
gui
. The
shen
, or ancestral spirit, watches over its descendants, and can bring good fortune if properly worshipped.
[
26
]
Hungry ghosts are different from the
ghosts of Chinese
which all people are believed to become after death.
According to the
Nyāyānusāriṇī
, there are three main groups of hungry ghosts, each of which are divided into three sub-groups:
[
2
]
[
33
]
[
page needed
]
ghosts of no wealth (
無財鬼
)
torch or flaming mouths (
炬口鬼
): These ghosts regurgitate fierce flames with mouths of inextinguishable embers. Their bodies are like that of a palmyra tree. This is the karmic result of stinginess.
needle mouths (
針口鬼
): These ghosts have bellies as vast as mountain valleys. Their mouth are like the hole of a needle. Even if they find food or drink, they cannot consume it. Thus they suffer from hunger and thirst.
putrid mouths (
臭口鬼
): These ghosts give off a great decomposing odor from their mouths. They may be found at privies overflowing with filth and fecal matter. They constantly emit a nauseating, evil fumes. Although they find food, they cannot eat it. This fills them with anger and they run about shrieking.
ghosts of little wealth (
少財鬼
)
needle hair (
針毛鬼
): These ghosts have bodies made of hair, firm like spears. They are unapproachable. Their insides burn, as a deer shot with a poison arrow. They run about suffering from ulcers. Only small quantities of impure food can allay their hunger.
putrid hair (
臭毛鬼
): These ghosts also have bodies made of hair that smells incredibly foul. Their flesh and bones emit noxious fumes and their bowels are full of grime. They are agitated from poison in their throats and their skin splits when their hair is pulled out. Only small quantities of impure food can allay their hunger.
swollen (
癭鬼
): Large protuberances grow in their throats. They suffer from aches and fever. They smell of pus that gushes forth from their bodies. They fight with each other over food. They consume small bits of pus and blood and can be somewhat satiated.
ghosts of much wealth (
多財鬼
)
ghosts of sacrifices (
希祠鬼
): These ghosts live off sacrifices offered by humans. One is reborn here by ethically gathering wealth, but with a stingy heart does not practice generosity. If one is reborn here, their descendants can make offerings to satiate their hunger.
ghosts of losses (
希棄鬼
): These ghosts are always covetous, searching out filth like vomit and feces to eat. In life, they sought out and found enjoyment in both clean and unclean things, and were thus reborn here.
ghosts of great power (
大勢鬼
): includes certain
yaksha
,
rakshasa
s,
kumbhanda
s and the like who are the powerful rulers of the spirits. They reside in forests, stupas, mountain valleys, and empty palaces. Those with no authoritative power live on all four continents except for
Uttarakuru
. Those with authoritative power may also be found in the heavens and on two of the five-hundred islands that lie to the west of
Jambudvipa
. One island holds their castle while the other holds the castle of those ghosts with no authority.
Sixteen hungry ghosts are said to live in
hell
or in a region of hell. Unlike other hell dwellers, they can leave hell and wander. They look through garbage and human waste on the outskirts of human cities. They are said to be invisible during the daylight hours but visible at night. Some hungry ghosts can only eat corpses, or their food is burnt up in their mouths, sometimes they have a big belly and a neck as thin as a needle (this image is the basic one for hungry ghosts in
Asian Buddhism
).
[
9
]
[
page needed
]
According to the
Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra
, there are thirty-six different types of hungry ghost.
Gaki zōshi
The depictions and stories about hungry ghosts especially in the early Indian context can show the viewer a commentary about the "manual scavengers", members of the lowest caste in India. They are regarded as people whose bad stigma comes from their birth and the group they belong to. They represent a group of starving people who are wandering the outside of cities, are homeless and hungry. As most people have adopted an ingrained blindness to this underclass.
[
34
]
[
32
]
Furthermore, the bodies of hungry ghosts bear similarities with humans who are deprived of food. This malnourishment causes a disorder known as
kwashiorkor
that encompasses symptoms like stomach bloating from fluid retention, hair and tooth loss and dry and cracked skin. These people have skeletal like figures and big stomachs.
[
35
]
Looking at these hungry ghosts and their figure one might interpret hungry ghosts as teachers. They do not teach the causes of karma like solitary buddhas, however, instead of words with their bodies.
[
36
]
[
37
]
Their whole body embodies suffering (
dukkha
) to such an extend that seeing them gives the viewer the chance to witness the truth of
dukkha
.
[
38
]
The body of the Hungry Ghost as Hell
[
edit
]
The realm of the hungry ghosts is just one above that of the beings in
naraka
, however, while the hungry ghosts are not directly in hell their body is constituted by a hunger that they cannot satisfy due to the nature of their bodies, having big bellies and the throat of a needle. Whereas the hell have walls that keep the beings in a permanent state of torture, the body of the hungry ghosts is like a hell because they cannot escape their bodies, free to wander the world at will.
[
39
]
In Buddhist philosophy
[
edit
]
The influential Indian monk
Vasubandhu
used hungry ghosts in his argumentation of the
Yogācāra
concept that "everything in the three realms is nothing but appearance." He argues against the
objective reality
of external objects (physical and non-physical) by asserting that the appearance of external objects is mind-dependent, as they happen to be different at specific times and places across different minds. Since different minds encounter the same objects differently, similar to dreams, these objects do not need to have a physical reality.
The author offers an example about a river perceived as clear by humans, but full of pus by hungry ghosts. Thus, the appearances of external objects across different minds is distinct. By that, the author establishes an argument for a lack of substantial reality among external objects.
[
40
]
[
41
]
First Volume of Teineina Kurashi wo Suru Gaki
丁寧な暮らしをする餓鬼
("The Hungry Ghost who leads a polite life"): This three volume work explores the life of a hungry ghost who, unlike others of their kind, is very compassionate and pure-hearted. They spend half a day grinding coffee beans in a mortar, folding plastic bags into triangles, sweeping up leaves, and so on.
[
42
]
Buddhist cosmology
Ghosts in Chinese culture
Ghosts in Vietnamese culture
Ghosts in Thai culture
Obon
Preta
Segaki
Soul dualism
Vengeful ghost
^
Rotman, Andy (2021): Hungry Ghosts. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. P. 16.
^
a
b
c
Venerable Yin-shun.
The Way to Buddhahood
. Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications: 1998.
^
目次：冥報記白話
.
www.bfnn.org
.
^
a
b
c
d
Teiser, Stephen F.
The Ghost Festival in Medieval China
. New Jersey: Princeton University Press: 1988.
Hungry ghosts, by contrast, are a much more exceptional case, and would only occur in very unfortunate circumstances, such as if a whole family were killed or when a family no longer venerated their ancestors.
^
Avadānaśataka 244. 14.
^
Roth (2021): p. 16.
^
Jones, J. J. 1949–56. Thee Mahāvastu. 3 vols. London: Luzac and Company. pp. 22—24.
^
Oldstone-Moore, Jennifer.
Taoism
. USA: Oxford University Press: 2003.
^
a
b
Baroni, Helen J. Ph.D.
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism
. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated: 2002.
^
Gregory, Peter N., ed.
Inquiry Into the Origin of Humanity
. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press: 1995.
^
Gethin, Rupert (1998):
The Foundations of Buddhism
. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 121.
^
Stuart, Daniel Malinowski. 2012. “A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna (sūtra).” PhD dissertation, University of California–Berkeley. P. 50.
^
a
b
c
d
Eberhard, Wolfram
.
Chinese Festivals
. New York: Abelard-Schuman Ltd.: 1958.
^
a
b
Stephen F. Teiser
(1996).
The Ghost Festival in Medieval China
. Princeton University Press.
^
More specifically mātsarya means meanness in two senses: first the unwilligness to share and other characteristics like being unfair, unkind and spiteful. (Rothman, 16)
^
Rothman (2021): 15—16.
^
Avadānaśataka:
245.7, i 248.10, i 255.11–12, i 260.10, and i 273.12–13. Cf. i 266.4.
^
Rotman (2021): 16—18.
^
Buddhism-dict.net
(accessed: October 18, 2007)
^
Martin, Emily; Emíly M. Ahern (1973).
The cult of the dead in a Chinese village
. Stanford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-8047-0835-7
.
^
a
b
"Hungry Ghost Festival"
. Essortment, 2002. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
^
a
b
c
d
e
"Ghost Festival" ChinaVoc 2001-2007,
"Chinese Festivals - the Ghost Festival"
. Archived from
the original
on 2009-06-08
. Retrieved
2009-02-16
.
.
^
"Sagely City of 10,000 Buddhas Daily Recitation Handbook 萬佛聖城日誦儀規 (eBook)"
.
Buddhist Text Translation Society
. Retrieved
2025-09-20
.
^
"The Essentials of Morning and Evening Recitation"
.
www.dharmasite.net
. Retrieved
2025-09-20
.
^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Lye, Hun Yeow (2003).
Feeding Ghosts: A Study of the Yuqie Yankou Rite
(Thesis). University of Virginia.
doi
:
10.18130/v3s82z.
^
a
b
"Zhongyuan Festival - Hungry Ghost Festival". China Daily. 2004 Aug 30. Retrieved 2008 Oct 20.
[1]
^
DeBernardi, Jean Elizabeth, and Jean DeBernardi.
Rites of Belonging: Memory, Moderninity & Identity in a Malaysian Chinese Community
. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2004.
^
Wangchen Rinpoche:
Buddhist Fasting Practice. The Nyungne Method of Thousand-Armed Chenrezig.
Snow Lion Publication, Ithaca/New York 2009, P. 97.
^
Hungry Ghosts Scroll Kyoto 1
^
LaFleur, William. R. 1989. “Hungry Ghosts and Hungry People: Somaticity and Rationality in Medieval Japan.” In Fragments for a History of the Human Body, edited by Michael Feher, 270–303. New York: Zone Publications. P. 274.
^
LaFleur (1989): 286–87.
^
a
b
LaFleur (1989): 278.
^
Stuart, Daniel Malinowski (2012): A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra. PhD Dissertation, University of California.
^
Srivastava, B. N. 1997. Manual Scavenging in India: A Disgrace to the Country. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. P. 10.
^
LaFleur (1989): 297.
^
Divyāvadāna 296.12–13, kāyikī dharmadeśanā na vācikī. See too Divyāvadāna 133.7 and 313.12; Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya (Dutt 1984, iii 1, 232.5–6 and 252.3–4); and Saṅghabhedavastu ii 46.
^
Rotman (2021): 54.
^
Rotman (2021): 55.
^
LaaFleur (1989): 274.
^
Lévi, Sylvain (1925).
Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi: Deux Traités de Vasubandhu: Viṃśatikā (La Vingtaine), Accompagnée d'une explication en prose, et Triṃśikā (La Trentaine), avec le Commentaire de Sthiramati
[
Twenty Verses with Auto-Commentary
]. Translated by Nilanjan Das. Paris: Libraire Ancienne Honore Champion. pp.
2–
4.
^
Thakchoe, Sonam, "The Theory of Two Truths in India",
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition)
, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/twotruths-india/>.
^
ピッコマ｜無料漫画・小説、新作コミックが毎日楽しめる！
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## Contents
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- [1 Myths of origin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Myths_of_origin)
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- [1\.1 *Avadānaśataka* "One Hundred Stories"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Avad%C4%81na%C5%9Bataka_"One_Hundred_Stories")
- [2 In China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#In_China)
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- [2\.1 Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Yulanpen_Festival)
- [2\.2 Chinese Buddhist practices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Chinese_Buddhist_practices)
- [2\.3 Taoist practices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Taoist_practices)
- [2\.4 Other beliefs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Other_beliefs)
- [3 In Tibet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#In_Tibet)
- [4 In Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#In_Japan)
- [5 Types of spirits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Types_of_spirits)
- [6 Interpretation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Interpretation)
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- [6\.1 Depiction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#Depiction)
- [6\.2 The body of the Hungry Ghost as Hell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#The_body_of_the_Hungry_Ghost_as_Hell)
- [6\.3 In Buddhist philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#In_Buddhist_philosophy)
- [7 In popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#In_popular_culture)
- [8 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#See_also)
- [9 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#References)
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# Hungry ghost
12 languages
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chinese, Japanese and Tibetan conception of the preta of Buddhist mythology
This article is about the concept in Chinese religions. For other uses, see [Hungry Ghosts (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_Ghosts_\(disambiguation\) "Hungry Ghosts (disambiguation)"). For the Buddhist variant and for the Hindu variant, see [Preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta").
| | |
|---|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaki-Zoushi.jpg)*Gaki zōshi* 餓鬼草紙 "Scroll of Hungry Ghosts", circa 12th century | |
| Creature information | |
| Grouping | [Legendary creature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendary_creature "Legendary creature") |
| Sub grouping | [Nocturnal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal "Nocturnal"), [revenant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenant_\(folklore\) "Revenant (folklore)") |
| Similar entities | [Krasue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasue "Krasue") and [Kalag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_pre-colonial_Philippines "Religion in pre-colonial Philippines") |
| Folklore | [Chinese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism"), [Japanese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism "Japanese Buddhism"), [Chinese traditional religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_traditional_religion "Chinese traditional religion") |
| Origin | |
| Country | [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China"), [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan") |
| Region | [East Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia"), [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"), [Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia") |
| |
|---|
| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_folk_religion "Category:Chinese folk religion") on |
| [Chinese folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E7%A6%84_l%C3%B9_or_%E5%AD%90_zi_symbol---red.svg "Stylisation of the 禄 lù or 子 zi grapheme, respectively meaning \"prosperity\", \"furthering\", \"welfare\" and \"son\", \"offspring\". 字 zì, meaning \"word\" and \"symbol\", is a cognate of 子 zi and represents a \"son\" enshrined under a \"roof\". The symbol is ultimately a representation of the north celestial pole (Běijí 北极) and its spinning constellations, and as such it is equivalent to the Eurasian symbol of the swastika, 卍 wàn.") |
| Concepts [Tian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tian "Tian")—[Shangdi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangdi "Shangdi") [Qi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi "Qi") [Shen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_\(Chinese_religion\) "Shen (Chinese religion)") [Ling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling_\(Chinese_religion\) "Ling (Chinese religion)") [Xian ling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xian_ling_\(religion\) "Xian ling (religion)") [Yinyang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yang "Yin and yang") [Hundun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundun "Hundun") [Mingyun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_yun "Ming yun") [Yuanfen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanfen "Yuanfen") [Baoying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bao_ying "Bao ying") [Wu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_\(Chinese_religion\) "Wu (Chinese religion)") |
| Theory [Chinese theology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_theology "Chinese theology") [Chinese gods and immortals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals "Chinese gods and immortals") [Chinese mythology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology "Chinese mythology") [Chinese astrology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_astrology "Chinese astrology") [Chinese zodiac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_zodiac "Chinese zodiac") [Chinese creation myth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_creation_myth "Chinese creation myth") [Chinese spiritual world concepts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_spiritual_world_concepts "Chinese spiritual world concepts") **Model humanity:** [Xian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xian_\(Taoism\) "Xian (Taoism)") [Zhenren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhenren "Zhenren") [Wen and wu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wen_and_wu "Wen and wu") |
| Practices [Fenxiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenxiang "Fenxiang") [Jingxiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingxiang "Jingxiang") [Feng shui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_shui "Feng shui") [Miaohui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miaohui "Miaohui") [Wu shamanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_\(shaman\) "Wu (shaman)") [Jitong mediumship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongji_\(spirit_medium\) "Tongji (spirit medium)") [Precious scrolls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baojuan "Baojuan") |
| Institutions and temples [Associations of good-doing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associations_of_good-doing "Associations of good-doing") [Lineage associations or churches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_lineage_associations "Chinese lineage associations") [Chinese temple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_temple "Chinese temple") [Ancestral shrine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestral_shrine "Ancestral shrine") [Chinese Folk Temples' Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Folk_Temples%27_Management_Association "Chinese Folk Temples' Management Association") |
| Festivals [Qingming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qingming_Festival "Qingming Festival") [Zhongyuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Festival "Ghost Festival") [Zhongqiu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Autumn_Festival "Mid-Autumn Festival") [Jiuhuangye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Emperor_Gods_Festival "Nine Emperor Gods Festival") [Qixi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qixi_Festival "Qixi Festival") [Duanwu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duanwu_Festival "Duanwu Festival") [Nian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_New_Year "Chinese New Year") |
| Internal traditions **Major cultural forms** [Chinese ancestral religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_ancestral_religion "Chinese ancestral religion") [Chinese communal deity religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_communal_deity_religion "Chinese communal deity religion") [Chinese food therapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_food_therapy "Chinese food therapy") [Chinese geomancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_shui "Feng shui") [Chinese mother goddess worship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mother_goddess_worship "Chinese mother goddess worship") [Northeast China folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_China_folk_religion "Northeast China folk religion") [Traditional Chinese medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine "Traditional Chinese medicine") [Qigong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qigong "Qigong") **Main philosophical traditions:** [Confucianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism "Confucianism") ([state rites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_ritual_religion "Confucian ritual religion")) [Taoism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism "Taoism") [Three teachings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_teachings "Three teachings") [Other schools](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy "Chinese philosophy") ([Mohism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohism "Mohism")) **Ritual traditions:** [Folk ritual masters' orders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions "Chinese ritual mastery traditions") [Jitong mediumship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongji_\(spirit_medium\) "Tongji (spirit medium)") [Nuo folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion "Nuo folk religion") [Chinese shamanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_shamanism "Chinese shamanism") **Devotional traditions:** [Mazuism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazuism "Mazuism") [Ong Yah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ong_Yah "Ong Yah") worship [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zhenkong-Wusheng_Laomu_red.svg "Zhenkong, \"Void of Truth\".") Zhenkong, "Void of Truth". **[Salvation churches and sects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions "Chinese salvationist religions"):** [De teaching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_teaching "De teaching") [Jiugongdao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiugongdao "Jiugongdao") [Luo teaching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luo_teaching "Luo teaching") [Maitreya teachings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maitreya_teachings "Maitreya teachings") [Tiandi teachings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiandi_teachings "Tiandi teachings") [Tianxian miaodao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianxian_miaodao "Tianxian miaodao") [Xia teaching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanyi_teaching "Sanyi teaching") [Xiantiandao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiantiandao "Xiantiandao") [Yiguandao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiguandao "Yiguandao") [Zaili teaching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaili_teaching "Zaili teaching") **[Confucian churches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_church "Confucian church") and sects:** [Holy Confucian Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Confucian_Church "Holy Confucian Church") [Indonesian Confucian Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Council_for_the_Confucian_Religion_in_Indonesia "Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia") [Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Church_of_the_Way_and_its_Virtue "Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue") [Phoenix churches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Way_of_the_Gods_according_to_the_Confucian_Tradition "Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition") [Xuanyuanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanyuan_teaching "Xuanyuan teaching") [Taigu school](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taigu_school "Taigu school") |
| Related religions and movements [Benzhuism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzhuism "Benzhuism") [Bimoism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bimoism "Bimoism") [Bon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon "Bon") [Dongbaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongbaism "Dongbaism") [Han Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism") [Miao folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miao_folk_religion "Miao folk religion") [Vietnamese folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion "Vietnamese folk religion") [Qiang folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion "Qiang folk religion") [Yao folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yao_folk_religion "Yao folk religion") [Zhuang folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuang_folk_religion "Zhuang folk religion") [House church (China)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_church_\(China\) "House church (China)") |
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**Hungry ghost** is a term in [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") and [Chinese traditional religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_traditional_religion "Chinese traditional religion"), representing beings who are driven by intense emotional needs in an [animalistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism "Animals in Buddhism") way. The term [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): [餓鬼](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A4%93%E9%AC%BC "wikt:餓鬼"); [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *èguǐ*; lit. 'hungry ghost' is the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit term *[preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta")*[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-1) in [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"). "Hungry ghosts" play a role in [Chinese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism"), [Japanese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism "Japanese Buddhism"), [Taoism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism "Taoism"), and in [Chinese folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion"). The term is not to be confused with the generic term for "[ghost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture "Ghosts in Chinese culture")" or damnation, [鬼](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AC%BC "wikt:鬼"); *guǐ* (i.e. the residual spirit of a deceased ancestor). The understanding is that people first become a regular ghost when they die[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-sixteen-2) and then slowly weaken and eventually die a second time.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:0-3)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eleven-4) The hungry ghosts, along with animals and hell beings, consists of the three realms of existence no one desires.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-5)[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-6) In these realms it is extremely difficult to be reborn in a better realm (i.e. the realm of humans, [asura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asura "Asura") or [deva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_\(Hinduism\) "Deva (Hinduism)")) because it is nearly impossible to perform deeds that cultivate good karma.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-7)
