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(
March 2026
)
US Ambassador to Indonesia
Sung Kim
accompanied by local officials at the
Presidential Palace
wearing face masks amid the COVID-19 pandemic
During the
COVID-19 pandemic
, face masks or coverings, including
N95
,
FFP2
,
surgical
, and
cloth masks
, were employed as public and personal health control measures against the spread of
SARS-CoV-2
, the virus that causes
COVID-19
.
In community and healthcare settings, the use of face masks is intended as
source control
to limit
transmission
of the virus and for personal protection to prevent infection.
[
1
]
Properly worn masks both limit the
respiratory droplets
and
aerosols
spread by infected individuals and help protect healthy individuals from infection.
[
2
]
[
3
]
Reviews of various kinds of scientific studies have concluded that masking is effective in protecting the individual against COVID-19.
[
2
]
[
4
]
[
5
]
Various
case-control
and population-based studies have also shown that increased levels of masking in a community reduces the spread of SARS-CoV-2,
[
4
]
[
5
]
though there is a paucity of evidence from
randomized controlled trials
(RCTs).
[
6
]
[
7
]
Masks vary in how well they work. Fitted
N95s
outperform surgical masks,
[
8
]
[
9
]
while cloth masks provide marginal protection.
[
10
]
[
11
]
During the public health emergency, governments widely recommended and mandated mask-wearing, and prominent national and intergovernmental health agencies and their leaders recommended the use of masks to reduce transmission, including the
WHO
,
American
,
European
, and
Chinese
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Many federal governmental agencies recommended using face masks to avoid COVID-19 transmission. Masks with
exhalation valves
were not recommended because they expelled the wearer's breath outwards, and an infected wearer would transmit the virus through the valve. A second purpose of face masks is to protect each wearer from environments that can infect them, which can be achieved by many models of masks.
[
12
]
Various types of masks each provide different levels of protection against COVID-19 transmission, ease of use, and comfort:
cloth face masks
surgical masks
(medical masks)
certified
face-covering masks
, considered respirators, with
certifications
such as
N95
and N99, and
FFP
filtering respirators
with
certifications
such as
N95
and N99, and
FFP
other
respirators
, including
elastomeric respirators
, some of which may also be considered filtering masks
There are some other types of
personal protective equipment
(PPE), such as
face shields
and medical
goggles
, which are sometimes used in conjunction with face masks but were not recommended as a replacement.
[
13
]
Other kinds of PPE include gloves, aprons, gowns, shoe covers, and hair covers.
[
14
]
In 2020, there were
shortages
of facial masks, which have led to the use of uncertified masks, with worse performance.
[
15
]
Cloth face masks
A
cloth face mask
is worn over the mouth and nose and made of common textiles such as cotton. Masks vary widely in effectiveness, depending on factors such as material, fit and seal, and the number of layers. They are usually less effective at filtering than surgical masks and offer much less protection.
[
16
]
[
17
]
Unlike disposable masks, there are no required standards for cloth masks.
[
18
]
One 2020 study found that a cloth mask was better than nothing, but not as good as a soft
electret
-filter surgical mask for protecting healthcare workers while simulating the treatment of an artificially infected patient.
[
18
]
Research on commonly available fabrics used in cloth masks found that cloth masks can provide significant protection against the transmission of particles in the aerosol size range, with enhanced performance across the nanoscale and microscale when masks use both mechanical and electrostatic-based filtration, but that leakage due to improper fit can degrade performance.
[
19
]
A review of available research published in January 2021 concludes that cloth masks are not considered adequate to protect healthcare practitioners in a clinical setting.
[
20
]
A 2013 study had volunteers wear masks they made themselves from cotton T-shirts, following the pattern of a standard tie behind the head surgical mask,
[
21
]
and found the number of microscopic particles that leaked to the inside of the homemade masks was twice that of commercial masks. Wearing homemade masks also leaked a
median
average of three times as many microorganisms as commercial masks. But another 2020 study found that masks made of at least two layers of T-shirt fabric could be as protective against virus droplets as medical masks, and as breathable.
[
22
]
World Health Organization infographic on how to wear a non-medical fabric mask safely
[
23
]
A 2020 peer-reviewed summary of published literature on the filtration properties of cloth and cloth masks recommends two to four layers of plain-weave cotton or flannel of at least 100 threads per inch.
[
24
]
There is a trade-off in that increasing the number of layers increases the filtration of the material but decreases how easy it is for a person to breathe through the mask.
[
25
]
As of May 2020, there was no research on decontaminating and reusing cloth masks.
[
18
]
The CDC recommends removing a mask by handling only the ear loops or ties, placing it directly in a
washing machine
, and immediately washing hands in soap and water for at least twenty seconds. Cold water is considered as effective as warm water for decontamination.
[
26
]
The CDC also recommends washing hands before putting on the mask and again immediately after touching it.
[
27
]
There is no information on reusing an interlayer filter. Disposing of filters after a single use may be desirable.
[
18
]
A narrative review of the literature on the filtration properties of cloth and other household materials did not find support for using a filter. A layer of cloth, if tolerated, was suggested instead,
[
24
]
or a PM2.5 filter, as a third layer.
[
28
]
The
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) Study published on 5 April 2021, showed extremely varied performance across cotton masks. The results of the EPA study found that "a three-layer knitted cotton mask blocked an average of 26.5 percent of particles in the chamber, while a washed, two-layer woven nylon mask with a filter insert and metal nose bridge blocked 79 percent of particles on average."
[
29
]
Ultimately, the researchers found that fabric and fit are the two most vital factors when recommending masks to the public and further research is being conducted on variables such as facial hair and face shape on mask fit.
[
29
]
World Health Organization infographic on how to wear a medical mask safely
[
23
]
A surgical mask is a loose-fitting,
disposable
mask that creates a physical barrier separating the mouth and nose of the wearer from potential
contaminants
in the immediate environment. If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle
droplets
, splashes,
sprays
, or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping them from reaching the wearer's mouth and nose. Surgical masks may also help reduce exposure of others to the wearer's
saliva
and respiratory secretions.
[
30
]
[
31
]
Taiwanese president
Tsai Ing-wen
wearing a surgical mask
Certified medical masks are made of non-woven material, and they are mostly multi-layer. Filters may be made of
microfibers
with an electrostatic charge; that is, the fibers are
electrets
. An electret filter increases the chances that smaller particles will veer and hit a fiber, rather than going straight through (electrostatic capture).
[
32
]
[
33
]
[
34
]
[
better source needed
]
[
medical citation needed
]
While there is some development work on making electret filtering materials that can be washed and reused,
[
35
]
current commercially produced electret filters are ruined by many forms of disinfection, including washing with soap and water or alcohol, which destroys the electric charge.
[
36
]
During the COVID-19 pandemic, public health authorities issued guidelines on
how to save, disinfect and reuse electret-filter masks
without damaging the filtration efficiency.
[
36
]
[
37
]
Standard disposable surgical masks are not designed to be washed. Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental, or medical procedure masks.
[
30
]
The material surgical masks are made from is much poorer at filtering very small particles (in the range of a tenth of a micrometer to a micrometer across) than that of filtering respirators (for example N95, FFP2) and the fit is much poorer.
[
30
]
Surgical masks are made of a non-woven fabric created using a
melt blowing
process.
[
38
]
[
39
]
Random control studies of respiratory infections like
influenza
find little difference in protection between surgical masks and respirators (such as N95 or FFP masks).
[
40
]
However, the filtering performance of correctly worn N95/FFP2 type filtering respirators is clearly superior to surgical and to cloth masks
[
17
]
and for influenza, work by the UK Health and Safety executive
[
41
]
found that live virus penetrated all surgical masks tested but properly fitted respirators reduced the viral dose by a factor of at least a hundred.
Surgical masks made to different standards in different regions of the world have different ranges of particles which they filter. For example, the People's Republic of China regulates two types of such masks: single-use medical masks (Chinese standard YY/T 0969) and surgical masks (YY 0469). The latter ones are required to filter bacteria-sized particles (
BFE
â„ 95%) and some virus-sized particles (PFE â„ 30%), while the former ones are required to only filter bacteria-sized particles.
[
42
]
[
43
]
[
44
]
The effectiveness of surgical masks in limiting particle transmission is a function of material and fit.
[
45
]
Since the start of the pandemic, scientists have evaluated various modifications to ear loop surgical masks aimed at improving mask efficacy by reducing or eliminating gaps between the mask and face.
[
46
]
The CDC evaluated and recommended two such modifications to ear loop masks to minimize the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Under regular use, the CDC found that a surgical mask worn by a coughing individual blocked 41.3% of simulated cough aerosols (0.1â7.0Â ÎŒm particle size) from reaching a second individual six feet away. However, by applying a knot and tuck technique,
[
a
]
62.9% of particles were blocked. When the surgical mask was covered with a larger cloth mask, 82% of the particles were blocked. When both the source and recipient wore masks, 84% of the particles were blocked. The number increased to more than 95% when both parties either wore double masks (surgical mask with larger cloth mask) or used the knot and tuck technique.
[
47
]
Another type of modification was aimed to improve the comfort of the wearers. Early in the pandemic, healthcare workers were required to continue wearing surgical masks for 12 or more hours a day. This caused the ear loops of the masks to chafe the back of their ears.
Ear savers
, plastic straps, and hooks that go around wearer's heads, were invented to move the ear loops away from the wearer's ears. They could be made on demand by using a
3D printing
process.
[
48
]
An improved version approaches the model efficacy of N95 respirators.
[
49
]
Filtering respirators
[
edit
]
N95 mask
An
N95 mask
is a particulate-filtering facepiece
respirator
that meets the N95
air filtration rating
of the US
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
, meaning it filters at least 95 percent of 0.3Â ÎŒm
airborne particles
, while not resistant to oil like the P95. It is the most common particulate-filtering facepiece respirator.
[
50
]
It is an example of a
mechanical filter respirator
, which provides protection against
particulates
, but not gases or
vapors
.
[
51
]
Like the middle layer of
[
52
]
surgical masks, the N95 mask is made of four layers
[
18
]
of melt-blown nonwoven polypropylene fabric.
[
53
]
[
54
]
[
unreliable medical source?
]
The corresponding face mask used in the
European Union
is the
FFP2 respirator
.
[
55
]
[
56
]
Hard electret-filter masks like N95 and FFP masks must fit the face to provide full protection. Untrained users often get a reasonable fit, but fewer than one in four gets a perfect fit. Fit testing is thus standard, though debated.
[
57
]
[
58
]
A line of
petroleum jelly
on the edge of the mask
[
59
]
has been shown to reduce edge leakage
[
18
]
in lab tests using
mannequins
that simulate breathing.
[
59
]
Some N95 series respirators, especially those intended for industrial use, have an exhalation valve to improve comfort, making exhalation easier and reducing leakage on exhalation and steaming up of glasses. But those respirators are not reliable for the control of infected people (
source control
) in respiratory diseases such as COVID-19, because infected users (asymptomatic or not) would transmit the virus to others through the valve.
[
60
]
During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were shortages of filtering facepiece respirators, and they had to be used for extended periods, and/or disinfected and reused. At the time, public health authorities issued guidelines on
how to save, disinfect and reuse masks
, as some disinfection methods damaged their filtration efficiency.
[
36
]
[
37
]
Some hospitals stockpiled used masks as a precaution,
[
61
]
and some had to sanitize and reuse masks.
Face shields and eye protection
[
edit
]
Guidelines for recommended use of face shield in conjunction with N95 respirators and medical face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic
A medical worker wearing a
face shield
adjunct to other
personal protective equipment
at a COVID-19 testing site
The US
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) does not recommend the use of face shields as a substitute for masks to help slow the spread of COVID-19.
[
62
]
In a study by Lindsley
et al.
(7 January 2021) funded by the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
, part of the CDC, face shields were found to block very few cough aerosols in contrast to face coverings â such as cloth masks, procedure masks, and N95 respirators â indicating that face shields are not effective as source control devices for small respiratory aerosols and that face coverings are more effective than face shields as source control devices to reduce the community transmission of SARS-CoV-2.
[
63
]
In a scoping review, Godoy
et al.
(5 May 2020) said face shields are used for barrier protection against splash and splatter contamination but should not be used as primary protection against respiratory disease transmission due to the lack of a peripheral seal rather than as an adjunct to other facial protection.
[
18
]
They remarked that face shields have been used like this alongside medical-grade masks during the COVID-19 pandemic.
[
18
]
They cited a cough simulation study by Lindsley
et al.
(2014) in which face shields were shown to reduce the risk of inhalation exposure up to 95% immediately following aerosol production, but the protection was decreased with smaller aerosol particles and persistent airborne particles around the sides.
[
64
]
There is weak evidence that the use of eye protection including face shields is associated with less infection.
[
65
]
Elastomeric respirators
[
edit
]
Surgeons wearing full-facepiece elastomeric respirators while doing
tracheostomy
to a COVID-19 patient in Russia
Elastomeric respirators are reusable personal protective equipment comprising a tight-fitting half-facepiece or full-facepiece respirator with exchangeable filters such as cartridge filters.
[
66
]
They provide an alternative respiratory protection option to filtering facepiece respirators such as N95 masks. Some healthcare workers have used them during times of short supply caused by the pandemic, as they can be reused over an extended period in healthcare settings.
[
66
]
[
67
]
However, most elastomeric respirators have an unfiltered exhalation vent which would allow the virus to spread from the wearer.
[
67
]
For the COVID-19 response when supplies are short, the US CDC says contingency and crisis strategies should be followed: Each elastomeric respirator is issued for the exclusive use of an individual healthcare provider but must be cleaned and disinfected as often as necessary to remain unspoiled and sanitary. If there is no other option than to share a respirator between healthcare providers, the respirator must be cleaned and disinfected before it is worn by a different individual. Filters (except for unprotected disc types) may be used for an extended period, but the filter housing of cartridge types must be disinfected after each patient interaction.
[
66
]
Powered air-purifying respirators
[
edit
]
A powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR) is a personal protective equipment in which a device with a filter and fan creates a highly filtered airflow towards the headpiece and a positive outflow of air from the headpiece.
[
68
]
There is an increased risk for healthcare workers to become exposed to SARS-CoV-2 when they conduct
aerosol-generating procedures
on COVID-19 patients, which is why it is argued that such situations may require enhanced personal protective equipment (i.e., higher than N95) such as PAPRs for healthcare workers.
[
68
]
[
69
]
In a systematic review, Licina, Silvers, and Stuart (8 August 2020) said field studies indicate that there were equivalent rates of infection among healthcare workers who performed airway procedures on critical COVID-19 patients using PAPRs or other appropriate respiratory equipment (such as N95 or FFP2), but remarked that there is a need to further collect field data about optimal respiratory protection during highly virulent pandemics.
[
70
]
Face masks with exhalation valves
[
edit
]
Flow visualizations comparing face mask efficacy with and without exhalation valve, illustrating the concern that exhalation valves allow exhaled respiratory droplets to reach others in proximity and would therefore not be appropriate in
source control
strategies
[
71
]
Some masks include an exhalation valve to expel the breath outwards, but that airflow is not filtered. Certification (as N95 or FFP2) is about the mask itself and does not warrant any safety about the air that is exhaled. Putting tape over the exhalation valve can make a mask or respirator as effective as one without a valve.
[
72
]
Scientists have visualized droplet dispersal for
masks with exhalation valves
and
face shields
and concluded that they can be ineffective against COVID-19 spread (e.g., after a cough) and recommended alternatives.
[
73
]
[
74
]
A later study showed that some (but not all) respirators with exhalation valves can perform as well as a surgical mask. However, a respirator
without
an exhalation valve should still be preferred.
[
75
]
The use of face masks or coverings by the general public has been recommended by health officials to minimize the risk of transmissions, with authorities either requiring their use in certain settings, such as on public transport and in shops, or universally in public.
Health officials had advised that medical-grade face masks, such as
respirators
, should be prioritized for use by healthcare workers in view of critical shortages, so they used to generally first and foremost recommend cloth masks for the general public.
[
76
]
[
77
]
However, recommendations have changed as the body of scientific knowledge evolved.
[
78
]
Scientists now recommend having a triple-layered surgical mask and a respirator.
[
79
]
According to #Masks4All, in September 2020, approximately 95% of the world population lived in a country where the government and leading disease experts recommend or require the use of masks in public places to limit the spread of COVID-19.
[
80
]
World Health Organization
[
edit
]
A video from the
World Health Organization
regarding different types of face masks and how to use them
Early in 2020, the
WHO
had only recommended medical masks for people with suspected infection and respiratory symptoms, their caregivers and those sharing living space, and healthcare workers.
[
81
]
[
82
]
[
83
]
In April 2020, the WHO acknowledged that wearing a medical mask can limit the spread of certain respiratory viral diseases including COVID-19 but claimed that medical masks would create a false sense of security and neglect of other necessary measures, such as hand hygiene.
[
83
]
The early WHO advice on limited mask usage was scrutinized for several reasons. First, experts and researchers pointed out the asymptomatic transmission of the virus.
[
84
]
[
85
]
[
86
]
[
87
]
[
88
]
Second, according to Marteau
et al.
(27 July 2020), available evidence does not support the notion that masking adversely affects hand hygiene:
[
89
]
Dame
Theresa Marteau
, one of the researchers, remarked that "The concept of
risk compensation
, rather than risk compensation itself, seems the greater threat to public health through delaying potentially effective interventions that can help prevent the spread of disease."
[
90
]
The WHO revised its mask guidance in June 2020, with its officials acknowledging that studies indicated asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic spread.
[
91
]
The updated advice recommended that the general public should wear non-medical
fabric masks
where there is known or suspected widespread transmission and where physical distancing is not possible, and that vulnerable people (60 and over, or with underlying health risks) and people with any symptoms suggestive of COVID-19 as well as caregivers and healthcare workers should wear
surgical or procedure masks
.
[
77
]
They stated that the purpose of mask usage is to prevent the wearer transmitting the virus to others (source control) and to offer protection to healthy wearers against infection (prevention).
[
77
]
The WHO advises that non-medical fabric masks should comprise a minimum of three layers,
[
77
]
suggesting an inner layer made of
absorbent
material (such as cotton), a middle layer made of
non-woven
material (such as polypropylene) which may enhance filtration or retain droplets, and an outer layer made of
non-absorbent
material (such as polyester or its blends) which may limit external contamination from penetration.
[
92
]
On 21 August 2020, the WHO and
UNICEF
released an annex guidance for children.
[
93
]
For children five and younger, they advise that masks should not be required in consideration to a child's developmental milestones, compliance challenges, and autonomy required to use a mask properly, but recognized that the evidence supporting their cut-off age is limited and countries may hold a different and lower age of cut-off.
[
93
]
For children 6â11, they advise that mask usage should be decided in consideration of several factors including the intensity of local viral transmission, (the latest evidence about) the risk of infection for the age group, the social and cultural environment (which influences social interactions in communities and populations), the capacity to comply with appropriate mask usage, the availability of appropriate adult supervision, and the potential impact on learning and psychosocial development, as well as additional factors involving specific settings or circumstances (such as disabilities, underlying diseases, elderly people, sport activities, and schools).
[
93
]
For children 12 and older, they advise that masks should be worn under the same conditions for adults in accordance with WHO guidance or national guidelines.
[
93
]
Regarding the use of non-medical fabric masks in the general population, the WHO has stated that high-quality evidence for its widespread use is limited, but advises governments to encourage its use as physical distancing may not be possible in some settings, there is some evidence for asymptomatic transmission, and masks could be helpful to provide a barrier to limit the spread of potentially infectious droplets.
[
94
]
United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
[
edit
]
Guidance from the US
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
on using and making cloth masks during the
COVID-19 pandemic
[
95
]
Early in 2020, the
United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) said it did not recommend the use of face masks for the general public.
[
96
]
[
97
]
However, on 3
Â
April 2020, the CDC changed its advice to recommend that people wear cloth face coverings "in public settings when around people outside their household, especially when social distancing measures are difficult to maintain".
[
98
]
[
99
]
In response to a media inquiry by
National Public Radio
, the CDC said that this change in guidelines was due to the increasing and widespread transmission of the virus, citing studies published in February and March showing pre-symptomatic and asymptomatic transmission.
[
100
]
In a subsequent interview and
JAMA
editorial, the CDC director
Robert R. Redfield
explained that the CDC's early guidance had been premised on an initial
absence of evidence
of disease transmission from pre- and asymptomatic individuals.
[
101
]
[
102
]
[
103
]
The CDC does not recommend masks with
exhalation
valves or vents for source control.
[
62
]
In the healthcare workers' guidance, if only respirators with valves are available and source control is needed, the CDC recommends that the valve should be covered with a surgical mask, procedure mask, or cloth face covering.
[
104
]
On 28 June, the CDC stated the "CDC recommends that people wear cloth face coverings in public settings and when around people who don't live in your household, especially when other
social distancing
measures are difficult to maintain. Cloth face coverings may help prevent people who have COVID-19 from spreading the virus to others. Cloth face coverings are most likely to reduce the spread of COVID-19 when they are widely used by people in public settings."
[
105
]
The CDC provided the caveat that cloth face coverings should not be worn by children under the age of two, people who have trouble breathing, or people who are unconscious, incapacitated, or otherwise unable to remove the mask without assistance.
[
105
]
In August 2020, the CDC added that
exhalation
valves or vents in masks do not help prevent the person wearing the mask from spreading COVID-19 to others.
[
62
]
[
106
]
In a November 2020 scientific brief, the CDC reiterated their recommendation for the community use of masks and specifically non-valved multi-layer cloth masks to prevent transmission of SARS-CoV-2.
[
107
]
They say the community's use of masks serves two primary purposes: to reduce the emission of virus-laden droplets from exhalation into the environment (
source control
), which is especially relevant for asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic infected wearers who feel well and may be unaware of their infectiousness to others, and to reduce inhalation of these droplets through filtration for the wearer (personal protection).
[
107
]
For filtration, the CDC says some fabrics (such as silk) may
hydrophobically
repel moist droplets, whereas other fabrics (such as
polyester
or
polypropylene
) may
electrostatically
capture droplets.
[
107
]
They concluded that the benefit of masking for
SARS-CoV-2
control is derived from the combination of source control and personal protection, which is likely complementary and possibly synergistic so that individual benefit increases with increasing community mask use.
[
107
]
The CDC said healthcare personnel should wear a NIOSH-approved N95 (or equivalent or higher-level) respirator or a face mask (if a respirator is not available) with a face shield or goggles as part of their
personal protective equipment
, while patients with suspected or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection should wear a face mask or cloth face covering during transport.
[
108
]
As crisis strategy for known shortages of N95 respirators in healthcare settings, among other sequential measures, the CDC suggests use of respirators beyond the manufacturer-designated shelf life, use of respirators approved under standards used in other countries that are similar to NIOSH-approved respirators, limited re-use of respirators, use of additional respirators beyond the manufacturer-designated shelf life that have not been evaluated by NIOSH, and prioritizing the use of respirators and face masks by activity type.
[
109
]
In late July 2021, the CDC changed guidelines to recommend people, including those who are vaccinated, to continue masking in public indoor settings in areas with substantial and high transmissionâas there are indications that the
coronavirus such as the Delta variant
may infect even vaccinated people in rare occasionsâto help prevent transmission to other people.
[
110
]
[
111
]
Previously, the CDC updated public guidance from May 2021 stated that those who are fully vaccinated can "resume activities without wearing masks or physically distancing, except where required by federal, state, local, tribal, or territorial laws, rules and regulations, including local business and workplace guidance."
[
112
]
However, critics posited that it was predicated on a key social factor, namely whether people can be trusted to wear a mask if they are not fully vaccinated.
[
113
]
[
114
]
[
115
]
On 25 February 2022, the CDC changed its guidelines to suggest that 70% of Americans need no longer wear masks, and no longer need to social distance or avoid crowded spaces.
[
116
]
Under the new guidance, Americans in counties designated as medium-to-low-risk can go indoors without masks. In accordance with these new CDC guidelines, a number of US states ended their mask mandates for indoor spaces. However, federal officials emphasized that regardless of local conditions, individuals with COVID-19 or COVID-19 symptoms, as well as individuals who consider themselves to be high-risk, should continue to wear facial coverings. In addition to this, the CDC also dropped its recommendation for universal school mask mandates.
[
117
]
These new recommendations assessed COVID-19 hospitalizations as well as the proportion of beds occupied by COVID-19 patients in certain areas.
Criticism of guidance
[
edit
]
Larry Gostin
, a professor of public health law, said initial CDC and WHO guidance had given the public the wrong impression that masks do not work, even though scientific evidence to the contrary was already available.
[
100
]
The confusing changing advice from discouraging to recommending public masking has led to decreasing public trust in the CDC.
[
86
]
[
118
]
In June 2020
Anthony Fauci
, a leading infectious disease expert for the United States government, stated that the delay in recommending general mask use was motivated by a desire to conserve dwindling supplies for medical professionals.
[
119
]
Since September 2021, the director of the CDC, Rochelle Walensky, indicated that the schools that did not have mask mandates were 3.5 times as likely to experience COVID outbreaks as the ones that did. This statement caused controversy because the basis for it was an outlier study criticized by some experts as unreliable and basically useless to learn about the effects of mask mandates.
[
120
]
In March 2020, when asked about the mistakes that other countries were making during the pandemic, the
Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention
director-general
George Fu Gao
said:
The big mistake in the U.S. and Europe, in my opinion, is that people aren't wearing masks. This virus is transmitted by droplets and close contact. Droplets play a very important role â you've got to wear a mask because when you speak, there are always droplets coming out of your mouth. Many people have
asymptomatic
or pre-symptomatic infections. If they are wearing face masks, it can prevent droplets that carry the virus from escaping and infecting others.
[
121
]
Masked participants in the 2020 edition of the
Mille Miglia
road race in
Brescia
,
Italy
Boys of
St Munchin's College
in Ireland wearing face masks in class during the pandemic
Most countries in Europe introduced mandatory face mask rules for public places.
[
122
]
[
123
]
On 8
Â
April 2020, the
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
(ECDC) published its masking recommendations, saying that the "use of face masks in the community could be considered, especially when visiting busy, closed spaces".
[
124
]
[
76
]
On 15 February 2021, ECDC updated the recommendation stating, "Although the evidence for the use of medical face masks in the community to prevent COVID-19 is limited, face masks should be considered as a non-pharmaceutical intervention in combination with other measures as part of efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic."
[
125
]
The
Nordic countries
and
the Netherlands
were notable exceptions in supporting the use of face masks,
[
123
]
[
126
]
but eventually started to recommend masks. For example, due to the
COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands
, wearing a mouth/nose mask was made mandatory on public transportation per 1 June 2020.
[
127
]
The main reasoning against masks recommendations given by officials in the Nordic countries was that public masking is deemed an unnecessary precaution when infection levels remain low.
[
128
]
In June 2020, the
Norwegian Institute of Public Health
said asymptomatic individuals wearing face masks were not to be recommended due to the low prevalence of COVID-19 in the country but noted that it should be reconsidered if cases rise.
[
129
]
Similarly, on 30 July 2020, the
Danish Health Authority
director
SĂžren BrostrĂžm
said face covers did not make sense in the current situation with low infection levels, but that they needed to evaluate whether it could make sense in the long term.
[
130
]
[
131
]
Sweden was notable as a country where face masks were not recommended to the general public and the
State Epidemiologist of Sweden
,
Anders Tegnell
, was an opponent to face masks among the general population, although he stated that face masks might be suitable in workplaces where people are one to two meters from each other for more than fifteen minutes, something which some Swedish and foreign media have interpreted as a recommendation.
[
132
]
[
133
]
This position was slightly reversed when
Prime Minister of Sweden
,
Stefan Löfven
, announced that they were recommending face masks on 18 December 2020.
[
134
]
The
Public Health Agency of Sweden
later clarified on their website that the recommendation would include citizens born before 2004 to wear masks during rush hour on public transportation throughout the country from 7
Â
January 2021 onward.
[
135
]
On 20 December 2020, two days after the announcement was made, Prime Minister Löfven was
paparazzied
in a shopping mall in central Stockholm without wearing a face mask.
[
136
]
By 22 January 2021, the
Stockholm Public Transport
estimated that about half of all passengers on trains and buses wore face masks during rush hour.
[
137
]
Among those who chose not to follow the recommendation were Johan Carlson, the Director-General of the Public Health Agency, and Anders Tegnell, the state epidemiologist.
[
138
]
[
139
]
Schlieren
image showing the interaction of exhaled airflows between two people
[
140
]
Masks are used to limit the transmission of
SARS-CoV-2
by respiratory droplets and aerosols, which are thought to be the major pathways of infection, exhaled from infected individuals during breathing, speaking, coughing, and sneezing.
[
1
]
[
141
]
[
142
]
Properly worn masks are effective in both limiting the spread of the virus by an infected individual and protecting an uninfected individual from infection.
[
3
]
The
National Health Commission
of China cited the following reasons for the wearing of masks by the public, including healthy individuals:
Asymptomatic transmission. Many people can be infected without symptoms or only with mild symptoms.
[
143
]
Difficulty or impossibility of appropriate social distancing in many public places at all times.
[
143
]
Cost-benefit mismatch. If only infected individuals wear masks, they would have a negative incentive to do so. An infected individual might get nothing positive, but only bear the costs such as inconvenience, purchasing expenses, and even prejudice.
[
143
]
There is no shortage of masks in China. The country has the production capacity to meet the demand for masks.
[
143
]
In a comment to
The Lancet
, Kar Keung Cheng, Tai Hing Lam, and Chi Chiu Leung argued that a public health rationale for mass masking is
source control
to protect others from respiratory droplets and underscored the importance of this approach due to asymptomatic transmission.
Wang Linfa, an infectious disease expert who heads a joint
Duke University
and
National University of Singapore
research team, said masking is about "preventing the
spread of disease
rather than preventing
getting the disease
", remarking that the point is to cover the faces of people who are infected but do not know it, so it is imperative for everyone to wear one in public.
[
85
]
The US CDC also highlighted the use of masks for source control, pointing out that asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic cases are estimated to account for over 50% of the transmissions.
[
145
]
Monica Gandhi
, a medical professor at the
University of California, San Francisco
, says
viral shedding
at high quantities from the
upper respiratory tract
, characterized by unusually high levels of viral particles, means universal mask wearing is one of the best ways to limit the asymptomatic spread of the virus.
[
146
]
Yixuan Hou
et al.
(July 2020) found that the
nasal cavity
is the dominant initial site for SARS-CoV-2 infection with subsequent aspiration-mediated virus seeding into the lungs; the authors note that these findings argue for the widespread use of masks to prevent exposure to the nasal passages.
[
147
]
In a perspective, Monica Gandhi,
Chris Beyrer
, and
Eric Goosby
posit that masking reduces the dose of the virus for the wearer and thus helps lower the severity of infection.
[
148
]
They highlighted that the proportion of asymptomatic and mild infection increased in settings adopting population-level masking.
[
148
]
One example involved a comparison of
outbreaks on cruise ships
: the
Diamond Princess
had 18% asymptomatic cases among all the infected people, but this was 81% in the
Greg Mortimer
where masks were given to passengers and staff members.
[
148
]
Trisha Greenhalgh
et al.
argue for the
precautionary principle
as a reason to adopt policies encouraging the wearing of face masks in public, given that there's much to gain and little to lose from adopting masks considering the seriousness of the outbreak.
[
149
]
Others agreed, based on the evidence-based principle that the likely benefits outweighed the likely harms.