With the rise in popularity of [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"), the idea that [souls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul "Soul") would live in space until reincarnation became popular.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eleven-4) In the [Taoist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism "Taoism") tradition, it is believed that hungry ghosts can arise from people whose deaths have been violent or unhappy. Both Buddhism[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eleven-4) and Taoism[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fourteen-8) share the idea that hungry ghosts can emerge from neglect or desertion of ancestors. According to the [Huayen Sutra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower_Garland_Sutra "Flower Garland Sutra") evil deeds will cause a soul to be reborn in one of six different realms.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-ten-9) The highest degree of evil deed will cause a soul to be reborn as a denizen of [hell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyu "Diyu"), a lower degree of evil will cause a soul to be reborn as an animal, and the lowest degree will cause a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-thirteen-10) According to the tradition, evil deeds that lead to becoming a hungry ghost are killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Desire, greed, anger and ignorance are all factors in causing a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost because they are motives for people to perform evil deeds.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-sixteen-2) The biggest factor is greed as hungry ghosts are ever discontent and anguished because they are unable to satisfy their feelings of greed.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-11)
Some traditions imagine hungry ghosts living inside the bowels of earth or they live in the midst of humans but go unnoticed by those around them or they choose to distance themselves.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-12)
## Myths of origin
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Myths of origin")\]
There are many legends regarding the origin of hungry ghosts. It is likely that the idea of hungry ghosts originated from ancient Indian culture, where they were referred to as [Preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta").\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
In the [Buddhist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") tradition, hungry ghosts appear in stories from the *Chuan-chi po-yuan ching* ("Sutra of One Hundred Selected Legends") from the early third century.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fifteen-13)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] Some examples of these stories are as follows:
Once, a rich man who travelled was selling [sugar-cane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar-cane "Sugar-cane") juice. One day, a [monk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_monk "Buddhist monk") came to his house in search of some juice to cure an illness. The man had to leave, so he instructed his wife to give the monk the drink in his absence. Instead of doing this, she secretly urinated in the monk's bowl, added sugar cane juice to it and gave it to the monk. The monk was not deceived; he poured out the bowl and left. When the wife died, she was reborn as a hungry ghost.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fifteen-13)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
Another such tale is of a man who was giving and kind. One day, he was about to leave his house when a monk came by begging. The man instructed his wife to give the monk some food. After the man left his house, his wife was overcome with greed. She took it upon herself to teach the monk a lesson, so she locked the monk in an empty room all day with no food. She was reborn as a hungry ghost for innumerable lifetimes.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fifteen-13)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
The legends often speak of hungry ghosts who, in a previous lifetime, were greedy women who refused to give away food.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fifteen-13)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] Other stories in the Buddhist tradition come from the "Sutra on Ghosts Questioning Maudgalyāyana" (鬼問目連經; *Gui wen Mulian jing*). One of the stories tells of a diviner who constantly misled people due to his own avarice, and thus, he was reborn as a hungry ghost.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eight-14)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] Another story in "The Legend of Mu-lien Entering the City and Seeing Five Hundred Hungry Ghosts" is about five hundred men that were sons of elders of the city they lived in. When monks came begging to the city for food, the sons denied them because they thought the monks would keep coming back and eventually take all their food. After the sons died, they were reborn as hungry ghosts.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eleven-4)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
### *Avadānaśataka* "One Hundred Stories"
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Avadānaśataka \"One Hundred Stories\"")\]
The *Avadānaśataka* is one of the earliest collections of stories about hungry ghosts and was compiled by a Buddhist monk from northwest India between the second and fourth centuries CE. The stories in this work may have functioned as a prescription for appropriate behaviour. The text is divided into ten "decades", the fifth decade being stories that concern hungry ghosts. This part of the *Avadānaśataka* recounts the bad thoughts and behavior the hungry ghosts have cultivated in their human existence which led them to the hungry ghost realm. The accumulation of malignancy or meanness is called *mātsarya*.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-16)
The notion of *mātsarya* in this volume is explained to understand the logic of mātsarya's development, the actions it evokes, the suffering it causes and in which ways it can be eradicated. Therefore, it describes the causal chain (*[pratītyasamutpāda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da "Pratītyasamutpāda")*) that leads to the existence of a hungry ghost. At the end of nearly every story the phrase "Work hard to get rid of your *mātsarya*!"[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-17) is repeated.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-18)
## In China
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: In China")\]
See also: [Ghost Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Festival "Ghost Festival")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F%E5%A4%A7%E5%92%8C%E8%A1%97%E4%B8%89%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%AD%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%83%E6%99%AE%E6%B8%A1%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83_08.jpg)
A Chinese Buddhist monk and his attendants performing the *[Yujia Yankou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yujia_Yankou "Yujia Yankou")* ritual, a rite that fulfils several different functions, including feeding hungry ghosts.
In [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China"), [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") and other [overseas Chinese communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Chinese "Overseas Chinese"), preta is translated as *egui* ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 餓鬼, lit: "hungry ghost"), which descends from the [Middle Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese "Middle Chinese") pronunciation of *ngaH kjwɨjX*. In [Chinese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism"), the *[egui dao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_realm#Preta_Domain "Desire realm")* (餓鬼道, lit: "Path of the Hungry Ghosts") is one of the six domains of the [desire realm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_realm "Desire realm") of Buddhism.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-19) Many Chinese Buddhist rituals performed throughout the year typically contain sections where the various types of *egui* and spirits are summoned and provided nourishment in the form of food offerings and Buddhist teachings and precepts. The [oral tradition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition "Oral tradition") of Chinese [ancestral worship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead "Veneration of the dead") believes that the ghosts of the ancestors may be granted permission to return to the world of the living at a certain time of the year. If the spirits are hungry and not given sufficient offerings by their living relatives, they take what they can from the world.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-20)
### Yulanpen Festival
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Yulanpen Festival")\]
A [festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival "Festival") called the [Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Festival "Ghost Festival") ([simplified Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters "Simplified Chinese characters"): 盂兰盆; [traditional Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters "Traditional Chinese characters"): 盂蘭盆; [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *Yúlánpén*; lit. 'Ullambana') is held to honor the *egui* and food and drink is put out to satisfy their needs. The festival is celebrated during the seventh month of the [Chinese calendar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar "Chinese calendar"). It also falls at the same time as a full moon, the new season, the fall harvest, the peak of monastic asceticism, the rebirth of ancestors, and the assembly of the local community.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eight-14) According to tradition, during this month, the gates of [Diyu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyu "Diyu") (hell) are opened up and the *egui* are free to roam the earth where they seek food and entertainment. These *egui* are believed to be ancestors of those who have forgotten to pay tribute to them after they died. They have long thin necks because they have not been fed by their families. Tradition states that families should offer prayers to their deceased relatives and burn "[hell money](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell_money "Hell money")". It is believed that "hell money" is a valid currency in the underworld and helps ghosts to live comfortably in the afterlife. People also burn other forms of [joss paper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_paper "Joss paper") such as paper houses, cars and televisions to please the ghosts.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-three-21)
Families also pay tribute to other unknown wandering *egui* so that these homeless souls do not intrude on their lives and bring misfortune. A big feast is held for the *egui* on the 15th day of the seventh month, where people bring samples of food and place them on the offering table to please the *egui* and ward off bad luck. Live shows are also put on and everyone is invited to attend. The first row of seats is always empty as this is where the ghosts are supposed to sit to better enjoy the live entertainment. The shows are always put on at night and at high volumes, so that the sound attracts and pleases the *egui*. These acts were better known as "Merry-making".[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22)
### Chinese Buddhist practices
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Chinese Buddhist practices")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2025_Ghost_Festival_of_Bangka_Lungshan_Temple-02.2025-09-06.jpg)
*[Yujia Yankou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yujia_Yankou "Yujia Yankou")* ritual at [Bangka Lungshan Temple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangka_Lungshan_Temple "Bangka Lungshan Temple") during the [Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulanpen_festival "Yulanpen festival").
| |
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| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Buddhism_in_China "Category:Buddhism in China") on |
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| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Guanyin_-_panoramio.jpg "Liao dynasty statue of the Eleven Headed Guanyin in Dule Temple in Tianjin, China.") Liao dynasty statue of the Eleven Headed [Guanyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin "Guanyin") in [Dule Temple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dule_Temple "Dule Temple") in [Tianjin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianjin "Tianjin"), [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China"). |
| [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Buddhism "History of Chinese Buddhism") [Buddhism in Central Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia "Buddhism in Central Asia") [Silk Road transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism "Silk Road transmission of Buddhism") [Dunhuang manuscripts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts "Dunhuang manuscripts") [White Lotus society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Lotus_society "White Lotus society") [Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Buddhist_and_Tibetan_Affairs "Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs") [Four Buddhist Persecutions in China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Buddhist_Persecutions_in_China "Four Buddhist Persecutions in China") [Religion in the Song dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_the_Song_dynasty "Religion in the Song dynasty") [Transmission to the US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States "Buddhism in the United States") |
| Main Traditions [Chan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chan_Buddhism "Chan Buddhism") [Five Houses of Chan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Houses_of_Chan "Five Houses of Chan") [Linji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linji_school "Linji school") [Caodong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caodong_school "Caodong school") [Guiyang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guiyang_school "Guiyang school") [Fayan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayan_school "Fayan school") [Yunmen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunmen_school "Yunmen school") [Oxhead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxhead_school "Oxhead school") [Hongzhou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongzhou_school "Hongzhou school") [Heze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heze_School "Heze School") [East Mountain Teaching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Mountain_Teaching "East Mountain Teaching") [Tiantai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiantai "Tiantai") [Huayan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huayan_school "Huayan school") [Pure Land](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism "Pure Land Buddhism") [Vinaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmaguptaka "Dharmaguptaka") [Nanshan Vinaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanshan_Vinaya&action=edit&redlink=1 "Nanshan Vinaya (page does not exist)") [Weishi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra "East Asian Yogācāra") [Sanlun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka "East Asian Mādhyamaka") [Zhenyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhenyan "Zhenyan") [Humanistic Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism "Humanistic Buddhism") [Chengshi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chengshi_school&action=edit&redlink=1 "Chengshi school (page does not exist)") [Niepan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_School "Nirvana School") |
| Important Figures **Han dynasty to Northern and Southern dynasties (202 BC – 589 AD)** [An Shigao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Shigao "An Shigao") [Lokakṣema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokaksema_\(Buddhist_monk\) "Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)") [Kang Senghui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kang_Senghui "Kang Senghui") [Zhu Zixing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Zixing "Zhu Zixing") [Zhi Qian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhi_Qian "Zhi Qian") [Po-Srimitra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po-Srimitra "Po-Srimitra") [Fotu Cheng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotu_Cheng "Fotu Cheng") [Zhi Dun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhi_Dun "Zhi Dun") [Lushan Huiyuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lushan_Huiyuan "Lushan Huiyuan") [Faxian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faxian "Faxian") [Kumārajīva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva "Kumārajīva") [Sengzhao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sengzhao "Sengzhao") [Daosheng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daosheng "Daosheng") [Dharmakṣema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmak%E1%B9%A3ema "Dharmakṣema") [Baozhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baozhi&action=edit&redlink=1 "Baozhi (page does not exist)") [Sengyou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sengyou "Sengyou") [Emperor Wu of Liang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang "Emperor Wu of Liang") [Tanluan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan-luan "Tan-luan") [Dazu Huike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dazu_Huike "Dazu Huike") [Sengcan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sengcan "Sengcan") [Fu Dashi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu_Dashi "Fu Dashi") [Paramartha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramartha_\(Chinese_monk\) "Paramartha (Chinese monk)") [Song Yun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Yun "Song Yun") [Huisheng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huisheng_\(monk\) "Huisheng (monk)") [Nanyue Huisi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanyue_Huisi "Nanyue Huisi") [Jingying Huiyuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingying_Huiyuan "Jingying Huiyuan") [Zhiyi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhiyi "Zhiyi") [Bodhidharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhidharma "Bodhidharma") [Master Yuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Yuan "Master Yuan") [Bodhiruci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhiruci "Bodhiruci") [Budai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budai "Budai") **Sui dynasty to Tang dynasty (581 - 907)** [Jizang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizang "Jizang") [Dayi Daoxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayi_Daoxin "Dayi Daoxin") [Daochuo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daochuo "Daochuo") [Guanding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanding "Guanding") [Daoxuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoxuan "Daoxuan") [Daman Hongren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daman_Hongren "Daman Hongren") [Zhiyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhiyan "Zhiyan") [Xuanzang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang "Xuanzang") [Yuquan Shenxiu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuquan_Shenxiu "Yuquan Shenxiu") [Shandao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandao "Shandao") [Huaigan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huaigan "Huaigan") [Woncheuk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woncheuk "Woncheuk") [Kuiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiji "Kuiji") [Yijing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yijing_\(monk\) "Yijing (monk)") [Li Tongxuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Tongxuan "Li Tongxuan") [Huineng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huineng "Huineng") [Fazang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazang "Fazang") [Śubhakarasiṃha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aubhakarasi%E1%B9%83ha "Śubhakarasiṃha") [Vajrabodhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajrabodhi "Vajrabodhi") [Cimin Huiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimin_Huiri "Cimin Huiri") [Yi Xing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_Xing "Yi Xing") [Shenhui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenhui "Shenhui") [Jianzhen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jianzhen "Jianzhen") [Amoghavajra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoghavajra "Amoghavajra") [Mazu Daoyi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazu_Daoyi "Mazu Daoyi") [Zhanran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhanran "Zhanran") [Baotang Wuzhu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baotang_Wuzhu "Baotang Wuzhu") [Wukong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wukong_\(monk\) "Wukong (monk)") [Wulong Shaokang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulong_Shaokang "Wulong Shaokang") [Chengguan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengguan_\(monk\) "Chengguan (monk)") [Layman Pang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layman_Pang "Layman Pang") [Huiguo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huiguo "Huiguo") [Fazhao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazhao "Fazhao") [Wu Yantong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Yantong "Wu Yantong") [Zhenzhou Puhua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhenzhou_Puhua "Zhenzhou Puhua") [Moheyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moheyan "Moheyan") [Guifeng Zongmi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi "Guifeng Zongmi") [Linji Yixuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linji_Yixuan "Linji Yixuan") [Zhaozhou Congshen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhaozhou_Congshen "Zhaozhou Congshen") [Daosui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daosui "Daosui") [Guanxiu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanxiu "Guanxiu") [Yunmen Wenyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunmen_Wenyan "Yunmen Wenyan") [Hanshan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanshan_\(poet\) "Hanshan (poet)") [Shide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shide_\(monk\) "Shide (monk)") [Fenggan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenggan "Fenggan") **Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms to Song dynasty (907 - 1279)** [Yongming Yanshou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongming_Yanshou "Yongming Yanshou") [Siming Zhili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siming_Zhili "Siming Zhili") [Ciyun Zunshi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ciyun_Zunshi&action=edit&redlink=1 "Ciyun Zunshi (page does not exist)") [Dānapāla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%81nap%C4%81la "Dānapāla") [Devasantika](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Devasantika&action=edit&redlink=1 "Devasantika (page does not exist)") [Changshui Zixuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Changshui_Zixuan&action=edit&redlink=1 "Changshui Zixuan (page does not exist)") [Jinshui Jingyuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jinshui_Jingyuan&action=edit&redlink=1 "Jinshui Jingyuan (page does not exist)") [Furong Daokai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furong_Daokai "Furong Daokai") [Gushan Zhiyuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gushan_Zhiyuan&action=edit&redlink=1 "Gushan Zhiyuan (page does not exist)") [Renyue Jingjue](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renyue_Jingjue&action=edit&redlink=1 "Renyue Jingjue (page does not exist)") [Qingshui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Ching_Chwee "Patriarch Ching Chwee") [Yuanzhao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanzhao "Yuanzhao") [Yuanwu Keqin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanwu_Keqin "Yuanwu Keqin") [Hongzhi Zhengjue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongzhi_Zhengjue "Hongzhi Zhengjue") [Zhenxie Qingliao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhenxie_Qingliao "Zhenxie Qingliao") [Yuanwu Keqin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanwu_Keqin "Yuanwu Keqin") [Foyan Qingyuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foyan_Qingyuan "Foyan Qingyuan") [Dahui Zonggao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahui_Zonggao "Dahui Zonggao") [Mao Ziyuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Ziyuan "Mao Ziyuan") [Pu'an Yinsu](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pu%27an_Yinsu&action=edit&redlink=1 "Pu'an Yinsu (page does not exist)") [Ji Gong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji_Gong "Ji Gong") [Zongxiao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zongxiao "Zongxiao") [Wansong Xingxiu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wansong_Xingxiu "Wansong Xingxiu") [Wumen Huikai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wumen_Huikai "Wumen Huikai") **Yuan dynasty to Ming dynasty (1271 - 1644)** [Yuanmeng Yunze](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yuanmeng_Yunze&action=edit&redlink=1 "Yuanmeng Yunze (page does not exist)") [Zhongfeng Mingben](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongfeng_Mingben "Zhongfeng Mingben") [Tianru Weize](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tianru_Weize&action=edit&redlink=1 "Tianru Weize (page does not exist)") [Biefeng Datong](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biefeng_Datong&action=edit&redlink=1 "Biefeng Datong (page does not exist)") [Shiwu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiwu "Shiwu") [Yao Guangxiao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yao_Guangxiao "Yao Guangxiao") [Li Zhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zhi_\(philosopher\) "Li Zhi (philosopher)") [Yunqi Zhuhong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunqi_Zhuhong "Yunqi Zhuhong") [Zibo Zhenke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zibo_Zhenke "Zibo Zhenke") [Hanshan Deqing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanshan_Deqing "Hanshan Deqing") [Youxi Chuandeng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youxi_Chuandeng "Youxi Chuandeng") [Miyun Yuanwu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyun_Yuanwu "Miyun Yuanwu") [Yuan Hongdao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Hongdao "Yuan Hongdao") [Ouyi Zhixu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouyi_Zhixu "Ouyi Zhixu") [Yinyuan Longqi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yinyuan_Longqi "Yinyuan Longqi") **Qing dynasty to modern period (1644 - present)** [Poshan Haiming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poshan_Haiming "Poshan Haiming") [Tianxi Shoudeng](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tianxi_Shoudeng&action=edit&redlink=1 "Tianxi Shoudeng (page does not exist)") [Zhangxue Tongzui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangxue_Tongzui "Zhangxue Tongzui") [Hong Ren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Ren "Hong Ren") [Kun Can](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kun_Can "Kun Can") [Bada Shanren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bada_Shanren "Bada Shanren") [Shitao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shitao "Shitao") [Yulin Tongxiu](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yulin_Tongxiu&action=edit&redlink=1 "Yulin Tongxiu (page does not exist)") [Baiting Xufa](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baiting_Xufa&action=edit&redlink=1 "Baiting Xufa (page does not exist)") [Datian Tongli](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Datian_Tongli&action=edit&redlink=1 "Datian Tongli (page does not exist)") [Peng Shaosheng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peng_Shaosheng "Peng Shaosheng") [Jixing Chewu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jixing_Chewu "Jixing Chewu") [Yang Wenhui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Wenhui "Yang Wenhui") [Xuyun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuyun "Xuyun") [Yinguang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yinguang "Yinguang") [Zhuan Dao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuan_Dao "Zhuan Dao") [Tanxu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanxu "Tanxu") [Yuanying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanying "Yuanying") [Hong Yi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Yi "Hong Yi") [Su Manshu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Manshu "Su Manshu") [Nenghai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nenghai "Nenghai") [Taixu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taixu "Taixu") [Guang Qin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guang_Qin "Guang Qin") [Charles Luk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Luk "Charles Luk") [Yin Shun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_Shun "Yin Shun") [Benhuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benhuan "Benhuan") [Hong Choon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Choon "Hong Choon") [Dongchu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongchu "Dongchu") [Zhao Puchu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao_Puchu "Zhao Puchu") [Ho Yuen Hoe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho_Yuen_Hoe "Ho Yuen Hoe") [Mengcan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mengcan&action=edit&redlink=1 "Mengcan (page does not exist)") [Chan Yun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chan_Yun "Chan Yun") [Hsuan Hua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hsuan_Hua "Hsuan Hua") [Nan Huai-Chin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nan_Huai-Chin "Nan Huai-Chin") [Sik Kok Kwong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sik_Kok_Kwong "Sik Kok Kwong") [Ashin Jinarakkhita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashin_Jinarakkhita "Ashin Jinarakkhita") [Yicheng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yicheng_\(monk\) "Yicheng (monk)") [Chin Kung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin_Kung "Chin Kung") [Hsing Yun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hsing_Yun "Hsing Yun") [Wei Chueh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wei_Chueh "Wei Chueh") [Sheng-yen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheng-yen "Sheng-yen") [Cheng Yen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheng_Yen "Cheng Yen") [Red Pine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Pine_\(author\) "Red Pine (author)") [Hsin Tao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hsin_Tao "Hsin Tao") [Martin Verhoeven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Verhoeven "Martin Verhoeven") [Heng Sure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heng_Sure "Heng Sure") [Richard Hunn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upasaka_Wen_Shu "Upasaka Wen Shu") [Haiyun Jimeng](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haiyun_Jimeng&action=edit&redlink=1 "Haiyun Jimeng (page does not exist)") [Chi Chern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_Chern "Chi Chern") [Yifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yifa "Yifa") [Shi Yan Ming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi_Yan_Ming "Shi Yan Ming") [Imee Ooi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imee_Ooi "Imee Ooi") [Yinshun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi_Yinshun "Shi Yinshun") |
| Major Texts **Buddhist Canons** [Chinese Buddhist canon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon "Chinese Buddhist canon") [Taishō Tripiṭaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka "Taishō Tripiṭaka") [Panjiao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjiao "Panjiao") **Major Sūtras and Mantras** [Heart Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_S%C5%ABtra "Heart Sūtra") [Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtras "Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras") [Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra "Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra") [Diamond Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_S%C5%ABtra "Diamond Sūtra") [Lotus Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_S%C5%ABtra "Lotus Sūtra") [Avataṃsaka Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtra "Avataṃsaka Sūtra") [Amitābha Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha_S%C5%ABtra "Amitābha Sūtra") [Pure Land Rebirth Mantra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Dharani "Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani") [Amitāyus Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Amit%C4%81yus_Sutra "The Amitāyus Sutra") [Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amit%C4%81yus_Contemplation_S%C5%ABtra "Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra") [Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra "Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra") [Śūraṅgama Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra "Śūraṅgama Sūtra") [Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%ABtra_of_Perfect_Enlightenment "Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment") [Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_Sutra "Platform Sutra") [Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra") [Vimalakirti Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra "Vimalakirti Sutra") [Śrīmālādevī Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_S%C5%ABtra "Śrīmālādevī Sūtra") [Śūraṅgama Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra "Śūraṅgama Sūtra") [Śūraṅgama mantra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_mantra "Śūraṅgama mantra") [Medicine Buddha Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_Buddha "Medicine Buddha") [Kṣitigarbha Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha_Bodhisattva_P%C5%ABrvapra%E1%B9%87idh%C4%81na_S%C5%ABtra "Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra") [Daśacakra Kṣitigarbha Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Da%C5%9Bacakra_K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha_S%C5%ABtra&action=edit&redlink=1 "Daśacakra Kṣitigarbha Sūtra (page does not exist)") [Mahāvairocana Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahavairocana_Sutra "Mahavairocana Sutra") [Vajraśekhara Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajrasekhara_Sutra "Vajrasekhara Sutra") [Susiddhikara Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susiddhikara_S%C5%ABtra "Susiddhikara Sūtra") [Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Davy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra "Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra") [Cundī Dhāraṇī](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cundi_\(Buddhism\)#Cund%C4%AB_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB "Cundi (Buddhism)") [Oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%E1%B9%83_ma%E1%B9%87i_padme_h%C5%AB%E1%B9%83 "Oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ") [Great Compassionate Dhāraṇī Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB "Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī") [Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3a_Vijaya_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB#U%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3a_Vijaya_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_S%C5%ABtra "Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī") [Cintāmaṇicakra Dhāraṇī Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87icakra "Cintāmaṇicakra") [Mahāmayūrī Vidyārājñī Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahamayuri_Vidyarajni_Sutra "Mahamayuri Vidyarajni Sutra") [Dhāraṇī of Avalokiteśvara Ekadaśamukha Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleven-Faced_Avalokitesvara_Heart_Dharani_Sutra "Eleven-Faced Avalokitesvara Heart Dharani Sutra") [Humane King Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humane_King_Sutra "Humane King Sutra") [Golden Light Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra "Golden Light Sutra") [Ghanavyūha Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanavy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra "Ghanavyūha Sūtra") [Ullambana Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulanpen_Sutra "Yulanpen Sutra") [Samantabhadra Meditation Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samantabhadra_Meditation_Sutra "Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra") [Sandhinirmocana Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra "Sandhinirmocana Sutra") [Daśabhūmika Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra "Ten Stages Sutra") [Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra "Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra") [Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dar%C4%ABka_S%C5%ABtra&action=edit&redlink=1 "Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka Sūtra (page does not exist)") [Sūtra of Forty-two Chapters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutra_of_Forty-two_Chapters "Sutra of Forty-two Chapters") [Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra "Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra") [The Collation and Annotation of Saṃyuktāgama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Collation_and_Annotation_of_Sa%E1%B9%83yukt%C4%81gama "The Collation and Annotation of Saṃyuktāgama") [Ten Small Mantras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Small_Mantras "Ten Small Mantras") [Vajrasattva Hundred Syllable Mantra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajrasattva#Hundred_Syllable_Mantra "Vajrasattva") **Major Sāstras and Treatises** [Discourse on the Pure Land](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Pure_Land "Discourse on the Pure Land") [Awakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awakening_of_Faith_in_the_Mahayana "Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana") [Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhidharmako%C5%9Ba-bh%C4%81sya "Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya") [Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%B9%83%C5%9Bik%C4%81-vij%C3%B1aptim%C4%81trat%C4%81 "Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā") [Mūlamadhyamakakārikā](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C5%ABlamadhyamakak%C4%81rik%C4%81 "Mūlamadhyamakakārikā") [Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81rabh%C5%ABmi-%C5%9A%C4%81stra "Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra") [Tattvasiddhi Śāstra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattvasiddhi_%C5%9A%C4%81stra "Tattvasiddhi Śāstra") [Ratnagotravibhāga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga "Ratnagotravibhāga") [Cheng Weishi Lun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheng_Weishi_Lun "Cheng Weishi Lun") [Da Zhidu Lun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Zhidu_Lun "Da Zhidu Lun") [Mohe Zhiguan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohe_Zhiguan "Mohe Zhiguan") [Mouzi Lihuolun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouzi_Lihuolun "Mouzi Lihuolun") **Major Chan Manuals, Monastic Codes and Gong'an Collections** [Two Entrances and Four Practices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Entrances_and_Four_Practices "Two Entrances and Four Practices") [Zuochan Yi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuochan_Yi "Zuochan Yi") [Chanzong Yongjia ji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanzong_Yongjia_ji "Chanzong Yongjia ji") [Chanyuan Qinggui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanyuan_Qinggui "Chanyuan Qinggui") [Wumenguan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wumenguan "Wumenguan") [Biyan lu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyan_lu "Biyan lu") [Congrong lu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Equanimity "Book of Equanimity") [Zhengfa Yanzang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhengfa_Yanzang "Zhengfa Yanzang") **Major Histories** [The History of the Temples of Luoyang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Xuanzhi#Works "Yang Xuanzhi") [Records of the Western Regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Western_Regions "Records of the Western Regions") [Nanhai Jigui Neifa Zhuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Record_of_Buddhist_Practices_Sent_Home_from_the_Southern_Sea "A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea") [Ennin's Diary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennin%27s_Diary "Ennin's Diary") [Transmission of the Lamp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jingde_Record_of_the_Transmission_of_the_Lamp "The Jingde Record of the Transmission of the Lamp") [Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology_of_the_Patriarchal_Hall "Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall") [Memoirs of Eminent Monks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoirs_of_Eminent_Monks "Memoirs of Eminent Monks") [Fozu Tongji](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fozu_Tongji&action=edit&redlink=1 "Fozu Tongji (page does not exist)") **Literature** [Xiaodao Lun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiaodao_Lun "Xiaodao Lun") [Xin Ming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin_Ming "Xin Ming") [Xinxin Ming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinxin_Ming "Xinxin Ming") [Cantongqi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantongqi_\(Buddhism\) "Cantongqi (Buddhism)") [Baojing Sanmei Ge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_of_the_Precious_Mirror_Samadhi "Song of the Precious Mirror Samadhi") |
| Practices and Rituals **Initiation and Precepts** [Three Refuges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism "Refuge in Buddhism") [Buddhist initiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_initiation "Buddhist initiation") [Śīla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_ethics "Buddhist ethics") [Bodhisattva vow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow "Bodhisattva vow") [Five Precepts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Precepts "Five Precepts") [Eight Precepts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Precepts "Eight Precepts") [Bodhisattva Precepts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts "Bodhisattva Precepts") [Pratimokṣa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a "Pratimokṣa") **Specific Practices** [Nianfo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo "Nianfo") [Chan meditation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism "Dhyana in Buddhism") [Hua Tou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hua_Tou "Hua Tou") [Gong'an](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koan "Koan") [Walking meditation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking_meditation "Walking meditation") [Samādhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi "Samadhi") [Buddha contemplation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha_contemplation "Buddha contemplation") [Dhāraṇī](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB "Dhāraṇī") [Transfer of merit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_merit "Transfer of merit") [Buddhist devotion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_devotion "Buddhist devotion") [Jingxiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingxiang "Jingxiang") [Sutra copying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutra_copying "Sutra copying") [Fangsheng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_release "Life release") **Rituals and Ceremonies** [Puja](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%ABj%C4%81_\(Buddhism\) "Pūjā (Buddhism)") [Fanbai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanbai "Fanbai") [Chinese Buddhist liturgy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_liturgy#Chinese_Buddhist_liturgy_\(chaomu_kesong\) "Buddhist liturgy") [Offerings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offering_\(Buddhism\) "Offering (Buddhism)") [Prostration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostration_\(Buddhism\) "Prostration (Buddhism)") [Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_music#Chinese_Buddhist_music "Buddhist music") [Homa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homa_\(ritual\) "Homa (ritual)") [Yujia Yankou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yujia_Yankou "Yujia Yankou") [Shuilu Fahui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuilu_Fahui "Shuilu Fahui") [Repentance rituals](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Repentance_rituals&action=edit&redlink=1 "Repentance rituals (page does not exist)") [*Liang Huang Bao Chan*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_legends_about_Emperor_Wu_of_Liang#Repentance_Ritual_of_the_Emperor_of_Liang "Buddhist legends about Emperor Wu of Liang") [*Dabei Chan*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabei_Chan "Dabei Chan") [*Yaoshi Bao Chan*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaoshi_Bao_Chan "Yaoshi Bao Chan") [*Li Fo Da Chan Hui Wen*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty-eight_Buddhas_Great_Repentance_Text "Eighty-eight Buddhas Great Repentance Text") [Kaiguang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka "Buddhābhiṣeka") [Uposatha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uposatha "Uposatha") [Ghost Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Festival "Ghost Festival") **Lineage and Culture** [Tiyong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiyong "Tiyong") [Buddhist surname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_surname "Buddhist surname") [Dharma name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_name#China "Dharma name") [Dharma transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_transmission "Dharma transmission") |
| Temples and Architecture **List of Monasteries and Temples** [List of Buddhist architecture in China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China "List of Buddhist architecture in China") [National Key Buddhist Temples in Han Chinese Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Key_Buddhist_Temples_in_Han_Chinese_Area "National Key Buddhist Temples in Han Chinese Area") [List of Chinese Buddhist temples in Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples_in_Taiwan "List of Buddhist temples in Taiwan") [List of Chinese Buddhist temples in Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples_in_Singapore#Mahayana "List of Buddhist temples in Singapore") [List of Buddhist temples in Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples_in_Malaysia "List of Buddhist temples in Malaysia") **Buildings and Halls** [Shanmen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanmen "Shanmen") [Daxiong Baodian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daxiongbao_Dian "Daxiongbao Dian") [Guanyin Dian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin_Dian "Guanyin Dian") [Dizang Dian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizang_Dian "Dizang Dian") [Yaoshi Dian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaoshi_Dian "Yaoshi Dian") [Tianwang Dian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianwang_Dian "Tianwang Dian") [Zushi Dian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchs%27_Hall "Patriarchs' Hall") [Luohan Dian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luohan_Dian "Luohan Dian") [Zangjing Ge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zangjing_Ge "Zangjing Ge") [Fatang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatang "Fatang") [Dharani pillar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharani_pillar "Dharani pillar") [Pagoda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagoda "Pagoda") [Stupa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa "Stupa") **Architectural Elements** [Chinese architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_architecture "Chinese architecture") [Ancient Chinese wooden architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_wooden_architecture "Ancient Chinese wooden architecture") [Traditional Chinese roofing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_roofing "Traditional Chinese roofing") [Paifang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paifang "Paifang") [Chinese glazed roof tile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_glazed_roof_tile "Chinese glazed roof tile") [Chinese guardian lions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_guardian_lions "Chinese guardian lions") [Chiwen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiwen "Chiwen") [Dougong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dougong "Dougong") [Xieshan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_hip-and-gable_roof "East Asian hip-and-gable roof") [Caihua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caihua "Caihua") [Caisson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caisson_\(Asian_architecture\) "Caisson (Asian architecture)") [Spirit tablet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_tablet "Spirit tablet") [Shigandang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigandang "Shigandang") [Chinese garden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_garden "Chinese garden") **Architectural Works** [Yingzao Fashi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yingzao_Fashi "Yingzao Fashi") [Standard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Design_for_Buddhist_Temple_Construction "Standard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction") |
| Sacred Sites [Mount Wutai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Wutai "Mount Wutai") [Mount Emei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Emei "Mount Emei") [Mount Jiuhua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Jiuhua "Mount Jiuhua") [Mount Putuo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Putuo "Mount Putuo") [Mount Lu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_Lu "Mountain Lu") [Tiantai Mountain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiantai_Mountain "Tiantai Mountain") [Mount Xuedou](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mount_Xuedou&action=edit&redlink=1 "Mount Xuedou (page does not exist)") [Fanjingshan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanjingshan "Fanjingshan") [Mount Heng](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Heng_\(Hunan\) "Mount Heng (Hunan)") [Mount Song](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Song "Mount Song") [Five Mountain System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Mountain_System "Five Mountain System") [White Horse Temple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Horse_Temple "White Horse Temple") [Dunhuang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunhuang "Dunhuang") [Mogao Grottoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Grottoes "Mogao Grottoes") [Yulin Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulin_Caves "Yulin Caves") [Five Temple Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Temple_Caves "Five Temple Caves") [Western Thousand Buddha Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Thousand_Buddha_Caves "Western Thousand Buddha Caves") [Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Thousand_Buddha_Caves "Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves") [Dazu Rock Carvings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dazu_Rock_Carvings "Dazu Rock Carvings") [Anyue Rock Carvings](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anyue_Rock_Carvings&action=edit&redlink=1 "Anyue Rock Carvings (page does not exist)") [Longmen Grottoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longmen_Grottoes "Longmen Grottoes") [Yungang Grottoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yungang_Grottoes "Yungang Grottoes") [Maijishan Grottoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maijishan_Grottoes "Maijishan Grottoes") [Tianlongshan Grottoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianlongshan_Grottoes "Tianlongshan Grottoes") [Shizhongshan Grottoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shizhongshan_Grottoes&action=edit&redlink=1 "Shizhongshan Grottoes (page does not exist)") [Bingling Temple Grottoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingling_Temple "Bingling Temple") [Feilai Feng Grottos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingyin_Temple#Feilai_Feng_grottos "Lingyin Temple") [Tiantishan Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiantishan_Caves "Tiantishan Caves") [Shihong Temple Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shihong_Temple_Caves "Shihong Temple Caves") |
| Culture and Arts [Cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine "Buddhist cuisine") [Influences on tea culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture#Buddhism_and_tea "Chinese tea culture") [Chinese Buddhist art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art#China "Buddhist art") [Chinese Buddhist sculpture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_sculpture "Chinese Buddhist sculpture") [Shuilu ritual paintings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuilu_ritual_paintings "Shuilu ritual paintings") [Martial arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaolin_Kung_Fu "Shaolin Kung Fu") |
| Organizations & Movements [Buddhist Association of China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_Association_of_China "Buddhist Association of China") [Hong Kong Buddhist Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_Buddhist_Association "Hong Kong Buddhist Association") [Fo Guang Shan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fo_Guang_Shan "Fo Guang Shan") [Fo Guang University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fo_Guang_University "Fo Guang University") [Woodenfish Foundation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodenfish "Woodenfish") [Buddha's Light International Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha%27s_Light_International_Association "Buddha's Light International Association") [Dharma Drum Mountain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_Drum_Mountain "Dharma Drum Mountain") [Dharma Drum University](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dharma_Drum_University&action=edit&redlink=1 "Dharma Drum University (page does not exist)") [Tzu Chi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzu_Chi "Tzu Chi") [Tzu Chi Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzu_Chi_Singapore "Tzu Chi Singapore") [Chung Tai Shan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chung_Tai_Shan "Chung Tai Shan") [Dharma Realm Buddhist Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_Realm_Buddhist_Association "Dharma Realm Buddhist Association") [Chinese Sangha of Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Sangha_of_Thailand&action=edit&redlink=1 "Chinese Sangha of Thailand (page does not exist)") [Singapore Buddhist Lodge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_Buddhist_Lodge "Singapore Buddhist Lodge") [Malaysian Buddhist Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_Buddhist_Institute "Malaysian Buddhist Institute") |
| Related Transmissions [Buddhism in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_India "Buddhism in India") [Buddhism in Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Korea "Buddhism in Korea") [Buddhism in Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan "Buddhism in Japan") [Buddhism in Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam "Buddhism in Vietnam") [Buddhism in Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka "Buddhism in Sri Lanka") [Buddhism in Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand "Buddhism in Thailand") [Buddhism in Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar "Buddhism in Myanmar") [Buddhism in Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia "Buddhism in Cambodia") [Buddhism in Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos "Buddhism in Laos") [Buddhism in Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia "Buddhism in Indonesia") [Buddhism in the Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines "Buddhism in the Philippines") [Buddhism in Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia "Buddhism in Malaysia") [Buddhism in Tibet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Tibet "Buddhism in Tibet") [Buddhism in Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia "Buddhism in Mongolia") [Buddhism in Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal "Buddhism in Nepal") [Buddhism in Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan "Buddhism in Bhutan") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Chinese_Buddhism "Template:Chinese Buddhism") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Buddhism "Template talk:Chinese Buddhism") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Buddhism "Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Buddhism") |
[Chinese Buddhist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism") rituals that feature the feeding of *egui* are commonly performed as part of regular temple services. A key example is the [*Mengshan Shishi*](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mengshan_Shishi&action=edit&redlink=1 "Mengshan Shishi (page does not exist)") rite (蒙山施食, *Méngshān Shīshí*, lit: "Mengshan food bestowal"), which is commonly performed as part of the [daily evening liturgy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_liturgy#Chinese_Buddhist_liturgy_\(chaomu_kesong\) "Buddhist liturgy") in most Chinese Buddhist temples.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:02-23)[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:12-24)
Another key rite that is often performed is the *[Yujia Yankou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yujia_Yankou "Yujia Yankou")* ritual ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 瑜伽燄口, [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *Yújiā Yànkǒu*, lit: "Yoga Flaming-Mouth Food Bestowal"), also known as the *Yuqie Yankou* ritual.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) It is commonly performed during or at the end of regular religious temple events such as repentance rites ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 懺悔, [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *Chànhǔi*), [Buddha recitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha_recitation "Buddha recitation") retreats ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 佛七, [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *Fóqī*), the dedication of a new monastic complex, gatherings for the transmission of [monastic vows](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinaya "Vinaya") or the [Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulanpen_festival "Yulanpen festival"). During the ritual, one or more monks execute various esoteric and tantric practices, including [maṇḍala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandala "Mandala") offerings, recitation of esoteric [mantras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantra "Mantra"), execution of [mudrās](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudra "Mudra") and visualization practices to deliver both physical nourishment (in the form of food offerings) as well as spiritual nourishment (in the form of Buddhist teachings and conferment of precepts) on *egui* and other hell-beings.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) The ritual also combines features of [Chinese operatic tradition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_opera "Chinese opera") (including a wide range of instrumental music as well as vocal performances such as solo deliveries, antiphonal and choral singing) as well as the recitation of [sūtras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutra "Sutra") similar to other exoteric [Mahāyāna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana "Mahayana") rituals.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) The ritual is typically open for attendance to the public, and especially [lay people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%C4%81saka "Upāsaka"), who participate as the audience and spectators.
During the ritual, various Buddhist figures such as the [Five Tathāgatas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Tath%C4%81gatas "Five Tathāgatas"), [Guanyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin "Guanyin"), [Zhunti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cundi_\(Buddhism\) "Cundi (Buddhism)") and [Dizang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizang "Dizang") are invoked to help empower the ritual space and offerings as well as other ritual functions.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) Another key figure in the ritual is the *egui* king [Mianran Dashi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulk%C4%81mukha_Pretar%C4%81ja "Ulkāmukha Pretarāja") ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 面燃大士, [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): Miànrán Dàshì, lit: "Burning-Face Mahāsattva"), who is commonly regarded as a manifestation of the [Bodhisattva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva "Bodhisattva") [Guanyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin "Guanyin") and who features prominently in the sūtra upon which the ritual was based on. During the climax of the ritual, the main performers of the rite toss the offerings into the ritual space before the main altar for the spirits, as well as to the audience of the rite.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) Only vegetarian food offerings are allowed as Buddhist precepts promote [compassion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhicitta "Bodhicitta") for all [sentient beings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentient_beings_\(Buddhism\) "Sentient beings (Buddhism)") and forbid the taking of any life.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) The Buddhist refuge vows as well as precepts are also conferred upon the spirits present at the ritual, and all merits generated from the rite are usually [dedicated to all sentient beings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_merit "Transfer of merit") at the end of the rite.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25)
### Taoist practices
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Taoist practices")\]
The chief [Taoist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism "Taoism") [priest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoshi "Daoshi") of the town wears an ornate crown of five gold and red panels, a practice appropriated from [Chinese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"). This represented the five most powerful deities (The [Jade Emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jade_Emperor "Jade Emperor"), [Lord Guan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan_Yu "Guan Yu"), [Tu Di Gong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu_Di_Gong "Tu Di Gong"), [Mazu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazu_\(goddess\) "Mazu (goddess)") and [Xi Wangmu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Wangmu "Xi Wangmu")) according to Taoist beliefs. He is believed to become their voice on earth.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-three-21) A sacrificial altar and a chair are built for a priest either at a street entrance or in front of the village. The [Bodhisattva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva "Bodhisattva") [Dizang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizang "Dizang") sits in front of the chair. Under the chair are plates of rice flour and peaches. Sitting on the altar are three spirit tablets and three funeral banners. After noon, sheep, pigs, chicken, fruits, and cakes are donated by families that are displayed on the altar. A priest will put a triangular paper banner of three colors with special characters on every sacrifice. After the music begins to play, the priest hits the bell to call the *egui* back to the table. He then throws the rice and peaches into the air in all directions to distribute them to the *egui*.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22) During the evening, [incense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incense "Incense") is burnt in front of the doors of households. Incense stands for prosperity, the more incense burnt, the greater one's prosperity.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22) During the festival, shops are closed to leave the streets open for the ghosts. In the middle of each street stands an altar of incense with fresh fruit and sacrifices displayed on it. Behind the altar, monks will sing songs that it is believed only the ghosts can understand. This rite is called *shi ge'r*, meaning "singing ghost songs".[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22) Fifteen days after the feast, to make sure all the hungry ghosts find their way back to [hell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyu "Diyu"), people float lanterns on water and set them outside their houses. These lanterns are made by setting a lotus flower-shaped lantern on a piece of board. *Egui* are believed to have found their way back when the lanterns go out.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22)
### Other beliefs
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Other beliefs")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GhostFestivalsMalaysia002.jpg)
A performance held during [Ghost month](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Festival "Ghost Festival") in [Kuala Lumpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur "Kuala Lumpur"), [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"). People are not supposed to sit in the red chairs at the front because they are reserved for the "hungry ghosts."
There are many folk beliefs and taboos surrounding the [Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulanpen_festival "Yulanpen festival"). Spirits are thought to be dangerous, and can take many forms, including snakes, moths, birds, foxes, wolves, and tigers. Some can even use the guise of a beautiful man or woman to seduce and possess. One story refers to a ghost which takes the form of a pretty girl and seduces a young man until a [priest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashi "Fashi") intervenes and sends the spirit back to hell. It is believed that [possession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonic_possession "Demonic possession") can cause illness and/or mental disorders.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-one-26)
During the seventh month of the [Chinese calendar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar "Chinese calendar"), children are advised (usually by an elder in the family) to be home before dark, and not to wander the streets at night for fear a ghost might possess them. Swimming is thought to be dangerous as well, as spirits are believed to have drowned people. People will generally avoid driving at night, for fear of a "collision", or spiritual offence, which is any event leading to illness or misfortune.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-four-27)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] While "ghost" is a commonly used term throughout the year, many people use the phrase "backdoor god" or "good brother" instead during the 7th month, so as not to anger the ghosts. Another thing to avoid is sampling any of the food placed on the offering table, as doing this can result in "mysterious illness". Any person attending a show at indoor entertainment venues (*[getai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getai "Getai")*) will notice the first row of chairs is left empty. These seats are reserved for the spirits, and it is considered bad form to sit in them. After an [offering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_paper "Joss paper") has been burnt for the spirits, stepping on or near the burnt area should be avoided, as it is considered an "opening" to the spirit world and touching it may cause the person to be possessed.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
## In Tibet
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: In Tibet")\]
| |
|---|
| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Tibetan_Buddhism "Category:Tibetan Buddhism") on |
| [Tibetan Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism "Tibetan Buddhism") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmachakra "Tibetan Dharma Wheel") |
| [Schools](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism "Schools of Buddhism") [Nyingma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyingma "Nyingma") [Bon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon "Bon") [Kadam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadam_\(Tibetan_Buddhism\) "Kadam (Tibetan Buddhism)") [Sakya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakya_\(Tibetan_Buddhist_school\) "Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)") [Bodong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodongpa "Bodongpa") [Kagyu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagyu "Kagyu") [Jonang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonang "Jonang") [Gelug](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelug "Gelug") [Rimé](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement "Rimé movement") |
| [Key personalities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Buddhists#Tibetan "List of Buddhists") First dissemination [Padmasambhāva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padmasambh%C4%81va "Padmasambhāva") [Śāntarakṣita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita "Śāntarakṣita") [Kamalaśīla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla "Kamalaśīla") [Songtsen Gampo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo "Songtsen Gampo") [Trisong Detsen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisong_Detsen "Trisong Detsen") [Ralpacan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralpacan "Ralpacan") Second dissemination [Atiśa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba "Atiśa") [Talika](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilopa "Tilopa") [Abhayakirti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naropa "Naropa") [Niguma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niguma "Niguma") [Sukhasiddhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhasiddhi "Sukhasiddhi") [Milarepa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milarepa "Milarepa") Nyingma [Yeshe Tsogyal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshe_Tsogyal "Yeshe Tsogyal") [Longchenpa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longchenpa "Longchenpa") [Jigme Lingpa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigme_Lingpa "Jigme Lingpa") [Patrul Rinpoche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrul_Rinpoche "Patrul Rinpoche") [Dudjom Lingpa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudjom_Lingpa "Dudjom Lingpa") [Mipham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamgon_Ju_Mipham_Gyatso "Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso") Kagyu [Marpa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marpa_Lotsawa "Marpa Lotsawa") [Rangjung Dorje](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangjung_Dorje,_3rd_Karmapa_Lama "Rangjung Dorje, 3rd Karmapa Lama") Jonang [Dolpopa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolpopa_Sherab_Gyaltsen "Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen") [Taranatha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranatha "Taranatha") Sakya [Sakya Pandita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakya_Pandita "Sakya Pandita") [Gorampa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorampa "Gorampa") Bodongpa [Samding Dorje Phagmo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samding_Dorje_Phagmo "Samding Dorje Phagmo") Gelugpa [Je Tsongkhapa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa "Je Tsongkhapa") [5th Dalai Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Dalai_Lama "5th Dalai Lama") [13th Dalai Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th_Dalai_Lama "13th Dalai Lama") [14th Dalai Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama "14th Dalai Lama") [10th Panchen Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choekyi_Gyaltsen,_10th_Panchen_Lama "Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama") |
| [Teachings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism "Glossary of Buddhism") General Buddhist [Three marks of existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence "Three marks of existence") [Skandha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skandha "Skandha") [Cosmology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology "Buddhist cosmology") [*Saṃsāra*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_\(Buddhism\) "Saṃsāra (Buddhism)") [Rebirth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebirth_\(Buddhism\) "Rebirth (Buddhism)") [Bodhisattva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva "Bodhisattva") [Dharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_\(Buddhism\) "Dharma (Buddhism)") [Dependent origination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da "Pratītyasamutpāda") [Karma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism "Karma in Buddhism") Tibetan [Four Tenets system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Tenets_system "Four Tenets system") [Five Pure Lights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Pure_Lights "Five Pure Lights") [Rangtong-Shentong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangtong-Shentong "Rangtong-Shentong") [Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatantrika-Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction "Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction") Nyingma [Dzogchen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzogchen "Dzogchen") [Pointing-out instruction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointing-out_instruction "Pointing-out instruction") |
| Practices and attainment [Lamrim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamrim "Lamrim") [Pāramitās](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81 "Pāramitā") [Bodhicitta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhicitta "Bodhicitta") [Avalokiteśvara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara "Avalokiteśvara") [Meditation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_meditation "Buddhist meditation") [Laity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Householder_\(Buddhism\) "Householder (Buddhism)") [Vajrayana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajrayana "Vajrayana") [Tantra techniques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_tantric_practice "Tibetan tantric practice") [Deity yoga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deity_yoga "Deity yoga") [Guru yoga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru_yoga "Guru yoga") [Dream yoga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_yoga "Dream yoga") [Thukdam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tukdam "Tukdam") [Buddhahood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhahood "Buddhahood") |
| [Major monasteries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tibetan_monasteries "List of Tibetan monasteries") [Tradruk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradruk_Temple "Tradruk Temple") [Drepung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drepung_Monastery "Drepung Monastery") [Dzogchen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzogchen_Monastery "Dzogchen Monastery") [Ganden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganden_Monastery "Ganden Monastery") [Jokhang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jokhang "Jokhang") [Kumbum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumbum_Monastery "Kumbum Monastery") [Labrang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labrang_Monastery "Labrang Monastery") [Mindrolling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindrolling_Monastery "Mindrolling Monastery") [Namgyal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namgyal_Monastery "Namgyal Monastery") [Narthang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narthang_Monastery "Narthang Monastery") [Nechung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nechung "Nechung") [Pabonka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pabonka_Hermitage "Pabonka Hermitage") [Palcho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palcho_Monastery "Palcho Monastery") [Ralung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralung_Monastery "Ralung Monastery") [Ramoche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramoche_Temple "Ramoche Temple") [Rato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rato_Dratsang "Rato Dratsang") [Sakya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakya_Monastery "Sakya Monastery") [Samye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samye_Monastery "Samye Monastery") [Sanga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanga_Monastery "Sanga Monastery") [Sera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sera_Monastery "Sera Monastery") [Shalu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalu_Monastery "Shalu Monastery") [Tashi Lhunpo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashi_Lhunpo_Monastery "Tashi Lhunpo Monastery") [Tsurphu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsurphu_Monastery "Tsurphu Monastery") [Yerpa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerpa "Yerpa") |
| Institutional roles [Dalai Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalai_Lama "Dalai Lama") [Panchen Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchen_Lama "Panchen Lama") [Lama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lama "Lama") [Karmapa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karmapa "Karmapa") [Rinpoche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinpoche "Rinpoche") [Geshe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshe "Geshe") [Tertön](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n "Tertön") [Tulku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulku "Tulku") [Western tulku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_tulku "Western tulku") |
| [Festivals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_festivals "Tibetan festivals") [Chotrul Duchen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chotrul_Duchen "Chotrul Duchen") [Dajyur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dajyur "Dajyur") [Galdan Namchot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galdan_Namchot "Galdan Namchot") [Losar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Losar "Losar") [Dosmoche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dosmoche "Dosmoche") [Monlam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monlam_Prayer_Festival "Monlam Prayer Festival") [Sho Dun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sho_Dun_Festival "Sho Dun Festival") [Losoong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Losoong_Festival "Losoong Festival") |
| [Texts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_texts "Buddhist texts") [Kangyur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangyur "Kangyur") [Tengyur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengyur "Tengyur") [Tibetan Buddhist canon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon "Tibetan Buddhist canon") [Mahayana sutras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana_sutras "Mahayana sutras") [Nyingma Gyubum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyingma_Gyubum "Nyingma Gyubum") |
| [Art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_art "Tibetan art") [Sand mandala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_mandala "Sand mandala") [Thangka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thangka "Thangka") [Wall paintings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_wall_paintings "Tibetan Buddhist wall paintings") [Ashtamangala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashtamangala "Ashtamangala") [Tree of physiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_physiology "Tree of physiology") [Festival thangka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thongdrel "Thongdrel") [Mani stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mani_stone "Mani stone") |
| History and overview [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tibetan_Buddhism "History of Tibetan Buddhism") [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism "Timeline of Buddhism") [Outline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism "Outline of Buddhism") [Culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism "Culture of Buddhism") [Index of articles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles "Index of Buddhism-related articles") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Tibetan_Buddhism_sidebar "Template:Tibetan Buddhism sidebar") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Tibetan_Buddhism_sidebar "Template talk:Tibetan Buddhism sidebar") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tibetan_Buddhism_sidebar "Special:EditPage/Template:Tibetan Buddhism sidebar") |
In [Tibetan Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism "Tibetan Buddhism"), Hungry Ghosts ([Standard Tibetan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Tibetan_language "Standard Tibetan language"): ཡི་དྭགས་, [Wylie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wylie_transliteration "Wylie transliteration"): *yi dwags*, [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit"): *[preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta")*) have their own realm depicted on the [Bhavacakra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhavacakra "Bhavacakra") and are represented as teardrop or [paisley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paisley_\(design\) "Paisley (design)")\-shaped with bloated stomachs and necks too thin to pass food so that attempting to eat is also incredibly painful. Some are described as having "mouths the size of a needle's eye and a stomach the size of a mountain". This is a metaphor for people futilely attempting to fulfill their illusory physical desires.