[
150
]
[
151
]
Leonardo Setti
et al.
argue that face masks should be used to complement
social distancing
of six feet or two meters, because this inter-personal distance is more effective if people are masked as studies indicate that SARS-CoV-2 could be transmitted over greater distances.
[
152
]
Chi Chiu Leung
et al.
also argue that face masks complement social distancing, as a high degree of compliance for distancing is necessary to achieve the greatest impact but is not always achievable.
[
153
]
For instance, even if social distancing is rigorously practiced, there are necessary person-to-person contacts (such as going to the supermarket and other necessary activities to sustain livelihoods), so masks would help in situations when social distancing is not feasible and maximize the effectiveness of social distancing.
[
153
]
According to Stephen Griffin, a virologist at the
University of Leeds
, "Wearing a mask can reduce the propensity for people to touch their faces, which is a major source of infection without proper hand hygiene."
[
154
]
Ka Hung Chan and Kwok-Yung Yuen argue that face masks can reduce
fomite transmission
(in addition to the transmission through droplets or aerosol) of the virus, as masks can prevent people from spreading body fluids by touching their noses or mouths (such as trying to cover up a sneeze or cough).
[
155
]
A paper by Miyu Moriyama
et al.
(September 2020), which links the seasonality of respiratory viral diseases to decreased air
humidity
due to indoor heating, argues that mask-wearing helps limit respiratory virus transmission in winter because masks keep the nose warm and moist.
[
156
]
Social media claims that masks could reduce the oxygen levels in older people were refuted by a small study of
SpO
2
levels
, the results of which were published by JAMA.
[
157
]
Observational studies, randomised controlled trials (RCTs), and mask filtration testing were used to evaluate the effectiveness of masks. Most of the evidence for the efficacy of masks against COVID comes from observational studies.
[
158
]
One paper did not consider RCTs a "gold standard" of evidence, since most effective public health policies had never been evaluated through an RCT, but that, overall, there was "robust data" to support the use of face masks to reduce community transmission of COVID.
[
159
]
Another review said that non-RCT evidence cannot be ignored.
[
160
]
As of August 2023, RCTs played a relatively small role in the evaluation of non-pharmaceutical interventions during the pandemic.
[
158
]
A 2023 systematic review from the
Cochrane Collaboration
said the evidence from
randomized controlled trials
was still inconclusive over whether masking prevented the spread of influenza/COVIDâlike illness through a population, noting that the answer could be different for different viruses.
[
6
]
This Cochrane review was criticized for combining studies about influenza and about COVID, which could "yield invalid conclusions".
[
159
]
Another 2023 systematic review, by the
Royal Society
, found the evidence from RCTs was that masks reduced risk by 12% to 18%.
[
7
]
A 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on face mask use in
PLOS One
showed that with 95% confidence, masks reduced respiratory infection incidence by between 3% and 19% in a community setting.
[
161
]
A 2023 article in
JAMA Network Open
found that "robust data" support the use of face masks to reduce community transmission of COVID.
[
159
]
A 2023 review in
Archives of Disease in Childhood
on mask wearing by children found no good clinical evidence that mask wearing was of benefit for them in preventing COVID-19 transmission or infection.
[
162
]
A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of masks published in
The BMJ
in November 2021 showed that with 95% confidence, masks reduced COVID incidence by between 25% and 71%. This result is based on six primary studies. These studies were of several different types: case-control studies in Thailand and three Western countries (where cases identified whether they were wearing a mask when they had contact with a known positive patient), a randomized control study in Denmark which assessed the impact on mask-wearing on the wearer, a natural experiment that compared US states that implemented mask mandates on the level of COVID, a cross-sectional comparative study in China which surveyed whether a mask protected the wearer, and a retrospective cohort study in China which assessed the impact of masks worn by infected and uninfected family members. Another five studies were not included because they were not directly comparable. They assessed the impact of mask mandates across countries on mortality (finding a 45.7% reduction), of mask mandates in the US on
R
(finding a 29% reduction), a comparative incidence of COVID associated with mask-wearing comparing HK and South Korea (finding a significant reduction), a natural experiment across US states finding a significant effect on case rates, and a cross-sectional study assessing a 10% increase in mask wearing led to a 71% reduction in the risk to others. A lot of other papers had to be rejected because of the risk of
confounding
influences.
[
4
]
Other reviews in 2020 and 2021 found that there is consistent evidence that mask-wearing is effective in reducing the spread of the
SARS-CoV-2
virus
[
5
]
[
163
]
and that population-wide masking proved significant in reducing the transmission of COVID-19.
[
8
]
[
164
]
Masks are not of equal efficacy. While N95 masks outperform surgical masks in filtration, healthcare worker population studies have not shown a significant difference between the two, as of June 2021.
[
8
]
A later study performed in 2024, however, criticized the methodology of such studies due to substantial healthcare worker compliance problems.
[
160
]
N95 and surgical masks, both designed for single use, can be decontaminated at a loss to mask integrity and filtration efficacy.
[
8
]
Both N95 and surgical outperform cloth masks, which the general public has used based on their greater availability during mask supply shortages.
[
8
]
Cloth and fabric masks have protected wearers from COVID-19, with some variability,
[
10
]
such as fabric type, layer count, and mask fit.
[
165
]
Several observational studies, including four reviewed in a 2020
Lancet
meta-analysis, have found that masks offer statistically significant protection from infection, although the level of protection varies according to the mask type and setting.
[
65
]
Evaluation of cloth mask efficacy is further complicated by the wide variation in fabric and fit, among other factors.
[
8
]
Concerning the precedent of mask efficacy in limiting transmission of respiratory viral illnesses other than COVID, a clinical trial meta-analysis in May 2021 showed no significant evidence of efficacy, though the authors noted the evidence to be poor quality and subject to confounding factors like consistent mask usage adherence.
[
166
]
Protection efficiency can also be evaluated by generated aerosol. In a paper evaluating the efficacy of various N95, surgical and cloth masks, the tested N95 respirator (a 3M 8210) performed the best in filtration in both inhalation and exhalation, while the surgical (from BYD Care) and cloth masks (Forever Family and Maskfit Proshield) performed similarly in filtration, with cloth masks performing worse than surgical masks in SPS30 readings, and double-masking providing little benefit. The tested N95, when not fitted, performed as well as a surgical or cloth mask, depending on the exercise.
[
11
]
Community studies have shown some cloth masks to be effective at filtering respiratory droplets, which can carry SARS-CoV-2.
[
8
]
Cloth masks of a cotton quilt (120 thread per inch), bonded copy paper, flannel, and a chiffon or silk hybrid with cotton are over 90% effective at blocking particles the size droplets that carry SARS-CoV-2, according to an October 2021 review of 42 studies. Multilayered fabrics provided improved breathability and filtration efficacy. Among readily available fabrics, two-layered 100% cotton, two-layered cotton quilt, hybrid masks, and cotton flannel performed best.
[
10
]
Filtration effectiveness generally improves with thread count.
[
8
]
The use of a face mask can result in significant risk reduction of infection with epidemic-causative
beta coronaviruses
. N95 or similar respirators account for a larger risk reduction than disposable surgical or other similar masks.
[
65
]
Masks are protective for both healthcare workers and people in communities exposed to infection; evidence supports masking in both healthcare and non-healthcare settings, with no striking differences detected in the effectiveness of masks between the settings.
[
65
]
The CDC highlighted a number of studies in their 10 November 2020, scientific brief detailing the benefits of community masking.
[
145
]
In a study of 124 Beijing households with at least one laboratory-confirmed case of SARS-CoV-2 infection, mask use by the
index patient
and family contacts before the index patient developed symptoms reduced secondary transmission within the households by 79%.
[
167
]
A retrospective case-control study from
Thailand
documented that, among more than 1,000 people interviewed as part of
contact tracing
investigations, those who reported having always worn a mask during high-risk exposures experienced a greater than 70% reduced risk of acquiring infection compared with people who did not wear masks under these circumstances.
[
168
]
A similar study in three Western countries also came up with a 70% risk reduction.
[
169
]
Investigations involving
infected passengers aboard flights
longer than ten hours strongly suggest that masking prevented in-flight transmissions, as demonstrated by the absence of infection developing in other passengers and crew in the 14 days following exposure.
[
170
]
In addition, the CDC said the benefit of universal masking, including reductions in infections and mortality, has been demonstrated in community-level analyses by a set of studies involving the
Massachusetts
hospital system, the German city
Jena
, the American state
Arizona
, a panel of 15 American states and Washington, D.C., Canada nationally, and the United States nationally.
[
145
]
In addition to studying the impact of mask-wearing on transmission in a community, direct studies can be done on whether a mask filters out virus-carrying particles from the air. In August 2021, a study of the fabric of masks worn in the community found that they filtered out between half and three-quarters of the viral RNA.
[
171
]
Respirators made to a standard such as
N95
or
FFP2
when properly fitted should filter out at least 95% of the virus.
Optimal face mask designs and use
[
edit
]
A
scientific review
of research about the overall efficacy of face masks in terms of
product design
(such as thermal comfort and flow resistance) and ways of usage found that
fluid dynamics
and fabrication techniques have a significant impact on performance. According to the review, studies showed that cotton and surgical masks had a microorganism filtration efficiency of 86.4% and 99.9% respectively, while the surgical mask was three times more effective in blocking transmission than the cotton mask and could lead to a decrease of the
effective reproduction number
to below
Â
1Â â which could halt epidemic spread in a region where 70% of residents use them consistently in public.
[
172
]
[
173
]
By January 2021, several lines of research recommended double-masking (wearing a cloth mask over a surgical mask, along with using a mask filter, or wearing a nylon covering over a mask) as being efficacious.
[
174
]
Correct handling and wearing of masks
[
edit
]
A properly-worn face mask or covering covers the nose, mouth, and chin.
[
23
]
[
175
]
As masking became widespread during the pandemic, it gave rise to the issue that many individuals of the public are not correctly handling and wearing their masks.
[
176
]
[
177
]
[
178
]
Suzanne Willard, a clinical professor at
Rutgers School of Nursing
, remarked that the general public is not used to wearing masks and lay people are asked to use a tool health care professionals are trained to use.
[
179
]
A commonly seen issue is that people are wearing masks pulled down below the nose, which is an incorrect way to wear a mask.
[
180
]
[
181
]
Zane Saul, the chief of infectious disease at
Bridgeport Hospital
, remarked that "I really have observed people not covering their noses and just covering their mouths. It's just as important to cover your nose."
[
180
]
Daniel Gottschall, the vice president of medical affairs for the Fairfield region of Hartford HealthCare and St. Vincent's Medical Center in Bridgeport, explained that "By wearing a mask you're keeping a lot of those secretions inside of you. If you wear it just over your nose or just over your mouth and you're not diligent (about keeping it in place), you're exposing the secretions that come out of that part of the body to other people."
[
180
]
A face mask is carefully taken off by handling the ties or loops without touching the front.
[
23
]
[
175
]
Zeynep Tufekci
, a professor of information science, remarked that messaging on masking should have been used to provide proper instructions to the public (as was done for hand washing) rather than used to discourage people from masking because of the possibility that they would wear them improperly, as had happened early in the pandemic.
[
86
]
The
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
highlighted that the appropriate use of face masks in communities could be improved through education campaigns and is key for its effectiveness as a measure.
[
76
]
Health institutions such as the World Health Organization have provided public guidance on the do's and don'ts on masking.
[
23
]
Shortages of face masks
[
edit
]
Early epidemic in mainland China
[
edit
]
As the epidemic accelerated, the mainland market in China saw a shortage of
face masks
due to increased public demand.
[
182
]
Face masks were quickly sold out in stores throughout China.
[
183
]
Hoarding
and price gouging drove up prices, so the market regulator said it would crack down on such acts.
[
184
]
[
185
]
In January 2020, price controls were imposed on all face masks on
Taobao
and
Tmall
.
[
186
]
Other Chinese e-commerce platforms â
JD.com
,
[
187
]
Suning.com
,
[
188
]
Pinduoduo
[
189
]
 â did likewise; third-party vendors would be subject to price caps, with violators subject to sanctions.
[
citation needed
]
By March, China had quadrupled its production capacity to a hundred million masks per day.
[
143
]
National stocks and shortages
[
edit
]
At the beginning of the
COVID-19 outbreak in the United States
, the U.S.'s
Strategic National Stockpile
contained just twelve million N95 respirators, far fewer than estimates of the amount required.
[
190
]
Millions of N95s and other supplies were purchased from 2005 to 2007 using congressional supplemental funding, but 85Â million N95s were distributed to combat the
2009 swine flu pandemic
, and Congress did not make the necessary appropriations to replenish stocks.
[
190
]
The Stockpile's primary focus has also primarily been on
biodefense
(defense against a terrorist or
weapon of mass destruction
attack) and response to natural disaster, with the infectious disease a secondary focus.
[
190
]
By 1
Â
April 2020, the Stockpile was nearly emptied of protective gear.
[
191
]
In January and February 2020, U.S. manufacturers, with the encouragement of the Trump administration, shipped millions of face masks and other personal protective equipment to the PRC, a decision that subsequently prompted criticism given the mask shortage that the U.S. faced during the pandemic.
[
192
]
In France,
2009 H1N1
-related spending rose to âŹ382
Â
million, mainly on supplies and vaccines, which was later criticized.
[
193
]
[
194
]
It was decided in 2011 to not replenish its stocks and rely more on supply from China and
just-in-time logistics
.
[
193
]
In 2010, its stock included a billion surgical masks and 600Â million FFP2 masks; in early 2020, it was 150Â million and zero respectively.
[
193
]
While stocks were progressively reduced, a 2013 rationale stated the aim to reduce costs of acquisition and storage, now distributing this effort to all private enterprises as an optional best practice to ensure their workers' protection.
[
193
]
This was especially relevant to FFP2 masks, more costly to acquire and store.
[
193
]
[
195
]
As the
COVID-19 pandemic in France
took an increasing toll on medical supplies, masks and PPE supplies ran low, causing national outrage. France needed forty million masks per week, according to French president
Emmanuel Macron
.
[
196
]
France instructed its few remaining mask-producing factories to work 24/7 shifts and to ramp up national production to forty million masks per month.
[
196
]
French lawmakers opened an inquiry on the past management of these strategic stocks.
[
197
]
The mask shortage has been called a
"scandal d'Ătat"
(State scandal).
[
198
]
Thousands of French individuals and companies teamed up during the outbreak to form a decentralized network of
Fab labs
and ad-hoc retooled production facilities, producing more than a million
face shields
, masks and other kinds of PPE during the height of the pandemic.
[
199
]
In late March and early April 2020, as Western countries were, in turn, dependent on China for supplies of masks and other equipment, China was seen as making a soft-power play to influence world opinion.
[
200
]
[
201
]
However, a batch of masks purchased by the Netherlands was rejected as being sub-standard. The Dutch health ministry issued a recall of 600,000 face masks from a Chinese supplier on 21 March which did not fit properly and whose filters did not work as intended despite them having a quality certificate.
[
200
]
[
201
]
The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded that the customer should "double-check the instructions to make sure that you ordered, paid for, and distributed the right ones. Do not use non-surgical masks for surgical purposes."
[
201
]
Eight million of eleven million masks delivered to Canada in May also failed to meet standards.
[
202
]
[
203
]
Thefts of face masks and other personal protective equipment were reported at hospitals in the United States and other countries.
[
204
]
The
Naval Medical Center San Diego
began mandatory random bag checks for staff members, after several incidents of theft.
[
205
]
Hospitals in Canada reported that theft of PPE had become so commonplace that face masks had to be locked away. According to hospital staff, the policy of locking up PPE often resulted in staff requests for PPE being denied.
[
206
]
Thefts of N95 masks were reported from a locked hospital office in South Carolina and off-loading docks at the
University of Washington
.
[
207
]
Two thousand surgical masks were stolen from a hospital in Marseille, France, during the early months of the COVID-19 outbreak, in March. The masks were stolen from an area of the hospital that could only be accessed by surgery patients and staff.
[
208
]
A hospital employee in
Cooperstown
, New York, was charged with misdemeanor
larceny
for a similar incident.
[
209
]
Hospital employees in
West Java
,
Indonesia
, were arrested for stealing hundreds of boxes of face masks and selling them on the black market.
[
210
]
One month later an Indiana hospital pharmacy reported a theft to the
Drug Enforcement Administration
. Along with
morphine
, with a street value estimated at $3000, the thieves, one of whom was an employee of the hospital and had an access card, had stolen masks and other in-demand goods. In the criminal complaint, filed in Indiana federal court, a DEA task force officer said:
[
204
]
Based on my training and experience, I know these items are highly sought after in the secondary market due to shortages resulting from the Coronavirus pandemic and that these types of items are being sold on the secondary market at an increased price well over fair market value.
A former hospital employee in Georgia was arrested on allegations of stealing masks and gloves from the hospital on five separate occasions after he was fired.
[
211
]
Also in April, an employee of the Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center was charged with a misdemeanor for stealing disposable gowns and surgical masks from the hospital.
[
212
]
PPE, including masks, were reported stolen by a member of the housekeeping staff at a hospital in Arizona and a physician's assistant in Florida.
[
213
]
[
214
]
According to a
BBC News
report from August 2020, hospital staff in Ghana were selling PPE on the black market.
[
215
]
Two government workers from the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in
North Charleston
, South Carolina, were charged in October for conspiracy to steal PPE,
obstruction of justice
and lying to the FBI.
[
216
]
N95 and FFP masks were in short supply and high demand during the
COVID-19 pandemic
.
[
217
]
[
193
]
Production of N95 masks was limited due to constraints on the supply of
nonwoven polypropylene
fabric (which is used as the primary filter), as well as the cessation of exports from China.
[
53
]
[
218
]
China controls fifty percent of global production of masks, and facing its own coronavirus epidemic, dedicated all its production for domestic use, only allowing exports through government-allocated humanitarian assistance.
[
53
]
The
Strategic National Stockpile
had not been refilled following the
H1N1 pandemic
,
[
219
]
which quickly led to respirator and other PPE shortages.
[
220
]
In March 2020, US President
Donald Trump
applied the
Defense Production Act
against the American company
3M
, which allows the
Federal Emergency Management Agency
to obtain N95 respirators from 3M.
[
221
]
[
222
]
White House
trade adviser
Peter Navarro
said there were concerns that 3M products were not making their way to the US.
[
221
]
3M replied that it has not changed the prices it charges, and was unable to control the prices its dealers or retailers charge.
[
221
]
Jared Moskowitz
, the head of the
Florida Division of Emergency Management
, accused 3M of selling N95 masks directly to foreign countries for cash, instead of to the US. Moskowitz said 3M agreed to authorize distributors and brokers to represent they were selling the masks to Florida, but instead his team for the last several weeks "get to warehouses that are completely empty". He then said the 3M-authorized US distributors later told him the masks Florida contracted for never showed up because the company instead prioritized orders that came in later, for higher prices, from foreign countries (including Germany, Russia, and France).
[
223
]
[
224
]
[
225
]
Forbes
reported that "roughly 280 million masks from warehouses around the US had been purchased by foreign buyers [on 30 March 2020] and were earmarked to leave the country, according to the broker â and that was in
one
day", causing massive critical shortages of masks in the US.
[
226
]
[
227
]
Masks were still in short supply in late September, eight months into the pandemic. The
Defense Production Act
powers that averted a ventilator shortage were not used as extensively to increase N95 production, despite outcry from healthcare workers. Even though 3M has increased domestic production from 20Â million to 95Â million masks a month, they say "the demand is more than we, and the entire industry, can supply for the foreseeable future."
[
228
]
[
229
]
N95 manufacturers and other companies were reluctant to invest more in domestic mask production because manufacturing in the United States is not profitable for them. There are some American companies who can shift production temporarily to meet the demand for masks but most of them have not received any funding through the DPA. Some have taken the initiative but there were problems with the fit of the masks and obtaining regulatory approvals. 3M and other N95 manufacturers have not entered into any corporate partnerships to share intellectual property or increase N95 production.
[
228
]
Trump gave Rear Admiral John Polowczyk the responsibility for PPE logistics. Polowczyk said he believed "hospital systems are making management decisions that might lead to an appearance that we still don't have masks, which is the farthest from the truth."
[
228
]
By February 2021, suppliers had increased production but not enough to meet demand. Companies cited concerns about post-pandemic demand as a reason for not entering the market. Hospitals increased supplies, but even at well-funded hospitals, healthcare workers could be expected to wear their masks for up to a month. Counterfeits continued to pose problems for purchasers.
[
230
]
Numerous calls by public health experts had been made to provide high-filtration masks such as N95s or their equivalents to the general public in high-risk settings.
[
231
]
[
232
]
On 19 January 2022, the
Biden administration
is reported to begin freely providing 400Â million N95 masks in the United States.
[
233
]
In early April 2020, the Berlin politician
Andreas Geisel
alleged that a shipment of 200,000 N95 masks it had ordered from American producer 3M's China facility was intercepted in
Bangkok
, Thailand, and diverted to the United States. 3M said they had no knowledge of the shipment, stating "We know nothing of an order from the Berlin police for 3M masks that come from China." The US government denied any confiscation and said they use appropriate channels for all their purchases.
[
234
]
[
235
]
Berlin police later confirmed that the shipment was not seized by US authorities.
[
citation needed
]
This revelation outraged the Berlin opposition, whose
CDU
parliamentary group leader Burkard Dregger accused Geisel of "deliberately misleading Berliners" in order "to cover up its own inability to obtain protective equipment".
FDP
interior expert Marcel Luthe also criticized Geisel.
[
236
]
Politico Europe
reported that "the Berliners are taking a page straight out of the Trump playbook and not letting facts get in the way of a good story."
[
237
]
The Guardian
also reported that "There is no solid proof Trump [nor any other American official] approved the [German] heist."
[
238
]
German citizens decided to contribute to solving the supply crisis by
making
their own masks and other types of PPE like
face shields
that gave masks additional protection; the largest group of makers measured 6,800 individuals, collectively producing more than 100,000 pieces of protective equipment.
[
239
]
As more countries restricted the export of N95 masks, Novo Textiles in
British Columbia
announced plans to start producing N95 masks in Canada.
[
240
]
AMD Medicom in
Quebec
had long been the main Canadian company producing N95s, but China, France, the Republic of China (
Taiwan
) and the United States all banned exports of medical equipment, barring Medicom's factories there from exporting the masks to Canada. The
Government of Canada
subsequently awarded Medicom a 10-year contract to build a factory to produce masks in Montreal.
[
241
]
This section needs to be
updated
.
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
(
January 2021
)
Masks being produced in
Taiwan
As of 2019, mainland China manufactured half the world's output of masks.
[
242
]
As COVID-19 spread, enterprises in several countries quickly started or increased the production of face masks.
[
243
]
Cottage industries and volunteer groups also emerged, manufacturing cloth masks for localized use. They used various patterns, including some with a bend-to-fit nosepiece insert. Individual hospitals developed and requested a library of specific patterns.
[
244
]
[
245
]
[
246
]
[
247
]
In the first five months of 2020, 70,802 new companies registered in China to make or trade face masks, a 1,256% increase compared to 2019, and 7,296 new companies registered to make or trade
melt blown
fabrics, a key component of face masks, a 2,277% rise from 2019.
[
248
]
In April, however, the Chinese government stepped in with tighter regulations. 867 producers of the melt-blown fabric were shut down in
Yangzhong
city alone. Many speculative manufacturers were forced to quit due to changing export rules and tighter licensing requirements in China and weaker demand for lower quality products globally.
[
248
]
Open-Source and Do-It-Yourself Masks
[
edit
]
Open Source Medical Supplies
coordinated and shared open-source mask designs.
[
249
]
Some clinical stockpiles have proved inadequate in scale, and the non-medical market demand expanded dramatically as the
general public
determined that masks were essential, or they began obeying
public health
mandates, or both.
[
250
]
Between April and June 2020, sellers on
Etsy
sold 29Â million cloth face masks worth an estimated $364
Â
million. Approximately four million people (about seven percent of buyers) visited the website
just
to buy masks.
[
251
]
Society and culture
[
edit
]
In mid-2020 as the pandemic grew, the public interest in face masks as a means of protection was greatly increased,
[
252
]
often even before governments implemented mandatory mask-wearing.
[
253
]
In
East Asian
societies, a primary reason for mask-wearing is to protect others from oneself.
[
254
]
[
255
]
The broad assumption behind the act is that anyone, including seemingly healthy people, can be a carrier of the coronavirus.
[
255
]
The usage of masks is seen as a collective responsibility to reduce the transmission of the virus.
[
256
]
A face mask is thus seen as a symbol of solidarity in Eastern countries.
[
256
]
Elsewhere, the need for mask-wearing is still often seen from an individual perspective where masks only serve to protect oneself.
[
254
]
In April 2020, a study comparing masking-related perceptions between China and three German speaking countries (Austria, Germany, and Switzerland) also showed that Chinese had stronger pro-masking perceptions than the European participants.
[
257
]
However, in 2020, people began promoting a new meaning of masking as an act of solidarity to each other.
[
258
]
[
259
]
[
260
]
Slovakia
was one of the first countries in the world to introduce universal masking in public places.
[
261
]
Existing cultural norms and social pressure may impede mask-wearing in public, which may explain why masking was initially avoided in the West.
[
262
]
According to Joseph Tsang, a Hong Kong doctor, and infectious disease expert, the promotion of universal masking may resolve perceptions against mask-wearing because mask-wearing is intimidating if few people wear masks due to cultural barriers, but if all people wear masks it shows a message that people are in this together.
[
85
]
A May 2020 study surveying people in Spain showed that an individual's likelihood of voluntarily wearing a mask is positively correlated with the proportion of uptake in the surrounding area.
[
263
]
Helene-Mari van der Westhuizen
et al.
state that successful implementation of public masking policies, especially in communities that have no cultural traditions for such interventions, requires a reframing of social meanings and moral worth, and that public messages help to conceptualize who typically wear masks and what the moral valence of masking is.
[
264
]
They note that the earliest members who wear face coverings may be seen as deviant when the community starts to adopt masking, but that changing narratives will generate new meanings that construe those who do not mask as deviant.
[
264
]
Their argument is that public health messaging about face coverings should shift from masks as a
medical intervention
to masks as a
social practice
based on values such as social responsibility and solidarity, as a successful uptake requires face coverings to be grounded in the social and cultural realities of affected communities.
[
264
]
Clemens Eisenmann and Christian Meyer argue that the question, how the meaning of wearing face masks develops in society, depends on their practical and public uses within everyday social interactions.
[
265
]
They explain that masking has destabilized interactional infrastructures embedded in routines, revealing both taken-for-granted infrastructures of everyday life â including social inequalities (such as those of people reliant on lip reading) and moral evaluations in transcultural situations (such as those involving implicit racism in which the health instructions of essential workers belonging to certain groups are disregarded) â and new challenges on the interactional level.
[
265
]
In the Western world, as of 2020 the public usage of masks still often carried a large stigma,
[
254
]
[
256
]
[
266
]
being seen as a sign of sickness.
[
266
]
This stigmatization is a large obstacle to overcome, because people may feel too ashamed to wear a mask in public and therefore opt to not wear one.
[
267
]
There is also a divide within the Western world, as seen in the
Czech Republic
and
Slovakia
where mass mobilization has occurred to reinforce the solidarity in mask-wearing since March 2020.
[
254
]
[
needs update
]
Mask-wearing has been called a
prosocial behavior
in which one protects others within their community.
[
268
]
[
269
]
[
270
]
On social media, there has been an effort with the #masks4all campaign to encourage people to use masks.
[
271
]
Nevertheless, there were many occurrences of violence and hostility by people who became aggressive after they were requested to wear a mask or saw people wearing masks in
customer-based
establishments.
[
272
]
[
273
]
[
274
]
[
275
]
Multiple people were killed in attacks by people who
refused to wear masks
.
[
276
]
It led to concerns about worker safety, so employees were discouraged to actively enforce masking policies due to the potential of hostile situations, while enforcement by official authorities is severely lacking.
[
277
]
Masking has been subjected to racial politics in Western countries.
[
278
]
For instance, in 2020 it had been heavily racialized as an Asian phenomenon.
[
256
]
[
265
]
This had been reinforced in a lot of media discourses, where stories about the pandemic were often accompanied by unrelated imagery of Asian people in masks.
[
278
]
[
279
]
The focus on race brought hostility towards Asians who are confronted with the choice to wear masks as a precaution while they face discrimination for it.
[
278
]
[
280
]
Huang Yinxiang, a sociologist from the University of Manchester, described maskaphobia (negative prejudice, fear or bitter hatred against people wearing face masks) as making Asians in Western countries into targets for racists who want to legitimize
xenophobia during the COVID-19 outbreak
.
[
281
]
Likewise, people from certain groups such as
Black Americans
may not feel comfortable wearing masks, especially those that are not clearly medical but homemade masks, due to concerns of racial profiling.
[
282
]
[
283
]
[
284
]
A
sign language
interpreter (on the right) in Hong Kong is wearing a transparent mask to allow
lip reading
.
There have also been concerns that wearing masks may also further isolate disadvantaged communities. Concerns had been expressed that masks would make communication difficult for people who are
deaf
or
hard-of-hearing
.
[
285
]
[
286
]
[
287
]
[
288
]
[
289
]
This led to calls for wider distributions of transparent masks, which allow for
lip reading
.
[
285
]
[
286
]
[
290
]
Similar concerns over difficulty in communicating were expressed by those who may depend on dogs for
therapeutic
or
social
reasons, as the animals depend on body language such as facial expressions.
[
291
]
Conversely, people who are exempt from wearing masks on medical grounds or due to a disability, fear they will be
subjected to abuse
for not wearing a mask, even if they are legally exempt from doing so.
[
292
]
For instance, in the United Kingdom, the charity
Disability Rights UK
received numerous reports about people being confronted on trains and buses.
[
292
]
Health organizations such as the
American Lung Association
commented that, even though there may be people who will seek an exemption, the individual's concerns needs to be weighed against the societal needs to limit the spread of the virus.
[
293
]
[
294
]
However, anti-maskers have called upon bogus claims about legal or medical exemptions in their refusal to wear masks.
[
293
]
They have, for instance, claimed that the
Americans with Disabilities Act
(designed to prohibit discrimination based on disabilities) allows exemption from mask requirements, but the
United States Department of Justice
responded that the act "does not provide a blanket exemption to people with disabilities from complying with legitimate safety requirements necessary for safe operations".
[
295
]
There were concerns about the effects of mask-wearing on young children's
language development
and
social emotional development
.
[
296
]
[
297
]
[
298
]
[
299
]
[
300
]
It has been argued that mask mandates for children may have taken insufficient consideration of children's human rights.
[
301
]
In November 2020, there were feelings of mask fatigue among the general public, exacerbated by frustrations about people who are not taking the mask and other guidelines seriously as the pandemic and its intensity continued on.
[
302
]
This section needs to be
updated
. The reason given is:
it is missing info about what happened between the vaccine and the end of the emergency
.
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
(
May 2023
)
Two Indian boys sporting face mask at a public event
Among the European countries surveyed by
YouGov
in the first half of 2020, the likelihood for people to wear masks was split: In Northern Europe (e.g., Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark), people were very unlikely to wear a mask.
[
303
]
In Western Europe (e.g., Italy, Spain, France, and Germany), people were initially unlikely to use a mask, but mask wearing greatly changed from low levels in March to higher levels in May.
[
303
]
A similar, if delayed, pattern was seen in some northern European countries. For example, mask usage was very low in Denmark up until the summer of 2020 but rapidly increased in the autumn as rules on their use in publicly accessible indoor places were introduced.