According to the [History of Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Buddhism "History of Buddhism"), as elements of Chinese Buddhism entered a dialogue with Indian Buddhism in the [Tibetan Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau "Tibetan Plateau"), this synthesis is evident in the compassion rendered in the form of blessed remains of food, etc., offered to the *pretas* in rites such as [Ganachakra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganachakra "Ganachakra").\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
In [Mahayana Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism "Mahayana Buddhism") [Chenrezig](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara "Avalokiteśvara") offers the hungry ghosts the nectar flowing from his fingers that relieves their suffering. This buddha helps the hungry ghosts as he is the manifestation of the Lotus Family that has the special ability to support those who suffer, in this case the hungry ghost realm that is filled with suffering. This nectar symbolises purification which is able to cleanse all negativities, karma, obscurations, and defilements.[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-28)
## In Japan
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: In Japan")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hungry_Ghosts_Scroll_Kyoto_2.jpg)
Image from a Japanese scroll which describes the realm of the hungry ghosts and how to placate them. Currently housed at the [Kyoto National Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_National_Museum "Kyoto National Museum"), artist unknown.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hungry_Ghosts_Scroll_Kyoto_1.tif)
Section of the Hungry Ghosts Scroll depicting one of the thirty-six types of hungry ghosts who constantly seeks water to drink and explaining how those who have been born as such are saved by the offerings of the living. Kyoto Museum
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| Part of a series on |
| [Japanese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism "Japanese Buddhism") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanjusangendo_Thousand-armed_Kannon.JPG "Kamakura-period statue of Thousand-armed Kannon at Sanjūsangen-dō in Kyoto, Japan.") Kamakura-period statue of Thousand-armed [Kannon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannon "Kannon") at [Sanjūsangen-dō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanj%C5%ABsangen-d%C5%8D "Sanjūsangen-dō") in [Kyoto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto "Kyoto"), [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan"). |
| History and origins [Nihon Shoki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Shoki "Nihon Shoki") (early Buddhist records) [Introduction of Buddhism to Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan#Arrival_and_initial_spread_of_Buddhism "Buddhism in Japan") [Shōtoku and early Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Sh%C5%8Dtoku "Prince Shōtoku") [Shinbutsu-shūgō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinbutsu-sh%C5%ABg%C5%8D "Shinbutsu-shūgō") (Shinto–Buddhist syncretism) [Shinbutsu bunri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinbutsu_bunri "Shinbutsu bunri") (separation of Buddhism and Shinto) [Haibutsu kishaku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haibutsu_kishaku "Haibutsu kishaku") (anti-Buddhist movement) |
| Philosophy and schools [Jōjitsu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Djitsu "Jōjitsu") (Satyasiddhi) [Hosso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hosso "Hosso") (Yogācāra) [Sanron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanron "Sanron") (Three Treatises) [Kegon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kegon "Kegon") (Huayan) [Ritsu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_\(Buddhism\) "Risshū (Buddhism)") (Vinaya) [Kusha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusha-sh%C5%AB_\(Buddhism\) "Kusha-shū (Buddhism)") (Abhidharma) [Tendai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendai "Tendai") [Shingon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingon "Shingon") [Shingon Risshu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingon_Risshu "Shingon Risshu") [Jōdo-shū](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo-sh%C5%AB "Jōdo-shū") (Pure Land) [Jōdo Shinshū](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo_Shinsh%C5%AB "Jōdo Shinshū") (True Pure Land) [Yuzu Nembutsu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuzu_Nembutsu "Yuzu Nembutsu") [Ji-shu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji-shu "Ji-shu") [Rinzai Zen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinzai_school "Rinzai school") [Sōtō Zen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%8Dt%C5%8D_Zen "Sōtō Zen") [Ōbaku Zen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cbaku "Ōbaku") [Nichiren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism "Nichiren Buddhism") [Fuke-shū](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuke-sh%C5%AB "Fuke-shū") [Shugendō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D "Shugendō") (mountain asceticism) |
| Practices and rituals [Zazen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zazen "Zazen") (Zen meditation) [Nenbutsu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo "Nianfo") (Pure Land chanting) [Daimoku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namu_My%C5%8Dh%C5%8D_Renge_Ky%C5%8D "Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō") (Nichiren chanting) [Sōhei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%8Dhei "Sōhei") (warrior monks) [Komusō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komus%C5%8D "Komusō") (wandering monks) [Ikkō-ikki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikk%C5%8D-ikki "Ikkō-ikki") (Buddhist uprisings) [Obon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obon "Obon") (ancestral festival) [Death poem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_poem "Death poem") (*jisei*) [Danka system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danka_system "Danka system") (temple patronage) [Kaihōgyō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaih%C5%8Dgy%C5%8D "Kaihōgyō") [Butsudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butsudan "Butsudan") [Gongyō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_liturgy#Japanese_Buddhist_liturgy_\(gongy%C5%8D\) "Buddhist liturgy") [Buddhist music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_music#Japanese_traditions "Buddhist music") [Dharma names](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_name#Japan "Dharma name") |
| Important figures [Prince Shōtoku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Sh%C5%8Dtoku "Prince Shōtoku") [Tori Busshi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tori_Busshi "Tori Busshi") [Rōben](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%8Dben "Rōben") [Saichō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saich%C5%8D "Saichō") [Kūkai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%ABkai "Kūkai") [Hōnen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen "Hōnen") [Shinran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinran "Shinran") [Dōgen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen "Dōgen") [Eisai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eisai "Eisai") [Nichiren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichiren "Nichiren") [En no Gyōja](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_no_Gy%C5%8Dja "En no Gyōja") [Ingen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingen "Ingen") [Hakuin Ekaku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakuin_Ekaku "Hakuin Ekaku") [Sen no Rikyū](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen_no_Riky%C5%AB "Sen no Rikyū") [Rennyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennyo "Rennyo") [Takuan Sōhō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takuan_S%C5%8Dh%C5%8D "Takuan Sōhō") [D. T. Suzuki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._T._Suzuki "D. T. Suzuki") [Suzuki Shunryū](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunry%C5%AB_Suzuki "Shunryū Suzuki") |
| Sacred spaces and arts [Major temples](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Japan "Buddhist temples in Japan") [Architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture "Japanese Buddhist architecture") [Deities and statues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_pantheon "Japanese Buddhist pantheon") [Zen gardens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_rock_garden "Japanese rock garden") [Butsudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butsudan "Butsudan") (home altars) [Kaichō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaich%C5%8D "Kaichō") (sacred image viewing) [Kanjin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanjin "Kanjin") (temple fundraising) [Butsuzōzui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butsuz%C5%8Dzui "Butsuzōzui") [Shōmyō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dmy%C5%8D "Shōmyō") [Kokū](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kok%C5%AB "Kokū") |
| Cultural influence [Buddhist art in Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art_in_Japan "Buddhist art in Japan") [Gongen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gongen "Gongen") [Senjafuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senjafuda "Senjafuda") [Gozan bungaku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_of_the_Five_Mountains "Literature of the Five Mountains") [Hongaku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongaku "Hongaku") [Honji suijaku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honji_suijaku "Honji suijaku") |
| Modern influence [Zen in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States#Zen "Buddhism in the United States") [Inoue Enryō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoue_Enry%C5%8D "Inoue Enryō") [Nishida Kitarō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishida_Kitar%C5%8D "Nishida Kitarō") [Shaku Sōen](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shaku_S%C5%8Den&action=edit&redlink=1 "Shaku Sōen (page does not exist)") [Murakami Senshō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murakami_Sensh%C5%8D "Murakami Senshō") |
| Related transmissions [Buddhism in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_India "Buddhism in India") [Buddhism in China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism") [Buddhism in Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Korea "Buddhism in Korea") [Buddhism in Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam "Buddhism in Vietnam") [Buddhism in Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka "Buddhism in Sri Lanka") [Buddhism in Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand "Buddhism in Thailand") [Buddhism in Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar "Buddhism in Myanmar") [Buddhism in Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia "Buddhism in Cambodia") [Buddhism in Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos "Buddhism in Laos") [Buddhism in Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia "Buddhism in Indonesia") [Buddhism in the Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines "Buddhism in the Philippines") [Buddhism in Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia "Buddhism in Malaysia") [Buddhism in Tibet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Tibet "Buddhism in Tibet") [Buddhism in Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia "Buddhism in Mongolia") [Buddhism in Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal "Buddhism in Nepal") [Buddhism in Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan "Buddhism in Bhutan") |
| [Glossary of Japanese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Japanese_Buddhism "Glossary of Japanese Buddhism") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Japanese_Buddhism "Template:Japanese Buddhism") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Japanese_Buddhism "Template talk:Japanese Buddhism") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Japanese_Buddhism "Special:EditPage/Template:Japanese Buddhism") |
In [Japanese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism "Japanese Buddhism"), the Hungry Ghosts are considered to have two variants: the *gaki* and the *[jikininki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jikininki "Jikininki")*. Gaki (餓鬼) are the spirits of [jealous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealousy "Jealousy") or greedy people who, as punishment for their mortal vices, have been cursed with an insatiable hunger for a particular substance or object. Traditionally, this is something repugnant or humiliating, such as human [corpses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpse "Corpse") or [feces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feces "Feces"), though in more recent legends, it may be virtually anything, no matter how bizarre. Jikininki (食人鬼 "people-eating ghosts") are the spirits of greedy, [selfish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfishness "Selfishness") or [impious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impiety "Impiety") individuals who are cursed after death to seek out and eat human corpses. They do this at night, scavenging for newly dead bodies and food offerings left for the dead. They sometimes also loot the corpses they eat for valuables. Nevertheless, jikininki lament their condition and hate their repugnant cravings for dead human flesh.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] Japanese ghost-feeding rites, known as [segaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segaki "Segaki"), are also performed regularly by all Japanese Buddhist traditions.
The Hungry Ghosts Scroll kept at the [Kyoto National Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_National_Museum "Kyoto National Museum") depicts the world of the hungry ghosts and the suffering of these creatures, and contains tales of salvation of the ghosts. The whole scroll has been designated as National Treasure of Japan and it was possibly part of a set of scrolls depicting the six realms which was kept at [Sanjūsangen-dō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanj%C5%ABsangen-d%C5%8D "Sanjūsangen-dō").[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-29)
LaFleur comments that these depictions symbolise that hungry ghosts are not just hungry but they are constituted by their very hunger. Unlike mankind's impermanent hunger, for hungry ghosts "there is only an ongoing, alleviated gnawing of the stomach and parching of the throat." The body of the hungry ghost is important as it has a huge stomach and a throat as narrow as a needle which leaves the hungry ghost in the dilemma of always having appetite but no way to ever satisfy that hunger.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-30) The hungry ghost depicted in art in medieval Japan were thought of as "consumer of fires" because they mistook fire for something edible in their constant strive to satisfy their hunger. This only makes their hunger worse, they start to emit fire from their mouths and start to consume even more fire.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-31) LaFleur interprets that the art of hungry ghosts might have provided viewers of a look into the world they inhabit and which they normally do not see clearly. Therefore, the images might offer the insights that hungry ghosts interact with the world of humans from their world and that the human realm is oblivious to these beings affecting them.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-LaFleur_1989:_278-32)
## Types of spirits
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: Types of spirits")\]
See also: [List of supernatural beings in Chinese folklore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_supernatural_beings_in_Chinese_folklore "List of supernatural beings in Chinese folklore") and [Ghosts in Chinese culture § Types of ghosts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture#Types_of_ghosts "Ghosts in Chinese culture")
It is believed that the [soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul "Soul") contains elements of both [yin and yang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yang "Yin and yang"). The yin is the *gui*, or demon part, and the yang is the *[shen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_\(Chinese_religion\) "Shen (Chinese religion)")*, or spirit part. When death occurs, the *gui* should return to earth, and the *shen* to the grave or family shrine. If a ghost is neglected, it will become a *gui*. The *shen*, or ancestral spirit, watches over its descendants, and can bring good fortune if properly worshipped.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-one-26)
Hungry ghosts are different from the [ghosts of Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture "Ghosts in Chinese culture") which all people are believed to become after death.
According to the *[Nyāyānusāriṇī](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ny%C4%81y%C4%81nus%C4%81ri%E1%B9%87%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1 "Nyāyānusāriṇī (page does not exist)")*, there are three main groups of hungry ghosts, each of which are divided into three sub-groups:[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-sixteen-2)[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-33)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
- ghosts of no wealth (無財鬼)
- torch or flaming mouths (炬口鬼): These ghosts regurgitate fierce flames with mouths of inextinguishable embers. Their bodies are like that of a palmyra tree. This is the karmic result of stinginess.
- needle mouths (針口鬼): These ghosts have bellies as vast as mountain valleys. Their mouth are like the hole of a needle. Even if they find food or drink, they cannot consume it. Thus they suffer from hunger and thirst.
- putrid mouths (臭口鬼): These ghosts give off a great decomposing odor from their mouths. They may be found at privies overflowing with filth and fecal matter. They constantly emit a nauseating, evil fumes. Although they find food, they cannot eat it. This fills them with anger and they run about shrieking.
- ghosts of little wealth (少財鬼)
- needle hair (針毛鬼): These ghosts have bodies made of hair, firm like spears. They are unapproachable. Their insides burn, as a deer shot with a poison arrow. They run about suffering from ulcers. Only small quantities of impure food can allay their hunger.
- putrid hair (臭毛鬼): These ghosts also have bodies made of hair that smells incredibly foul. Their flesh and bones emit noxious fumes and their bowels are full of grime. They are agitated from poison in their throats and their skin splits when their hair is pulled out. Only small quantities of impure food can allay their hunger.
- swollen (癭鬼): Large protuberances grow in their throats. They suffer from aches and fever. They smell of pus that gushes forth from their bodies. They fight with each other over food. They consume small bits of pus and blood and can be somewhat satiated.
- ghosts of much wealth (多財鬼)
- ghosts of sacrifices (希祠鬼): These ghosts live off sacrifices offered by humans. One is reborn here by ethically gathering wealth, but with a stingy heart does not practice generosity. If one is reborn here, their descendants can make offerings to satiate their hunger.
- ghosts of losses (希棄鬼): These ghosts are always covetous, searching out filth like vomit and feces to eat. In life, they sought out and found enjoyment in both clean and unclean things, and were thus reborn here.
- ghosts of great power (大勢鬼): includes certain *[yaksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaksha "Yaksha")*, *[rakshasa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakshasa "Rakshasa")*s, *[kumbhanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumbhanda "Kumbhanda")*s and the like who are the powerful rulers of the spirits. They reside in forests, stupas, mountain valleys, and empty palaces. Those with no authoritative power live on all four continents except for [Uttarakuru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttarakuru "Uttarakuru"). Those with authoritative power may also be found in the heavens and on two of the five-hundred islands that lie to the west of [Jambudvipa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jambudvipa "Jambudvipa"). One island holds their castle while the other holds the castle of those ghosts with no authority.
Sixteen hungry ghosts are said to live in [hell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyu "Diyu") or in a region of hell. Unlike other hell dwellers, they can leave hell and wander. They look through garbage and human waste on the outskirts of human cities. They are said to be invisible during the daylight hours but visible at night. Some hungry ghosts can only eat corpses, or their food is burnt up in their mouths, sometimes they have a big belly and a neck as thin as a needle (this image is the basic one for hungry ghosts in [Asian Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Asia "Buddhism in Asia")).[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-ten-9)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
According to the *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra*, there are thirty-six different types of hungry ghost.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaki_zoshi_-_Tokyo.jpeg)
*Gaki zōshi*
## Interpretation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: Interpretation")\]
### Depiction
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: Depiction")\]
The depictions and stories about hungry ghosts especially in the early Indian context can show the viewer a commentary about the "manual scavengers", members of the lowest caste in India. They are regarded as people whose bad stigma comes from their birth and the group they belong to. They represent a group of starving people who are wandering the outside of cities, are homeless and hungry. As most people have adopted an ingrained blindness to this underclass.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-34)[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-LaFleur_1989:_278-32)
Furthermore, the bodies of hungry ghosts bear similarities with humans who are deprived of food. This malnourishment causes a disorder known as [kwashiorkor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwashiorkor "Kwashiorkor") that encompasses symptoms like stomach bloating from fluid retention, hair and tooth loss and dry and cracked skin. These people have skeletal like figures and big stomachs.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-35)
Looking at these hungry ghosts and their figure one might interpret hungry ghosts as teachers. They do not teach the causes of karma like solitary buddhas, however, instead of words with their bodies.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-36)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-37) Their whole body embodies suffering (*[dukkha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha "Duḥkha")*) to such an extend that seeing them gives the viewer the chance to witness the truth of *dukkha*.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-38)
### The body of the Hungry Ghost as Hell
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: The body of the Hungry Ghost as Hell")\]
The realm of the hungry ghosts is just one above that of the beings in *naraka*, however, while the hungry ghosts are not directly in hell their body is constituted by a hunger that they cannot satisfy due to the nature of their bodies, having big bellies and the throat of a needle. Whereas the hell have walls that keep the beings in a permanent state of torture, the body of the hungry ghosts is like a hell because they cannot escape their bodies, free to wander the world at will.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-39)
### In Buddhist philosophy
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=14 "Edit section: In Buddhist philosophy")\]
The influential Indian monk [Vasubandhu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasubandhu "Vasubandhu") used hungry ghosts in his argumentation of the *[Yogācāra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra "Yogācāra")* concept that "everything in the three realms is nothing but appearance." He argues against the [objective reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_\(philosophy\) "Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)") of external objects (physical and non-physical) by asserting that the appearance of external objects is mind-dependent, as they happen to be different at specific times and places across different minds. Since different minds encounter the same objects differently, similar to dreams, these objects do not need to have a physical reality.
The author offers an example about a river perceived as clear by humans, but full of pus by hungry ghosts. Thus, the appearances of external objects across different minds is distinct. By that, the author establishes an argument for a lack of substantial reality among external objects.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-40)[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-41)
## In popular culture
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=15 "Edit section: In popular culture")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Volume_of_Teineina_Kurashi_wo_Suru_Gaki.jpg)
First Volume of Teineina Kurashi wo Suru Gaki
*丁寧な暮らしをする餓鬼* ("The Hungry Ghost who leads a polite life"): This three volume work explores the life of a hungry ghost who, unlike others of their kind, is very compassionate and pure-hearted. They spend half a day grinding coffee beans in a mortar, folding plastic bags into triangles, sweeping up leaves, and so on.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-42)
## See also
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=16 "Edit section: See also")\]
- [Buddhist cosmology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology "Buddhist cosmology")
- [Ghosts in Chinese culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture "Ghosts in Chinese culture")
- [Ghosts in Vietnamese culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Vietnamese_culture "Ghosts in Vietnamese culture")
- [Ghosts in Thai culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Thai_culture "Ghosts in Thai culture")
- [Obon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obon "Obon")
- [Preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta")
- [Segaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segaki "Segaki")
- [Soul dualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism "Soul dualism")
- [Vengeful ghost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vengeful_ghost "Vengeful ghost")
## References
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=17 "Edit section: References")\]
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-1)** Rotman, Andy (2021): Hungry Ghosts. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. P. 16.
2. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-sixteen_2-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-sixteen_2-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-sixteen_2-2) Venerable Yin-shun. *The Way to Buddhahood*. Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications: 1998.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:0_3-0)**
[目次：冥報記白話](http://www.bfnn.org/book/article2/1323.htm)
. *www.bfnn.org*.
4. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eleven_4-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eleven_4-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eleven_4-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eleven_4-3) Teiser, Stephen F. *The Ghost Festival in Medieval China*. New Jersey: Princeton University Press: 1988. Hungry ghosts, by contrast, are a much more exceptional case, and would only occur in very unfortunate circumstances, such as if a whole family were killed or when a family no longer venerated their ancestors.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-5)** Avadānaśataka 244. 14.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-6)** Roth (2021): p. 16.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-7)** Jones, J. J. 1949–56. Thee Mahāvastu. 3 vols. London: Luzac and Company. pp. 22—24.
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fourteen_8-0)** Oldstone-Moore, Jennifer. *Taoism*. USA: Oxford University Press: 2003.
9. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-ten_9-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-ten_9-1) Baroni, Helen J. Ph.D. *The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism*. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated: 2002.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-thirteen_10-0)** Gregory, Peter N., ed. *Inquiry Into the Origin of Humanity*. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press: 1995.
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-11)** Gethin, Rupert (1998): *The Foundations of Buddhism*. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 121.
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-12)** Stuart, Daniel Malinowski. 2012. “A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna (sūtra).” PhD dissertation, University of California–Berkeley. P. 50.
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fifteen_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fifteen_13-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fifteen_13-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fifteen_13-3) [Eberhard, Wolfram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfram_Eberhard "Wolfram Eberhard"). *Chinese Festivals*. New York: Abelard-Schuman Ltd.: 1958.
14. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eight_14-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eight_14-1) [Stephen F. Teiser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_F._Teiser "Stephen F. Teiser") (1996). *The Ghost Festival in Medieval China*. Princeton University Press.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-15)** More specifically mātsarya means meanness in two senses: first the unwilligness to share and other characteristics like being unfair, unkind and spiteful. (Rothman, 16)
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-16)** Rothman (2021): 15—16.
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-17)** *Avadānaśataka:* 245.7, i 248.10, i 255.11–12, i 260.10, and i 273.12–13. Cf. i 266.4.
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-18)** Rotman (2021): 16—18.
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-19)** [Buddhism-dict.net](http://buddhism-dict.net/ddb/indexes/term-en.html) (accessed: October 18, 2007)
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-20)**
Martin, Emily; Emíly M. Ahern (1973). [*The cult of the dead in a Chinese village*](https://archive.org/details/cultofdeadinchin0000aher). Stanford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8047-0835-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0835-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0835-7")
.
21. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-three_21-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-three_21-1) ["Hungry Ghost Festival"](http://www.essortment.com/all/hungryghostfes_opi.htm). Essortment, 2002. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
22. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-4)
"Ghost Festival" ChinaVoc 2001-2007,
["Chinese Festivals - the Ghost Festival"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090608143719/http://www.chinavoc.com/festivals/ghost.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.chinavoc.com/festivals/ghost.htm) on 2009-06-08. Retrieved 2009-02-16.
.
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:02_23-0)**
["Sagely City of 10,000 Buddhas Daily Recitation Handbook 萬佛聖城日誦儀規 (eBook)"](https://www.buddhisttexts.org/products/sagely-city-of-10-000-buddhas-daily-recitation-handbook-%E8%90%AC%E4%BD%9B%E8%81%96%E5%9F%8E%E6%97%A5%E8%AA%A6%E5%84%80%E8%A6%8F). *Buddhist Text Translation Society*. Retrieved 2025-09-20.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:12_24-0)**
["The Essentials of Morning and Evening Recitation"](https://www.dharmasite.net/THE_ESSENTIALS_OF_MORNING_AND_EVENING_RECITATION.htm). *www.dharmasite.net*. Retrieved 2025-09-20.
25. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-6) Lye, Hun Yeow (2003). *Feeding Ghosts: A Study of the Yuqie Yankou Rite* (Thesis). University of Virginia. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.18130/v3s82z.](https://doi.org/10.18130/v3s82z "doi:10.18130/v3s82z")
26. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-one_26-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-one_26-1) "Zhongyuan Festival - Hungry Ghost Festival". China Daily. 2004 Aug 30. Retrieved 2008 Oct 20. [\[1\]](http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-08/30/content_370126.htm)
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-four_27-0)** DeBernardi, Jean Elizabeth, and Jean DeBernardi. *Rites of Belonging: Memory, Moderninity & Identity in a Malaysian Chinese Community*. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2004.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-28)** Wangchen Rinpoche: *Buddhist Fasting Practice. The Nyungne Method of Thousand-Armed Chenrezig.* Snow Lion Publication, Ithaca/New York 2009, P. 97.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-29)** [Hungry Ghosts Scroll Kyoto 1](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hungry_Ghosts_Scroll_Kyoto_1.tif "c:File:Hungry Ghosts Scroll Kyoto 1.tif")
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-30)** LaFleur, William. R. 1989. “Hungry Ghosts and Hungry People: Somaticity and Rationality in Medieval Japan.” In Fragments for a History of the Human Body, edited by Michael Feher, 270–303. New York: Zone Publications. P. 274.
31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-31)** LaFleur (1989): 286–87.
32. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-LaFleur_1989:_278_32-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-LaFleur_1989:_278_32-1) LaFleur (1989): 278.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-33)** Stuart, Daniel Malinowski (2012): A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra. PhD Dissertation, University of California.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-34)** Srivastava, B. N. 1997. Manual Scavenging in India: A Disgrace to the Country. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. P. 10.
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-35)** LaFleur (1989): 297.
36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-36)** Divyāvadāna 296.12–13, kāyikī dharmadeśanā na vācikī. See too Divyāvadāna 133.7 and 313.12; Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya (Dutt 1984, iii 1, 232.5–6 and 252.3–4); and Saṅghabhedavastu ii 46.
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-37)** Rotman (2021): 54.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-38)** Rotman (2021): 55.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-39)** LaaFleur (1989): 274.
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-40)**
Lévi, Sylvain (1925). *Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi: Deux Traités de Vasubandhu: Viṃśatikā (La Vingtaine), Accompagnée d'une explication en prose, et Triṃśikā (La Trentaine), avec le Commentaire de Sthiramati* \[*Twenty Verses with Auto-Commentary*\]. Translated by Nilanjan Das. Paris: Libraire Ancienne Honore Champion. pp. 2–4\.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-41)** Thakchoe, Sonam, "The Theory of Two Truths in India", *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition)*, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = \<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/twotruths-india/\>.
42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-42)**
[ピッコマ｜無料漫画・小説、新作コミックが毎日楽しめる！](https://piccoma.com/web/product/30269?etype=episode)
.
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Ghosts "Template:Ghosts") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Ghosts "Template talk:Ghosts") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ghosts "Special:EditPage/Template:Ghosts")[Ghosts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost "Ghost") and [ghostlore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostlore "Ghostlore") | |
|---|---|
| [List of ghosts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ghosts "List of ghosts") | |
| Manifestations | [Ancestral spirits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead "Veneration of the dead") [Ghost lights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_ghost_lights "Atmospheric ghost lights") [Haunted locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations "List of reportedly haunted locations") [Haunted highways](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_highways "List of reportedly haunted highways") [Haunted house](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haunted_house "Haunted house") [Haunted vehicles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haunted_vehicles "Haunted vehicles") [Haunted trains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_train "Ghost train") [Haunted ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_ship "Ghost ship") [Hungry ghost]() [Poltergeist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poltergeist "Poltergeist") [Residual haunting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Tape_theory "Stone Tape theory") [Vengeful ghost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vengeful_ghost "Vengeful ghost") [Procession of the dead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procession_of_the_dead "Procession of the dead") |
| By continent and culture | |
| | |
| African | [Madam Koi Koi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madam_Koi_Koi "Madam Koi Koi") South Africa ([locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_South_Africa "List of reportedly haunted locations in South Africa")) |
| Asian | [Burmese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_\(deity\) "Nat (deity)") [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture "Ghosts in Chinese culture") [locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_China "List of reportedly haunted locations in China") [Tibetan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Tibetan_culture "Ghosts in Tibetan culture") [Filipino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souls_in_Filipino_cultures "Souls in Filipino cultures") [locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_Philippines "List of reportedly haunted locations in the Philippines") [Ghost Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Festival "Ghost Festival") [Indian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhoota_\(ghost\) "Bhoota (ghost)") [locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_India "List of reportedly haunted locations in India") [Bengali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Bengali_culture "Ghosts in Bengali culture") [Japanese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%ABrei "Yūrei") [locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Japan "List of reportedly haunted locations in Japan") [Onryō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onry%C5%8D "Onryō") [Korean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwisin "Gwisin") [Malay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Malay_culture "Ghosts in Malay culture") [Thai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Thai_culture "Ghosts in Thai culture") [locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Thailand "List of reportedly haunted locations in Thailand") [Vietnamese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Vietnamese_culture "Ghosts in Vietnamese culture") |
| Europe | [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_English-speaking_cultures "Ghosts in English-speaking cultures") [locations in Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Scotland "Reportedly haunted locations in Scotland") [locations in United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_United_Kingdom "List of reportedly haunted locations in the United Kingdom") France [locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_France "List of reportedly haunted locations in France") [Slavic religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural_beings_in_Slavic_religion "Supernatural beings in Slavic religion") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Romania "List of reportedly haunted locations in Romania") |
| North America | [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Canada "List of reportedly haunted locations in Canada") Caribbean [Duppy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duppy "Duppy") Navajo [Chindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chindi "Chindi") [Ghost sickness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_sickness "Ghost sickness") [Mexican](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Mexican_culture "Ghosts in Mexican culture") [locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Mexico "List of reportedly haunted locations in Mexico") [Day of the Dead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_of_the_Dead "Day of the Dead") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_United_States "List of reportedly haunted locations in the United States") [California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_California "Reportedly haunted locations in California") [District of Columbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Washington,_D.C. "Reportedly haunted locations in Washington, D.C.") [Indiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_ghostlore "Indiana ghostlore") [Oregon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Oregon "Reportedly haunted locations in Oregon") [Pennsylvania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Pennsylvania "Reportedly haunted locations in Pennsylvania") [San Francisco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area "Reportedly haunted locations in the San Francisco Bay Area") |
| South America | [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_Colombia "List of reportedly haunted locations in Colombia") |
| Oceania | [Polynesian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Polynesian_culture "Ghosts in Polynesian culture") [Maori](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_and_spirits_in_M%C4%81ori_culture "Ghosts and spirits in Māori culture") |
| History | [Mesopotamian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Mesopotamian_religions "Ghosts in Mesopotamian religions") [Ancient Egyptian culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_conception_of_the_soul "Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul") [Classical antiquity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shade_\(mythology\) "Shade (mythology)") |
| [Parapsychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology "Parapsychology") | [Apparitional experience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparitional_experience "Apparitional experience") [Electronic voice phenomenon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon "Electronic voice phenomenon") [Ghost hunting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_hunting "Ghost hunting") [Séance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9ance "Séance") [Mediumship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship "Mediumship") [Spirit photography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_photography "Spirit photography") |
| Popular culture | [Films about ghosts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ghost_films "List of ghost films") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_ghost_movie "Indian ghost movie") [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_horror "Indonesian horror") [Stories about ghosts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_story "Ghost story") *[Kaidan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaidan "Kaidan")* [Halloween](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halloween "Halloween") [Samhain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samhain "Samhain") [Paranormal television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranormal_television "Paranormal television") |
| Court cases | *[Booty v Barnaby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booty_v_Barnaby "Booty v Barnaby")* [Hammersmith Ghost murder case](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammersmith_Ghost_murder_case "Hammersmith Ghost murder case") |
| Related | [Fear of ghosts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_of_ghosts "Fear of ghosts") [Spectrophilia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrophilia "Spectrophilia") [Spiritualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritualism_\(movement\) "Spiritualism (movement)") [Kardecist spiritism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism "Kardecist spiritism") [The Ghost Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ghost_Club "The Ghost Club") [Geist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geist "Geist") [Soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul "Soul") [Spirit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_\(animating_force\) "Spirit (animating force)") |
|  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ghosts "Category:Ghosts") | |
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Hungry ghost
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| Readable Markdown | This article is about the concept in Chinese religions. For other uses, see [Hungry Ghosts (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_Ghosts_\(disambiguation\) "Hungry Ghosts (disambiguation)"). For the Buddhist variant and for the Hindu variant, see [Preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta").