[
304
]
An exception was the United Kingdom where mask usage only grew gradually in the first half of 2020,
[
303
]
but it rose very quickly after official policy changes in July mandated masking in stores.
[
305
]
In May 2020, masking was gradually shifting to become a new social norm.
[
306
]
A survey among people from the United States (conducted from April to June 2020) indicates that age was a factor in whether people were likely to wear a mask, as the likelihood rose with the age group, but the reported use of face masks increased significantly across all age groups over time.
[
307
]
Furthermore, people who did not report mask use also reported engaging in significantly fewer other mitigation behaviors than those who did report mask use.
[
307
]
In 2020, gender played a role in the willingness to wear masks; men were overall less inclined to wear masks in public than women.
[
308
]
[
309
]
[
310
]
There were indications that men were more likely to feel negative emotions (such as shame) and stigma for wearing masks.
[
308
]
[
309
]
It was suggested that this male behavior is driven by a sense of masculinity, where the act of masking is possibly perceived to run counter to it, which led to an increase in men not wearing masks.
[
311
]
[
312
]
A 2020 survey among participants recruited from
Amazon Mechanical Turk
about face mask perceptions found that men and women may have different reasons when they do not wear masks in public: Men were more likely to see masks as an infringement upon their independence and women were more likely to perceive masks as being uncomfortable, while perceptions on efficacy, accessibility, compensation, inconvenience, appearance, and attention did not differ.
[
313
]
By 2023, most jurisdictions had ended their mask mandates.
[
7
]
By May 2023, people in most countries largely stopped wearing masks.
[
314
]
The
heads of state
and
government
of Portugal and Spain wearing face masks during an official ceremony in July 2020
The pandemic has raised questions about the role of governments in mask policies, either voluntary or mandatory policies, especially in terms of the social and behavioral consequences involving the general public.
[
270
]
The results from a study surveying people in Germany indicate that the act of wearing a mask, independent of the policy, is considered a
social contract
in which compliant people perceive each other more positively and noncompliance is negatively evaluated.
[
270
]
However, it also suggests that voluntary policies have the potential effect to increase
polarization
and thus cause more stigmatization.
[
270
]
The authors recommended that countries and communities should adopt a mandatory policy along with explicit communication of the benefits of both masking (e.g., risk reduction, mutual protection, positive
social signaling
) and mandatory policies (e.g., fairness, less stigmatization, higher effectiveness) to encourage the public to wear masks.
[
270
]
World leaders as role models for masking have also received much scrutiny, as they are key to convey the critical public health message to the public.
[
315
]
[
316
]
For example, Slovakia has been cited as a country where its public figures (including President
Zuzana ÄaputovĂĄ
and her administration) set the example by wearing masks and played a crucial role to normalize masks.
[
317
]
In contrast, in the United States, President
Donald Trump
and his administration came under criticism for
communicating an inconsistent and confusing message about masking
.
[
318
]
[
319
]
They were often criticized for undercutting national and local public health advice to wear masks.
[
320
]
[
321
]
U.S. Surgeon General
Jerome Adams
urged people to wear face masks and acknowledged that it is difficult to correct earlier messaging that masks do not work for the general public.
[
322
]
Although authorities, especially in Asia, recommended people to wear face masks in public, in many other parts of the world, conflicting advice caused much confusion among the general population.
[
323
]
Several governments and institutions, such as in the United States, initially dismissed the use of face masks by the general population, often with misleading or incomplete information about the usefulness of masks.
[
324
]
[
325
]
[
326
]
Commentators have attributed the anti-mask messaging to efforts to manage the mask shortages, as governments did not act quickly enough, remarking that the claims go beyond the science or were simply lies.
[
326
]
[
327
]
[
328
]
[
329
]
On 12 June 2020,
Anthony Fauci
, a key member of the
White House
coronavirus task force, confirmed that the American public were not told to wear masks from the beginning due to the shortages of masks and explained that masks do actually work.
[
330
]
[
331
]
[
332
]
[
333
]
[
334
]
[
excessive citations
]
In the United States, public masking has become a political issue, as opponents argue that it inhibits personal freedom and proponents emphasize the importance of masks for public health.
[
335
]
Some people may see it as a political statement.
[
336
]
Party affiliation partly determined how likely people were to embrace the wearing of masks in public.
[
336
]
[
337
]
Democrats
were more likely to wear masks than
Republicans
.
[
336
]
[
337
]
Masks have become an aspect of the
culture war
that has emerged over the course of the pandemic.
[
335
]
[
336
]
[
337
]
Commentators argue that the resistance against masks partly stems from the confusing and mixed messaging about masking.
[
335
]
[
338
]
[
339
]
Matthew Facciani, a sociologist at Vanderbilt University, says the uncertainty from health experts during the early days of the pandemic paved the way for political leaders to become a prominent source of guidance and clarity.
[
340
]
He argues that once mask-wearing became informed by political beliefs, it is difficult to correct due to the motivation to protect one's identity in relation to a political group and the reinforcement from political echo chambers, no matter that scientists began to better understand the severity of the virus and the evidence in favor for mask wearing became clearer.
[
340
]
Moreover, how people observe the masking rules seems to be different across countries and these differences may be attributed to cultural or management factors.
[
257
]
In April 2020, health officials from Taiwan's
Central Epidemic Command Center
(CECC) pushed back on school bullying of boys in pink face masks.
[
341
]
The CECC officials and Minister of Health and Welfare Chen Shih-chung wore pink masks to challenge gender norms at a press conference, while various government agencies demonstrated solidarity by changing the colors on their Facebook pages to pink.
[
341
]
The minister later tweeted "Pink is for everyone and no color is exclusive for girls or boys. Gender Equality lies at the heart of Taiwan values."
[
341
]
The press conference was held amid reports that male students were too embarrassed to wear their pink face masks, jeopardizing their safety and the safety of others in the face of COVID-19.
[
341
]
"Masks Don't Work", a protest placard in Ohio, United States, during the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020.
In some countries, large rallies took place in protest against masking mandates.
[
342
]
[
343
]
[
344
]
[
345
]
In Canada, opponents of masking hailed their protests as the "March to Unmask".
[
344
]
[
346
]
In the United Kingdom, new protests came in the wake of the official announcement that masking will be compulsory in shops.
[
342
]
After eight months since the beginning of the lockdown in the
Czech Republic
, mass manifestations against the restrictions imposed by the government arose.
[
347
]
[
348
]
Some anti-mask protestors co-opted the feminist slogan "
my body, my choice
"
[
349
]
[
350
]
[
351
]
and the Black Lives Matter slogan "
I can't breathe
".
[
352
]
Businesses were also purposely disrupted by anti-maskers (purportedly in defense of their constitutional rights).
[
353
]
In the United States, opposition to mask-wearing during the COVID-19 pandemic came during then-President
Donald Trump's politicization of science
[
354
]
and more generally during decades-old period of
politicization of science
. American opposition to mask-wearing during pandemics is not new; during the
1918 influenza pandemic
, the
Anti-Mask League
was established in San Francisco, California.
[
355
]
In May 2021,
Vice
reported that some members of the anti-vaccine community were promoting the use of masks and social distancing to protect themselves from those who have received vaccines, citing false claims that those vaccinated for COVID-19 "shed" spike proteins that can be harmful to people in their proximity, and former research scientist
Judy Mikovits
claimed that she had been kicked off a plane for wearing a mask lined with
colloidal silver
.
[
356
]
Face masks are sometimes deemed to make people look more attractive. This may be because they hide unattractive features or are associated with medical personnel.
[
357
]
Some people, including
introverts
and those with
social anxiety
, prefer using face masks because of the near-anonymity it provides, allowing them to easily blend in, feel psychologically protected, and be more open in talking to strangers.
[
358
]
In 2020, in the state of Utah, Christian clergy from the Lutheran, Catholic, Presbyterian, Anglican, Baptist, and Latter-day Saint traditions, as well as those from the Jewish, Buddhist, and Unitarian religions, implored people to wear masks by signing a letter sent out by Governor Gary Herbert's office.
[
359
]
A cloth face mask matching the rest of the ensemble
As the pandemic progressed, people began making use of face masks as accessories,
[
360
]
[
361
]
[
362
]
[
363
]
matching them to their outfits and so on.
[
364
]
[
365
]
Early in the pandemic, people and businesses from the fashion industry responded to official calls for help in overcoming the shortages of protective personal equipment including face masks.
[
366
]
These masks were sheerly utilitarian as the only consideration at the time was function.
[
367
]
What began as a public health necessity however gradually evolved into a new category of accessories subject to similar design and marketing considerations as other accessories.
[
368
]
Fashion brands eventually reopened their factories for production due to the increasing demand for masks and started to manufacture masks in a wider variety of styles.
[
361
]
Smaller brands, who primarily sold their products online, found that selling masks was a good strategy to maintain sales.
[
369
]
Etsy
became a major online platform where many designers sold their masks.
[
369
]
Designers started making masks that matched other pieces of clothing and accessories,
[
370
]
[
371
]
a trend which may have begun unintentionally as even fabric remnants were repurposed.
[
371
]
The city of
Vilnius
in Lithuania held a "Mask Fashion Week" in May 2020, which was promoted with billboards (with no catwalks or displays) around the city featuring local people including Mayor Remigijus Simasius wearing face masks.
[
372
]
The Walt Disney Company
introduced uniform face masks for their employees at
Walt Disney World
and
Disneyland
in the United States.
[
373
]
[
374
]
Large numbers of disposed face masks have led to an increase in
plastic waste
, negatively impacting the environment.
[
375
]
[
376
]
[
377
]
Moreover, the production of face masks also contributes the emission of carbon dioxide, which accelerates global warming.
[
378
]
Considering the risk of
plastic pollution
, researchers have focused on using biodegradable polymers to fabricate facemask with antimicrobial properties.
[
379
]
Various studies were conducted in order to utilize end-of-life face masks, including
thermochemical
conversion of
polymers
used in face-masks to
hydrogen
rich gas. Thermochemical methods included
carbon-dioxide
gasification
and
steam
gasification
.
[
380
]
[
381
]
Due to the rarity of their use in non-medical settings outside East Asia, many languages lacked commonly used terms for facemasks, especially since legal issues prevent the usage of terms which might imply medical standards the masks do not meet.
[
382
]
In languages such as
Saterland Frisian
public competitions were held
[
383
]
to create a
neologism
for the device in the language and thus not having to rely on
loanwords
or
calques
.
[
384
]
[
385
]
The
Friisk Foriining
 [
frr
]
held a similar competition for the
North Frisian language
.
[
386
]
[
387
]
Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States
National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
Anti-mask law
^
Knot and tuck technique:
Modification to ear loop masks where the top and bottom of the ear loop string are knotted together at the mask's edges and extra material is tucked in towards the face.
[
46
]
^
a
b
Bourouiba L (July 2021). "Fluid Dynamics of Respiratory Infectious Diseases".
Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering
.
23
(1):
547â
577.
doi
:
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nordfriiskinstituut.eu
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## Contents
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- [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic)
- [1 Types of masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Types_of_masks)
Toggle Types of masks subsection
- [1\.1 Cloth masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Cloth_masks)
- [1\.2 Surgical masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Surgical_masks)
- [1\.2.1 Modifications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Modifications)
- [1\.3 Filtering respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Filtering_respirators)
- [1\.4 Face shields and eye protection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Face_shields_and_eye_protection)
- [1\.5 Elastomeric respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Elastomeric_respirators)
- [1\.6 Powered air-purifying respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Powered_air-purifying_respirators)
- [1\.7 Face masks with exhalation valves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Face_masks_with_exhalation_valves)
- [2 Recommendations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Recommendations)
Toggle Recommendations subsection
- [2\.1 World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#World_Health_Organization)
- [2\.2 United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#United_States_Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention)
- [2\.2.1 Criticism of guidance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Criticism_of_guidance)
- [2\.3 China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#China)
- [2\.4 Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Europe)
- [3 Rationale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Rationale)
Toggle Rationale subsection
- [3\.1 Source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Source_control)
- [3\.2 Respiratory tract](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Respiratory_tract)
- [3\.3 Severity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Severity)
- [3\.4 Precautionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Precautionary)
- [3\.5 Distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Distancing)
- [3\.6 Touching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Touching)
- [4 Efficacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Efficacy)
Toggle Efficacy subsection
- [4\.1 Overall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Overall)
- [4\.2 Cloth masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Cloth_masks_2)
- [4\.3 Optimal face mask designs and use](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Optimal_face_mask_designs_and_use)
- [5 Correct handling and wearing of masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Correct_handling_and_wearing_of_masks)
- [6 Shortages of face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Shortages_of_face_masks)
Toggle Shortages of face masks subsection
- [6\.1 Early epidemic in mainland China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Early_epidemic_in_mainland_China)
- [6\.2 National stocks and shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#National_stocks_and_shortages)
- [6\.3 Theft](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Theft)
- [6\.4 N95 and FFP masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#N95_and_FFP_masks)
- [6\.5 United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#United_States)
- [6\.6 Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Germany)
- [6\.7 Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Canada)
- [7 Mask industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Mask_industry)
Toggle Mask industry subsection
- [7\.1 Manufacturing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Manufacturing)
- [7\.1.1 China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#China_2)
- [7\.1.2 Open-Source and Do-It-Yourself Masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Open-Source_and_Do-It-Yourself_Masks)
- [7\.2 Distribution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Distribution)
- [8 Society and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Society_and_culture)
Toggle Society and culture subsection
- [8\.1 Attitudes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Attitudes)
- [8\.2 Trends](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Trends)
- [8\.3 Governmental role](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Governmental_role)
- [8\.4 Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Politics)
- [8\.5 Opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Opposition)
- [8\.6 Attractiveness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Attractiveness)
- [8\.7 Personality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Personality)
- [8\.8 Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Religion)
- [8\.9 Fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Fashion)
- [8\.10 Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Environment)
- [8\.11 Terminology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Terminology)
- [9 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#See_also)
- [10 Notes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Notes)
- [11 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#References)
Toggle the table of contents
# Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic
25 languages
- [ۧÙŰč۱ۚÙŰ©](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%82%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%87_%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7_2019-20 "ŰŁÙÙŰčŰ© ۧÙÙŰŹÙ ŰźÙŰ§Ù ŰŹŰ§ŰŠŰŰ© ÙÙ۱ÙŰł ÙÙ۱ÙÙۧ 2019-20 â Arabic")
- [Bikol Central](https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_pupon_durante_kan_pandemya_nin_COVID-19 "Mga pupon durante kan pandemya nin COVID-19 â Central Bikol")
- [ÄeĆĄtina](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povinnost_nosit_%C3%BA%C4%8Dinnou_ochranu_d%C3%BDchac%C3%ADch_cest "Povinnost nosit ĂșÄinnou ochranu dĂœchacĂch cest â Czech")
- [Fulfulde](https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gafakon_\(Maskuuji\)_yeeso_paddorkon_mboros_koronawirus_2019-2020 "Gafakon (Maskuuji) yeeso paddorkon mboros koronawirus 2019-2020 â Fula")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_du_masque_pendant_la_pand%C3%A9mie_de_Covid-19 "Port du masque pendant la pandĂ©mie de Covid-19 â French")
- [Hausa](https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takunkumi_a_lokacin_annobar_cutar_korona "Takunkumi a lokacin annobar cutar korona â Hausa")
- [ŚąŚŚšŚŚȘ](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94 "ŚŚĄŚŚŚȘ ŚŚȘŚ§ŚŚ€ŚȘ ŚŚŚ€ŚȘ ŚŚ§ŚŚšŚŚ Ś â Hebrew")
- [à€čà€żà€šà„à€Šà„](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1-19_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95 "à€à„à€”à€żà€Ą-19 à€źà€čà€Ÿà€źà€Ÿà€°à„ à€à„ à€Šà„à€°à€Ÿà€š à€à„à€čà€°à„ à€à€Ÿ à€źà€Ÿà€žà„à€ â Hindi")
- [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcmaszkok_a_Covid19-vil%C3%A1gj%C3%A1rv%C3%A1ny_idej%C3%A9n "Arcmaszkok a Covid19-vilĂĄgjĂĄrvĂĄny idejĂ©n â Hungarian")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masker_dalam_pandemi_COVID-19 "Masker dalam pandemi COVID-19 â Indonesian")
- [íê”ìŽ](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%EB%A1%9C%EB%82%9819_%EB%B2%94%EC%9C%A0%ED%96%89_%EC%A4%91_%EB%A7%88%EC%8A%A4%ED%81%AC "ìœëĄë19 ëČì í ì€ ë§ì€íŹ â Korean")
- [àŽźàŽČàŽŻàŽŸàŽłàŽ](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D-19_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82 "àŽà”àŽ”àŽżàŽĄà”-19 àŽàŽà”àŽł àŽźàŽčàŽŸàŽźàŽŸàŽ°àŽżàŽà”àŽàŽżàŽà” àŽźàŽŸàŽžà”àŽà”àŽàŽłà”àŽà” àŽàŽȘàŽŻà”àŽàŽ â Malayalam")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelitup_muka_semasa_pandemik_COVID-19 "Pelitup muka semasa pandemik COVID-19 â Malay")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mond-neusbescherming_tijdens_de_coronapandemie "Mond-neusbescherming tijdens de coronapandemie â Dutch")
- [Norsk bokmĂ„l](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munnbeskyttelse_under_koronaviruspandemien "Munnbeskyttelse under koronaviruspandemien â Norwegian BokmĂ„l")
- [PortuguĂȘs](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1scaras_faciais_durante_a_pandemia_da_COVID-19 "MĂĄscaras faciais durante a pandemia da COVID-19 â Portuguese")
- [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maska_p%C3%ABr_fytyr%C3%ABn_gjat%C3%AB_pandemis%C3%AB_COVID-19 "Maska pĂ«r fytyrĂ«n gjatĂ« pandemisĂ« COVID-19 â Albanian")
- [Sesotho](https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maske_a_sefahleho_nakong_ea_seoa_sa_%22coronavirus%22_sa_2019-20 "Maske a sefahleho nakong ea seoa sa \"coronavirus\" sa 2019-20 â Southern Sotho")
- [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munskydd_under_covid-19-pandemin "Munskydd under covid-19-pandemin â Swedish")
- [TĂŒrkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_salg%C4%B1n%C4%B1_s%C4%B1ras%C4%B1nda_y%C3%BCz_maskeleri "COVID-19 salgını sırasında yĂŒz maskeleri â Turkish")
- [Twi](https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anim_akataso%C9%94_wo_COVID19_mmere_mu "Anim akatasoÉ wo COVID19 mmere mu â Twi")
- [ĐŁĐșŃĐ°ŃĐœŃŃĐșĐ°](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%97_COVID-19 "ĐĐ°ŃĐșĐž ĐŽĐ»Ń ĐŸĐ±Đ»ĐžŃŃŃ ĐżŃĐŽ ŃĐ°Ń ĐżĐ°ĐœĐŽĐ”ĐŒŃŃ COVID-19 â Ukrainian")
- [IsiXhosa](https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iimaski_zobuso_ngexesha_lobhubhane_we-coronavirus_ka-2019_ukuya_ku-2020 "Iimaski zobuso ngexesha lobhubhane we-coronavirus ka-2019 ukuya ku-2020 â Xhosa")
- [YorĂčbĂĄ](https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%ADw%E1%BB%8D_%C3%ACb%C3%B2j%C3%BA_n%C3%AD_%C3%A0k%C3%B3k%C3%B2_%C3%A0t%C3%A0nk%C3%A1l%E1%BA%B9%CC%80_%C3%A0r%C3%B9n_k%C3%B2r%C3%B3n%C3%A0 "WĂwá» ĂŹbĂČjĂș nĂ Ă kĂłkĂČ Ă tĂ nkĂĄláșčÌ Ă rĂčn kĂČrĂłnĂ â Yoruba")
- [IsiZulu](https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izembozo_zobuso_ngesikhathi_sobhubhane_lomkhuhlane_we-COVID-19 "Izembozo zobuso ngesikhathi sobhubhane lomkhuhlane we-COVID-19 â Zulu")
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Health control procedure against COVID-19
| | |
|---|---|
|  | This article needs to be **updated**. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. *(March 2026)* |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Duta_Besar_Baru_AS_Sung_Kim_Serahkan_Surat_Kepercayaan_Pada_Presiden_Jokowi_\(50515038461\).jpg)
US Ambassador to Indonesia [Sung Kim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sung_Kim "Sung Kim") accompanied by local officials at the [Presidential Palace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merdeka_Palace "Merdeka Palace") wearing face masks amid the COVID-19 pandemic
During the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), face masks or coverings, including [N95](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator"), [FFP2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_standards#FFP2_mask "FFP standards"), [surgical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_mask "Surgical mask"), and [cloth masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask"), were employed as public and personal health control measures against the spread of [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2"), the virus that causes [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19").
In community and healthcare settings, the use of face masks is intended as [source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)") to limit [transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_of_COVID-19 "Transmission of COVID-19") of the virus and for personal protection to prevent infection.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-AR2021-1) Properly worn masks both limit the [respiratory droplets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_droplet "Respiratory droplet") and [aerosols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_transmission "Airborne transmission") spread by infected individuals and help protect healthy individuals from infection.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Matuschek-2)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-interplay-3)
Reviews of various kinds of scientific studies have concluded that masking is effective in protecting the individual against COVID-19.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Matuschek-2)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Talic-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sci-5) Various [case-control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study "Caseâcontrol study") and population-based studies have also shown that increased levels of masking in a community reduces the spread of SARS-CoV-2,[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Talic-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sci-5) though there is a paucity of evidence from [randomized controlled trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial "Randomized controlled trial") (RCTs).[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cochrane-6)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-royalsoc-7) Masks vary in how well they work. Fitted [N95s](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator") outperform surgical masks,[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-norespirator-9) while cloth masks provide marginal protection.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ataei-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cloth_v_surgical-11) During the public health emergency, governments widely recommended and mandated mask-wearing, and prominent national and intergovernmental health agencies and their leaders recommended the use of masks to reduce transmission, including the [WHO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO "WHO"), [American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"), [European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECDC "ECDC"), and [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention") Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
## Types of masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Types of masks")\]
| |
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| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:COVID-19_pandemic "Category:COVID-19 pandemic") on the |
| [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png "Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each \"ball\" is an atom.") Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom. |
| [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") (disease) [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") (virus) [Cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_cases "COVID-19 pandemic cases") [Deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_deaths "COVID-19 pandemic deaths") |
| [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic") [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") 2020 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") 2021 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") 2022 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2022") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2022") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2023 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2023") |
| [Locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") [By country and territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in Africa") [Antarctica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antarctica "COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica") [Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Asia") [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe "COVID-19 pandemic in Europe") [North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_America "COVID-19 pandemic in North America") [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oceania "COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania") [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_America "COVID-19 pandemic in South America") By conveyance [Cruise ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_cruise_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships") [Naval ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_naval_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on naval ships") |
| International response [Endemic phase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_phase_of_COVID-19 "Endemic phase of COVID-19") [Evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Face masks]() [International aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Origin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Origin of SARS-CoV-2") [Lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns "COVID-19 lockdowns") [by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns_by_country "COVID-19 lockdowns by country") [Misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation "COVID-19 misinformation") [by governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments "COVID-19 misinformation by governments") [Fake treatments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19 "List of unproven methods against COVID-19") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing_measures_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Software](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_and_development_of_software_for_COVID-19_pandemic_mitigation "Use and development of software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation") [Travel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic") [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Nations response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization%27s_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "World Health Organization's response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [WTO IP waiver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement_waiver "TRIPS Agreement waiver") [Undercounting of deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercounting_of_COVID-19_pandemic_deaths_by_country "Undercounting of COVID-19 pandemic deaths by country") [COVID-19 apps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_apps "COVID-19 apps") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") [National responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_government_response_to_COVID-19 "Chinese government response to COVID-19") [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "German government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ghanaian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Irish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Dutch government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New Zealand government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Nigerian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Russian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Swedish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Kingdom responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United States responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [federal government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._federal_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vietnamese government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| Medical response [Disease testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing "COVID-19 testing") [Breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer") [Development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_COVID-19_tests "Development of COVID-19 tests") [Drug development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_development "COVID-19 drug development") [Drug repurposing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_repurposing_research "COVID-19 drug repurposing research") [Public health mitigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19 "Public health mitigation of COVID-19") [Vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine "COVID-19 vaccine") [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development "History of COVID-19 vaccine development") [Research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research "COVID-19 vaccine clinical research") [VITT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolic_and_thrombotic_events_after_COVID-19_vaccination "Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination") [Deployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") [Authorizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_vaccine_authorizations "List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations") [Operation Warp Speed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Warp_Speed "Operation Warp Speed") [Misinformation and hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy "COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_hesitancy_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the United States") [Vaccine card](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_card "COVID-19 vaccine card") [Vaccine passports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_passports_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic") Current vaccines [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac") [Covaxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covaxin "Covaxin") [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia") [Janssen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID-19_vaccine "Janssen COVID-19 vaccine") [Medigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVC_COVID-19_vaccine "MVC COVID-19 vaccine") [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") [Novavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine") [OxfordâAstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine "OxfordâAstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine") [PfizerâBioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "PfizerâBioNTech COVID-19 vaccine") [Sinopharm BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine") |
| [Variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2") [Variants of concern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_variant_of_concern "SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern") [Alpha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant") [Beta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") [Gamma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") [Delta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant") [Omicron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") Other variants [Epsilon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Epsilon_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Epsilon variant") [Zeta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Zeta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Zeta variant") [Eta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Eta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Eta variant") [Theta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Theta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Theta variant") [Iota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Iota_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Iota variant") [Kappa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Kappa_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Kappa variant") [Lambda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Lambda_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Lambda variant") [Mu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Mu_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Mu variant") [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Lineage B.1.617](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_lineage_B.1.617 "SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.617") |
| [Economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") and [recession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_recession "COVID-19 recession") [Arts and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_arts_and_cultural_heritage "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage") [Aviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_aviation "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation") [Cannabis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_cannabis_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cannabis industry") [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cinema "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema") [films](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Disney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Walt_Disney_Company "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Walt Disney Company") [Fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_fashion_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the fashion industry") [Financial markets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Food industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_food_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food industry") [Food security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Food security during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_journalism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism") [Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_music_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the music industry") [Performing arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_performing_arts "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performing arts") [Retail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_retail "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on retail") [Shipping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_global_supply_chain_crisis#Shipping "2021â2022 global supply chain crisis") [Television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television in the United States") [sportscasting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_American_sports_broadcasting "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on American sports broadcasting") [programs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_television_series_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of American television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Tourism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_tourism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism") [Video games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_video_game_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry") By country [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [By sport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports") [Association football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_association_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on association football") [Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_baseball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on baseball") [Basketball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_basketball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on basketball") [Combat sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_combat_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on combat sports") [Cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cricket "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cricket") [Disc golf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_disc_golf "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on disc golf") [Gaelic games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Gaelic_games "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Gaelic games") [Gridiron football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_gridiron_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gridiron football") [Ice hockey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ice_hockey "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ice hockey") [Motorsport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_motorsport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on motorsport") [Rugby league](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_rugby_league "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rugby league") |
| [Impacts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Neurological and psychological symptoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes "Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes") [Post-exertional malaise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-exertional_malaise "Post-exertional malaise") [Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [African diaspora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Indian_migrant_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Indian migrant workers") [Animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_and_animals "COVID-19 pandemic and animals") [Alzheimer's disease patients](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease_and_COVID-19 "Alzheimer's disease and COVID-19") [Crime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_crime "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on crime") [Death rates by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_death_rates_by_country "COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country") [Disability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_people_with_disabilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on people with disabilities") [Domestic violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_domestic_violence "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence") [Emergency evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_evacuation_procedures_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Emergency evacuation procedures during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education") [Female](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_female_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on female education") [Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_environment "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment") [Hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_hospitals "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitals") [Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Glossary of the COVID-19 pandemic") [LGBTQ community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_LGBTQ_community "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBTQ community") [Long-term care](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_long-term_care_facilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on long-term care facilities") [Media coverage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Mental health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Migration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_migration "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on migration") [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_military "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the military") [Notable deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaths_due_to_COVID-19 "List of deaths due to COVID-19") [Other health issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_other_health_issues "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues") [Popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_popular_culture "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture") [Protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_against_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Protests against responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Pregnancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy "COVID-19 in pregnancy") [Prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_prisons "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prisons") [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_religion "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion") [Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church") [Hajj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Hajj "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Hajj") [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology") [Social media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_social_media "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media") [Strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikes_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Strikes during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Suicides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_suicide_rates "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on suicide rates") [Telehealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_telehealth_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the telehealth industry") [Xenophobia and racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_international_relations "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations") [Infected leaders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_officials_who_have_tested_positive_for_COVID-19 "List of political officials who have tested positive for COVID-19") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SARS-CoV-2_\(Wikimedia_colors\).svg) [COVID-19 portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:COVID-19 "Portal:COVID-19") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Template:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Template talk:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") |
Many federal governmental agencies recommended using face masks to avoid COVID-19 transmission. Masks with [exhalation valves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_\(respirator\)#Exhalation_valves "Mechanical filter (respirator)") were not recommended because they expelled the wearer's breath outwards, and an infected wearer would transmit the virus through the valve. A second purpose of face masks is to protect each wearer from environments that can infect them, which can be achieved by many models of masks.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-12)
Various types of masks each provide different levels of protection against COVID-19 transmission, ease of use, and comfort:
- [cloth face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask")
- [surgical masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_masks "Surgical masks") (medical masks)
- certified [face-covering masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator"), considered respirators, with [certifications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator "Mechanical filter respirator") such as [N95](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator") and N99, and [FFP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_respirator "FFP respirator")
- [filtering respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtering_facepiece_respirator "Filtering facepiece respirator") with [certifications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator "Mechanical filter respirator") such as [N95](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator") and N99, and [FFP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_respirator "FFP respirator")
- other [respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator "Respirator"), including [elastomeric respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastomeric_respirator "Elastomeric respirator"), some of which may also be considered filtering masks
There are some other types of [personal protective equipment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment "Personal protective equipment") (PPE), such as [face shields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield") and medical [goggles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goggles "Goggles"), which are sometimes used in conjunction with face masks but were not recommended as a replacement.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-13) Other kinds of PPE include gloves, aprons, gowns, shoe covers, and hair covers.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-14)
In 2020, there were [shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") of facial masks, which have led to the use of uncertified masks, with worse performance.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-15)
### Cloth masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Cloth masks")\]
Main article: [Cloth face mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twoclothfacemasks101.jpeg)
Cloth face masks
A [cloth face mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask") is worn over the mouth and nose and made of common textiles such as cotton. Masks vary widely in effectiveness, depending on factors such as material, fit and seal, and the number of layers. They are usually less effective at filtering than surgical masks and offer much less protection.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-16)[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Filtration_Efficiencies_of_Nanoscal-17) Unlike disposable masks, there are no required standards for cloth masks.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18)
One 2020 study found that a cloth mask was better than nothing, but not as good as a soft [electret](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electret "Electret")\-filter surgical mask for protecting healthcare workers while simulating the treatment of an artificially infected patient.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) Research on commonly available fabrics used in cloth masks found that cloth masks can provide significant protection against the transmission of particles in the aerosol size range, with enhanced performance across the nanoscale and microscale when masks use both mechanical and electrostatic-based filtration, but that leakage due to improper fit can degrade performance.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pmid32329337-19) A review of available research published in January 2021 concludes that cloth masks are not considered adequate to protect healthcare practitioners in a clinical setting.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-20)
A 2013 study had volunteers wear masks they made themselves from cotton T-shirts, following the pattern of a standard tie behind the head surgical mask,[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-21) and found the number of microscopic particles that leaked to the inside of the homemade masks was twice that of commercial masks. Wearing homemade masks also leaked a [median](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median "Median") average of three times as many microorganisms as commercial masks. But another 2020 study found that masks made of at least two layers of T-shirt fabric could be as protective against virus droplets as medical masks, and as breathable.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pmid32835043-22)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:How_to_wear_a_non-medical_fabric_mask_safely_-_Do%27s_%26_Don%27ts.png)
World Health Organization infographic on how to wear a non-medical fabric mask safely[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)
A 2020 peer-reviewed summary of published literature on the filtration properties of cloth and cloth masks recommends two to four layers of plain-weave cotton or flannel of at least 100 threads per inch.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pmid33012350-24) There is a trade-off in that increasing the number of layers increases the filtration of the material but decreases how easy it is for a person to breathe through the mask.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Clase2020-25)
As of May 2020, there was no research on decontaminating and reusing cloth masks.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) The CDC recommends removing a mask by handling only the ear loops or ties, placing it directly in a [washing machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine "Washing machine"), and immediately washing hands in soap and water for at least twenty seconds. Cold water is considered as effective as warm water for decontamination.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-26) The CDC also recommends washing hands before putting on the mask and again immediately after touching it.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-27)
There is no information on reusing an interlayer filter. Disposing of filters after a single use may be desirable.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) A narrative review of the literature on the filtration properties of cloth and other household materials did not find support for using a filter. A layer of cloth, if tolerated, was suggested instead,[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pmid33012350-24) or a PM2.5 filter, as a third layer.[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-28)
The [United States Environmental Protection Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency") (EPA) Study published on 5 April 2021, showed extremely varied performance across cotton masks. The results of the EPA study found that "a three-layer knitted cotton mask blocked an average of 26.5 percent of particles in the chamber, while a washed, two-layer woven nylon mask with a filter insert and metal nose bridge blocked 79 percent of particles on average."[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-EPA-Researchers-Test-Effectiveness-of-Face-Masks-2021-29) Ultimately, the researchers found that fabric and fit are the two most vital factors when recommending masks to the public and further research is being conducted on variables such as facial hair and face shape on mask fit.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-EPA-Researchers-Test-Effectiveness-of-Face-Masks-2021-29)
### Surgical masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: Surgical masks")\]
Main article: [Surgical mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_mask "Surgical mask")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:How_to_a_wear_medical_mask_safely_-_Do%27s_%26_Don%27ts.png)
World Health Organization infographic on how to wear a medical mask safely[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)
A surgical mask is a loose-fitting, [disposable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disposable_product "Disposable product") mask that creates a physical barrier separating the mouth and nose of the wearer from potential [contaminants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contamination "Contamination") in the immediate environment. If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle [droplets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_droplets "Respiratory droplets"), splashes, [sprays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spray_\(liquid_drop\) "Spray (liquid drop)"), or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping them from reaching the wearer's mouth and nose. Surgical masks may also help reduce exposure of others to the wearer's [saliva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saliva "Saliva") and respiratory secretions.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration-2020-30)[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-31)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:04.02_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E3%80%8C%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C%E7%96%AB%E6%83%85%E6%8C%87%E6%8F%AE%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E3%80%8D_49726568957_66543b616e_o.jpg)
Taiwanese president [Tsai Ing-wen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsai_Ing-wen "Tsai Ing-wen") wearing a surgical mask
Certified medical masks are made of non-woven material, and they are mostly multi-layer. Filters may be made of [microfibers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfibers "Microfibers") with an electrostatic charge; that is, the fibers are [electrets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electret "Electret"). An electret filter increases the chances that smaller particles will veer and hit a fiber, rather than going straight through (electrostatic capture).[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-PM03-32)[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-33)[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Australia-34)\[*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*\]\[*[medical citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_\(medicine\) "Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)")*\] While there is some development work on making electret filtering materials that can be washed and reused,[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-kaist-35) current commercially produced electret filters are ruined by many forms of disinfection, including washing with soap and water or alcohol, which destroys the electric charge.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CDC_guidelines-36) During the COVID-19 pandemic, public health authorities issued guidelines on [how to save, disinfect and reuse electret-filter masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator#Disinfection_and_reuse "Mechanical filter respirator") without damaging the filtration efficiency.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CDC_guidelines-36)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-paperbag-37) Standard disposable surgical masks are not designed to be washed. Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental, or medical procedure masks.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration-2020-30) The material surgical masks are made from is much poorer at filtering very small particles (in the range of a tenth of a micrometer to a micrometer across) than that of filtering respirators (for example N95, FFP2) and the fit is much poorer.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration-2020-30) Surgical masks are made of a non-woven fabric created using a [melt blowing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melt_blowing "Melt blowing") process.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-38)[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-39) Random control studies of respiratory infections like [influenza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza "Influenza") find little difference in protection between surgical masks and respirators (such as N95 or FFP masks).[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-40) However, the filtering performance of correctly worn N95/FFP2 type filtering respirators is clearly superior to surgical and to cloth masks[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Filtration_Efficiencies_of_Nanoscal-17) and for influenza, work by the UK Health and Safety executive[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-41) found that live virus penetrated all surgical masks tested but properly fitted respirators reduced the viral dose by a factor of at least a hundred.