| | |
|---|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaki-Zoushi.jpg)*Gaki zōshi* 餓鬼草紙 "Scroll of Hungry Ghosts", circa 12th century | |
| Creature information | |
| Grouping | [Legendary creature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendary_creature "Legendary creature") |
| Sub grouping | [Nocturnal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal "Nocturnal"), [revenant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenant_\(folklore\) "Revenant (folklore)") |
| Similar entities | [Krasue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasue "Krasue") and [Kalag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_pre-colonial_Philippines "Religion in pre-colonial Philippines") |
| Folklore | [Chinese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism"), [Japanese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism "Japanese Buddhism"), [Chinese traditional religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_traditional_religion "Chinese traditional religion") |
| Origin | |
| Country | [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China"), [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan") |
| Region | [East Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia"), [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"), [Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia") |
**Hungry ghost** is a term in [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") and [Chinese traditional religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_traditional_religion "Chinese traditional religion"), representing beings who are driven by intense emotional needs in an [animalistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism "Animals in Buddhism") way. The term [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): [餓鬼](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A4%93%E9%AC%BC "wikt:餓鬼"); [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *èguǐ*; lit. 'hungry ghost' is the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit term *[preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta")*[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-1) in [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"). "Hungry ghosts" play a role in [Chinese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism"), [Japanese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism "Japanese Buddhism"), [Taoism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism "Taoism"), and in [Chinese folk religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion "Chinese folk religion"). The term is not to be confused with the generic term for "[ghost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture "Ghosts in Chinese culture")" or damnation, [鬼](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AC%BC "wikt:鬼"); *guǐ* (i.e. the residual spirit of a deceased ancestor). The understanding is that people first become a regular ghost when they die[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-sixteen-2) and then slowly weaken and eventually die a second time.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:0-3)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eleven-4) The hungry ghosts, along with animals and hell beings, consists of the three realms of existence no one desires.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-5)[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-6) In these realms it is extremely difficult to be reborn in a better realm (i.e. the realm of humans, [asura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asura "Asura") or [deva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_\(Hinduism\) "Deva (Hinduism)")) because it is nearly impossible to perform deeds that cultivate good karma.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-7)
With the rise in popularity of [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"), the idea that [souls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul "Soul") would live in space until reincarnation became popular.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eleven-4) In the [Taoist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism "Taoism") tradition, it is believed that hungry ghosts can arise from people whose deaths have been violent or unhappy. Both Buddhism[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eleven-4) and Taoism[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fourteen-8) share the idea that hungry ghosts can emerge from neglect or desertion of ancestors. According to the [Huayen Sutra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower_Garland_Sutra "Flower Garland Sutra") evil deeds will cause a soul to be reborn in one of six different realms.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-ten-9) The highest degree of evil deed will cause a soul to be reborn as a denizen of [hell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyu "Diyu"), a lower degree of evil will cause a soul to be reborn as an animal, and the lowest degree will cause a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-thirteen-10) According to the tradition, evil deeds that lead to becoming a hungry ghost are killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Desire, greed, anger and ignorance are all factors in causing a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost because they are motives for people to perform evil deeds.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-sixteen-2) The biggest factor is greed as hungry ghosts are ever discontent and anguished because they are unable to satisfy their feelings of greed.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-11)
Some traditions imagine hungry ghosts living inside the bowels of earth or they live in the midst of humans but go unnoticed by those around them or they choose to distance themselves.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-12)
There are many legends regarding the origin of hungry ghosts. It is likely that the idea of hungry ghosts originated from ancient Indian culture, where they were referred to as [Preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta").\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
In the [Buddhist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") tradition, hungry ghosts appear in stories from the *Chuan-chi po-yuan ching* ("Sutra of One Hundred Selected Legends") from the early third century.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fifteen-13)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] Some examples of these stories are as follows:
Once, a rich man who travelled was selling [sugar-cane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar-cane "Sugar-cane") juice. One day, a [monk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_monk "Buddhist monk") came to his house in search of some juice to cure an illness. The man had to leave, so he instructed his wife to give the monk the drink in his absence. Instead of doing this, she secretly urinated in the monk's bowl, added sugar cane juice to it and gave it to the monk. The monk was not deceived; he poured out the bowl and left. When the wife died, she was reborn as a hungry ghost.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fifteen-13)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
Another such tale is of a man who was giving and kind. One day, he was about to leave his house when a monk came by begging. The man instructed his wife to give the monk some food. After the man left his house, his wife was overcome with greed. She took it upon herself to teach the monk a lesson, so she locked the monk in an empty room all day with no food. She was reborn as a hungry ghost for innumerable lifetimes.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fifteen-13)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
The legends often speak of hungry ghosts who, in a previous lifetime, were greedy women who refused to give away food.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-fifteen-13)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] Other stories in the Buddhist tradition come from the "Sutra on Ghosts Questioning Maudgalyāyana" (鬼問目連經; *Gui wen Mulian jing*). One of the stories tells of a diviner who constantly misled people due to his own avarice, and thus, he was reborn as a hungry ghost.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eight-14)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] Another story in "The Legend of Mu-lien Entering the City and Seeing Five Hundred Hungry Ghosts" is about five hundred men that were sons of elders of the city they lived in. When monks came begging to the city for food, the sons denied them because they thought the monks would keep coming back and eventually take all their food. After the sons died, they were reborn as hungry ghosts.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eleven-4)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
### *Avadānaśataka* "One Hundred Stories"
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Avadānaśataka \"One Hundred Stories\"")\]
The *Avadānaśataka* is one of the earliest collections of stories about hungry ghosts and was compiled by a Buddhist monk from northwest India between the second and fourth centuries CE. The stories in this work may have functioned as a prescription for appropriate behaviour. The text is divided into ten "decades", the fifth decade being stories that concern hungry ghosts. This part of the *Avadānaśataka* recounts the bad thoughts and behavior the hungry ghosts have cultivated in their human existence which led them to the hungry ghost realm. The accumulation of malignancy or meanness is called *mātsarya*.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-16)
The notion of *mātsarya* in this volume is explained to understand the logic of mātsarya's development, the actions it evokes, the suffering it causes and in which ways it can be eradicated. Therefore, it describes the causal chain (*[pratītyasamutpāda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da "Pratītyasamutpāda")*) that leads to the existence of a hungry ghost. At the end of nearly every story the phrase "Work hard to get rid of your *mātsarya*!"[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-17) is repeated.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-18)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F%E5%A4%A7%E5%92%8C%E8%A1%97%E4%B8%89%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%AD%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%83%E6%99%AE%E6%B8%A1%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83_08.jpg)
A Chinese Buddhist monk and his attendants performing the *[Yujia Yankou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yujia_Yankou "Yujia Yankou")* ritual, a rite that fulfils several different functions, including feeding hungry ghosts.
In [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China"), [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") and other [overseas Chinese communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Chinese "Overseas Chinese"), preta is translated as *egui* ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 餓鬼, lit: "hungry ghost"), which descends from the [Middle Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese "Middle Chinese") pronunciation of *ngaH kjwɨjX*. In [Chinese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism"), the *[egui dao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_realm#Preta_Domain "Desire realm")* (餓鬼道, lit: "Path of the Hungry Ghosts") is one of the six domains of the [desire realm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_realm "Desire realm") of Buddhism.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-19) Many Chinese Buddhist rituals performed throughout the year typically contain sections where the various types of *egui* and spirits are summoned and provided nourishment in the form of food offerings and Buddhist teachings and precepts. The [oral tradition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition "Oral tradition") of Chinese [ancestral worship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead "Veneration of the dead") believes that the ghosts of the ancestors may be granted permission to return to the world of the living at a certain time of the year. If the spirits are hungry and not given sufficient offerings by their living relatives, they take what they can from the world.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-20)
A [festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival "Festival") called the [Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Festival "Ghost Festival") ([simplified Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters "Simplified Chinese characters"): 盂兰盆; [traditional Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters "Traditional Chinese characters"): 盂蘭盆; [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *Yúlánpén*; lit. 'Ullambana') is held to honor the *egui* and food and drink is put out to satisfy their needs. The festival is celebrated during the seventh month of the [Chinese calendar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar "Chinese calendar"). It also falls at the same time as a full moon, the new season, the fall harvest, the peak of monastic asceticism, the rebirth of ancestors, and the assembly of the local community.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-eight-14) According to tradition, during this month, the gates of [Diyu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyu "Diyu") (hell) are opened up and the *egui* are free to roam the earth where they seek food and entertainment. These *egui* are believed to be ancestors of those who have forgotten to pay tribute to them after they died. They have long thin necks because they have not been fed by their families. Tradition states that families should offer prayers to their deceased relatives and burn "[hell money](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell_money "Hell money")". It is believed that "hell money" is a valid currency in the underworld and helps ghosts to live comfortably in the afterlife. People also burn other forms of [joss paper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_paper "Joss paper") such as paper houses, cars and televisions to please the ghosts.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-three-21)
Families also pay tribute to other unknown wandering *egui* so that these homeless souls do not intrude on their lives and bring misfortune. A big feast is held for the *egui* on the 15th day of the seventh month, where people bring samples of food and place them on the offering table to please the *egui* and ward off bad luck. Live shows are also put on and everyone is invited to attend. The first row of seats is always empty as this is where the ghosts are supposed to sit to better enjoy the live entertainment. The shows are always put on at night and at high volumes, so that the sound attracts and pleases the *egui*. These acts were better known as "Merry-making".[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22)
### Chinese Buddhist practices
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Chinese Buddhist practices")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2025_Ghost_Festival_of_Bangka_Lungshan_Temple-02.2025-09-06.jpg)
*[Yujia Yankou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yujia_Yankou "Yujia Yankou")* ritual at [Bangka Lungshan Temple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangka_Lungshan_Temple "Bangka Lungshan Temple") during the [Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulanpen_festival "Yulanpen festival").
[Chinese Buddhist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism "Chinese Buddhism") rituals that feature the feeding of *egui* are commonly performed as part of regular temple services. A key example is the [*Mengshan Shishi*](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mengshan_Shishi&action=edit&redlink=1 "Mengshan Shishi (page does not exist)") rite (蒙山施食, *Méngshān Shīshí*, lit: "Mengshan food bestowal"), which is commonly performed as part of the [daily evening liturgy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_liturgy#Chinese_Buddhist_liturgy_\(chaomu_kesong\) "Buddhist liturgy") in most Chinese Buddhist temples.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:02-23)[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:12-24)
Another key rite that is often performed is the *[Yujia Yankou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yujia_Yankou "Yujia Yankou")* ritual ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 瑜伽燄口, [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *Yújiā Yànkǒu*, lit: "Yoga Flaming-Mouth Food Bestowal"), also known as the *Yuqie Yankou* ritual.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) It is commonly performed during or at the end of regular religious temple events such as repentance rites ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 懺悔, [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *Chànhǔi*), [Buddha recitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha_recitation "Buddha recitation") retreats ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 佛七, [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): *Fóqī*), the dedication of a new monastic complex, gatherings for the transmission of [monastic vows](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinaya "Vinaya") or the [Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulanpen_festival "Yulanpen festival"). During the ritual, one or more monks execute various esoteric and tantric practices, including [maṇḍala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandala "Mandala") offerings, recitation of esoteric [mantras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantra "Mantra"), execution of [mudrās](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudra "Mudra") and visualization practices to deliver both physical nourishment (in the form of food offerings) as well as spiritual nourishment (in the form of Buddhist teachings and conferment of precepts) on *egui* and other hell-beings.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) The ritual also combines features of [Chinese operatic tradition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_opera "Chinese opera") (including a wide range of instrumental music as well as vocal performances such as solo deliveries, antiphonal and choral singing) as well as the recitation of [sūtras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutra "Sutra") similar to other exoteric [Mahāyāna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana "Mahayana") rituals.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) The ritual is typically open for attendance to the public, and especially [lay people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%C4%81saka "Upāsaka"), who participate as the audience and spectators.
During the ritual, various Buddhist figures such as the [Five Tathāgatas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Tath%C4%81gatas "Five Tathāgatas"), [Guanyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin "Guanyin"), [Zhunti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cundi_\(Buddhism\) "Cundi (Buddhism)") and [Dizang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizang "Dizang") are invoked to help empower the ritual space and offerings as well as other ritual functions.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) Another key figure in the ritual is the *egui* king [Mianran Dashi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulk%C4%81mukha_Pretar%C4%81ja "Ulkāmukha Pretarāja") ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language"): 面燃大士, [pinyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin"): Miànrán Dàshì, lit: "Burning-Face Mahāsattva"), who is commonly regarded as a manifestation of the [Bodhisattva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva "Bodhisattva") [Guanyin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin "Guanyin") and who features prominently in the sūtra upon which the ritual was based on. During the climax of the ritual, the main performers of the rite toss the offerings into the ritual space before the main altar for the spirits, as well as to the audience of the rite.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) Only vegetarian food offerings are allowed as Buddhist precepts promote [compassion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhicitta "Bodhicitta") for all [sentient beings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentient_beings_\(Buddhism\) "Sentient beings (Buddhism)") and forbid the taking of any life.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25) The Buddhist refuge vows as well as precepts are also conferred upon the spirits present at the ritual, and all merits generated from the rite are usually [dedicated to all sentient beings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_merit "Transfer of merit") at the end of the rite.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-:1-25)
The chief [Taoist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism "Taoism") [priest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoshi "Daoshi") of the town wears an ornate crown of five gold and red panels, a practice appropriated from [Chinese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"). This represented the five most powerful deities (The [Jade Emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jade_Emperor "Jade Emperor"), [Lord Guan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan_Yu "Guan Yu"), [Tu Di Gong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu_Di_Gong "Tu Di Gong"), [Mazu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazu_\(goddess\) "Mazu (goddess)") and [Xi Wangmu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Wangmu "Xi Wangmu")) according to Taoist beliefs. He is believed to become their voice on earth.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-three-21) A sacrificial altar and a chair are built for a priest either at a street entrance or in front of the village. The [Bodhisattva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva "Bodhisattva") [Dizang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizang "Dizang") sits in front of the chair. Under the chair are plates of rice flour and peaches. Sitting on the altar are three spirit tablets and three funeral banners. After noon, sheep, pigs, chicken, fruits, and cakes are donated by families that are displayed on the altar. A priest will put a triangular paper banner of three colors with special characters on every sacrifice. After the music begins to play, the priest hits the bell to call the *egui* back to the table. He then throws the rice and peaches into the air in all directions to distribute them to the *egui*.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22) During the evening, [incense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incense "Incense") is burnt in front of the doors of households. Incense stands for prosperity, the more incense burnt, the greater one's prosperity.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22) During the festival, shops are closed to leave the streets open for the ghosts. In the middle of each street stands an altar of incense with fresh fruit and sacrifices displayed on it. Behind the altar, monks will sing songs that it is believed only the ghosts can understand. This rite is called *shi ge'r*, meaning "singing ghost songs".[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22) Fifteen days after the feast, to make sure all the hungry ghosts find their way back to [hell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyu "Diyu"), people float lanterns on water and set them outside their houses. These lanterns are made by setting a lotus flower-shaped lantern on a piece of board. *Egui* are believed to have found their way back when the lanterns go out.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-seven-22)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GhostFestivalsMalaysia002.jpg)
A performance held during [Ghost month](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Festival "Ghost Festival") in [Kuala Lumpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur "Kuala Lumpur"), [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"). People are not supposed to sit in the red chairs at the front because they are reserved for the "hungry ghosts."
There are many folk beliefs and taboos surrounding the [Yulanpen Festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulanpen_festival "Yulanpen festival"). Spirits are thought to be dangerous, and can take many forms, including snakes, moths, birds, foxes, wolves, and tigers. Some can even use the guise of a beautiful man or woman to seduce and possess. One story refers to a ghost which takes the form of a pretty girl and seduces a young man until a [priest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashi "Fashi") intervenes and sends the spirit back to hell. It is believed that [possession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonic_possession "Demonic possession") can cause illness and/or mental disorders.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-one-26)
During the seventh month of the [Chinese calendar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar "Chinese calendar"), children are advised (usually by an elder in the family) to be home before dark, and not to wander the streets at night for fear a ghost might possess them. Swimming is thought to be dangerous as well, as spirits are believed to have drowned people. People will generally avoid driving at night, for fear of a "collision", or spiritual offence, which is any event leading to illness or misfortune.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-four-27)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\] While "ghost" is a commonly used term throughout the year, many people use the phrase "backdoor god" or "good brother" instead during the 7th month, so as not to anger the ghosts. Another thing to avoid is sampling any of the food placed on the offering table, as doing this can result in "mysterious illness". Any person attending a show at indoor entertainment venues (*[getai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getai "Getai")*) will notice the first row of chairs is left empty. These seats are reserved for the spirits, and it is considered bad form to sit in them. After an [offering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_paper "Joss paper") has been burnt for the spirits, stepping on or near the burnt area should be avoided, as it is considered an "opening" to the spirit world and touching it may cause the person to be possessed.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
In [Tibetan Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism "Tibetan Buddhism"), Hungry Ghosts ([Standard Tibetan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Tibetan_language "Standard Tibetan language"): ཡི་དྭགས་, [Wylie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wylie_transliteration "Wylie transliteration"): *yi dwags*, [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit"): *[preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta")*) have their own realm depicted on the [Bhavacakra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhavacakra "Bhavacakra") and are represented as teardrop or [paisley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paisley_\(design\) "Paisley (design)")\-shaped with bloated stomachs and necks too thin to pass food so that attempting to eat is also incredibly painful. Some are described as having "mouths the size of a needle's eye and a stomach the size of a mountain". This is a metaphor for people futilely attempting to fulfill their illusory physical desires.
According to the [History of Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Buddhism "History of Buddhism"), as elements of Chinese Buddhism entered a dialogue with Indian Buddhism in the [Tibetan Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau "Tibetan Plateau"), this synthesis is evident in the compassion rendered in the form of blessed remains of food, etc., offered to the *pretas* in rites such as [Ganachakra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganachakra "Ganachakra").\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
In [Mahayana Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism "Mahayana Buddhism") [Chenrezig](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara "Avalokiteśvara") offers the hungry ghosts the nectar flowing from his fingers that relieves their suffering. This buddha helps the hungry ghosts as he is the manifestation of the Lotus Family that has the special ability to support those who suffer, in this case the hungry ghost realm that is filled with suffering. This nectar symbolises purification which is able to cleanse all negativities, karma, obscurations, and defilements.[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-28)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hungry_Ghosts_Scroll_Kyoto_2.jpg)
Image from a Japanese scroll which describes the realm of the hungry ghosts and how to placate them. Currently housed at the [Kyoto National Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_National_Museum "Kyoto National Museum"), artist unknown.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hungry_Ghosts_Scroll_Kyoto_1.tif)
Section of the Hungry Ghosts Scroll depicting one of the thirty-six types of hungry ghosts who constantly seeks water to drink and explaining how those who have been born as such are saved by the offerings of the living. Kyoto Museum
In [Japanese Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism "Japanese Buddhism"), the Hungry Ghosts are considered to have two variants: the *gaki* and the *[jikininki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jikininki "Jikininki")*. Gaki (餓鬼) are the spirits of [jealous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealousy "Jealousy") or greedy people who, as punishment for their mortal vices, have been cursed with an insatiable hunger for a particular substance or object. Traditionally, this is something repugnant or humiliating, such as human [corpses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpse "Corpse") or [feces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feces "Feces"), though in more recent legends, it may be virtually anything, no matter how bizarre. Jikininki (食人鬼 "people-eating ghosts") are the spirits of greedy, [selfish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfishness "Selfishness") or [impious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impiety "Impiety") individuals who are cursed after death to seek out and eat human corpses. They do this at night, scavenging for newly dead bodies and food offerings left for the dead. They sometimes also loot the corpses they eat for valuables. Nevertheless, jikininki lament their condition and hate their repugnant cravings for dead human flesh.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] Japanese ghost-feeding rites, known as [segaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segaki "Segaki"), are also performed regularly by all Japanese Buddhist traditions.
The Hungry Ghosts Scroll kept at the [Kyoto National Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_National_Museum "Kyoto National Museum") depicts the world of the hungry ghosts and the suffering of these creatures, and contains tales of salvation of the ghosts. The whole scroll has been designated as National Treasure of Japan and it was possibly part of a set of scrolls depicting the six realms which was kept at [Sanjūsangen-dō](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanj%C5%ABsangen-d%C5%8D "Sanjūsangen-dō").[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-29)
LaFleur comments that these depictions symbolise that hungry ghosts are not just hungry but they are constituted by their very hunger. Unlike mankind's impermanent hunger, for hungry ghosts "there is only an ongoing, alleviated gnawing of the stomach and parching of the throat." The body of the hungry ghost is important as it has a huge stomach and a throat as narrow as a needle which leaves the hungry ghost in the dilemma of always having appetite but no way to ever satisfy that hunger.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-30) The hungry ghost depicted in art in medieval Japan were thought of as "consumer of fires" because they mistook fire for something edible in their constant strive to satisfy their hunger. This only makes their hunger worse, they start to emit fire from their mouths and start to consume even more fire.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-31) LaFleur interprets that the art of hungry ghosts might have provided viewers of a look into the world they inhabit and which they normally do not see clearly. Therefore, the images might offer the insights that hungry ghosts interact with the world of humans from their world and that the human realm is oblivious to these beings affecting them.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-LaFleur_1989:_278-32)
It is believed that the [soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul "Soul") contains elements of both [yin and yang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yang "Yin and yang"). The yin is the *gui*, or demon part, and the yang is the *[shen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_\(Chinese_religion\) "Shen (Chinese religion)")*, or spirit part. When death occurs, the *gui* should return to earth, and the *shen* to the grave or family shrine. If a ghost is neglected, it will become a *gui*. The *shen*, or ancestral spirit, watches over its descendants, and can bring good fortune if properly worshipped.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-one-26)
Hungry ghosts are different from the [ghosts of Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture "Ghosts in Chinese culture") which all people are believed to become after death.
According to the *[Nyāyānusāriṇī](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ny%C4%81y%C4%81nus%C4%81ri%E1%B9%87%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1 "Nyāyānusāriṇī (page does not exist)")*, there are three main groups of hungry ghosts, each of which are divided into three sub-groups:[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-sixteen-2)[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-33)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
- ghosts of no wealth (無財鬼)
- torch or flaming mouths (炬口鬼): These ghosts regurgitate fierce flames with mouths of inextinguishable embers. Their bodies are like that of a palmyra tree. This is the karmic result of stinginess.
- needle mouths (針口鬼): These ghosts have bellies as vast as mountain valleys. Their mouth are like the hole of a needle. Even if they find food or drink, they cannot consume it. Thus they suffer from hunger and thirst.
- putrid mouths (臭口鬼): These ghosts give off a great decomposing odor from their mouths. They may be found at privies overflowing with filth and fecal matter. They constantly emit a nauseating, evil fumes. Although they find food, they cannot eat it. This fills them with anger and they run about shrieking.
- ghosts of little wealth (少財鬼)
- needle hair (針毛鬼): These ghosts have bodies made of hair, firm like spears. They are unapproachable. Their insides burn, as a deer shot with a poison arrow. They run about suffering from ulcers. Only small quantities of impure food can allay their hunger.
- putrid hair (臭毛鬼): These ghosts also have bodies made of hair that smells incredibly foul. Their flesh and bones emit noxious fumes and their bowels are full of grime. They are agitated from poison in their throats and their skin splits when their hair is pulled out. Only small quantities of impure food can allay their hunger.
- swollen (癭鬼): Large protuberances grow in their throats. They suffer from aches and fever. They smell of pus that gushes forth from their bodies. They fight with each other over food. They consume small bits of pus and blood and can be somewhat satiated.
- ghosts of much wealth (多財鬼)
- ghosts of sacrifices (希祠鬼): These ghosts live off sacrifices offered by humans. One is reborn here by ethically gathering wealth, but with a stingy heart does not practice generosity. If one is reborn here, their descendants can make offerings to satiate their hunger.
- ghosts of losses (希棄鬼): These ghosts are always covetous, searching out filth like vomit and feces to eat. In life, they sought out and found enjoyment in both clean and unclean things, and were thus reborn here.
- ghosts of great power (大勢鬼): includes certain *[yaksha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaksha "Yaksha")*, *[rakshasa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakshasa "Rakshasa")*s, *[kumbhanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumbhanda "Kumbhanda")*s and the like who are the powerful rulers of the spirits. They reside in forests, stupas, mountain valleys, and empty palaces. Those with no authoritative power live on all four continents except for [Uttarakuru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttarakuru "Uttarakuru"). Those with authoritative power may also be found in the heavens and on two of the five-hundred islands that lie to the west of [Jambudvipa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jambudvipa "Jambudvipa"). One island holds their castle while the other holds the castle of those ghosts with no authority.
Sixteen hungry ghosts are said to live in [hell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyu "Diyu") or in a region of hell. Unlike other hell dwellers, they can leave hell and wander. They look through garbage and human waste on the outskirts of human cities. They are said to be invisible during the daylight hours but visible at night. Some hungry ghosts can only eat corpses, or their food is burnt up in their mouths, sometimes they have a big belly and a neck as thin as a needle (this image is the basic one for hungry ghosts in [Asian Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Asia "Buddhism in Asia")).[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-ten-9)\[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
According to the *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra*, there are thirty-six different types of hungry ghost.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaki_zoshi_-_Tokyo.jpeg)
*Gaki zōshi*
The depictions and stories about hungry ghosts especially in the early Indian context can show the viewer a commentary about the "manual scavengers", members of the lowest caste in India. They are regarded as people whose bad stigma comes from their birth and the group they belong to. They represent a group of starving people who are wandering the outside of cities, are homeless and hungry. As most people have adopted an ingrained blindness to this underclass.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-34)[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-LaFleur_1989:_278-32)
Furthermore, the bodies of hungry ghosts bear similarities with humans who are deprived of food. This malnourishment causes a disorder known as [kwashiorkor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwashiorkor "Kwashiorkor") that encompasses symptoms like stomach bloating from fluid retention, hair and tooth loss and dry and cracked skin. These people have skeletal like figures and big stomachs.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-35)
Looking at these hungry ghosts and their figure one might interpret hungry ghosts as teachers. They do not teach the causes of karma like solitary buddhas, however, instead of words with their bodies.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-36)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-37) Their whole body embodies suffering (*[dukkha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha "Duḥkha")*) to such an extend that seeing them gives the viewer the chance to witness the truth of *dukkha*.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-38)
### The body of the Hungry Ghost as Hell
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: The body of the Hungry Ghost as Hell")\]
The realm of the hungry ghosts is just one above that of the beings in *naraka*, however, while the hungry ghosts are not directly in hell their body is constituted by a hunger that they cannot satisfy due to the nature of their bodies, having big bellies and the throat of a needle. Whereas the hell have walls that keep the beings in a permanent state of torture, the body of the hungry ghosts is like a hell because they cannot escape their bodies, free to wander the world at will.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-39)
### In Buddhist philosophy
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungry_ghost&action=edit§ion=14 "Edit section: In Buddhist philosophy")\]
The influential Indian monk [Vasubandhu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasubandhu "Vasubandhu") used hungry ghosts in his argumentation of the *[Yogācāra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra "Yogācāra")* concept that "everything in the three realms is nothing but appearance." He argues against the [objective reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_\(philosophy\) "Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)") of external objects (physical and non-physical) by asserting that the appearance of external objects is mind-dependent, as they happen to be different at specific times and places across different minds. Since different minds encounter the same objects differently, similar to dreams, these objects do not need to have a physical reality.
The author offers an example about a river perceived as clear by humans, but full of pus by hungry ghosts. Thus, the appearances of external objects across different minds is distinct. By that, the author establishes an argument for a lack of substantial reality among external objects.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-40)[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-41)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Volume_of_Teineina_Kurashi_wo_Suru_Gaki.jpg)
First Volume of Teineina Kurashi wo Suru Gaki
*丁寧な暮らしをする餓鬼* ("The Hungry Ghost who leads a polite life"): This three volume work explores the life of a hungry ghost who, unlike others of their kind, is very compassionate and pure-hearted. They spend half a day grinding coffee beans in a mortar, folding plastic bags into triangles, sweeping up leaves, and so on.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_note-42)
- [Buddhist cosmology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology "Buddhist cosmology")
- [Ghosts in Chinese culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture "Ghosts in Chinese culture")
- [Ghosts in Vietnamese culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Vietnamese_culture "Ghosts in Vietnamese culture")
- [Ghosts in Thai culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_in_Thai_culture "Ghosts in Thai culture")
- [Obon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obon "Obon")
- [Preta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preta "Preta")
- [Segaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segaki "Segaki")
- [Soul dualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism "Soul dualism")
- [Vengeful ghost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vengeful_ghost "Vengeful ghost")
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-1)** Rotman, Andy (2021): Hungry Ghosts. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. P. 16.
2. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-sixteen_2-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-sixteen_2-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-sixteen_2-2) Venerable Yin-shun. *The Way to Buddhahood*. Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications: 1998.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:0_3-0)**
[目次：冥報記白話](http://www.bfnn.org/book/article2/1323.htm)
. *www.bfnn.org*.
4. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eleven_4-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eleven_4-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eleven_4-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eleven_4-3) Teiser, Stephen F. *The Ghost Festival in Medieval China*. New Jersey: Princeton University Press: 1988. Hungry ghosts, by contrast, are a much more exceptional case, and would only occur in very unfortunate circumstances, such as if a whole family were killed or when a family no longer venerated their ancestors.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-5)** Avadānaśataka 244. 14.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-6)** Roth (2021): p. 16.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-7)** Jones, J. J. 1949–56. Thee Mahāvastu. 3 vols. London: Luzac and Company. pp. 22—24.
8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fourteen_8-0)** Oldstone-Moore, Jennifer. *Taoism*. USA: Oxford University Press: 2003.
9. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-ten_9-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-ten_9-1) Baroni, Helen J. Ph.D. *The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism*. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated: 2002.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-thirteen_10-0)** Gregory, Peter N., ed. *Inquiry Into the Origin of Humanity*. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press: 1995.
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-11)** Gethin, Rupert (1998): *The Foundations of Buddhism*. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 121.
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-12)** Stuart, Daniel Malinowski. 2012. “A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna (sūtra).” PhD dissertation, University of California–Berkeley. P. 50.
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fifteen_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fifteen_13-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fifteen_13-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-fifteen_13-3) [Eberhard, Wolfram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfram_Eberhard "Wolfram Eberhard"). *Chinese Festivals*. New York: Abelard-Schuman Ltd.: 1958.
14. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eight_14-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-eight_14-1) [Stephen F. Teiser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_F._Teiser "Stephen F. Teiser") (1996). *The Ghost Festival in Medieval China*. Princeton University Press.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-15)** More specifically mātsarya means meanness in two senses: first the unwilligness to share and other characteristics like being unfair, unkind and spiteful. (Rothman, 16)
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-16)** Rothman (2021): 15—16.
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-17)** *Avadānaśataka:* 245.7, i 248.10, i 255.11–12, i 260.10, and i 273.12–13. Cf. i 266.4.
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-18)** Rotman (2021): 16—18.
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-19)** [Buddhism-dict.net](http://buddhism-dict.net/ddb/indexes/term-en.html) (accessed: October 18, 2007)
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-20)**
Martin, Emily; Emíly M. Ahern (1973). [*The cult of the dead in a Chinese village*](https://archive.org/details/cultofdeadinchin0000aher). Stanford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8047-0835-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0835-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0835-7")
.
21. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-three_21-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-three_21-1) ["Hungry Ghost Festival"](http://www.essortment.com/all/hungryghostfes_opi.htm). Essortment, 2002. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
22. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-seven_22-4)
"Ghost Festival" ChinaVoc 2001-2007,
["Chinese Festivals - the Ghost Festival"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090608143719/http://www.chinavoc.com/festivals/ghost.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.chinavoc.com/festivals/ghost.htm) on 2009-06-08. Retrieved 2009-02-16.
.
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:02_23-0)**
["Sagely City of 10,000 Buddhas Daily Recitation Handbook 萬佛聖城日誦儀規 (eBook)"](https://www.buddhisttexts.org/products/sagely-city-of-10-000-buddhas-daily-recitation-handbook-%E8%90%AC%E4%BD%9B%E8%81%96%E5%9F%8E%E6%97%A5%E8%AA%A6%E5%84%80%E8%A6%8F). *Buddhist Text Translation Society*. Retrieved 2025-09-20.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:12_24-0)**
["The Essentials of Morning and Evening Recitation"](https://www.dharmasite.net/THE_ESSENTIALS_OF_MORNING_AND_EVENING_RECITATION.htm). *www.dharmasite.net*. Retrieved 2025-09-20.
25. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-4) [***f***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-5) [***g***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-:1_25-6) Lye, Hun Yeow (2003). *Feeding Ghosts: A Study of the Yuqie Yankou Rite* (Thesis). University of Virginia. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.18130/v3s82z.](https://doi.org/10.18130/v3s82z "doi:10.18130/v3s82z")
26. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-one_26-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-one_26-1) "Zhongyuan Festival - Hungry Ghost Festival". China Daily. 2004 Aug 30. Retrieved 2008 Oct 20. [\[1\]](http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-08/30/content_370126.htm)
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-four_27-0)** DeBernardi, Jean Elizabeth, and Jean DeBernardi. *Rites of Belonging: Memory, Moderninity & Identity in a Malaysian Chinese Community*. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2004.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-28)** Wangchen Rinpoche: *Buddhist Fasting Practice. The Nyungne Method of Thousand-Armed Chenrezig.* Snow Lion Publication, Ithaca/New York 2009, P. 97.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-29)** [Hungry Ghosts Scroll Kyoto 1](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hungry_Ghosts_Scroll_Kyoto_1.tif "c:File:Hungry Ghosts Scroll Kyoto 1.tif")
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-30)** LaFleur, William. R. 1989. “Hungry Ghosts and Hungry People: Somaticity and Rationality in Medieval Japan.” In Fragments for a History of the Human Body, edited by Michael Feher, 270–303. New York: Zone Publications. P. 274.
31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-31)** LaFleur (1989): 286–87.
32. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-LaFleur_1989:_278_32-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-LaFleur_1989:_278_32-1) LaFleur (1989): 278.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-33)** Stuart, Daniel Malinowski (2012): A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra. PhD Dissertation, University of California.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-34)** Srivastava, B. N. 1997. Manual Scavenging in India: A Disgrace to the Country. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. P. 10.
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-35)** LaFleur (1989): 297.
36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-36)** Divyāvadāna 296.12–13, kāyikī dharmadeśanā na vācikī. See too Divyāvadāna 133.7 and 313.12; Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya (Dutt 1984, iii 1, 232.5–6 and 252.3–4); and Saṅghabhedavastu ii 46.
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-37)** Rotman (2021): 54.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-38)** Rotman (2021): 55.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-39)** LaaFleur (1989): 274.
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-40)**
Lévi, Sylvain (1925). *Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi: Deux Traités de Vasubandhu: Viṃśatikā (La Vingtaine), Accompagnée d'une explication en prose, et Triṃśikā (La Trentaine), avec le Commentaire de Sthiramati* \[*Twenty Verses with Auto-Commentary*\]. Translated by Nilanjan Das. Paris: Libraire Ancienne Honore Champion. pp. 2–4\.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-41)** Thakchoe, Sonam, "The Theory of Two Truths in India", *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition)*, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = \<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/twotruths-india/\>.
42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_ghost#cite_ref-42)**
[ピッコマ｜無料漫画・小説、新作コミックが毎日楽しめる！](https://piccoma.com/web/product/30269?etype=episode)
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| Shard | 152 (laksa) |
| Root Hash | 17790707453426894952 |
| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/Hungry_ghost s443 |