Surgical masks made to different standards in different regions of the world have different ranges of particles which they filter. For example, the People's Republic of China regulates two types of such masks: single-use medical masks (Chinese standard YY/T 0969) and surgical masks (YY 0469). The latter ones are required to filter bacteria-sized particles ([BFE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_filtration_efficiency "Bacterial filtration efficiency") â„ 95%) and some virus-sized particles (PFE â„ 30%), while the former ones are required to only filter bacteria-sized particles.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-standards-42)[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-YY0469-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-YY0969-44)
#### Modifications
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Modifications")\]
The effectiveness of surgical masks in limiting particle transmission is a function of material and fit.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-45) Since the start of the pandemic, scientists have evaluated various modifications to ear loop surgical masks aimed at improving mask efficacy by reducing or eliminating gaps between the mask and face.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-JAMA-modifications-46) The CDC evaluated and recommended two such modifications to ear loop masks to minimize the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Under regular use, the CDC found that a surgical mask worn by a coughing individual blocked 41.3% of simulated cough aerosols (0.1â7.0 ÎŒm particle size) from reaching a second individual six feet away. However, by applying a knot and tuck technique,[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-47) 62.9% of particles were blocked. When the surgical mask was covered with a larger cloth mask, 82% of the particles were blocked. When both the source and recipient wore masks, 84% of the particles were blocked. The number increased to more than 95% when both parties either wore double masks (surgical mask with larger cloth mask) or used the knot and tuck technique.[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-48)
Another type of modification was aimed to improve the comfort of the wearers. Early in the pandemic, healthcare workers were required to continue wearing surgical masks for 12 or more hours a day. This caused the ear loops of the masks to chafe the back of their ears. [Ear savers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear_saver "Ear saver"), plastic straps, and hooks that go around wearer's heads, were invented to move the ear loops away from the wearer's ears. They could be made on demand by using a [3D printing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing "3D printing") process.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-49)
An improved version approaches the model efficacy of N95 respirators.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-50)
### Filtering respirators
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Filtering respirators")\]
Main article: [Mechanical filter (respirator)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_\(respirator\) "Mechanical filter (respirator)")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3M_8210.png)
N95 mask
An [N95 mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_mask "N95 mask") is a particulate-filtering facepiece [respirator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator "Respirator") that meets the N95 [air filtration rating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating "NIOSH air filtration rating") of the US [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health"), meaning it filters at least 95 percent of 0.3 ÎŒm [airborne particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_particles "Airborne particles"), while not resistant to oil like the P95. It is the most common particulate-filtering facepiece respirator.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-51) It is an example of a [mechanical filter respirator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator "Mechanical filter respirator"), which provides protection against [particulates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates "Particulates"), but not gases or [vapors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor "Vapor").[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-52) Like the middle layer of[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Naveed-53) surgical masks, the N95 mask is made of four layers[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) of melt-blown nonwoven polypropylene fabric.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-VOADeliver-54)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-55)\[*[unreliable medical source?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_\(medicine\) "Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)")*\] The corresponding face mask used in the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") is the [FFP2 respirator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_mask "FFP mask").[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-56)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-57)
Hard electret-filter masks like N95 and FFP masks must fit the face to provide full protection. Untrained users often get a reasonable fit, but fewer than one in four gets a perfect fit. Fit testing is thus standard, though debated.[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-58)[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-59) A line of [petroleum jelly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_jelly "Petroleum jelly") on the edge of the mask[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-source-60) has been shown to reduce edge leakage[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) in lab tests using [mannequins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannequin "Mannequin") that simulate breathing.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-source-60)
Some N95 series respirators, especially those intended for industrial use, have an exhalation valve to improve comfort, making exhalation easier and reducing leakage on exhalation and steaming up of glasses. But those respirators are not reliable for the control of infected people ([source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)")) in respiratory diseases such as COVID-19, because infected users (asymptomatic or not) would transmit the virus to others through the valve.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-61)
During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were shortages of filtering facepiece respirators, and they had to be used for extended periods, and/or disinfected and reused. At the time, public health authorities issued guidelines on [how to save, disinfect and reuse masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator#Disinfection_and_reuse "Mechanical filter respirator"), as some disinfection methods damaged their filtration efficiency.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CDC_guidelines-36)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-paperbag-37) Some hospitals stockpiled used masks as a precaution,[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-62) and some had to sanitize and reuse masks.
### Face shields and eye protection
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Face shields and eye protection")\]
Main article: [Face shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Personal_protective_equipment_infographic.png)
Guidelines for recommended use of face shield in conjunction with N95 respirators and medical face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:200323-Z-NI803-0964.jpg)
A medical worker wearing a [face shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield") adjunct to other [personal protective equipment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment "Personal protective equipment") at a COVID-19 testing site
The US [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC) does not recommend the use of face shields as a substitute for masks to help slow the spread of COVID-19.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc7820-63) In a study by Lindsley *et al.* (7 January 2021) funded by the [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health"), part of the CDC, face shields were found to block very few cough aerosols in contrast to face coverings â such as cloth masks, procedure masks, and N95 respirators â indicating that face shields are not effective as source control devices for small respiratory aerosols and that face coverings are more effective than face shields as source control devices to reduce the community transmission of SARS-CoV-2.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lin-eff-64)
In a scoping review, Godoy *et al.* (5 May 2020) said face shields are used for barrier protection against splash and splatter contamination but should not be used as primary protection against respiratory disease transmission due to the lack of a peripheral seal rather than as an adjunct to other facial protection.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) They remarked that face shields have been used like this alongside medical-grade masks during the COVID-19 pandemic.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) They cited a cough simulation study by Lindsley *et al.* (2014) in which face shields were shown to reduce the risk of inhalation exposure up to 95% immediately following aerosol production, but the protection was decreased with smaller aerosol particles and persistent airborne particles around the sides.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-65)
There is weak evidence that the use of eye protection including face shields is associated with less infection.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lan-chu-66)
### Elastomeric respirators
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Elastomeric respirators")\]
Main article: [Elastomeric respirator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastomeric_respirator "Elastomeric respirator")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD45.jpg)
Surgeons wearing full-facepiece elastomeric respirators while doing [tracheostomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracheostomy "Tracheostomy") to a COVID-19 patient in Russia
Elastomeric respirators are reusable personal protective equipment comprising a tight-fitting half-facepiece or full-facepiece respirator with exchangeable filters such as cartridge filters.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-elastomeric-67) They provide an alternative respiratory protection option to filtering facepiece respirators such as N95 masks. Some healthcare workers have used them during times of short supply caused by the pandemic, as they can be reused over an extended period in healthcare settings.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-elastomeric-67)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-chi-ela-68) However, most elastomeric respirators have an unfiltered exhalation vent which would allow the virus to spread from the wearer.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-chi-ela-68)
For the COVID-19 response when supplies are short, the US CDC says contingency and crisis strategies should be followed: Each elastomeric respirator is issued for the exclusive use of an individual healthcare provider but must be cleaned and disinfected as often as necessary to remain unspoiled and sanitary. If there is no other option than to share a respirator between healthcare providers, the respirator must be cleaned and disinfected before it is worn by a different individual. Filters (except for unprotected disc types) may be used for an extended period, but the filter housing of cartridge types must be disinfected after each patient interaction.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-elastomeric-67)
### Powered air-purifying respirators
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Powered air-purifying respirators")\]
Main article: [Powered air-purifying respirator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_air-purifying_respirator "Powered air-purifying respirator")
A powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR) is a personal protective equipment in which a device with a filter and fan creates a highly filtered airflow towards the headpiece and a positive outflow of air from the headpiece.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-how-agp-69)
There is an increased risk for healthcare workers to become exposed to SARS-CoV-2 when they conduct [aerosol-generating procedures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol-generating_procedure "Aerosol-generating procedure") on COVID-19 patients, which is why it is argued that such situations may require enhanced personal protective equipment (i.e., higher than N95) such as PAPRs for healthcare workers.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-how-agp-69)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-70)
In a systematic review, Licina, Silvers, and Stuart (8 August 2020) said field studies indicate that there were equivalent rates of infection among healthcare workers who performed airway procedures on critical COVID-19 patients using PAPRs or other appropriate respiratory equipment (such as N95 or FFP2), but remarked that there is a need to further collect field data about optimal respiratory protection during highly virulent pandemics.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-71)
### Face masks with exhalation valves
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: Face masks with exhalation valves")\]
See also: [Exhalation valves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_\(respirator\)#Exhalation_valves "Mechanical filter (respirator)")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flow_visualization_of_an_N95_respirator_with_and_without_an_exhalation_valve_using_schlieren_imaging_and_light_scattering_\(mannequin\).jpg)
Flow visualizations comparing face mask efficacy with and without exhalation valve, illustrating the concern that exhalation valves allow exhaled respiratory droplets to reach others in proximity and would therefore not be appropriate in [source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)") strategies[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-72)
Some masks include an exhalation valve to expel the breath outwards, but that airflow is not filtered. Certification (as N95 or FFP2) is about the mask itself and does not warrant any safety about the air that is exhaled. Putting tape over the exhalation valve can make a mask or respirator as effective as one without a valve.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-73)
Scientists have visualized droplet dispersal for [masks with exhalation valves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_\(respirator\)#Exhalation_valves "Mechanical filter (respirator)") and [face shields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield") and concluded that they can be ineffective against COVID-19 spread (e.g., after a cough) and recommended alternatives.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-74)[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-75) A later study showed that some (but not all) respirators with exhalation valves can perform as well as a surgical mask. However, a respirator *without* an exhalation valve should still be preferred.[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-new_exhale-76)
## Recommendations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: Recommendations")\]
The use of face masks or coverings by the general public has been recommended by health officials to minimize the risk of transmissions, with authorities either requiring their use in certain settings, such as on public transport and in shops, or universally in public.
Health officials had advised that medical-grade face masks, such as [respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator "Respirator"), should be prioritized for use by healthcare workers in view of critical shortages, so they used to generally first and foremost recommend cloth masks for the general public.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ecdc-apr-77)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who20200606-78) However, recommendations have changed as the body of scientific knowledge evolved.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-mask_not_mask-79) Scientists now recommend having a triple-layered surgical mask and a respirator.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-80)
According to \#Masks4All, in September 2020, approximately 95% of the world population lived in a country where the government and leading disease experts recommend or require the use of masks in public places to limit the spread of COVID-19.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-masks4all-81)
### World Health Organization
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: World Health Organization")\]
A video from the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") regarding different types of face masks and how to use them
Early in 2020, the [WHO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") had only recommended medical masks for people with suspected infection and respiratory symptoms, their caregivers and those sharing living space, and healthcare workers.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-82)[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-83)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-6420-84) In April 2020, the WHO acknowledged that wearing a medical mask can limit the spread of certain respiratory viral diseases including COVID-19 but claimed that medical masks would create a false sense of security and neglect of other necessary measures, such as hand hygiene.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-6420-84)
The early WHO advice on limited mask usage was scrutinized for several reasons. First, experts and researchers pointed out the asymptomatic transmission of the virus.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-kes-pma-85)[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pri.org-86)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-BackfiredNYT-87)[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-feng-rati-88)[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-89) Second, according to Marteau *et al.* (27 July 2020), available evidence does not support the notion that masking adversely affects hand hygiene:[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-90) Dame [Theresa Marteau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_Marteau "Theresa Marteau"), one of the researchers, remarked that "The concept of [risk compensation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_compensation "Risk compensation"), rather than risk compensation itself, seems the greater threat to public health through delaying potentially effective interventions that can help prevent the spread of disease."[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-91)
The WHO revised its mask guidance in June 2020, with its officials acknowledging that studies indicated asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic spread.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-92) The updated advice recommended that the general public should wear non-medical [fabric masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask") where there is known or suspected widespread transmission and where physical distancing is not possible, and that vulnerable people (60 and over, or with underlying health risks) and people with any symptoms suggestive of COVID-19 as well as caregivers and healthcare workers should wear [surgical or procedure masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_mask "Surgical mask").[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who20200606-78) They stated that the purpose of mask usage is to prevent the wearer transmitting the virus to others (source control) and to offer protection to healthy wearers against infection (prevention).[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who20200606-78)
The WHO advises that non-medical fabric masks should comprise a minimum of three layers,[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who20200606-78) suggesting an inner layer made of [absorbent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophilic "Hydrophilic") material (such as cotton), a middle layer made of [non-woven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-woven "Non-woven") material (such as polypropylene) which may enhance filtration or retain droplets, and an outer layer made of [non-absorbent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobic "Hydrophobic") material (such as polyester or its blends) which may limit external contamination from penetration.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-93)
On 21 August 2020, the WHO and [UNICEF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNICEF "UNICEF") released an annex guidance for children.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-chi-94) For children five and younger, they advise that masks should not be required in consideration to a child's developmental milestones, compliance challenges, and autonomy required to use a mask properly, but recognized that the evidence supporting their cut-off age is limited and countries may hold a different and lower age of cut-off.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-chi-94) For children 6â11, they advise that mask usage should be decided in consideration of several factors including the intensity of local viral transmission, (the latest evidence about) the risk of infection for the age group, the social and cultural environment (which influences social interactions in communities and populations), the capacity to comply with appropriate mask usage, the availability of appropriate adult supervision, and the potential impact on learning and psychosocial development, as well as additional factors involving specific settings or circumstances (such as disabilities, underlying diseases, elderly people, sport activities, and schools).[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-chi-94) For children 12 and older, they advise that masks should be worn under the same conditions for adults in accordance with WHO guidance or national guidelines.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-chi-94)
Regarding the use of non-medical fabric masks in the general population, the WHO has stated that high-quality evidence for its widespread use is limited, but advises governments to encourage its use as physical distancing may not be possible in some settings, there is some evidence for asymptomatic transmission, and masks could be helpful to provide a barrier to limit the spread of potentially infectious droplets.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-95)
### United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention")\]
Further information: [Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Use_of_Cloth_Face_Coverings_to_Help_Slow_the_Spread_of_COVID-19.pdf)
Guidance from the US [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") on using and making cloth masks during the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic")[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-96)
Early in 2020, the [United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC) said it did not recommend the use of face masks for the general public.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bi-clg-97)[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-98) However, on 3 April 2020, the CDC changed its advice to recommend that people wear cloth face coverings "in public settings when around people outside their household, especially when social distancing measures are difficult to maintain".[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-99)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-100) In response to a media inquiry by [National Public Radio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Radio "National Public Radio"), the CDC said that this change in guidelines was due to the increasing and widespread transmission of the virus, citing studies published in February and March showing pre-symptomatic and asymptomatic transmission.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-NPRMasks2-101) In a subsequent interview and *[JAMA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAMA "JAMA")* editorial, the CDC director [Robert R. Redfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_R._Redfield "Robert R. Redfield") explained that the CDC's early guidance had been premised on an initial [absence of evidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absence_of_evidence "Absence of evidence") of disease transmission from pre- and asymptomatic individuals.[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-102)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-jama-umt-103)[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-104)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atemluftfilter_Einwegmaske.jpg)
The CDC does not recommend masks with [exhalation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhalation "Exhalation") valves or vents for source control.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc7820-63) In the healthcare workers' guidance, if only respirators with valves are available and source control is needed, the CDC recommends that the valve should be covered with a surgical mask, procedure mask, or cloth face covering.[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-105)
On 28 June, the CDC stated the "CDC recommends that people wear cloth face coverings in public settings and when around people who don't live in your household, especially when other [social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") measures are difficult to maintain. Cloth face coverings may help prevent people who have COVID-19 from spreading the virus to others. Cloth face coverings are most likely to reduce the spread of COVID-19 when they are widely used by people in public settings."[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-con28620-106) The CDC provided the caveat that cloth face coverings should not be worn by children under the age of two, people who have trouble breathing, or people who are unconscious, incapacitated, or otherwise unable to remove the mask without assistance.[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-con28620-106) In August 2020, the CDC added that [exhalation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhalation "Exhalation") valves or vents in masks do not help prevent the person wearing the mask from spreading COVID-19 to others.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc7820-63)[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-107)
In a November 2020 scientific brief, the CDC reiterated their recommendation for the community use of masks and specifically non-valved multi-layer cloth masks to prevent transmission of SARS-CoV-2.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sccom-108) They say the community's use of masks serves two primary purposes: to reduce the emission of virus-laden droplets from exhalation into the environment ([source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)")), which is especially relevant for asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic infected wearers who feel well and may be unaware of their infectiousness to others, and to reduce inhalation of these droplets through filtration for the wearer (personal protection).[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sccom-108) For filtration, the CDC says some fabrics (such as silk) may [hydrophobically](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobe "Hydrophobe") repel moist droplets, whereas other fabrics (such as [polyester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester "Polyester") or [polypropylene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylene "Polypropylene")) may [electrostatically](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatics "Electrostatics") capture droplets.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sccom-108) They concluded that the benefit of masking for [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2 "Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2") control is derived from the combination of source control and personal protection, which is likely complementary and possibly synergistic so that individual benefit increases with increasing community mask use.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sccom-108)
The CDC said healthcare personnel should wear a NIOSH-approved N95 (or equivalent or higher-level) respirator or a face mask (if a respirator is not available) with a face shield or goggles as part of their [personal protective equipment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment "Personal protective equipment"), while patients with suspected or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection should wear a face mask or cloth face covering during transport.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdcppe-109) As crisis strategy for known shortages of N95 respirators in healthcare settings, among other sequential measures, the CDC suggests use of respirators beyond the manufacturer-designated shelf life, use of respirators approved under standards used in other countries that are similar to NIOSH-approved respirators, limited re-use of respirators, use of additional respirators beyond the manufacturer-designated shelf life that have not been evaluated by NIOSH, and prioritizing the use of respirators and face masks by activity type.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-110)
In late July 2021, the CDC changed guidelines to recommend people, including those who are vaccinated, to continue masking in public indoor settings in areas with substantial and high transmissionâas there are indications that the [coronavirus such as the Delta variant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant") may infect even vaccinated people in rare occasionsâto help prevent transmission to other people.[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-111)[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-112) Previously, the CDC updated public guidance from May 2021 stated that those who are fully vaccinated can "resume activities without wearing masks or physically distancing, except where required by federal, state, local, tribal, or territorial laws, rules and regulations, including local business and workplace guidance."[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-113) However, critics posited that it was predicated on a key social factor, namely whether people can be trusted to wear a mask if they are not fully vaccinated.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-114)[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-115)[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-116)
On 25 February 2022, the CDC changed its guidelines to suggest that 70% of Americans need no longer wear masks, and no longer need to social distance or avoid crowded spaces.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-117) Under the new guidance, Americans in counties designated as medium-to-low-risk can go indoors without masks. In accordance with these new CDC guidelines, a number of US states ended their mask mandates for indoor spaces. However, federal officials emphasized that regardless of local conditions, individuals with COVID-19 or COVID-19 symptoms, as well as individuals who consider themselves to be high-risk, should continue to wear facial coverings. In addition to this, the CDC also dropped its recommendation for universal school mask mandates.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-118) These new recommendations assessed COVID-19 hospitalizations as well as the proportion of beds occupied by COVID-19 patients in certain areas.
#### Criticism of guidance
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: Criticism of guidance")\]
[Larry Gostin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Gostin "Larry Gostin"), a professor of public health law, said initial CDC and WHO guidance had given the public the wrong impression that masks do not work, even though scientific evidence to the contrary was already available.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-NPRMasks2-101) The confusing changing advice from discouraging to recommending public masking has led to decreasing public trust in the CDC.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-BackfiredNYT-87)[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-119) In June 2020 [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci"), a leading infectious disease expert for the United States government, stated that the delay in recommending general mask use was motivated by a desire to conserve dwindling supplies for medical professionals.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-JankowiczBI-120) Since September 2021, the director of the CDC, Rochelle Walensky, indicated that the schools that did not have mask mandates were 3.5 times as likely to experience COVID outbreaks as the ones that did. This statement caused controversy because the basis for it was an outlier study criticized by some experts as unreliable and basically useless to learn about the effects of mask mandates.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-121)
### China
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=14 "Edit section: China")\]
See also: [Anti-mask law § Asia-Pacific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-mask_law#Asia-Pacific "Anti-mask law")
In March 2020, when asked about the mistakes that other countries were making during the pandemic, the [Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention") director-general [George Fu Gao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Fu_Gao "George Fu Gao") said:
> The big mistake in the U.S. and Europe, in my opinion, is that people aren't wearing masks. This virus is transmitted by droplets and close contact. Droplets play a very important role â you've got to wear a mask because when you speak, there are always droplets coming out of your mouth. Many people have [asymptomatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic "Asymptomatic") or pre-symptomatic infections. If they are wearing face masks, it can prevent droplets that carry the virus from escaping and infecting others.[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-122)
### Europe
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=15 "Edit section: Europe")\]
See also: [Anti-mask law § Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-mask_law#Europe "Anti-mask law")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mille_Miglia_2020_partenza_N_8_e_9_in_Viale_Venezia_a_Brescia.jpg)
Masked participants in the 2020 edition of the [Mille Miglia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mille_Miglia "Mille Miglia") road race in [Brescia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brescia "Brescia"), [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy "Italy")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Munchin%27s_College_6.jpg)
Boys of [St Munchin's College](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Munchin%27s_College "St Munchin's College") in Ireland wearing face masks in class during the pandemic
Most countries in Europe introduced mandatory face mask rules for public places.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-123)[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-voa-nor-124) On 8 April 2020, the [European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control "European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control") (ECDC) published its masking recommendations, saying that the "use of face masks in the community could be considered, especially when visiting busy, closed spaces".[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-125)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ecdc-apr-77) On 15 February 2021, ECDC updated the recommendation stating, "Although the evidence for the use of medical face masks in the community to prevent COVID-19 is limited, face masks should be considered as a non-pharmaceutical intervention in combination with other measures as part of efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic."[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-126)
The [Nordic countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countries "Nordic countries") and [the Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") were notable exceptions in supporting the use of face masks,[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-voa-nor-124)[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-127) but eventually started to recommend masks. For example, due to the [COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands"), wearing a mouth/nose mask was made mandatory on public transportation per 1 June 2020.[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-amsterdamshallowman.com-128) The main reasoning against masks recommendations given by officials in the Nordic countries was that public masking is deemed an unnecessary precaution when infection levels remain low.[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-129) In June 2020, the [Norwegian Institute of Public Health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Institute_of_Public_Health "Norwegian Institute of Public Health") said asymptomatic individuals wearing face masks were not to be recommended due to the low prevalence of COVID-19 in the country but noted that it should be reconsidered if cases rise.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-130) Similarly, on 30 July 2020, the [Danish Health Authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Health_Authority "Danish Health Authority") director [SĂžren BrostrĂžm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Brostr%C3%B8m "SĂžren BrostrĂžm") said face covers did not make sense in the current situation with low infection levels, but that they needed to evaluate whether it could make sense in the long term.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bar-den-131)[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-132)
Sweden was notable as a country where face masks were not recommended to the general public and the [State Epidemiologist of Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_epidemiologist_\(Sweden\) "State epidemiologist (Sweden)"), [Anders Tegnell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Tegnell "Anders Tegnell"), was an opponent to face masks among the general population, although he stated that face masks might be suitable in workplaces where people are one to two meters from each other for more than fifteen minutes, something which some Swedish and foreign media have interpreted as a recommendation.[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-133)[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-134) This position was slightly reversed when [Prime Minister of Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Sweden "Prime Minister of Sweden"), [Stefan Löfven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_L%C3%B6fven "Stefan Löfven"), announced that they were recommending face masks on 18 December 2020.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-135) The [Public Health Agency of Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Sweden "Public Health Agency of Sweden") later clarified on their website that the recommendation would include citizens born before 2004 to wear masks during rush hour on public transportation throughout the country from 7 January 2021 onward.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-fol-7jan-136) On 20 December 2020, two days after the announcement was made, Prime Minister Löfven was [paparazzied](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paparazzi "Paparazzi") in a shopping mall in central Stockholm without wearing a face mask.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-137) By 22 January 2021, the [Stockholm Public Transport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storstockholms_Lokaltrafik "Storstockholms Lokaltrafik") estimated that about half of all passengers on trains and buses wore face masks during rush hour.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-138) Among those who chose not to follow the recommendation were Johan Carlson, the Director-General of the Public Health Agency, and Anders Tegnell, the state epidemiologist.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-139)[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-140)
## Rationale
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=16 "Edit section: Rationale")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Two_subjects_in_position_in_front_of_the_schlieren_mirror._Figure_4,_Journal.pone.0021392.g004.png)
[Schlieren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlieren "Schlieren") image showing the interaction of exhaled airflows between two people[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-141)
Masks are used to limit the transmission of [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") by respiratory droplets and aerosols, which are thought to be the major pathways of infection, exhaled from infected individuals during breathing, speaking, coughing, and sneezing.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-AR2021-1)[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ver-vis-142)[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-143) Properly worn masks are effective in both limiting the spread of the virus by an infected individual and protecting an uninfected individual from infection.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-interplay-3)
The [National Health Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Commission "National Health Commission") of China cited the following reasons for the wearing of masks by the public, including healthy individuals:
1. Asymptomatic transmission. Many people can be infected without symptoms or only with mild symptoms.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
2. Difficulty or impossibility of appropriate social distancing in many public places at all times.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
3. Cost-benefit mismatch. If only infected individuals wear masks, they would have a negative incentive to do so. An infected individual might get nothing positive, but only bear the costs such as inconvenience, purchasing expenses, and even prejudice.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
4. There is no shortage of masks in China. The country has the production capacity to meet the demand for masks.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
### Source control
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=17 "Edit section: Source control")\]
In a comment to *The Lancet*, Kar Keung Cheng, Tai Hing Lam, and Chi Chiu Leung argued that a public health rationale for mass masking is [source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)") to protect others from respiratory droplets and underscored the importance of this approach due to asymptomatic transmission.[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Wearing_face_masks_in_the_community-145) Wang Linfa, an infectious disease expert who heads a joint [Duke University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University") and [National University of Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Singapore "National University of Singapore") research team, said masking is about "preventing the [spread of disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_\(medicine\) "Transmission (medicine)") rather than preventing [getting the disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection "Infection")", remarking that the point is to cover the faces of people who are infected but do not know it, so it is imperative for everyone to wear one in public.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pri.org-86) The US CDC also highlighted the use of masks for source control, pointing out that asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic cases are estimated to account for over 50% of the transmissions.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-cbcu-146)
### Respiratory tract
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=18 "Edit section: Respiratory tract")\]
[Monica Gandhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monica_Gandhi "Monica Gandhi"), a medical professor at the [University of California, San Francisco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Francisco "University of California, San Francisco"), says [viral shedding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_shedding "Viral shedding") at high quantities from the [upper respiratory tract](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract "Upper respiratory tract"), characterized by unusually high levels of viral particles, means universal mask wearing is one of the best ways to limit the asymptomatic spread of the virus.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-147) Yixuan Hou *et al.* (July 2020) found that the [nasal cavity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_cavity "Nasal cavity") is the dominant initial site for SARS-CoV-2 infection with subsequent aspiration-mediated virus seeding into the lungs; the authors note that these findings argue for the widespread use of masks to prevent exposure to the nasal passages.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-148)
### Severity
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=19 "Edit section: Severity")\]
In a perspective, Monica Gandhi, [Chris Beyrer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Beyrer "Chris Beyrer"), and [Eric Goosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Goosby "Eric Goosby") posit that masking reduces the dose of the virus for the wearer and thus helps lower the severity of infection.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gbg-ino-149) They highlighted that the proportion of asymptomatic and mild infection increased in settings adopting population-level masking.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gbg-ino-149) One example involved a comparison of [outbreaks on cruise ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_cruise_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships"): the *[Diamond Princess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_Princess_\(ship\) "Diamond Princess (ship)")* had 18% asymptomatic cases among all the infected people, but this was 81% in the *[Greg Mortimer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Mortimer_\(ship\) "Greg Mortimer (ship)")* where masks were given to passengers and staff members.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gbg-ino-149)
### Precautionary
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=20 "Edit section: Precautionary")\]
[Trisha Greenhalgh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisha_Greenhalgh "Trisha Greenhalgh") *et al.* argue for the [precautionary principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precautionary_principle "Precautionary principle") as a reason to adopt policies encouraging the wearing of face masks in public, given that there's much to gain and little to lose from adopting masks considering the seriousness of the outbreak.[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-150) Others agreed, based on the evidence-based principle that the likely benefits outweighed the likely harms.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-151)[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-152)
### Distancing
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=21 "Edit section: Distancing")\]
Leonardo Setti *et al.* argue that face masks should be used to complement [social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") of six feet or two meters, because this inter-personal distance is more effective if people are masked as studies indicate that SARS-CoV-2 could be transmitted over greater distances.[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-153) Chi Chiu Leung *et al.* also argue that face masks complement social distancing, as a high degree of compliance for distancing is necessary to achieve the greatest impact but is not always achievable.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-leu-com-154) For instance, even if social distancing is rigorously practiced, there are necessary person-to-person contacts (such as going to the supermarket and other necessary activities to sustain livelihoods), so masks would help in situations when social distancing is not feasible and maximize the effectiveness of social distancing.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-leu-com-154)
### Touching
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=22 "Edit section: Touching")\]
According to Stephen Griffin, a virologist at the [University of Leeds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leeds "University of Leeds"), "Wearing a mask can reduce the propensity for people to touch their faces, which is a major source of infection without proper hand hygiene."[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-155) Ka Hung Chan and Kwok-Yung Yuen argue that face masks can reduce [fomite transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite_transmission "Fomite transmission") (in addition to the transmission through droplets or aerosol) of the virus, as masks can prevent people from spreading body fluids by touching their noses or mouths (such as trying to cover up a sneeze or cough).[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-dis-re-156)
A paper by Miyu Moriyama *et al.* (September 2020), which links the seasonality of respiratory viral diseases to decreased air [humidity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity "Humidity") due to indoor heating, argues that mask-wearing helps limit respiratory virus transmission in winter because masks keep the nose warm and moist.[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-157)
Social media claims that masks could reduce the oxygen levels in older people were refuted by a small study of [SpO2 levels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_\(medicine\) "Oxygen saturation (medicine)"), the results of which were published by JAMA.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-158)
## Efficacy
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=23 "Edit section: Efficacy")\]
### Overall
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=24 "Edit section: Overall")\]
See also: [Source control (respiratory disease)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)") and [N95 respirator § Criticism of N95 RCTs and other controversial studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator#Criticism_of_N95_RCTs_and_other_controversial_studies "N95 respirator")
Observational studies, randomised controlled trials (RCTs), and mask filtration testing were used to evaluate the effectiveness of masks. Most of the evidence for the efficacy of masks against COVID comes from observational studies.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-roy-soc-159) One paper did not consider RCTs a "gold standard" of evidence, since most effective public health policies had never been evaluated through an RCT, but that, overall, there was "robust data" to support the use of face masks to reduce community transmission of COVID.[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CashGoldwasser-2023-160) Another review said that non-RCT evidence cannot be ignored.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-longreview-161) As of August 2023, RCTs played a relatively small role in the evaluation of non-pharmaceutical interventions during the pandemic.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-roy-soc-159)
A 2023 systematic review from the [Cochrane Collaboration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_Collaboration "Cochrane Collaboration") said the evidence from [randomized controlled trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial "Randomized controlled trial") was still inconclusive over whether masking prevented the spread of influenza/COVIDâlike illness through a population, noting that the answer could be different for different viruses.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cochrane-6) This Cochrane review was criticized for combining studies about influenza and about COVID, which could "yield invalid conclusions".[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CashGoldwasser-2023-160) Another 2023 systematic review, by the [Royal Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society "Royal Society"), found the evidence from RCTs was that masks reduced risk by 12% to 18%.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-royalsoc-7)
A 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on face mask use in *[PLOS One](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLOS_One "PLOS One")* showed that with 95% confidence, masks reduced respiratory infection incidence by between 3% and 19% in a community setting.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ollila2022-162) A 2023 article in *[JAMA Network Open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAMA_Network_Open "JAMA Network Open")* found that "robust data" support the use of face masks to reduce community transmission of COVID.[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CashGoldwasser-2023-160) A 2023 review in *[Archives of Disease in Childhood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archives_of_Disease_in_Childhood "Archives of Disease in Childhood")* on mask wearing by children found no good clinical evidence that mask wearing was of benefit for them in preventing COVID-19 transmission or infection.[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-163)
A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of masks published in *[The BMJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_BMJ "The BMJ")* in November 2021 showed that with 95% confidence, masks reduced COVID incidence by between 25% and 71%. This result is based on six primary studies. These studies were of several different types: case-control studies in Thailand and three Western countries (where cases identified whether they were wearing a mask when they had contact with a known positive patient), a randomized control study in Denmark which assessed the impact on mask-wearing on the wearer, a natural experiment that compared US states that implemented mask mandates on the level of COVID, a cross-sectional comparative study in China which surveyed whether a mask protected the wearer, and a retrospective cohort study in China which assessed the impact of masks worn by infected and uninfected family members. Another five studies were not included because they were not directly comparable. They assessed the impact of mask mandates across countries on mortality (finding a 45.7% reduction), of mask mandates in the US on [R](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number#Effective_reproduction_number "Basic reproduction number") (finding a 29% reduction), a comparative incidence of COVID associated with mask-wearing comparing HK and South Korea (finding a significant reduction), a natural experiment across US states finding a significant effect on case rates, and a cross-sectional study assessing a 10% increase in mask wearing led to a 71% reduction in the risk to others. A lot of other papers had to be rejected because of the risk of [confounding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confounding "Confounding") influences.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Talic-4) Other reviews in 2020 and 2021 found that there is consistent evidence that mask-wearing is effective in reducing the spread of the [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") virus[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sci-5)[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-164) and that population-wide masking proved significant in reducing the transmission of COVID-19.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8)[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-165)
Masks are not of equal efficacy. While N95 masks outperform surgical masks in filtration, healthcare worker population studies have not shown a significant difference between the two, as of June 2021.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) A later study performed in 2024, however, criticized the methodology of such studies due to substantial healthcare worker compliance problems.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-longreview-161)
N95 and surgical masks, both designed for single use, can be decontaminated at a loss to mask integrity and filtration efficacy.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) Both N95 and surgical outperform cloth masks, which the general public has used based on their greater availability during mask supply shortages.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) Cloth and fabric masks have protected wearers from COVID-19, with some variability,[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ataei-10) such as fabric type, layer count, and mask fit.[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-166) Several observational studies, including four reviewed in a 2020 *[Lancet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet "The Lancet")* meta-analysis, have found that masks offer statistically significant protection from infection, although the level of protection varies according to the mask type and setting.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lan-chu-66)
Evaluation of cloth mask efficacy is further complicated by the wide variation in fabric and fit, among other factors.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) Concerning the precedent of mask efficacy in limiting transmission of respiratory viral illnesses other than COVID, a clinical trial meta-analysis in May 2021 showed no significant evidence of efficacy, though the authors noted the evidence to be poor quality and subject to confounding factors like consistent mask usage adherence.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Nanda-167)
Protection efficiency can also be evaluated by generated aerosol. In a paper evaluating the efficacy of various N95, surgical and cloth masks, the tested N95 respirator (a 3M 8210) performed the best in filtration in both inhalation and exhalation, while the surgical (from BYD Care) and cloth masks (Forever Family and Maskfit Proshield) performed similarly in filtration, with cloth masks performing worse than surgical masks in SPS30 readings, and double-masking providing little benefit. The tested N95, when not fitted, performed as well as a surgical or cloth mask, depending on the exercise.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cloth_v_surgical-11)
### Cloth masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=25 "Edit section: Cloth masks")\]
Community studies have shown some cloth masks to be effective at filtering respiratory droplets, which can carry SARS-CoV-2.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) Cloth masks of a cotton quilt (120 thread per inch), bonded copy paper, flannel, and a chiffon or silk hybrid with cotton are over 90% effective at blocking particles the size droplets that carry SARS-CoV-2, according to an October 2021 review of 42 studies. Multilayered fabrics provided improved breathability and filtration efficacy. Among readily available fabrics, two-layered 100% cotton, two-layered cotton quilt, hybrid masks, and cotton flannel performed best.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ataei-10) Filtration effectiveness generally improves with thread count.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8)
The use of a face mask can result in significant risk reduction of infection with epidemic-causative [beta coronaviruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betacoronavirus "Betacoronavirus"). N95 or similar respirators account for a larger risk reduction than disposable surgical or other similar masks.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lan-chu-66) Masks are protective for both healthcare workers and people in communities exposed to infection; evidence supports masking in both healthcare and non-healthcare settings, with no striking differences detected in the effectiveness of masks between the settings.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lan-chu-66)
The CDC highlighted a number of studies in their 10 November 2020, scientific brief detailing the benefits of community masking.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-cbcu-146) In a study of 124 Beijing households with at least one laboratory-confirmed case of SARS-CoV-2 infection, mask use by the [index patient](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_case "Index case") and family contacts before the index patient developed symptoms reduced secondary transmission within the households by 79%.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-168) A retrospective case-control study from [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") documented that, among more than 1,000 people interviewed as part of [contact tracing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_tracing "Contact tracing") investigations, those who reported having always worn a mask during high-risk exposures experienced a greater than 70% reduced risk of acquiring infection compared with people who did not wear masks under these circumstances.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-169) A similar study in three Western countries also came up with a 70% risk reduction.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-170) Investigations involving [infected passengers aboard flights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_aviation "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation") longer than ten hours strongly suggest that masking prevented in-flight transmissions, as demonstrated by the absence of infection developing in other passengers and crew in the 14 days following exposure.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-171) In addition, the CDC said the benefit of universal masking, including reductions in infections and mortality, has been demonstrated in community-level analyses by a set of studies involving the [Massachusetts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") hospital system, the German city [Jena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jena "Jena"), the American state [Arizona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona "Arizona"), a panel of 15 American states and Washington, D.C., Canada nationally, and the United States nationally.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-cbcu-146)
In addition to studying the impact of mask-wearing on transmission in a community, direct studies can be done on whether a mask filters out virus-carrying particles from the air. In August 2021, a study of the fabric of masks worn in the community found that they filtered out between half and three-quarters of the viral RNA.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-172) Respirators made to a standard such as [N95](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator") or [FFP2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_standards "FFP standards") when properly fitted should filter out at least 95% of the virus.
### Optimal face mask designs and use
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=26 "Edit section: Optimal face mask designs and use")\]
A [scientific review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_review "Scientific review") of research about the overall efficacy of face masks in terms of [product design](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_design "Product design") (such as thermal comfort and flow resistance) and ways of usage found that [fluid dynamics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamics "Fluid dynamics") and fabrication techniques have a significant impact on performance. According to the review, studies showed that cotton and surgical masks had a microorganism filtration efficiency of 86.4% and 99.9% respectively, while the surgical mask was three times more effective in blocking transmission than the cotton mask and could lead to a decrease of the [effective reproduction number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_reproduction_number "Effective reproduction number") to below 1 â which could halt epidemic spread in a region where 70% of residents use them consistently in public.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-173)[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-174)
By January 2021, several lines of research recommended double-masking (wearing a cloth mask over a surgical mask, along with using a mask filter, or wearing a nylon covering over a mask) as being efficacious.[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-175)
## Correct handling and wearing of masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=27 "Edit section: Correct handling and wearing of masks")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:17.Before.NDOP.BaltimoreMD.30May2020_\(50021311482\).jpg)
A properly-worn face mask or covering covers the nose, mouth, and chin.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdchow-176)
As masking became widespread during the pandemic, it gave rise to the issue that many individuals of the public are not correctly handling and wearing their masks.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-177)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-178)[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-179) Suzanne Willard, a clinical professor at [Rutgers School of Nursing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_School_of_Nursing "Rutgers School of Nursing"), remarked that the general public is not used to wearing masks and lay people are asked to use a tool health care professionals are trained to use.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-180)
A commonly seen issue is that people are wearing masks pulled down below the nose, which is an incorrect way to wear a mask.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ct-pro-181)[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-182) Zane Saul, the chief of infectious disease at [Bridgeport Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeport_Hospital "Bridgeport Hospital"), remarked that "I really have observed people not covering their noses and just covering their mouths. It's just as important to cover your nose."[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ct-pro-181) Daniel Gottschall, the vice president of medical affairs for the Fairfield region of Hartford HealthCare and St. Vincent's Medical Center in Bridgeport, explained that "By wearing a mask you're keeping a lot of those secretions inside of you. If you wear it just over your nose or just over your mouth and you're not diligent (about keeping it in place), you're exposing the secretions that come out of that part of the body to other people."[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ct-pro-181)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gov._Wolf_Announces_$225_Million_Grant_Program_for_Small_Businesses_Impacted_by_COVID-19_\(49984832558\).jpg)
A face mask is carefully taken off by handling the ties or loops without touching the front.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdchow-176)
[Zeynep Tufekci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeynep_Tufekci "Zeynep Tufekci"), a professor of information science, remarked that messaging on masking should have been used to provide proper instructions to the public (as was done for hand washing) rather than used to discourage people from masking because of the possibility that they would wear them improperly, as had happened early in the pandemic.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-BackfiredNYT-87) The [European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control "European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control") highlighted that the appropriate use of face masks in communities could be improved through education campaigns and is key for its effectiveness as a measure.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ecdc-apr-77) Health institutions such as the World Health Organization have provided public guidance on the do's and don'ts on masking.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)
## Shortages of face masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=28 "Edit section: Shortages of face masks")\]
See also: [Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic")
### Early epidemic in mainland China
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=29 "Edit section: Early epidemic in mainland China")\]
As the epidemic accelerated, the mainland market in China saw a shortage of [face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_mask "Surgical mask") due to increased public demand.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-sohu161795-183) Face masks were quickly sold out in stores throughout China.[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-udn4304194-184) [Hoarding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoarding "Hoarding") and price gouging drove up prices, so the market regulator said it would crack down on such acts.[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-southcn190111854-185)[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gov1620613-186) In January 2020, price controls were imposed on all face masks on [Taobao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taobao "Taobao") and [Tmall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tmall "Tmall").[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ycwb30486944-187) Other Chinese e-commerce platforms â [JD.com](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JD.com "JD.com"),[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bjnews677805-188) [Suning.com](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suning.com "Suning.com"),[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bjnews677740-189) [Pinduoduo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinduoduo "Pinduoduo")[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bjnews677744-190) â did likewise; third-party vendors would be subject to price caps, with violators subject to sanctions.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
By March, China had quadrupled its production capacity to a hundred million masks per day.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
### National stocks and shortages
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=30 "Edit section: National stocks and shortages")\]
At the beginning of the [COVID-19 outbreak in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States"), the U.S.'s [Strategic National Stockpile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_National_Stockpile "Strategic National Stockpile") contained just twelve million N95 respirators, far fewer than estimates of the amount required.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Khazan-191) Millions of N95s and other supplies were purchased from 2005 to 2007 using congressional supplemental funding, but 85 million N95s were distributed to combat the [2009 swine flu pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic "2009 swine flu pandemic"), and Congress did not make the necessary appropriations to replenish stocks.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Khazan-191) The Stockpile's primary focus has also primarily been on [biodefense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodefense "Biodefense") (defense against a terrorist or [weapon of mass destruction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction "Weapon of mass destruction") attack) and response to natural disaster, with the infectious disease a secondary focus.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Khazan-191) By 1 April 2020, the Stockpile was nearly emptied of protective gear.[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-washingtonpost7148009252-192) In January and February 2020, U.S. manufacturers, with the encouragement of the Trump administration, shipped millions of face masks and other personal protective equipment to the PRC, a decision that subsequently prompted criticism given the mask shortage that the U.S. faced during the pandemic.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-193)
In France, [2009 H1N1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic "2009 swine flu pandemic")\-related spending rose to âŹ382 million, mainly on supplies and vaccines, which was later criticized.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194)[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-BFMTV-195) It was decided in 2011 to not replenish its stocks and rely more on supply from China and [just-in-time logistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time_manufacturing "Just-in-time manufacturing").[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194) In 2010, its stock included a billion surgical masks and 600 million FFP2 masks; in early 2020, it was 150 million and zero respectively.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194) While stocks were progressively reduced, a 2013 rationale stated the aim to reduce costs of acquisition and storage, now distributing this effort to all private enterprises as an optional best practice to ensure their workers' protection.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194) This was especially relevant to FFP2 masks, more costly to acquire and store.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194)[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-196) As the [COVID-19 pandemic in France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France "COVID-19 pandemic in France") took an increasing toll on medical supplies, masks and PPE supplies ran low, causing national outrage. France needed forty million masks per week, according to French president [Emmanuel Macron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron "Emmanuel Macron").[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Radio-France-Internationale-2020-197) France instructed its few remaining mask-producing factories to work 24/7 shifts and to ramp up national production to forty million masks per month.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Radio-France-Internationale-2020-197) French lawmakers opened an inquiry on the past management of these strategic stocks.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-198) The mask shortage has been called a *"scandal d'Ătat"* (State scandal).[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-199) Thousands of French individuals and companies teamed up during the outbreak to form a decentralized network of [Fab labs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_lab "Fab lab") and ad-hoc retooled production facilities, producing more than a million [face shields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield"), masks and other kinds of PPE during the height of the pandemic.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-200)
In late March and early April 2020, as Western countries were, in turn, dependent on China for supplies of masks and other equipment, China was seen as making a soft-power play to influence world opinion.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bbc52092395-201)[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-20200402businessinsider-202) However, a batch of masks purchased by the Netherlands was rejected as being sub-standard. The Dutch health ministry issued a recall of 600,000 face masks from a Chinese supplier on 21 March which did not fit properly and whose filters did not work as intended despite them having a quality certificate.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bbc52092395-201)[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-20200402businessinsider-202) The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded that the customer should "double-check the instructions to make sure that you ordered, paid for, and distributed the right ones. Do not use non-surgical masks for surgical purposes."[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-20200402businessinsider-202) Eight million of eleven million masks delivered to Canada in May also failed to meet standards.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-203)[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-204)
### Theft
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=31 "Edit section: Theft")\]
Thefts of face masks and other personal protective equipment were reported at hospitals in the United States and other countries.[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-qz-205) The [Naval Medical Center San Diego](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Medical_Center_San_Diego "Naval Medical Center San Diego") began mandatory random bag checks for staff members, after several incidents of theft.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-206) Hospitals in Canada reported that theft of PPE had become so commonplace that face masks had to be locked away. According to hospital staff, the policy of locking up PPE often resulted in staff requests for PPE being denied.[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-207) Thefts of N95 masks were reported from a locked hospital office in South Carolina and off-loading docks at the [University of Washington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington "University of Washington").[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-aamc-208)
Two thousand surgical masks were stolen from a hospital in Marseille, France, during the early months of the COVID-19 outbreak, in March. The masks were stolen from an area of the hospital that could only be accessed by surgery patients and staff.[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-209) A hospital employee in [Cooperstown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperstown,_New_York "Cooperstown, New York"), New York, was charged with misdemeanor [larceny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larceny "Larceny") for a similar incident.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-210) Hospital employees in [West Java](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Java "West Java"), [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"), were arrested for stealing hundreds of boxes of face masks and selling them on the black market.[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-211)
One month later an Indiana hospital pharmacy reported a theft to the [Drug Enforcement Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration "Drug Enforcement Administration"). Along with [morphine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine "Morphine"), with a street value estimated at \$3000, the thieves, one of whom was an employee of the hospital and had an access card, had stolen masks and other in-demand goods. In the criminal complaint, filed in Indiana federal court, a DEA task force officer said:[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-qz-205)
> Based on my training and experience, I know these items are highly sought after in the secondary market due to shortages resulting from the Coronavirus pandemic and that these types of items are being sold on the secondary market at an increased price well over fair market value.
A former hospital employee in Georgia was arrested on allegations of stealing masks and gloves from the hospital on five separate occasions after he was fired.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-212) Also in April, an employee of the Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center was charged with a misdemeanor for stealing disposable gowns and surgical masks from the hospital.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-213) PPE, including masks, were reported stolen by a member of the housekeeping staff at a hospital in Arizona and a physician's assistant in Florida.[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-214)[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-215)
According to a [BBC News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News") report from August 2020, hospital staff in Ghana were selling PPE on the black market.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-216)
Two government workers from the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in [North Charleston](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Charleston,_South_Carolina "North Charleston, South Carolina"), South Carolina, were charged in October for conspiracy to steal PPE, [obstruction of justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice "Obstruction of justice") and lying to the FBI.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-217)
### N95 and FFP masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=32 "Edit section: N95 and FFP masks")\]
N95 and FFP masks were in short supply and high demand during the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-218)[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194) Production of N95 masks was limited due to constraints on the supply of [nonwoven polypropylene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonwoven_polypropylene "Nonwoven polypropylene") fabric (which is used as the primary filter), as well as the cessation of exports from China.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-VOADeliver-54)[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-219) China controls fifty percent of global production of masks, and facing its own coronavirus epidemic, dedicated all its production for domestic use, only allowing exports through government-allocated humanitarian assistance.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-VOADeliver-54)
### United States
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=33 "Edit section: United States")\]
Main article: [Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States")
The [Strategic National Stockpile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_National_Stockpile "Strategic National Stockpile") had not been refilled following the [H1N1 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H1N1_pandemic "H1N1 pandemic"),[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-220) which quickly led to respirator and other PPE shortages.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-221)
In March 2020, US President [Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") applied the [Defense Production Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Production_Act "Defense Production Act") against the American company [3M](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3M "3M"), which allows the [Federal Emergency Management Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency "Federal Emergency Management Agency") to obtain N95 respirators from 3M.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Fabian-222)[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-223) [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House "White House") trade adviser [Peter Navarro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Navarro "Peter Navarro") said there were concerns that 3M products were not making their way to the US.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Fabian-222) 3M replied that it has not changed the prices it charges, and was unable to control the prices its dealers or retailers charge.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Fabian-222)
[Jared Moskowitz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Moskowitz "Jared Moskowitz"), the head of the [Florida Division of Emergency Management](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_Division_of_Emergency_Management "Florida Division of Emergency Management"), accused 3M of selling N95 masks directly to foreign countries for cash, instead of to the US. Moskowitz said 3M agreed to authorize distributors and brokers to represent they were selling the masks to Florida, but instead his team for the last several weeks "get to warehouses that are completely empty". He then said the 3M-authorized US distributors later told him the masks Florida contracted for never showed up because the company instead prioritized orders that came in later, for higher prices, from foreign countries (including Germany, Russia, and France).[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-224)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-225)[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-226)
*[Forbes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes "Forbes")* reported that "roughly 280 million masks from warehouses around the US had been purchased by foreign buyers \[on 30 March 2020\] and were earmarked to leave the country, according to the broker â and that was in *one* day", causing massive critical shortages of masks in the US.[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-227)[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-228)
Masks were still in short supply in late September, eight months into the pandemic. The [Defense Production Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Production_Act "Defense Production Act") powers that averted a ventilator shortage were not used as extensively to increase N95 production, despite outcry from healthcare workers. Even though 3M has increased domestic production from 20 million to 95 million masks a month, they say "the demand is more than we, and the entire industry, can supply for the foreseeable future."[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-septshortage-229)[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-230) N95 manufacturers and other companies were reluctant to invest more in domestic mask production because manufacturing in the United States is not profitable for them. There are some American companies who can shift production temporarily to meet the demand for masks but most of them have not received any funding through the DPA. Some have taken the initiative but there were problems with the fit of the masks and obtaining regulatory approvals. 3M and other N95 manufacturers have not entered into any corporate partnerships to share intellectual property or increase N95 production.[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-septshortage-229)
Trump gave Rear Admiral John Polowczyk the responsibility for PPE logistics. Polowczyk said he believed "hospital systems are making management decisions that might lead to an appearance that we still don't have masks, which is the farthest from the truth."[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-septshortage-229)
By February 2021, suppliers had increased production but not enough to meet demand. Companies cited concerns about post-pandemic demand as a reason for not entering the market. Hospitals increased supplies, but even at well-funded hospitals, healthcare workers could be expected to wear their masks for up to a month. Counterfeits continued to pose problems for purchasers.[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-231) Numerous calls by public health experts had been made to provide high-filtration masks such as N95s or their equivalents to the general public in high-risk settings.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-232)[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-233)
On 19 January 2022, the [Biden administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biden_administration_COVID-19_action_plan "Biden administration COVID-19 action plan") is reported to begin freely providing 400 million N95 masks in the United States.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-NYT-20220119-234)
### Germany
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=34 "Edit section: Germany")\]
In early April 2020, the Berlin politician [Andreas Geisel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Geisel "Andreas Geisel") alleged that a shipment of 200,000 N95 masks it had ordered from American producer 3M's China facility was intercepted in [Bangkok](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok "Bangkok"), Thailand, and diverted to the United States. 3M said they had no knowledge of the shipment, stating "We know nothing of an order from the Berlin police for 3M masks that come from China." The US government denied any confiscation and said they use appropriate channels for all their purchases.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Betschka-235)[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-236) Berlin police later confirmed that the shipment was not seized by US authorities.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
This revelation outraged the Berlin opposition, whose [CDU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany "Christian Democratic Union of Germany") parliamentary group leader Burkard Dregger accused Geisel of "deliberately misleading Berliners" in order "to cover up its own inability to obtain protective equipment". [FDP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_\(Germany\) "Free Democratic Party (Germany)") interior expert Marcel Luthe also criticized Geisel.[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-237) *[Politico Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politico_Europe "Politico Europe")* reported that "the Berliners are taking a page straight out of the Trump playbook and not letting facts get in the way of a good story."[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-238) *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")* also reported that "There is no solid proof Trump \[nor any other American official\] approved the \[German\] heist."[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-239)
German citizens decided to contribute to solving the supply crisis by [making](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture "Maker culture") their own masks and other types of PPE like [face shields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield") that gave masks additional protection; the largest group of makers measured 6,800 individuals, collectively producing more than 100,000 pieces of protective equipment.[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-240)
### Canada
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=35 "Edit section: Canada")\]
As more countries restricted the export of N95 masks, Novo Textiles in [British Columbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia") announced plans to start producing N95 masks in Canada.[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-241) AMD Medicom in [Quebec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec "Quebec") had long been the main Canadian company producing N95s, but China, France, the Republic of China ([Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan")) and the United States all banned exports of medical equipment, barring Medicom's factories there from exporting the masks to Canada. The [Government of Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Canada "Government of Canada") subsequently awarded Medicom a 10-year contract to build a factory to produce masks in Montreal.[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-242)
## Mask industry
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=36 "Edit section: Mask industry")\]
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|  | This section needs to be **updated**. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. *(January 2021)* |
### Manufacturing
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=37 "Edit section: Manufacturing")\]
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| [![\[icon\]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This section **needs expansion**. You can help by [adding missing information](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=). *(January 2021)* |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:02.05_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%AA%E8%A6%96%E3%80%8C%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E5%BA%B7%E5%8C%A0%E8%A3%BD%E9%80%A0%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E3%80%8D_\(49491845167\).jpg)
Masks being produced in [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan")
#### China
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=38 "Edit section: China")\]
As of 2019, mainland China manufactured half the world's output of masks.[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-243) As COVID-19 spread, enterprises in several countries quickly started or increased the production of face masks.[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-244) Cottage industries and volunteer groups also emerged, manufacturing cloth masks for localized use. They used various patterns, including some with a bend-to-fit nosepiece insert. Individual hospitals developed and requested a library of specific patterns.[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-245)[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-246)[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-247)[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-248)
In the first five months of 2020, 70,802 new companies registered in China to make or trade face masks, a 1,256% increase compared to 2019, and 7,296 new companies registered to make or trade [melt blown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melt_blowing "Melt blowing") fabrics, a key component of face masks, a 2,277% rise from 2019.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-prod12-249)
In April, however, the Chinese government stepped in with tighter regulations. 867 producers of the melt-blown fabric were shut down in [Yangzhong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangzhong "Yangzhong") city alone. Many speculative manufacturers were forced to quit due to changing export rules and tighter licensing requirements in China and weaker demand for lower quality products globally.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-prod12-249)
#### Open-Source and Do-It-Yourself Masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=39 "Edit section: Open-Source and Do-It-Yourself Masks")\]
[Open Source Medical Supplies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Medical_Supplies "Open Source Medical Supplies") coordinated and shared open-source mask designs.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-250)
### Distribution
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=40 "Edit section: Distribution")\]
Some clinical stockpiles have proved inadequate in scale, and the non-medical market demand expanded dramatically as the [general public](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_public "General public") determined that masks were essential, or they began obeying [public health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health "Public health") mandates, or both.[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-251)
Between April and June 2020, sellers on [Etsy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etsy "Etsy") sold 29 million cloth face masks worth an estimated \$364 million. Approximately four million people (about seven percent of buyers) visited the website *just* to buy masks.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-252)
## Society and culture
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=41 "Edit section: Society and culture")\]
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|  | The examples and perspective in this section **deal primarily with the US, West Europe and East Asia and do not represent a [worldwide view](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias") of the subject**. You may [improve this section](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit), discuss the issue on the [talk page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Talk:Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic"), or create a new section, as appropriate. *(January 2025)* *([Learn how and when to remove this message](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal "Help:Maintenance template removal"))* |
### Attitudes
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=42 "Edit section: Attitudes")\]
In mid-2020 as the pandemic grew, the public interest in face masks as a means of protection was greatly increased,[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-253) often even before governments implemented mandatory mask-wearing.[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-254)
In [East Asian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian "East Asian") societies, a primary reason for mask-wearing is to protect others from oneself.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nyt-mwi-255)[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wo-wsc-256) The broad assumption behind the act is that anyone, including seemingly healthy people, can be a carrier of the coronavirus.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wo-wsc-256) The usage of masks is seen as a collective responsibility to reduce the transmission of the virus.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-zh-fmc-257) A face mask is thus seen as a symbol of solidarity in Eastern countries.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-zh-fmc-257) Elsewhere, the need for mask-wearing is still often seen from an individual perspective where masks only serve to protect oneself.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nyt-mwi-255) In April 2020, a study comparing masking-related perceptions between China and three German speaking countries (Austria, Germany, and Switzerland) also showed that Chinese had stronger pro-masking perceptions than the European participants.[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ReferenceA-258) However, in 2020, people began promoting a new meaning of masking as an act of solidarity to each other.[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-259)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Wearing_face_masks_in_the_community-145)[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-260)[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-261)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koronav%C3%ADrus_-_Bratislavsk%C3%BD_samospr%C3%A1vny_kraj_\(49677032937\).jpg)
[Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") was one of the first countries in the world to introduce universal masking in public places.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-262)
Existing cultural norms and social pressure may impede mask-wearing in public, which may explain why masking was initially avoided in the West.[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-le-wfm-263) According to Joseph Tsang, a Hong Kong doctor, and infectious disease expert, the promotion of universal masking may resolve perceptions against mask-wearing because mask-wearing is intimidating if few people wear masks due to cultural barriers, but if all people wear masks it shows a message that people are in this together.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pri.org-86) A May 2020 study surveying people in Spain showed that an individual's likelihood of voluntarily wearing a mask is positively correlated with the proportion of uptake in the surrounding area.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-264)
Helene-Mari van der Westhuizen *et al.* state that successful implementation of public masking policies, especially in communities that have no cultural traditions for such interventions, requires a reframing of social meanings and moral worth, and that public messages help to conceptualize who typically wear masks and what the moral valence of masking is.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-west-fcfc-265) They note that the earliest members who wear face coverings may be seen as deviant when the community starts to adopt masking, but that changing narratives will generate new meanings that construe those who do not mask as deviant.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-west-fcfc-265) Their argument is that public health messaging about face coverings should shift from masks as a [medical intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_intervention "Medical intervention") to masks as a [social practice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_practice "Social practice") based on values such as social responsibility and solidarity, as a successful uptake requires face coverings to be grounded in the social and cultural realities of affected communities.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-west-fcfc-265) Clemens Eisenmann and Christian Meyer argue that the question, how the meaning of wearing face masks develops in society, depends on their practical and public uses within everyday social interactions.[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note--e-m-rec-266) They explain that masking has destabilized interactional infrastructures embedded in routines, revealing both taken-for-granted infrastructures of everyday life â including social inequalities (such as those of people reliant on lip reading) and moral evaluations in transcultural situations (such as those involving implicit racism in which the health instructions of essential workers belonging to certain groups are disregarded) â and new challenges on the interactional level.[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note--e-m-rec-266)
In the Western world, as of 2020 the public usage of masks still often carried a large stigma,[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nyt-mwi-255)[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-zh-fmc-257)[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-te-wwm-267) being seen as a sign of sickness.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-te-wwm-267) This stigmatization is a large obstacle to overcome, because people may feel too ashamed to wear a mask in public and therefore opt to not wear one.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-268) There is also a divide within the Western world, as seen in the [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic") and [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia") where mass mobilization has occurred to reinforce the solidarity in mask-wearing since March 2020.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nyt-mwi-255)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\]
Mask-wearing has been called a [prosocial behavior](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosocial_behavior "Prosocial behavior") in which one protects others within their community.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hj-wapo-269)[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-270)[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271) On social media, there has been an effort with the \#masks4all campaign to encourage people to use masks.[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-272) Nevertheless, there were many occurrences of violence and hostility by people who became aggressive after they were requested to wear a mask or saw people wearing masks in [customer-based](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_industry "Service industry") establishments.[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-273)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-274)[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-275)[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-276) Multiple people were killed in attacks by people who [refused to wear masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask_refusal "Mask refusal").[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-277) It led to concerns about worker safety, so employees were discouraged to actively enforce masking policies due to the potential of hostile situations, while enforcement by official authorities is severely lacking.[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-278)
Masking has been subjected to racial politics in Western countries.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-conv-utr-279) For instance, in 2020 it had been heavily racialized as an Asian phenomenon.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-zh-fmc-257)[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note--e-m-rec-266) This had been reinforced in a lot of media discourses, where stories about the pandemic were often accompanied by unrelated imagery of Asian people in masks.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-conv-utr-279)[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-280) The focus on race brought hostility towards Asians who are confronted with the choice to wear masks as a precaution while they face discrimination for it.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-conv-utr-279)[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-281) Huang Yinxiang, a sociologist from the University of Manchester, described maskaphobia (negative prejudice, fear or bitter hatred against people wearing face masks) as making Asians in Western countries into targets for racists who want to legitimize [xenophobia during the COVID-19 outbreak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic").[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-282) Likewise, people from certain groups such as [Black Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Americans "Black Americans") may not feel comfortable wearing masks, especially those that are not clearly medical but homemade masks, due to concerns of racial profiling.[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-283)[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-284)[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-285)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hospital_Authority_staff_strike_during_the_COVID-19,_transparent_surgical_mask.jpg)
A [sign language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_language "Sign language") interpreter (on the right) in Hong Kong is wearing a transparent mask to allow [lip reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip_reading "Lip reading").
There have also been concerns that wearing masks may also further isolate disadvantaged communities. Concerns had been expressed that masks would make communication difficult for people who are [deaf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deafness "Deafness") or [hard-of-hearing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_loss "Hearing loss").[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bi-deaf-286)[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bbc-deaf-287)[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-288)[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-289)[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-290) This led to calls for wider distributions of transparent masks, which allow for [lip reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip_reading "Lip reading").[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bi-deaf-286)[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bbc-deaf-287)[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-291)
Similar concerns over difficulty in communicating were expressed by those who may depend on dogs for [therapeutic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistance_dog "Assistance dog") or [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog#As_pets "Dog") reasons, as the animals depend on body language such as facial expressions.[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-292) Conversely, people who are exempt from wearing masks on medical grounds or due to a disability, fear they will be [subjected to abuse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability_hate_crime "Disability hate crime") for not wearing a mask, even if they are legally exempt from doing so.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-mtr-dis-293) For instance, in the United Kingdom, the charity [Disability Rights UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability_Rights_UK "Disability Rights UK") received numerous reports about people being confronted on trains and buses.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-mtr-dis-293) Health organizations such as the [American Lung Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Lung_Association "American Lung Association") commented that, even though there may be people who will seek an exemption, the individual's concerns needs to be weighed against the societal needs to limit the spread of the virus.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-abc-med-294)[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-295) However, anti-maskers have called upon bogus claims about legal or medical exemptions in their refusal to wear masks.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-abc-med-294) They have, for instance, claimed that the [Americans with Disabilities Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act "Americans with Disabilities Act") (designed to prohibit discrimination based on disabilities) allows exemption from mask requirements, but the [United States Department of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice "United States Department of Justice") responded that the act "does not provide a blanket exemption to people with disabilities from complying with legitimate safety requirements necessary for safe operations".[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-296)
There were concerns about the effects of mask-wearing on young children's [language development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_development "Language development") and [social emotional development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_emotional_development "Social emotional development").[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-297)[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-298)[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-299)[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-300)[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-301) It has been argued that mask mandates for children may have taken insufficient consideration of children's human rights.[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-302)
In November 2020, there were feelings of mask fatigue among the general public, exacerbated by frustrations about people who are not taking the mask and other guidelines seriously as the pandemic and its intensity continued on.[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-303)
### Trends
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=43 "Edit section: Trends")\]
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|  | This section needs to be **updated**. The reason given is: **it is missing info about what happened between the vaccine and the end of the emergency**. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. *(May 2023)* |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2_boys_sporting_n100_covid19_protective_facemask.jpg)
Two Indian boys sporting face mask at a public event
Among the European countries surveyed by [YouGov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouGov "YouGov") in the first half of 2020, the likelihood for people to wear masks was split: In Northern Europe (e.g., Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark), people were very unlikely to wear a mask.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-en-htw-304) In Western Europe (e.g., Italy, Spain, France, and Germany), people were initially unlikely to use a mask, but mask wearing greatly changed from low levels in March to higher levels in May.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-en-htw-304) A similar, if delayed, pattern was seen in some northern European countries. For example, mask usage was very low in Denmark up until the summer of 2020 but rapidly increased in the autumn as rules on their use in publicly accessible indoor places were introduced.[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Petersen2021-305) An exception was the United Kingdom where mask usage only grew gradually in the first half of 2020,[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-en-htw-304) but it rose very quickly after official policy changes in July mandated masking in stores.[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-306) In May 2020, masking was gradually shifting to become a new social norm.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-307)
A survey among people from the United States (conducted from April to June 2020) indicates that age was a factor in whether people were likely to wear a mask, as the likelihood rose with the age group, but the reported use of face masks increased significantly across all age groups over time.[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hut-mit-308) Furthermore, people who did not report mask use also reported engaging in significantly fewer other mitigation behaviors than those who did report mask use.[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hut-mit-308)
In 2020, gender played a role in the willingness to wear masks; men were overall less inclined to wear masks in public than women.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lat-ms-309)[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hill-ml-310)[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-311) There were indications that men were more likely to feel negative emotions (such as shame) and stigma for wearing masks.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lat-ms-309)[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hill-ml-310) It was suggested that this male behavior is driven by a sense of masculinity, where the act of masking is possibly perceived to run counter to it, which led to an increase in men not wearing masks.[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-312)[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-313) A 2020 survey among participants recruited from [Amazon Mechanical Turk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Mechanical_Turk "Amazon Mechanical Turk") about face mask perceptions found that men and women may have different reasons when they do not wear masks in public: Men were more likely to see masks as an infringement upon their independence and women were more likely to perceive masks as being uncomfortable, while perceptions on efficacy, accessibility, compensation, inconvenience, appearance, and attention did not differ.[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-314)
By 2023, most jurisdictions had ended their mask mandates.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-royalsoc-7) By May 2023, people in most countries largely stopped wearing masks.[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-315)
### Governmental role
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=44 "Edit section: Governmental role")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_reapertura_de_la_frontera_entre_Espa%C3%B1a_y_Portugal,_Badajoz_y_Elvas,_mi%C3%A9rcoles_1_de_julio_de_2020_\(10\).png)
The [heads of state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_state "Head of state") and [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_government "Head of government") of Portugal and Spain wearing face masks during an official ceremony in July 2020
The pandemic has raised questions about the role of governments in mask policies, either voluntary or mandatory policies, especially in terms of the social and behavioral consequences involving the general public.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271)
The results from a study surveying people in Germany indicate that the act of wearing a mask, independent of the policy, is considered a [social contract](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract "Social contract") in which compliant people perceive each other more positively and noncompliance is negatively evaluated.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271) However, it also suggests that voluntary policies have the potential effect to increase [polarization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_polarization "Social polarization") and thus cause more stigmatization.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271) The authors recommended that countries and communities should adopt a mandatory policy along with explicit communication of the benefits of both masking (e.g., risk reduction, mutual protection, positive [social signaling](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_signaling&action=edit&redlink=1 "Social signaling (page does not exist)")) and mandatory policies (e.g., fairness, less stigmatization, higher effectiveness) to encourage the public to wear masks.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271)
World leaders as role models for masking have also received much scrutiny, as they are key to convey the critical public health message to the public.[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-316)[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-317) For example, Slovakia has been cited as a country where its public figures (including President [Zuzana ÄaputovĂĄ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuzana_%C4%8Caputov%C3%A1 "Zuzana ÄaputovĂĄ") and her administration) set the example by wearing masks and played a crucial role to normalize masks.[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-318) In contrast, in the United States, President [Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") and his administration came under criticism for [communicating an inconsistent and confusing message about masking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_administration_communication_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Mask_wearing "Trump administration communication during the COVID-19 pandemic").[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-319)[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-320) They were often criticized for undercutting national and local public health advice to wear masks.[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-321)[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-322)
### Politics
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=45 "Edit section: Politics")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_House_Coronavirus_Update_Briefing_\(49810101702\).jpg)
[U.S. Surgeon General](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Surgeon_General "U.S. Surgeon General") [Jerome Adams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Adams "Jerome Adams") urged people to wear face masks and acknowledged that it is difficult to correct earlier messaging that masks do not work for the general public.[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-323)
Although authorities, especially in Asia, recommended people to wear face masks in public, in many other parts of the world, conflicting advice caused much confusion among the general population.[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cnn-amhb-324) Several governments and institutions, such as in the United States, initially dismissed the use of face masks by the general population, often with misleading or incomplete information about the usefulness of masks.[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-thenational.scot-325)[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-vanityfair.com-326)[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-npr-wta-327) Commentators have attributed the anti-mask messaging to efforts to manage the mask shortages, as governments did not act quickly enough, remarking that the claims go beyond the science or were simply lies.[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-npr-wta-327)[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-328)[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-329)[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nytimes.com-330) On 12 June 2020, [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci"), a key member of the [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House "White House") coronavirus task force, confirmed that the American public were not told to wear masks from the beginning due to the shortages of masks and explained that masks do actually work.[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-331)[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-332)[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-333)[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-334)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-335)\[*[excessive citations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
In the United States, public masking has become a political issue, as opponents argue that it inhibits personal freedom and proponents emphasize the importance of masks for public health.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-hdf-336) Some people may see it as a political statement.[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fmps-337) Party affiliation partly determined how likely people were to embrace the wearing of masks in public.[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fmps-337)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-for-ncc-338) [Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_\(United_States\) "Democratic Party (United States)") were more likely to wear masks than [Republicans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_\(United_States\) "Republican Party (United States)").[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fmps-337)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-for-ncc-338) Masks have become an aspect of the [culture war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_war "Culture war") that has emerged over the course of the pandemic.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-hdf-336)[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fmps-337)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-for-ncc-338) Commentators argue that the resistance against masks partly stems from the confusing and mixed messaging about masking.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-hdf-336)[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-339)[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-340)
Matthew Facciani, a sociologist at Vanderbilt University, says the uncertainty from health experts during the early days of the pandemic paved the way for political leaders to become a prominent source of guidance and clarity.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-fac-pol-341) He argues that once mask-wearing became informed by political beliefs, it is difficult to correct due to the motivation to protect one's identity in relation to a political group and the reinforcement from political echo chambers, no matter that scientists began to better understand the severity of the virus and the evidence in favor for mask wearing became clearer.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-fac-pol-341) Moreover, how people observe the masking rules seems to be different across countries and these differences may be attributed to cultural or management factors.[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ReferenceA-258)
In April 2020, health officials from Taiwan's [Central Epidemic Command Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Epidemic_Command_Center "Central Epidemic Command Center") (CECC) pushed back on school bullying of boys in pink face masks.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wa-tcg-342) The CECC officials and Minister of Health and Welfare Chen Shih-chung wore pink masks to challenge gender norms at a press conference, while various government agencies demonstrated solidarity by changing the colors on their Facebook pages to pink.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wa-tcg-342) The minister later tweeted "Pink is for everyone and no color is exclusive for girls or boys. Gender Equality lies at the heart of Taiwan values."[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wa-tcg-342) The press conference was held amid reports that male students were too embarrassed to wear their pink face masks, jeopardizing their safety and the safety of others in the face of COVID-19.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wa-tcg-342)
### Opposition
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=46 "Edit section: Opposition")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ReOpen_Ohio_\(Again\)_bIMG_1235_\(49903512197\).jpg)
"Masks Don't Work", a protest placard in Ohio, United States, during the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020.
In some countries, large rallies took place in protest against masking mandates.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cnn-hod-343)[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-344)[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ctv-mtu-345)[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-346) In Canada, opponents of masking hailed their protests as the "March to Unmask".[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ctv-mtu-345)[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-347) In the United Kingdom, new protests came in the wake of the official announcement that masking will be compulsory in shops.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cnn-hod-343) After eight months since the beginning of the lockdown in the [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"), mass manifestations against the restrictions imposed by the government arose.[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-348)[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-349) Some anti-mask protestors co-opted the feminist slogan "[my body, my choice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_body,_my_choice "My body, my choice")"[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-350)[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-351)[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-352) and the Black Lives Matter slogan "[I can't breathe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_can%27t_breathe "I can't breathe")".[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-353) Businesses were also purposely disrupted by anti-maskers (purportedly in defense of their constitutional rights).[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Downtown_Boise_businesses_targeted_by_anti-mask_protesters-354)
In the United States, opposition to mask-wearing during the COVID-19 pandemic came during then-President [Donald Trump's politicization of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_administration_political_interference_with_science_agencies "Trump administration political interference with science agencies")[\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-355) and more generally during decades-old period of [politicization of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science "Politicization of science"). American opposition to mask-wearing during pandemics is not new; during the [1918 influenza pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu "Spanish flu"), the [Anti-Mask League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Mask_League_of_San_Francisco "Anti-Mask League of San Francisco") was established in San Francisco, California.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-356)
In May 2021, *[Vice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_\(magazine\) "Vice (magazine)")* reported that some members of the anti-vaccine community were promoting the use of masks and social distancing to protect themselves from those who have received vaccines, citing false claims that those vaccinated for COVID-19 "shed" spike proteins that can be harmful to people in their proximity, and former research scientist [Judy Mikovits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Mikovits "Judy Mikovits") claimed that she had been kicked off a plane for wearing a mask lined with [colloidal silver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidal_silver "Colloidal silver").[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-357)
### Attractiveness
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=47 "Edit section: Attractiveness")\]
Face masks are sometimes deemed to make people look more attractive. This may be because they hide unattractive features or are associated with medical personnel.[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-358)
### Personality
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=48 "Edit section: Personality")\]
Some people, including [introverts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introverts "Introverts") and those with [social anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anxiety "Social anxiety"), prefer using face masks because of the near-anonymity it provides, allowing them to easily blend in, feel psychologically protected, and be more open in talking to strangers.[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-359)
### Religion
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=49 "Edit section: Religion")\]
In 2020, in the state of Utah, Christian clergy from the Lutheran, Catholic, Presbyterian, Anglican, Baptist, and Latter-day Saint traditions, as well as those from the Jewish, Buddhist, and Unitarian religions, implored people to wear masks by signing a letter sent out by Governor Gary Herbert's office.[\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Steinbrecher2020-360)
### Fashion
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=50 "Edit section: Fashion")\]
See also: [Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the fashion industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_fashion_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the fashion industry")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Face_mask_for_style_and_function_during_the_COVID-19.jpg)
A cloth face mask matching the rest of the ensemble
As the pandemic progressed, people began making use of face masks as accessories,[\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fas-361)[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-cou-362)[\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-per-363)[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-for-20-364) matching them to their outfits and so on.[\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-365)[\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-366) Early in the pandemic, people and businesses from the fashion industry responded to official calls for help in overcoming the shortages of protective personal equipment including face masks.[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-367) These masks were sheerly utilitarian as the only consideration at the time was function.[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-368) What began as a public health necessity however gradually evolved into a new category of accessories subject to similar design and marketing considerations as other accessories.[\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-369) Fashion brands eventually reopened their factories for production due to the increasing demand for masks and started to manufacture masks in a wider variety of styles.[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-cou-362) Smaller brands, who primarily sold their products online, found that selling masks was a good strategy to maintain sales.[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-tel-hin-370) [Etsy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etsy "Etsy") became a major online platform where many designers sold their masks.[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-tel-hin-370) Designers started making masks that matched other pieces of clothing and accessories,[\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-371)[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-vog-bel-372) a trend which may have begun unintentionally as even fabric remnants were repurposed.[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-vog-bel-372)
The city of [Vilnius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius "Vilnius") in Lithuania held a "Mask Fashion Week" in May 2020, which was promoted with billboards (with no catwalks or displays) around the city featuring local people including Mayor Remigijus Simasius wearing face masks.[\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-373)
[The Walt Disney Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company "The Walt Disney Company") introduced uniform face masks for their employees at [Walt Disney World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_World "Walt Disney World") and [Disneyland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland") in the United States.[\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-374)[\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-375)
### Environment
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=51 "Edit section: Environment")\]
Further information: [Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_environment "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment")
Large numbers of disposed face masks have led to an increase in [plastic waste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_waste "Plastic waste"), negatively impacting the environment.[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-376)[\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-377)[\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-378) Moreover, the production of face masks also contributes the emission of carbon dioxide, which accelerates global warming.[\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-379) Considering the risk of [plastic pollution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_pollution "Plastic pollution"), researchers have focused on using biodegradable polymers to fabricate facemask with antimicrobial properties.[\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-380) Various studies were conducted in order to utilize end-of-life face masks, including [thermochemical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_depolymerization "Thermal depolymerization") conversion of [polymers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer "Polymer") used in face-masks to [hydrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") rich gas. Thermochemical methods included [carbon-dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide") [gasification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasification "Gasification") and [steam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam "Steam") [gasification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasification "Gasification").[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-381)[\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-382)
### Terminology
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=52 "Edit section: Terminology")\]
Due to the rarity of their use in non-medical settings outside East Asia, many languages lacked commonly used terms for facemasks, especially since legal issues prevent the usage of terms which might imply medical standards the masks do not meet.[\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-383) In languages such as [Saterland Frisian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language "Saterland Frisian language") public competitions were held[\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-384) to create a [neologism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologism "Neologism") for the device in the language and thus not having to rely on [loanwords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") or [calques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calque "Calque").[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-385)[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-386) The [Friisk Foriining](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friisk_Foriining&action=edit&redlink=1 "Friisk Foriining (page does not exist)") \[[frr](https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friisk_Foriining "frr:Friisk Foriining")\] held a similar competition for the [North Frisian language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Frisian_language "North Frisian language").[\[386\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-387)[\[387\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-388)
## See also
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=53 "Edit section: See also")\]
- [Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States")
- [National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic")
- [Anti-mask law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-mask_law "Anti-mask law")
## Notes
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=54 "Edit section: Notes")\]
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-47)** **Knot and tuck technique:** Modification to ear loop masks where the top and bottom of the ear loop string are knotted together at the mask's edges and extra material is tucked in towards the face.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-JAMA-modifications-46)
## References
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Matuschek C, Moll F, Fangerau H, Fischer JC, ZĂ€nker K, van Griensven M, et al. (August 2020). ["Face masks: benefits and risks during the COVID-19 crisis"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7422455). *European Journal of Medical Research*. **25** (1) 32. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1186/s40001-020-00430-5](https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40001-020-00430-5). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [7422455](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7422455). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32787926](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32787926).
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Catching A, Capponi S, Yeh MT, Bianco S, Andino R (August 2021). ["Examining the interplay between face mask usage, asymptomatic transmission, and social distancing on the spread of COVID-19"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8346500). *Scientific Reports*. **11** (1) 15998. [Nature Portfolio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Portfolio "Nature Portfolio"). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2021NatSR..1115998C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatSR..1115998C). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/s41598-021-94960-5](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-021-94960-5). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8346500](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8346500). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34362936](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34362936). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [236947786](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236947786). "Masks prevent the spread of droplets and aerosols generated by an infected individual, and when correctly worn surgical masks can reduce viral transmission by 95%. Uninfected individuals wearing a surgical mask are about 85% protected against infection."
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Talic S, Shah S, Wild H, Gasevic D, Maharaj A, Ademi Z, et al. (November 2021). ["Effectiveness of public health measures in reducing the incidence of covid-19, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and covid-19 mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9423125). *BMJ*. **375** e068302. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1136/bmj-2021-068302](https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj-2021-068302). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [9423125](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9423125). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34789505](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34789505). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [244271780](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244271780). "The results of additional studies that assessed mask wearing ... indicate a reduction in covid-19 incidence, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and covid-19 mortality. Specifically, a natural experiment across 200 countries showed 45.7% fewer covid-19 related mortality in countries where mask-wearing was mandatory. Another natural experiment study in the US reported a 29% reduction in SARS-CoV-2 transmission (measured as the time-varying reproductive number Rt) (risk ratio 0.71, 95% confidence interval 0.58 to 0.75) in states where mask-wearing was mandatory. A comparative study in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region reported a statistically significantly lower cumulative incidence of covid-19 associated with mask-wearing than in selected countries where mask-wearing was not mandatory."
5. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-cdc-sci_5-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-cdc-sci_5-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-cdc-sci_5-2)
["Science Brief: Community Use of Masks to Control the Spread of SARS-CoV-2"](https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/science/science-briefs/masking-science-sars-cov2.html). CDC. 11 February 2020. "Experimental and epidemiologic data support community masking to reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2, including alpha and delta variants, among adults and children. \[...\] Mask use has been found to be safe and is not associated with clinically significant impacts on respiration or gas exchange under most circumstances, except for intense exercise. The limited available data indicate no clear evidence that masking impairs emotional or language development in children.\[I\]n combination with other contextual cues, masks are unlikely to produce serious impairments of children's social interactions. A study of 2-year-old children concluded that they were able to recognize familiar words presented without a mask and when hearing words through opaque masks. Among children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), interventions including positive reinforcement and coaching caregivers to teach mask-wearing have improved participants' ability to wear a face mask. These findings suggest that even children who may have difficulty wearing a mask can do so effectively through targeted interventions."
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Boulos L, Curran JA, Gallant A, Wong H, Johnson C, Delahunty-Pike A, et al. (2023). ["Effectiveness of face masks for reducing transmission of SARS-CoV-2: A rapid systematic review"](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2023.0133). *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences*. **381** (2257) 20230133. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2023RSPTA.38130133B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023RSPTA.38130133B). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1098/rsta.2023.0133](https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2023.0133). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [10446908](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10446908). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [37611625](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37611625).
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Zayas G, Chiang MC, Wong E, MacDonald F, Lange CF, Senthilselvan A, et al. (2013). ["Effectiveness of cough etiquette maneuvers in disrupting the chain of transmission of infectious respiratory diseases"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3846148). *BMC Public Health*. **13** 811. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1186/1471-2458-13-811](https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2458-13-811). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [3846148](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3846148). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [24010919](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24010919).
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Koh XQ, Sng A, Chee JY, Sadovoy A, Luo P, Daniel D (February 2022). "Outward and inward protection efficiencies of different mask designs for different respiratory activities". *Journal of Aerosol Science*. **160** 105905. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2022JAerS.16005905K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022JAerS.16005905K). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.jaerosci.2021.105905](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaerosci.2021.105905).
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CDC (11 February 2020). ["Considerations for Wearing Masks"](https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/cloth-face-cover-guidance.html). *Centers for Disease Control and Prevention*. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
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Lam SC, Suen LK, Cheung TC (August 2020). ["Global risk to the community and clinical setting: Flocking of fake masks and protective gears during the COVID-19 pandemic"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7219383). *American Journal of Infection Control*. **48** (8): 964â965\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.ajic.2020.05.008](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajic.2020.05.008). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [7219383](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7219383). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32405127](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32405127).
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["BfArM - Empfehlungen des BfArM - Hinweise des BfArM zur Verwendung von Mund-Nasen-Bedeckungen, medizinischen Gesichtsmasken sowie partikelfiltrierenden Halbmasken (FFP-Masken)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200416011942/https://www.bfarm.de/SharedDocs/Risikoinformationen/Medizinprodukte/DE/schutzmasken.html). Archived from [the original](https://www.bfarm.de/SharedDocs/Risikoinformationen/Medizinprodukte/DE/schutzmasken.html) on 16 April 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
383. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-384)**
["Wort fĂŒr Mund-Nasen-Schutz auf Saterfriesisch gesucht"](https://www.n-tv.de/regionales/niedersachsen-und-bremen/Wort-fuer-Mund-Nasen-Schutz-auf-Saterfriesisch-gesucht-article22257451.html).
384. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-385)**
["Was heiĂt "Mund-Nasen-Schutz" auf Saterfriesisch?"](https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/niedersachsen/oldenburg_ostfriesland/Was-heisst-Mund-Nasen-Schutz-auf-Saterfriesisch,aktuelloldenburg6310.html). *ndr.de*.
385. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-386)**
["Mund-Nasen-Schutz auf saterfriesisch: "SkĂŒĂŒldouk""](https://www.sueddeutsche.de/kultur/brauchtum-saterland-mund-nasen-schutz-auf-saterfriesisch-skueueldouk-dpa.urn-newsml-dpa-com-20090101-210113-99-14515). 13 January 2021.
386. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-387)**
["Wie heiĂt "Mund-Nasen-Schutz" auf Friesisch?"](https://friiske.de/de/2020/05/14/wie-heisst-mund-nasen-schutz-auf-friesisch/). 14 May 2020.
387. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-388)**
["Wie heiĂt "Mund-Nasen-Schutz" auf Friesisch?"](https://www.nordfriiskinstituut.eu/aktuelles/news/wie-heisst-mund-nasen-schutz-auf-friesisch/). *nordfriiskinstituut.eu*. 14 May 2020.
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic "Template:COVID-19 pandemic") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:COVID-19_pandemic "Template talk:COVID-19 pandemic") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19_pandemic "Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19 pandemic")[COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") | |
|---|---|
| **[COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19")** (disease) **[SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2")** (virus) | |
| [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| | |
| [Pre-pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic_predictions_and_preparations_prior_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Pandemic predictions and preparations prior to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Severe acute respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS") (SARS) [Middle East respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS "MERS") (MERS) [Crimson Contagion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimson_Contagion "Crimson Contagion") [Disease X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_X "Disease X") [Exercise Cygnus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_Cygnus "Exercise Cygnus") [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") |
| 2020 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") |
| 2021 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") |
| 2022 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2022") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2022") |
| 2023 | [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2023 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2023") |
| [Locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") | |
| | |
| [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in Africa")([national responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa")) | |
| | |
| Northern | [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Algeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria") [Canary Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Canary_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Canary Islands") [Ceuta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ceuta "COVID-19 pandemic in Ceuta") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") [Libya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Libya "COVID-19 pandemic in Libya") [Mauritania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritania "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritania") [Melilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Melilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Melilla") [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Morocco "COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco") [Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sudan") [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tunisia "COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia") [Western Sahara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Sahara "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Sahara") [Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic") |
| Eastern | [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burundi "COVID-19 pandemic in Burundi") [Comoros](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Comoros "COVID-19 pandemic in the Comoros") [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 pandemic in Djibouti") [Eritrea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eritrea "COVID-19 pandemic in Eritrea") [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ethiopia "COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia") [Kenya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kenya "COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya") [Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madagascar "COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar") [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritius "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritius") [Mayotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mayotte "COVID-19 pandemic in Mayotte") [RĂ©union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_R%C3%A9union "COVID-19 pandemic in RĂ©union") [Rwanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rwanda "COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda") [Seychelles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Seychelles "COVID-19 pandemic in Seychelles") [Somalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Somalia "COVID-19 pandemic in Somalia") [Puntland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puntland "COVID-19 pandemic in Puntland") [Somaliland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Somaliland "COVID-19 pandemic in Somaliland") [South Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in South Sudan") [Tanzania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tanzania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tanzania") [Uganda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uganda "COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda") |
| Southern | [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Angola "COVID-19 pandemic in Angola") [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Botswana "COVID-19 pandemic in Botswana") [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 pandemic in Eswatini") [Lesotho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lesotho "COVID-19 pandemic in Lesotho") [Malawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malawi "COVID-19 pandemic in Malawi") [Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mozambique "COVID-19 pandemic in Mozambique") [Namibia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Namibia "COVID-19 pandemic in Namibia") [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa") [list of deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_deaths_in_South_Africa "List of COVID-19 deaths in South Africa") [Zambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zambia "COVID-19 pandemic in Zambia") [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe") |
| Central | [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 pandemic in Cameroon") [Central African Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Central_African_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Central African Republic") [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chad "COVID-19 pandemic in Chad") [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo") [Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of the Congo") [Gabon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gabon "COVID-19 pandemic in Gabon") [SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe "COVID-19 pandemic in SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe") |
| Western | [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Benin "COVID-19 pandemic in Benin") [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 pandemic in Burkina Faso") [Cape Verde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cape_Verde "COVID-19 pandemic in Cape Verde") [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Equatorial Guinea") [Gambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Gambia "COVID-19 pandemic in the Gambia") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana "COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana") timeline 2020 [MarchâJuly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(March%E2%80%93July_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (MarchâJuly 2020)") [AugustâDecember](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(August%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (AugustâDecember 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (2021)") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ghanaian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") impact [education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_Ghana "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in Ghana") [Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea") [Guinea-Bissau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea-Bissau "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea-Bissau") [Ivory Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ivory_Coast "COVID-19 pandemic in Ivory Coast") [Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liberia "COVID-19 pandemic in Liberia") [Mali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mali "COVID-19 pandemic in Mali") [Niger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niger "COVID-19 pandemic in Niger") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Nigerian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha") [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Senegal "COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal") [Sierra Leone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sierra_Leone "COVID-19 pandemic in Sierra Leone") [Togo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Togo "COVID-19 pandemic in Togo") |
| [Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Asia") | |
| | |
| Central/North | [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kyrgyzstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kyrgyzstan") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") timeline [JanuaryâJune](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (JanuaryâJune 2020)") [JulyâDecember](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (JulyâDecember 2020)") impact [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [political](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") [Tajikistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tajikistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Tajikistan") [Turkmenistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkmenistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkmenistan") [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uzbekistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Uzbekistan") |
| East | |
| | |
| [Hong Kong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hong_Kong "COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong") [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") [Tokyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tokyo "COVID-19 pandemic in Tokyo") [2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_cases_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_and_2020_Summer_Paralympics "COVID-19 cases at the 2020 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics") [North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in North Korea") [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea") [Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Macau "COVID-19 pandemic in Macau") [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia") [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan") [respirator diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator_diplomacy_of_Taiwan "Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan") | |
| [Mainland China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China") | [lockdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdown_in_China "COVID-19 lockdown in China") [detail](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:COVID-19_pandemic_lockdowns_in_mainland_China&action=edit&redlink=1 "Template:COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns in mainland China (page does not exist)") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 vaccination in mainland China") [Beijing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Beijing "COVID-19 pandemic in Beijing") [2022 Winter Olympics and Paralympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_cases_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_and_2022_Winter_Paralympics "COVID-19 cases at the 2022 Winter Olympics and 2022 Winter Paralympics") [Heilongjiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Heilongjiang "COVID-19 pandemic in Heilongjiang") [Henan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Henan "COVID-19 pandemic in Henan") [Hubei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hubei "COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei") [Inner Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Inner_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Inner Mongolia") [Liaoning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liaoning "COVID-19 pandemic in Liaoning") [Shanghai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Shanghai "COVID-19 pandemic in Shanghai") [2022 outbreak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Shanghai_COVID-19_outbreak "2022 Shanghai COVID-19 outbreak") [Sichuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sichuan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sichuan") [Tibet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tibet "COVID-19 pandemic in Tibet") [Xinjiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Xinjiang "COVID-19 pandemic in Xinjiang") |
| [South](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Asia") | |
| | |
| [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Afghanistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Afghanistan") [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 pandemic in Bhutan") [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maldives "COVID-19 pandemic in Maldives") [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nepal "COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal") [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pakistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan") [Tablighi Jamaat hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Pakistan "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Pakistan") [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka") | |
| [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India") | |
| | |
| [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [lockdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdown_in_India "COVID-19 lockdown in India") [migrant workers' crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_migrant_workers_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian migrant workers during the COVID-19 pandemic") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") timeline 2020 [JanuaryâMay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(January%E2%80%93May_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (JanuaryâMay 2020)") [JuneâDecember](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(June%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (JuneâDecember 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (2021)") [union government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [PM CARES Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PM_CARES_Fund "PM CARES Fund") [state government responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_state_government_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian state government responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_India "COVID-19 vaccination in India") [Vaccine Maitri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Maitri "Vaccine Maitri") | |
| By location | [Andaman and Nicobar Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands") [Andhra Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andhra_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Andhra Pradesh") [Arunachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arunachal_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Arunachal Pradesh") [Assam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Assam "COVID-19 pandemic in Assam") [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bihar "COVID-19 pandemic in Bihar") [Chandigarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chandigarh "COVID-19 pandemic in Chandigarh") [Chhattisgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chhattisgarh "COVID-19 pandemic in Chhattisgarh") [Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli_and_Daman_and_Diu "COVID-19 pandemic in Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu") [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Delhi "COVID-19 pandemic in Delhi") [Tablighi Jamaat hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Delhi "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Delhi") [Goa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Goa "COVID-19 pandemic in Goa") [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gujarat "COVID-19 pandemic in Gujarat") [Haryana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haryana "COVID-19 pandemic in Haryana") [Himachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Himachal_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Himachal Pradesh") [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir "COVID-19 pandemic in Jammu and Kashmir") [Jharkhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jharkhand "COVID-19 pandemic in Jharkhand") [Karnataka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Karnataka "COVID-19 pandemic in Karnataka") [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kerala "COVID-19 pandemic in Kerala") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kerala "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Kerala") [Ladakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ladakh "COVID-19 pandemic in Ladakh") [Lakshadweep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lakshadweep "COVID-19 pandemic in Lakshadweep") [Madhya Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madhya_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Madhya Pradesh") [Maharashtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maharashtra "COVID-19 pandemic in Maharashtra") [Manipur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Manipur "COVID-19 pandemic in Manipur") [Meghalaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Meghalaya "COVID-19 pandemic in Meghalaya") [Mizoram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mizoram "COVID-19 pandemic in Mizoram") [Nagaland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nagaland "COVID-19 pandemic in Nagaland") [Odisha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Odisha "COVID-19 pandemic in Odisha") [Puducherry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puducherry "COVID-19 pandemic in Puducherry") [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Punjab,_India "COVID-19 pandemic in Punjab, India") [Rajasthan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rajasthan "COVID-19 pandemic in Rajasthan") [Sikkim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sikkim "COVID-19 pandemic in Sikkim") [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tamil_Nadu "COVID-19 pandemic in Tamil Nadu") [Telangana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Telangana "COVID-19 pandemic in Telangana") [Tripura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tripura "COVID-19 pandemic in Tripura") [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uttar_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Uttar Pradesh") [Uttarakhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uttarakhand "COVID-19 pandemic in Uttarakhand") [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_West_Bengal "COVID-19 pandemic in West Bengal") |
| [Southeast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Southeast_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Southeast Asia") | |
| | |
| [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brunei "COVID-19 pandemic in Brunei") [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cambodia "COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia") [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia") timeline [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia (2021)") [social restrictions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia_large-scale_social_restrictions "Indonesia large-scale social restrictions") [Community Activities Restrictions Enforcement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_Activities_Restrictions_Enforcement "Community Activities Restrictions Enforcement") [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Laos "COVID-19 pandemic in Laos") [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Myanmar "COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar") [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2022)") [circuit breaker response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_Singapore_circuit_breaker_measures "2020â21 Singapore circuit breaker measures") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Singapore "COVID-19 vaccination in Singapore") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Thailand "COVID-19 vaccination in Thailand") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [Timor-Leste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Timor-Leste "COVID-19 pandemic in Timor-Leste") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vietnamese government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") | impact [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [political](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Malaysia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Malaysia") [Aid and relief efforts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_and_relief_efforts_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Aid and relief efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [movement control order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_movement_control_order "Malaysian movement control order") [Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Malaysia "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Malaysia") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2023)") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [Johor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Johor "COVID-19 pandemic in Johor") [Kuala Lumpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuala_Lumpur "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuala Lumpur") [Sabah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sabah "COVID-19 pandemic in Sabah") [Sarawak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sarawak "COVID-19 pandemic in Sarawak") [Selangor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Selangor "COVID-19 pandemic in Selangor") |
| [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2022)") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [community quarantines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_community_quarantines_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 community quarantines in the Philippines") [Luzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_community_quarantine_in_Luzon "Enhanced community quarantine in Luzon") [evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_by_the_Philippines_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations by the Philippines related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 vaccination in the Philippines") [Bangsamoro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangsamoro "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangsamoro") [Bicol Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Bicol_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Bicol Region") [Cagayan Valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cagayan_Valley "COVID-19 pandemic in Cagayan Valley") [Calabarzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Calabarzon "COVID-19 pandemic in Calabarzon") [Caraga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Caraga "COVID-19 pandemic in Caraga") [Central Luzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Central_Luzon "COVID-19 pandemic in Central Luzon") [Central Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Central_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Central Visayas") [Cordillera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cordillera_Administrative_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cordillera Administrative Region") [Davao Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Davao_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Davao Region") [Eastern Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eastern_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Eastern Visayas") [Ilocos Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Ilocos_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Ilocos Region") [Metro Manila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Metro_Manila "COVID-19 pandemic in Metro Manila") [Mimaropa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mimaropa "COVID-19 pandemic in Mimaropa") [Northern Mindanao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Mindanao "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Mindanao") [Soccsksargen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Soccsksargen "COVID-19 pandemic in Soccsksargen") [Western Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Visayas") [Zamboanga Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zamboanga_Peninsula "COVID-19 pandemic in Zamboanga Peninsula") [Overseas Filipinos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Filipinos_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Overseas Filipinos during the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| West | [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Armenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia") [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Azerbaijan "COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan") [Artsakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Artsakh "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Artsakh") [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bahrain "COVID-19 pandemic in Bahrain") [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus") [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(country\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (country)") [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Abkhazia "COVID-19 pandemic in Abkhazia") [South Ossetia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Ossetia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Ossetia") [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran "COVID-19 pandemic in Iran") [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iraq "COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq") [Kurdistan Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Kurdistan_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Kurdistan Region") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Israel "COVID-19 pandemic in Israel") [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jordan "COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan") [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuwait "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait") [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lebanon "COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon") [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oman "COVID-19 pandemic in Oman") [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_State_of_Palestine "COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine") [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Qatar "COVID-19 pandemic in Qatar") [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_programme_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 vaccination programme in Saudi Arabia") [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Syria "COVID-19 pandemic in Syria") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates") [Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Yemen "COVID-19 pandemic in Yemen") |
| [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe "COVID-19 pandemic in Europe") | |
| | |
| [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") | |
| | |
| [history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "History of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") timeline [JanuaryâJune 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (JanuaryâJune 2020)") [JulyâDecember 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (JulyâDecember 2020)") [JanuaryâJune 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (JanuaryâJune 2021)") [JulyâDecember 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (JulyâDecember 2021)") [JanuaryâJune 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (JanuaryâJune 2022)") [JulyâDecember 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (JulyâDecember 2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (2023)") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Kingdom responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Broadshare "Operation Broadshare") [Operation Rescript](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Rescript "Operation Rescript") [contracts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversies_regarding_COVID-19_contracts_in_the_United_Kingdom "Controversies regarding COVID-19 contracts in the United Kingdom") impact [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_Kingdom "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom") | |
| By location | [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_England "COVID-19 pandemic in England") timeline 2020 [JanuaryâJune](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (JanuaryâJune 2020)") [JulyâDecember](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (JulyâDecember 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (2022)") [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_London "COVID-19 pandemic in London") [local lockdown regulations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_local_lockdown_regulations_in_England "COVID-19 local lockdown regulations in England") [first tier regulations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_COVID-19_tier_regulations_in_England "First COVID-19 tier regulations in England") [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2022)") [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland "COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2022)") [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales "COVID-19 pandemic in Wales") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2021)") [Crown Dependencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Crown_Dependencies "COVID-19 pandemic in the Crown Dependencies") [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Isle_of_Man "COVID-19 pandemic in the Isle of Man") [Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jersey "COVID-19 pandemic in Jersey") [Guernsey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guernsey "COVID-19 pandemic in Guernsey") [Overseas territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Overseas_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Overseas Territories") [Akrotiri and Dhekelia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia "COVID-19 pandemic in Akrotiri and Dhekelia") [British Indian Ocean Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Indian Ocean Territory") [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gibraltar "COVID-19 pandemic in Gibraltar") |
| Eastern | [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus "COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2022)") [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Moldova "COVID-19 pandemic in Moldova") [Gagauzia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gagauzia "COVID-19 pandemic in Gagauzia") [Transnistria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Transnistria "COVID-19 pandemic in Transnistria") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") timeline [JanuaryâJune 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (JanuaryâJune 2020)") [JulyâDecember 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (JulyâDecember 2020)") [government responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Russian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [political impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine") [Crimea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Crimea "COVID-19 pandemic in Crimea") [Sevastopol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sevastopol "COVID-19 pandemic in Sevastopol") |
| Western Balkans | [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Albania "COVID-19 pandemic in Albania") [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 pandemic in Bosnia and Herzegovina") [Kosovo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kosovo "COVID-19 pandemic in Kosovo") [Montenegro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montenegro "COVID-19 pandemic in Montenegro") [North Macedonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Macedonia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Macedonia") [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") |
| [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austria "COVID-19 pandemic in Austria") [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belgium "COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 pandemic in Bulgaria") [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus") [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus") [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Czech_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic") [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Denmark "COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark") [Faroe Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Faroe_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Faroe Islands") [Estonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Estonia "COVID-19 pandemic in Estonia") [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Finland "COVID-19 pandemic in Finland") [Ă
land](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_%C3%85land "COVID-19 pandemic in Ă
land") [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France "COVID-19 pandemic in France") [Guadeloupe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guadeloupe "COVID-19 pandemic in Guadeloupe") [French Guiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Guiana "COVID-19 pandemic in French Guiana") [RĂ©union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_R%C3%A9union "COVID-19 pandemic in RĂ©union") [Martinique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Martinique "COVID-19 pandemic in Martinique") [Mayotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mayotte "COVID-19 pandemic in Mayotte") [Normandy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Normandy "COVID-19 pandemic in Normandy") [Saint Martin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin "COVID-19 pandemic in the Collectivity of Saint Martin") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany "COVID-19 pandemic in Germany") [North Rhine-Westphalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Rhine-Westphalia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Rhine-Westphalia") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "German government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greece "COVID-19 pandemic in Greece") [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hungary "COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2022)") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 vaccination in the Republic of Ireland") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns_in_Italy "COVID-19 lockdowns in Italy") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Latvia "COVID-19 pandemic in Latvia") [Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lithuania "COVID-19 pandemic in Lithuania") [Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Luxembourg "COVID-19 pandemic in Luxembourg") [Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malta "COVID-19 pandemic in Malta") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Dutch government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Poland "COVID-19 pandemic in Poland") [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portugal "COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") [Slovenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovenia") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") [Asturias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asturias "COVID-19 pandemic in Asturias") [Canary Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Canary_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Canary Islands") [Ceuta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ceuta "COVID-19 pandemic in Ceuta") [Community of Madrid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Community_of_Madrid "COVID-19 pandemic in the Community of Madrid") [Melilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Melilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Melilla") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sweden "COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Swedish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Operation Gloria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Gloria "Operation Gloria") |
| EFTA countries | [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iceland "COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland") [Liechtenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liechtenstein "COVID-19 pandemic in Liechtenstein") [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norway "COVID-19 pandemic in Norway") [Svalbard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Svalbard "COVID-19 pandemic in Svalbard") [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland") |
| Microstates | [Andorra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andorra "COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra") [Monaco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Monaco "COVID-19 pandemic in Monaco") [San Marino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_San_Marino "COVID-19 pandemic in San Marino") [Vatican City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vatican_City "COVID-19 pandemic in Vatican City") |
| [North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_America "COVID-19 pandemic in North America") | |
| | |
| Atlantic | [Bermuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bermuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Bermuda") [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greenland "COVID-19 pandemic in Greenland") [Saint Pierre and Miquelon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Pierre and Miquelon") |
| Canada | [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [federal aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_aid_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Federal aid during the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Canada "COVID-19 vaccination in Canada") [military response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Laser "Operation Laser") [Atlantic Bubble](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Bubble "Atlantic Bubble") [Alberta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alberta "COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alberta "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta") [British Columbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_British_Columbia "COVID-19 pandemic in British Columbia") [Manitoba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Manitoba "COVID-19 pandemic in Manitoba") [New Brunswick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Brunswick "COVID-19 pandemic in New Brunswick") [Newfoundland and Labrador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Newfoundland_and_Labrador "COVID-19 pandemic in Newfoundland and Labrador") [Northwest Territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northwest_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northwest Territories") [Nova Scotia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nova_Scotia "COVID-19 pandemic in Nova Scotia") [Nunavut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nunavut "COVID-19 pandemic in Nunavut") [Ontario](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario "COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2022)") [Ottawa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ottawa "COVID-19 pandemic in Ottawa") [Peel Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Regional_Municipality_of_Peel "COVID-19 pandemic in the Regional Municipality of Peel") [Toronto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Toronto "COVID-19 pandemic in Toronto") [York Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Regional_Municipality_of_York "COVID-19 pandemic in the Regional Municipality of York") [Provincial government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincial_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario "Provincial government response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario") [Vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ontario "COVID-19 vaccination in Ontario") [Prince Edward Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Prince_Edward_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Prince Edward Island") [Quebec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Quebec "COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec") [Montreal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montreal "COVID-19 pandemic in Montreal") [boroughs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boroughs_of_Montreal_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Boroughs of Montreal during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Saskatchewan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saskatchewan "COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saskatchewan "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan") [Yukon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Yukon "COVID-19 pandemic in Yukon") |
| Caribbean | |
| | |
| Countries | [Antigua and Barbuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Antigua and Barbuda") [Bahamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Bahamas "COVID-19 pandemic in the Bahamas") [Barbados](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Barbados "COVID-19 pandemic in Barbados") [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cuba "COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba") [Guantanamo Bay Naval Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base "COVID-19 pandemic in the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base") [Dominica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dominica "COVID-19 pandemic in Dominica") [Dominican Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Dominican_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Dominican Republic") [Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Grenada "COVID-19 pandemic in Grenada") [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haiti "COVID-19 pandemic in Haiti") [Jamaica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jamaica "COVID-19 pandemic in Jamaica") [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Kitts and Nevis") [Saint Lucia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Lucia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Lucia") [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines") [Trinidad and Tobago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") |
| [British Overseas Territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Overseas_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Overseas Territories") | [Anguilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Anguilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Anguilla") [British Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Virgin Islands") [Cayman Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cayman_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cayman Islands") [Montserrat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montserrat "COVID-19 pandemic in Montserrat") [Turks and Caicos Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Turks and Caicos Islands") [response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Broadshare "Operation Broadshare") |
| | |
| [Aruba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Aruba "COVID-19 pandemic in Aruba") [Curaçao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cura%C3%A7ao "COVID-19 pandemic in Curaçao") [Sint Maarten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sint_Maarten "COVID-19 pandemic in Sint Maarten") | |
| Caribbean Netherlands | [Bonaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bonaire "COVID-19 pandemic in Bonaire") [Saba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saba "COVID-19 pandemic in Saba") [Sint Eustatius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sint_Eustatius "COVID-19 pandemic in Sint Eustatius") |
| French West Indies | [Guadeloupe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guadeloupe "COVID-19 pandemic in Guadeloupe") [Martinique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Martinique "COVID-19 pandemic in Martinique") [Saint Barthélemy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Barthélemy") [Saint Martin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin "COVID-19 pandemic in the Collectivity of Saint Martin") |
| US insular areas | [Puerto Rico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puerto_Rico "COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico") [U.S. Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Virgin Islands") |
| Central America | [Belize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belize "COVID-19 pandemic in Belize") [Costa Rica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Costa_Rica "COVID-19 pandemic in Costa Rica") [El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_El_Salvador "COVID-19 pandemic in El Salvador") [Guatemala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guatemala "COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala") [Honduras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Honduras "COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras") [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Mexico "COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico") [Nicaragua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nicaragua "COVID-19 pandemic in Nicaragua") [Panama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Panama "COVID-19 pandemic in Panama") |
| [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") | |
| | |
| [Trump administration communication](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_of_the_Trump_administration_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Communication of the Trump administration during the COVID-19 pandemic") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States (2021)") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [2021 hospital crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_hospital_crisis_in_the_U.S._from_COVID-19 "2021 hospital crisis in the U.S. from COVID-19") | |
| [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United States responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [federal government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._federal_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [state and local governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state_and_local_government_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. state and local government responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [California government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "California government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [New York government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_state_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New York state government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Texas government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Texas government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Eastern States Multi-state Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_States_Multi-state_Council "Eastern States Multi-state Council") [Midwest Governors Regional Pact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwest_Governors_Regional_Pact "Midwest Governors Regional Pact") [Western States Pact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_States_Pact "Western States Pact") |
| By location | [Alabama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alabama "COVID-19 pandemic in Alabama") [Alaska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alaska "COVID-19 pandemic in Alaska") [American Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_American_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in American Samoa") [Arizona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arizona "COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona") [Navajo Nation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Navajo_Nation "COVID-19 pandemic in the Navajo Nation") [Arkansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arkansas "COVID-19 pandemic in Arkansas") [California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_California "COVID-19 pandemic in California") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_California "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in California") [S.F. Bay Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area "COVID-19 pandemic in the San Francisco Bay Area") [Colorado](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colorado "COVID-19 pandemic in Colorado") [Connecticut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Connecticut "COVID-19 pandemic in Connecticut") [Delaware](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Delaware "COVID-19 pandemic in Delaware") [Florida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Florida "COVID-19 pandemic in Florida") [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(U.S._state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (U.S. state)") [Guam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guam "COVID-19 pandemic in Guam") [Hawaii](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hawaii "COVID-19 pandemic in Hawaii") [Idaho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Idaho "COVID-19 pandemic in Idaho") [Illinois](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Illinois "COVID-19 pandemic in Illinois") [Indiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indiana "COVID-19 pandemic in Indiana") [Iowa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iowa "COVID-19 pandemic in Iowa") [Kansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kansas "COVID-19 pandemic in Kansas") [Kentucky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kentucky "COVID-19 pandemic in Kentucky") [Louisiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Louisiana "COVID-19 pandemic in Louisiana") [Maine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maine "COVID-19 pandemic in Maine") [Maryland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maryland "COVID-19 pandemic in Maryland") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maryland "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Maryland") [Massachusetts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Massachusetts "COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Massachusetts "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts") [Boston](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Boston "COVID-19 pandemic in Boston") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Boston "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Boston") [Michigan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Michigan "COVID-19 pandemic in Michigan") [Minnesota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Minnesota "COVID-19 pandemic in Minnesota") [Mississippi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mississippi "COVID-19 pandemic in Mississippi") [Missouri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Missouri "COVID-19 pandemic in Missouri") [Montana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montana "COVID-19 pandemic in Montana") [Nebraska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nebraska "COVID-19 pandemic in Nebraska") [Nevada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nevada "COVID-19 pandemic in Nevada") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nevada "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Nevada") [New Hampshire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Hampshire "COVID-19 pandemic in New Hampshire") [New Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Jersey "COVID-19 pandemic in New Jersey") [New Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in New Mexico") [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in New York (state)") [New York City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_City "COVID-19 pandemic in New York City") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_City "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City") [North Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Carolina "COVID-19 pandemic in North Carolina") [North Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Dakota "COVID-19 pandemic in North Dakota") [Northern Mariana Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Mariana Islands") [Ohio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ohio "COVID-19 pandemic in Ohio") [Columbus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Columbus,_Ohio "COVID-19 pandemic in Columbus, Ohio") [Oklahoma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oklahoma "COVID-19 pandemic in Oklahoma") [Oregon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oregon "COVID-19 pandemic in Oregon") [Portland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portland,_Oregon "COVID-19 pandemic in Portland, Oregon") [Pennsylvania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pennsylvania "COVID-19 pandemic in Pennsylvania") [Philadelphia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Philadelphia "COVID-19 pandemic in Philadelphia") [Puerto Rico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puerto_Rico "COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico") [Rhode Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rhode_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Rhode Island") [South Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Carolina "COVID-19 pandemic in South Carolina") [South Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Dakota "COVID-19 pandemic in South Dakota") [Tennessee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tennessee "COVID-19 pandemic in Tennessee") [Texas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Texas "COVID-19 pandemic in Texas") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Texas "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Texas") [Austin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austin,_Texas "COVID-19 pandemic in Austin, Texas") [U.S. Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Virgin Islands") [Utah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Utah "COVID-19 pandemic in Utah") [Vermont](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vermont "COVID-19 pandemic in Vermont") [Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Virginia "COVID-19 pandemic in Virginia") [Washington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Washington_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Washington (state)") [Washington, D.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Washington,_D.C. "COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C.") [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_COVID-19_outbreak "White House COVID-19 outbreak") [West Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_West_Virginia "COVID-19 pandemic in West Virginia") [Wisconsin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wisconsin "COVID-19 pandemic in Wisconsin") [Wyoming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wyoming "COVID-19 pandemic in Wyoming") |
| [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oceania "COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania") | |
| | |
| [American Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_American_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in American Samoa") [Cook Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cook_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cook Islands") [Easter Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Easter_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Easter Island") [Federated States of Micronesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia "COVID-19 pandemic in the Federated States of Micronesia") [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Fiji "COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji") [French Polynesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Polynesia "COVID-19 pandemic in French Polynesia") [Guam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guam "COVID-19 pandemic in Guam") [Hawaii](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hawaii "COVID-19 pandemic in Hawaii") [Kiribati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kiribati "COVID-19 pandemic in Kiribati") [Marshall Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Marshall_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Marshall Islands") [Nauru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nauru "COVID-19 pandemic in Nauru") [New Caledonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Caledonia "COVID-19 pandemic in New Caledonia") [Niue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niue "COVID-19 pandemic in Niue") [Northern Mariana Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Mariana Islands") [Palau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Palau "COVID-19 pandemic in Palau") [Papua New Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Papua_New_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Papua New Guinea") [Bougainville](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Autonomous_Region_of_Bougainville "COVID-19 pandemic in the Autonomous Region of Bougainville") [Pitcairn Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Pitcairn Islands") [Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in Samoa") [Solomon Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Solomon_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Solomon Islands") [Tokelau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tokelau "COVID-19 pandemic in Tokelau") [Tonga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tonga "COVID-19 pandemic in Tonga") [Tuvalu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tuvalu "COVID-19 pandemic in Tuvalu") [Vanuatu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vanuatu "COVID-19 pandemic in Vanuatu") [Wallis and Futuna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wallis_and_Futuna "COVID-19 pandemic in Wallis and Futuna") | |
| [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Australia") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (2020)") 2021 [JanuaryâJune](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (JanuaryâJune 2021)") [JulyâDecember](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (JulyâDecember 2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (2022)") [Australian Capital Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Australian_Capital_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the Australian Capital Territory") [Christmas Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Christmas_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Christmas Island") [Cocos (Keeling) Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cocos_\(Keeling\)_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands") [New South Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_South_Wales "COVID-19 pandemic in New South Wales") [Norfolk Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norfolk_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Norfolk Island") [Northern Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Territory") [Queensland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Queensland "COVID-19 pandemic in Queensland") [South Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Australia") [Tasmania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tasmania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tasmania") [Victoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Victoria "COVID-19 pandemic in Victoria") [Western Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Australia") |
| [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2023)") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New Zealand government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Alert levels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_alert_levels_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 alert levels in New Zealand") [Traffic light system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Protection_Framework "COVID-19 Protection Framework") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [managed isolation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_managed_isolation_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 managed isolation in New Zealand") |
| [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_America "COVID-19 pandemic in South America") | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") [human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_human_rights_in_Argentina "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on human rights in Argentina") [Bolivia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bolivia "COVID-19 pandemic in Bolivia") [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") [SĂŁo Paulo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in SĂŁo Paulo (state)") [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") [Easter Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Easter_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Easter Island") [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") [Ecuador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ecuador "COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador") [Falkland Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Falkland_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Falkland Islands") [French Guiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Guiana "COVID-19 pandemic in French Guiana") [Guyana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guyana "COVID-19 pandemic in Guyana") [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Paraguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Paraguay") [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") [Cusco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cusco "COVID-19 pandemic in Cusco") [Suriname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Suriname "COVID-19 pandemic in Suriname") [Uruguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uruguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Uruguay") [Venezuela](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Venezuela "COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela") |
| Others | [Antarctica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antarctica "COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica") [Cruise ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_cruise_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships") [*Diamond Princess*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Diamond_Princess "COVID-19 pandemic on Diamond Princess") [*Grand Princess*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Grand_Princess "COVID-19 pandemic on Grand Princess") [Naval ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_naval_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on naval ships") [*Charles de Gaulle*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Charles_de_Gaulle "COVID-19 pandemic on Charles de Gaulle") [USS *Theodore Roosevelt*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_USS_Theodore_Roosevelt "COVID-19 pandemic on USS Theodore Roosevelt") |
| [Impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| | |
| Culture and entertainment | |
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| [Arts and cultural heritage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_arts_and_cultural_heritage "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage") | [References in popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_popular_culture "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture") [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cinema "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema") [films affected](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Corona-chan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona-chan "Corona-chan") [Disney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Walt_Disney_Company "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Walt Disney Company") [Fashion industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_fashion_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the fashion industry") [Music industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_music_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the music industry") [Performing arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_performing_arts "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performing arts") [Television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television") [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television in the United States") [U.S. sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_American_sports_broadcasting "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on American sports broadcasting") [programs affected](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_television_series_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of American television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Video games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_video_game_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry") |
| [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education") | |
| | |
| [Female education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_female_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on female education") [Homeschooling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeschooling_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| By country | [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_Ghana "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in Ghana") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the Republic of Ireland") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_Kingdom "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom") [exam grading controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_Kingdom_school_exam_grading_controversy "2020 United Kingdom school exam grading controversy") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United States") |
| [Sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports") | |
| | |
| [Bio-secure bubble](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-secure_bubble "Bio-secure bubble") | |
| By country | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports in the Republic of Ireland") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Philippine_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Philippine sports") |
| By sport | [Association football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_association_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on association football") [Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_baseball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on baseball") [Basketball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_basketball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on basketball") [NBA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_the_2019%E2%80%9320_NBA_season "Suspension of the 2019â20 NBA season") [Combat sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_combat_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on combat sports") [Cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cricket "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cricket") [Disc golf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_disc_golf "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on disc golf") [Gaelic games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Gaelic_games "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Gaelic games") [Gridirion football (NCAAF, NFL, and CFL)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_gridiron_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gridiron football") [Ice hockey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ice_hockey "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ice hockey") [Motorsport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_motorsport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on motorsport") [Rugby league](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_rugby_league "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rugby league") |
| Society and rights | |
| | |
| [Social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Social media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_social_media "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media") [Stigma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stigma_associated_with_COVID-19 "Social stigma associated with COVID-19") [Children](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_children "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children") [foster care in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_foster_care_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on foster care in the United States") [Pandemic baking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic_baking "Pandemic baking") |
| Labor | [Healthcare workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_healthcare_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_migrant_workers_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian migrant workers during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Great Resignation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Resignation "Great Resignation") [Strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikes_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Strikes during the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| [Human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_issues_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Human rights issues related to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_human_rights_in_Argentina "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on human rights in Argentina") [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Myanmar_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "2021 Myanmar coup d'Ă©tat") |
| Legal | [Abortion in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_abortion_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on abortion in the United States") [Crime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_crime "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on crime") [Domestic violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_domestic_violence "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence") [Prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_prisons "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prisons") [U.S. immigration detention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_U.S._immigration_detention "COVID-19 pandemic in U.S. immigration detention") |
| Minority | [Gender](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendered_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Gendered impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [LGBT community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_LGBT_community "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBT community") [African communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Indian_migrant_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Indian migrant workers") [Disability community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_people_with_disabilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on people with disabilities") [Native American communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Native_American_tribes_and_tribal_communities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Native American tribes and tribal communities") [Xenophobia and racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_religion "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion") | [Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church") [Hajj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Hajj "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Hajj") |
| [Economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| | |
| [Charitable activity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charitable_activities_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Charitable activities related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [COVID-19 scams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_scams "COVID-19 scams") [Travel restrictions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| By country | [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Pandemic_Unemployment_Payment "COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [U.K.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") |
| By industry | [Aviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_commercial_air_transport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on commercial air transport") [Airlines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airlines_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of airlines impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Cannabis industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_cannabis_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cannabis industry") [Food industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_food_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food industry") [meat industry in Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_meat_industry_in_Canada "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the meat industry in Canada") [meat industry in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_meat_industry_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the meat industry in the United States") [restaurant industry in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_restaurant_industry_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the restaurant industry in the United States") [Hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_hospitals "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitals") [ICU capacity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ICU_capacity "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ICU capacity") [Long-term care facilities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_long-term_care_facilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on long-term care facilities") [Mink farming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Public transport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_public_transport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public transport") [Retail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_retail "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on retail") [Tourism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_tourism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism") |
| Supply and trade | [Shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Chip supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_global_chip_shortage "2020â2023 global chip shortage") [Energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_global_energy_crisis "2021â2023 global energy crisis") [Global supply chain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_global_supply_chain_crisis "2021â2023 global supply chain crisis") [Oil price war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war "2020 RussiaâSaudi Arabia oil price war") [Food security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Food security during the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| [Financial markets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Global stock market crash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_stock_market_crash "2020 stock market crash") [COVID-19 recession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_recession "COVID-19 recession") [Inflation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_inflation_surge "2021â2022 inflation surge") |
| Information | |
| | |
| [Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_journalism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism") [Media coverage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Wikipedia's response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_and_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Wikipedia and the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| [Misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation "COVID-19 misinformation") | [Governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments "COVID-19 misinformation by governments") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China "COVID-19 misinformation by China") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States "COVID-19 misinformation by the United States") By country [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_Canada "COVID-19 misinformation in Canada") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines") [Ivermectin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic") *[Plandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plandemic "Plandemic")* |
| [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| | |
| [National responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_pandemic_legislation "List of COVID-19 pandemic legislation") [List of political officials who have tested positive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_officials_who_have_tested_positive_for_COVID-19 "List of political officials who have tested positive for COVID-19") [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| [Political impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Malaysia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Malaysia") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") |
| [Protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_against_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Protests against responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Abkhazia_unrest "2021 Abkhazia unrest") [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17A "17A") [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Australia "COVID-19 protests in Australia") [Convoy to Canberra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy_to_Canberra "Convoy to Canberra") [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Azerbaijani_protests "2020 Azerbaijani protests") [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Belarusian_protests "2020â2021 Belarusian protests") [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Brussels_protests "2022 Brussels protests") [2020 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Brazilian_protests "2020 Brazilian protests") [2021 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Brazilian_protests "2021 Brazilian protests") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Bulgarian_protests "2020â2021 Bulgarian protests") [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Canada "COVID-19 protests in Canada") [convoy protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_convoy_protest "Canada convoy protest") [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%932022_Chilean_protests "2019â2022 Chilean protests") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_COVID-19_protests_in_China "2022 COVID-19 protests in China") [Beijing Sitong Bridge protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Beijing_Sitong_Bridge_protest "2022 Beijing Sitong Bridge protest") [healthcare reform protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Chinese_healthcare_reform_protests "2023 Chinese healthcare reform protests") [2021 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Colombian_protests "2021 Colombian protests") [2022 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Colombian_protests "2022 Colombian protests") [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Cuban_protests "2021 Cuban protests") [Yellow vests protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_vests_protests "Yellow vests protests") [labor protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_French_labor_protests "2021 French labor protests") [French West Indies social unrest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_social_unrest_in_the_French_West_Indies "2021â2022 social unrest in the French West Indies") [convoy protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_convoy_protest "France convoy protest") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Germany "COVID-19 protests in Germany") [Idar-Oberstein shooting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Idar-Oberstein_shooting "2021 Idar-Oberstein shooting") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Greek_protests "2021 Greek protests") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Israel "COVID-19 protests in Israel") [protests against Benjamin Netanyahu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_protests_against_Benjamin_Netanyahu "2020â2021 protests against Benjamin Netanyahu") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_over_COVID-19_policies_in_Italy "Protests over COVID-19 policies in Italy") [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Mongolian_protests "2021 Mongolian protests") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 protests in the Netherlands") [curfew riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Dutch_curfew_riots "2021 Dutch curfew riots") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 protests in New Zealand") [Wellington protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Wellington_protest "2022 Wellington protest") [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Paraguayan_protests "2021 Paraguayan protests") [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Serbian_protests "2020â2022 Serbian protests") [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Tunisian_protests "2021 Tunisian protests") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 protests in the United Kingdom") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 protests in the United States") [Open the States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_the_States "Open the States") |
| [International relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_international_relations "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations") | [Aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "International reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [MoldovanâRomanian collaboration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan%E2%80%93Romanian_collaboration_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "MoldovanâRomanian collaboration during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator_diplomacy_of_Taiwan "Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan") [Vaccine diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_diplomacy "Vaccine diplomacy") |
| [Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Glossary of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Anthropause](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropause "Anthropause") [Doomscrolling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomscrolling "Doomscrolling") [Flattening the curve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flattening_the_curve "Flattening the curve") [Green recovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_recovery "Green recovery") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") [Superspreader](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superspreading_event "Superspreading event") [Twindemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twindemic "Twindemic") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") [Zoom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom_\(software\) "Zoom (software)") [Zoom towns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom_town "Zoom town") |
| Others | [Animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_and_animals "COVID-19 pandemic and animals") [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_environment "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment") [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_military "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the military") [Pregnant women](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_pregnant_women "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on pregnant women") [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology") |
| Health issues | |
| | |
| Medical topics | [Transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_of_COVID-19 "Transmission of COVID-19") [Symptoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptoms_of_COVID-19 "Symptoms of COVID-19") [Cancer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_and_cancer "COVID-19 and cancer") [Endemic COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_COVID-19 "Endemic COVID-19") [Skin manifestations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous_manifestations_of_COVID-19 "Cutaneous manifestations of COVID-19") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Mental health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic") [neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes") [Pregnancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy "COVID-19 in pregnancy") [Non-COVID-19ârelated health issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_other_health_issues "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues") [Shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Rehabilitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehabilitation_after_COVID-19 "Rehabilitation after COVID-19") [Unproven medical methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19 "List of unproven methods against COVID-19") |
| Testing and epidemiology | |
| | |
| [Datasets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_datasets "COVID-19 datasets") [Death rates by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_death_rates_by_country "COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country") [Disease testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing "COVID-19 testing") [Breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer") [Operation Moonshot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonshot "Operation Moonshot") [Test to Release](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_to_Release "Test to Release") [UK Rapid Test Consortium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Rapid_Test_Consortium "UK Rapid Test Consortium") [AbC-19 rapid antibody test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AbC-19_rapid_antibody_test "AbC-19 rapid antibody test") [investigations into the origins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigations_into_the_origin_of_COVID-19 "Investigations into the origin of COVID-19") [lab leak theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lab_leak_theory "COVID-19 lab leak theory") [Rapid antigen test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test") [Software](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_for_COVID-19_pandemic_mitigation "Software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation") [Surveillance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance "COVID-19 surveillance") [Undercounting COVID-19 deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercounting_of_COVID-19_pandemic_deaths_by_country "Undercounting of COVID-19 pandemic deaths by country") | |
| [Apps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_apps "COVID-19 apps") | [Aarogya Setu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarogya_Setu "Aarogya Setu") [BlueTrace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlueTrace "BlueTrace") [careFIJI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CareFIJI "CareFIJI") [Coronavirus Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_Australia "Coronavirus Australia") [Corona-Warn-App](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona-Warn-App "Corona-Warn-App") [COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Contact-Confirming_Application "COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application") [COVID Alert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Alert "COVID Alert") (Canada) [COVIDSafe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVIDSafe "COVIDSafe") [COVID Tracker Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Tracker_Ireland "COVID Tracker Ireland") [Covid Watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid_Watch "Covid Watch") [Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralized_Privacy-Preserving_Proximity_Tracing "Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing") [Exposure Notification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_Notification "Exposure Notification") [Health Code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Code "Health Code") [Healthy Together](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_Together "Healthy Together") [Immuni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuni "Immuni") [Koronavilkku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronavilkku "Koronavilkku") [LeaveHomeSafe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeaveHomeSafe "LeaveHomeSafe") [MySejahtera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySejahtera "MySejahtera") [NHS COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_COVID-19 "NHS COVID-19") [NZ COVID Tracer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZ_COVID_Tracer "NZ COVID Tracer") [NZ Pass Verifier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZ_Pass_Verifier "NZ Pass Verifier") [PathCheck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PathCheck "PathCheck") [PeduliLindungi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PeduliLindungi "PeduliLindungi") [SafeEntry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafeEntry "SafeEntry") [SafePass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafePass "SafePass") [StaySafe.ph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StaySafe.ph "StaySafe.ph") [SwissCovid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SwissCovid "SwissCovid") [TCN Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCN_Protocol "TCN Protocol") [Test, Trace, Protect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test,_Trace,_Protect "Test, Trace, Protect") [Thai Chana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_Chana "Thai Chana") [TousAntiCovid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TousAntiCovid "TousAntiCovid") [TraceTogether](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TraceTogether "TraceTogether") [Valtrace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valtrace "Valtrace") [Zoe Health Study](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_Health_Study "Zoe Health Study") |
| Prevention | [Air purifier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier "Air purifier") ([CorsiâRosenthal Box](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsi%E2%80%93Rosenthal_Box "CorsiâRosenthal Box")) [Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroquine_and_hydroxychloroquine_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Face masks]() [Anti-mask sentiment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-mask_sentiment "Anti-mask sentiment") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [Flattening the curve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flattening_the_curve "Flattening the curve") [Great Barrington Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrington_Declaration "Great Barrington Declaration") [International aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns "COVID-19 lockdowns") [Public health mitigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19 "Public health mitigation of COVID-19") [Safe Hands Challenge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Hands_Challenge "Safe Hands Challenge") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing_measures_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Workplace hazard controls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_hazard_controls_for_COVID-19 "Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") |
| [Vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine "COVID-19 vaccine") | |
| | |
| Topics | [Authorizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_vaccine_authorizations "List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations") [Clinical research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research "COVID-19 vaccine clinical research") [Deployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") [Development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development "History of COVID-19 vaccine development") [EU Certificate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Digital_COVID_Certificate "EU Digital COVID Certificate") [Misinformation and hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy "COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy") [Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaths_of_anti-vaccine_advocates_from_COVID-19 "Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates from COVID-19") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_hesitancy_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the United States") [Operation Warp Speed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Warp_Speed "Operation Warp Speed") (U.S.) [Post-vaccination complications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolic_and_thrombotic_events_after_COVID-19_vaccination "Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination") [Vaccine card](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_card "COVID-19 vaccine card") [Vaccine passports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_passports_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| Authorized | |
| | |
| [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_vaccine "DNA vaccine") | [ZyCoV-D](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZyCoV-D "ZyCoV-D") |
| [Inactivated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") | [Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences_COVID-19_vaccine "Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences COVID-19 vaccine") [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac") [Covaxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covaxin "Covaxin") [COVIran Barekat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVIran_Barekat "COVIran Barekat") [CoviVac (Russia)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoviVac_\(Russia_COVID-19_vaccine\) "CoviVac (Russia COVID-19 vaccine)") [FAKHRAVAC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAKHRAVAC "FAKHRAVAC") [Minhai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minhai_COVID-19_vaccine "Minhai COVID-19 vaccine") [QazCovid-in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QazCovid-in "QazCovid-in") [Sinopharm BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Sinopharm WIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_WIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm WIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Turkovac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkovac "Turkovac") [Valneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valneva_COVID-19_vaccine "Valneva COVID-19 vaccine") |
| [mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") | [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") [PfizerâBioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "PfizerâBioNTech COVID-19 vaccine") |
| [Subunit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") | [Abdala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdala_\(vaccine\) "Abdala (vaccine)") [Corbevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbevax "Corbevax") (Bio E COVID-19) [COVAX-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVAX-19 "COVAX-19") [EpiVacCorona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EpiVacCorona "EpiVacCorona") [IndoVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IndoVac "IndoVac") [MVC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVC_COVID-19_vaccine "MVC COVID-19 vaccine") [Noora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noora_\(vaccine\) "Noora (vaccine)") [Novavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine") [Razi Cov Pars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi_Cov_Pars "Razi Cov Pars") [Sinopharm CNBG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_CNBG_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm CNBG COVID-19 vaccine") [Soberana 02](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_02 "Soberana 02") [Soberana Plus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_Plus "Soberana Plus") [ZF2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF2001 "ZF2001") (Zifivax) |
| [Viral vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine") | [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia") [Janssen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID-19_vaccine "Janssen COVID-19 vaccine") [OxfordâAstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine "OxfordâAstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik Light](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_Light "Sputnik Light") |
| [Virus-like particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") | [CoVLP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoVLP "CoVLP") |
| In trials | |
| | |
| [Attenuated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine "Attenuated vaccine") | [COVI-VAC (United States)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVI-VAC_\(U.S._COVID-19_vaccine\) "COVI-VAC (U.S. COVID-19 vaccine)") |
| DNA | [AG0302-COVIDâ19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AG0302-COVID%E2%80%9119 "AG0302-COVIDâ19") [GX-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GX-19 "GX-19") [Inovio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inovio_COVID-19_vaccine "Inovio COVID-19 vaccine") |
| Inactivated | [KD-414](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KD-414 "KD-414") [NDV-HXP-S](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDV-HXP-S "NDV-HXP-S") |
| RNA | [ARCT-021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCT-021 "ARCT-021") [ARCT-154](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCT-154 "ARCT-154") [Bangavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangavax "Bangavax") [CureVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CureVac_COVID-19_vaccine "CureVac COVID-19 vaccine") (terminated) [HGC019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HGC019 "HGC019") [mRNA-1283](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA-1283 "MRNA-1283") [PTX-COVID19-B](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PTX-COVID19-B "PTX-COVID19-B") [SanofiâTranslate Bio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93Translate_Bio_COVID-19_vaccine "SanofiâTranslate Bio COVID-19 vaccine") (terminated) [Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemirna_COVID-19_vaccine "Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine") [Walvax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walvax_COVID-19_vaccine "Walvax COVID-19 vaccine") |
| Subunit | [202-CoV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/202-CoV "202-CoV") [AKS-452](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKS-452 "AKS-452") [EuCorVac-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuCorVac-19 "EuCorVac-19") [IVX-411](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IVX-411 "IVX-411") [Nanocovax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocovax "Nanocovax") [ReCOV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReCOV "ReCOV") [SanofiâGSK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93GSK_COVID-19_vaccine "SanofiâGSK COVID-19 vaccine") [S-268019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-268019 "S-268019") [SCB-2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCB-2019 "SCB-2019") [SCTV01C](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCTV01C "SCTV01C") [Skycovione](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skycovione "Skycovione") [UB-612](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UB-612 "UB-612") [V-01](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-01 "V-01") [V451](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V451_vaccine "V451 vaccine") (terminated) [Vabiotech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vabiotech_COVID-19_vaccine "Vabiotech COVID-19 vaccine") [West China Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_China_Hospital_COVID-19_vaccine "West China Hospital COVID-19 vaccine") [Zhongyianke BiotechâLiaoning Maokangyuan Biotech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF2001 "ZF2001") |
| Viral vector | [AdCLD-CoV19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdCLD-CoV19 "AdCLD-CoV19") [BriLife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BriLife "BriLife") [COH04S1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COH04S1 "COH04S1") [DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT "DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT") [GRAd-COV2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAd-COV2 "GRAd-COV2") [ImmunityBio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ImmunityBio_COVID-19_vaccine "ImmunityBio COVID-19 vaccine") [iNCOVACC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCOVACC "INCOVACC") [INNA-051](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INNA-051 "INNA-051") [NDV-HXP-S](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDV-HXP-S "NDV-HXP-S") [Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaxart_COVID-19_vaccine "Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine") |
| [Virus-like particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") | [ABNCoV2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABNCoV2 "ABNCoV2") [LYB001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LYB001 "LYB001") [MigVax-101](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MigVax-101 "MigVax-101") [VBI-2902](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VBI-2902 "VBI-2902") |
| [Deployment by location](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") | |
| | |
| [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Africa "COVID-19 vaccination in Africa") | [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Algeria "COVID-19 vaccination in Algeria") [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Angola "COVID-19 vaccination in Angola") [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Botswana "COVID-19 vaccination in Botswana") [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 vaccination in Burkina Faso") [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Burundi "COVID-19 vaccination in Burundi") [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 vaccination in Cameroon") [Cape Verde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cape_Verde "COVID-19 vaccination in Cape Verde") [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 vaccination in Cameroon") [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Chad "COVID-19 vaccination in Chad") [Comoros](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Comoros "COVID-19 vaccination in the Comoros") [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 vaccination in the Democratic Republic of the Congo") [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 vaccination in Djibouti") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Egypt "COVID-19 vaccination in Egypt") [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 vaccination in Equatorial Guinea") [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 vaccination in Eswatini") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ghana "COVID-19 vaccination in Ghana") [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Morocco "COVID-19 vaccination in Morocco") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 vaccination in Nigeria") [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Senegal "COVID-19 vaccination in Senegal") [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 vaccination in South Africa") [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 vaccination in Zimbabwe") |
| Asia | [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 vaccination in Bangladesh") [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 vaccination in Bhutan") [Mainland China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 vaccination in mainland China") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_India "COVID-19 vaccination in India") [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 vaccination in Indonesia") [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Iran "COVID-19 vaccination in Iran") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Israel "COVID-19 vaccination in Israel") [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Japan "COVID-19 vaccination in Japan") [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 vaccination in Kazakhstan") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 vaccination in Malaysia") [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Nepal "COVID-19 vaccination in Nepal") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 vaccination in the Philippines") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Russia "COVID-19 vaccination in Russia") [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Singapore "COVID-19 vaccination in Singapore") [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 vaccination in South Korea") [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 vaccination in Sri Lanka") [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 vaccination in Taiwan") [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Thailand "COVID-19 vaccination in Thailand") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Turkey "COVID-19 vaccination in Turkey") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 vaccination in the United Arab Emirates") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 vaccination in Vietnam") |
| Europe | [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Albania "COVID-19 vaccination in Albania") [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 vaccination in Bosnia and Herzegovina") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 vaccination in Bulgaria") [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Croatia "COVID-19 vaccination in Croatia") [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Denmark "COVID-19 vaccination in Denmark") [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_France "COVID-19 vaccination in France") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Germany "COVID-19 vaccination in Germany") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Greece "COVID-19 vaccination in Greece") [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Hungary "COVID-19 vaccination in Hungary") [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Iceland "COVID-19 vaccination in Iceland") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 vaccination in the Republic of Ireland") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Italy "COVID-19 vaccination in Italy") [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Moldova "COVID-19 vaccination in Moldova") [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Norway "COVID-19 vaccination in Norway") [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Portugal "COVID-19 vaccination in Portugal") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Romania "COVID-19 vaccination in Romania") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Russia "COVID-19 vaccination in Russia") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Spain "COVID-19 vaccination in Spain") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Sweden "COVID-19 vaccination in Sweden") [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 vaccination in Switzerland") [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 vaccination in Ukraine") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 vaccination in the United Kingdom") |
| North America | [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Canada "COVID-19 vaccination in Canada") [Ontario](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ontario "COVID-19 vaccination in Ontario") [Quebec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Quebec "COVID-19 vaccination in Quebec") [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Haiti "COVID-19 vaccination in Haiti") [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Mexico "COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccination in the United States") [mandates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_mandates_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccination mandates in the United States") |
| Oceania | [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Australia "COVID-19 vaccination in Australia") [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Fiji "COVID-19 vaccination in Fiji") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 vaccination in New Zealand") |
| South America | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Argentina "COVID-19 vaccination in Argentina") [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Brazil "COVID-19 vaccination in Brazil") [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Colombia "COVID-19 vaccination in Colombia") [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Peru "COVID-19 vaccination in Peru") |
| Others | |
| [Treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatment_and_management_of_COVID-19 "Treatment and management of COVID-19") | |
| | |
| [Drug development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_development "COVID-19 drug development") [Drug repurposing research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_repurposing_research "COVID-19 drug repurposing research") [Baricitinib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baricitinib "Baricitinib") [PANORAMIC trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PANORAMIC_trial "PANORAMIC trial") (UK) [RECOVERY Trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RECOVERY_Trial "RECOVERY Trial") (UK) [Solidarity trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidarity_trial "Solidarity trial") (WHO) | |
| [Monoclonal antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody "Monoclonal antibody") | [Bamlanivimab/etesevimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamlanivimab/etesevimab "Bamlanivimab/etesevimab") [Bamlanivimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamlanivimab "Bamlanivimab") Etesevimab [Bebtelovimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebtelovimab "Bebtelovimab") [Casirivimab/imdevimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casirivimab/imdevimab "Casirivimab/imdevimab") [Regdanvimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regdanvimab "Regdanvimab") [Sarilumab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarilumab "Sarilumab") [Sotrovimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotrovimab "Sotrovimab") [Tixagevimab/cilgavimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tixagevimab/cilgavimab "Tixagevimab/cilgavimab") [Tocilizumab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocilizumab "Tocilizumab") |
| [Small molecule antivirals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral_drug "Antiviral drug") | [Broad-spectrum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad-spectrum_antiviral_drug "Broad-spectrum antiviral drug") [Ensitrelvir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensitrelvir "Ensitrelvir") [Molnupiravir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molnupiravir "Molnupiravir") Co-packaged [Nirmatrelvir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirmatrelvir "Nirmatrelvir") [ritonavir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir "Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir") |
| [Variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2") | |
| | |
| Specific | [Alpha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant") [Beta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") [Gamma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") [Delta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant") [Epsilon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Epsilon_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Epsilon variant") [Zeta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Zeta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Zeta variant") [Eta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Eta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Eta variant") [Theta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Theta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Theta variant") [Iota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Iota_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Iota variant") [Kappa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Kappa_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Kappa variant") [Lambda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Lambda_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Lambda variant") [Mu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Mu_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Mu variant") [Omicron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "Timeline of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") |
| General | [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Lineage B.1.617](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_lineage_B.1.617 "SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.617") [Variant of concern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_variant_of_concern "SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern") |
| Institutions | |
| | |
| Hospitals and medical clinics | |
| | |
| Mainland China | [Central Hospital of Wuhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Hospital_of_Wuhan "Central Hospital of Wuhan") [Dabie Mountain Regional Medical Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabie_Mountain_Regional_Medical_Centre "Dabie Mountain Regional Medical Centre") [Fangcang hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fangcang_hospital "Fangcang hospital") [Huoshenshan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huoshenshan_Hospital "Huoshenshan Hospital") [Leishenshan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishenshan_Hospital "Leishenshan Hospital") [Xinjia Express Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collapse_of_Xinjia_Express_Hotel "Collapse of Xinjia Express Hotel") [Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan_Jinyintan_Hospital "Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital") |
| Others | [Hospital ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_ships_designated_for_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Hospital ships designated for the COVID-19 pandemic") [Garran Surge Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garran_Surge_Centre "Garran Surge Centre") (Australia) [Hospital El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_El_Salvador "Hospital El Salvador") [Kemayoran Athletes Village](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemayoran_Athletes_Village "Kemayoran Athletes Village") (Indonesia) [Pyongyang General Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyongyang_General_Hospital "Pyongyang General Hospital") (North Korea) [Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia_Agro_Exposition_Park_Serdang "Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang") (Malaysia) [Mega Ligtas COVID Centers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega_Ligtas_COVID_Centers "Mega Ligtas COVID Centers") (Philippines) [Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandakadu_Treatment_and_Rehabilitation_Centre "Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre") (Sri Lanka) [Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Ăz Emergency Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancaktepe_Prof._Dr._Feriha_%C3%96z_Emergency_Hospital "Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Ăz Emergency Hospital") (Turkey) [YeĆilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye%C5%9Filk%C3%B6y_Prof._Dr._Murat_Dilmener_Emergency_Hospital "YeĆilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital") (Turkey) [COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_hospitals_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom") [Birmingham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_Birmingham "NHS Nightingale Hospital Birmingham") [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_London "NHS Nightingale Hospital London") [North East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_North_East "NHS Nightingale Hospital North East") [North West](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_North_West "NHS Nightingale Hospital North West") [Yorkshire and the Humber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_Yorkshire_and_the_Humber "NHS Nightingale Hospital Yorkshire and the Humber") [NHS Louisa Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Louisa_Jordan "NHS Louisa Jordan") (Scotland) [Dragon's Heart Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon%27s_Heart_Hospital "Dragon's Heart Hospital") (Wales) |
| Organizations | |
| | |
| [National Cabinet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cabinet_\(Australia\) "National Cabinet (Australia)") (Australia) [ScienceUpFirst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceUpFirst "ScienceUpFirst") (Canada) [Wuhan Institute of Virology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan_Institute_of_Virology "Wuhan Institute of Virology") (China) [Independent SAGE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_SAGE "Independent SAGE") (United Kingdom) | |
| Health institutes | [Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_Centres_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention") (African Union) [Ghana Infectious Disease Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Infectious_Disease_Centre "Ghana Infectious Disease Centre") (Ghana) [Department of Health (Hong Kong)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Health_\(Hong_Kong\) "Department of Health (Hong Kong)") [Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_Disease_Control_and_Prevention_Agency "Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency") (South Korea) [National Institute for Communicable Diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Communicable_Diseases "National Institute for Communicable Diseases") (South Africa) [Taiwan Centers for Disease Control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Centers_for_Disease_Control "Taiwan Centers for Disease Control") (Taiwan) |
| Pandemic institutes | [National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_COVID-19_Commission_Advisory_Board "National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board") (Australia) [COVID-19 Immunity Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Immunity_Task_Force "COVID-19 Immunity Task Force") (Canada) [COVID-19 Supply Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Supply_Council "COVID-19 Supply Council") (Canada) [PREPARE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PREPARE "PREPARE") (European Union) [National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Expert_Group_on_Vaccine_Administration_for_COVID-19 "National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19") (India) [COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Response_Acceleration_Task_Force "COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force") (Indonesia) [National Public Health Emergency Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Health_Emergency_Team_\(2020\) "National Public Health Emergency Team (2020)") (Ireland) [Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel_Coronavirus_Expert_Meeting "Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting") (Japan) [Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_Preparedness_and_Response_Centre "Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre") (Malaysia) [Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defeat_COVID-19_Ad_Hoc_Committee "Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee") (Philippines) [Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-Agency_Task_Force_for_the_Management_of_Emerging_Infectious_Diseases "Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases") (Philippines) [Central Epidemic Command Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Epidemic_Command_Center "Central Epidemic Command Center") (Taiwan) [Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_Scientific_Advisory_Board "Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board") (Turkey) [COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Genomics_UK_Consortium "COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium") (United Kingdom) [Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_College_COVID-19_Response_Team "Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team") (United Kingdom) [Joint Biosecurity Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Biosecurity_Centre "Joint Biosecurity Centre") (United Kingdom) [Vaccine Taskforce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Taskforce "Vaccine Taskforce") (United Kingdom) [COVID-19 Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Advisory_Board "COVID-19 Advisory Board") (United States) [Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_American_Economic_Revival_Industry_Groups "Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups") (United States) [White House Coronavirus Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Coronavirus_Task_Force "White House Coronavirus Task Force") (United States) [White House COVID-19 Response Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_COVID-19_Response_Team "White House COVID-19 Response Team") (United States) [GACH](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GACH "GACH") (Uruguay) |
| Relief funds | [PM CARES Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PM_CARES_Fund "PM CARES Fund") (India) [Artist Relief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artist_Relief "Artist Relief") (United States) |
| People | |
| | |
| Medical professionals | [Ai Fen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai_Fen "Ai Fen") [Corona Rintawan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_Rintawan "Corona Rintawan") [Li Wenliang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Wenliang "Li Wenliang") [Liu Wen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Wen_\(doctor\) "Liu Wen (doctor)") [Xie Linka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xie_Linka "Xie Linka") [Zhang Wenhong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Wenhong "Zhang Wenhong") |
| [Researchers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Coronavirus_researchers "Category:Coronavirus researchers") | [Awang Bulgiba Awang Mahmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awang_Bulgiba_Awang_Mahmud "Awang Bulgiba Awang Mahmud") [Roberto Burioni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Burioni "Roberto Burioni") [Chen Wei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Wei_\(medical_scientist\) "Chen Wei (medical scientist)") [Kizzmekia Corbett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kizzmekia_Corbett "Kizzmekia Corbett") [Andrea Crisanti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Crisanti_\(scientist\) "Andrea Crisanti (scientist)") [Peter Daszak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Daszak "Peter Daszak") [Christian Drosten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Drosten "Christian Drosten") [Neil Ferguson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Ferguson_\(epidemiologist\) "Neil Ferguson (epidemiologist)") [Dale Fisher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Fisher "Dale Fisher") [George F. Gao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_F._Gao "George F. Gao") [Azra Ghani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azra_Ghani "Azra Ghani") [Sarah Gilbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Gilbert "Sarah Gilbert") [Guan Yi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan_Yi "Guan Yi") [Kentaro Iwata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentaro_Iwata "Kentaro Iwata") [Katalin KarikĂł](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3 "Katalin KarikĂł") [Matt Keeling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Keeling "Matt Keeling") [Trudie Lang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trudie_Lang "Trudie Lang") [Li Lanjuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Lanjuan "Li Lanjuan") [W. Ian Lipkin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Ian_Lipkin "W. Ian Lipkin") [Ma Xiaowei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Xiaowei "Ma Xiaowei") [Shabir Madhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabir_Madhi "Shabir Madhi") [Allison McGeer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_McGeer "Allison McGeer") [Camilla Rothe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camilla_Rothe "Camilla Rothe") [Shi Zhengli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi_Zhengli "Shi Zhengli") [Moncef Slaoui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moncef_Slaoui "Moncef Slaoui") [Mike Tildesley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tildesley "Mike Tildesley") [John Todd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Todd_\(British_biologist\) "John Todd (British biologist)") [Wang Chen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Chen_\(physician\) "Wang Chen (physician)") [Wang Guangfa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Guangfa "Wang Guangfa") [Drew Weissman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Weissman "Drew Weissman") [Yuen Kwok-yung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuen_Kwok-yung "Yuen Kwok-yung") [Zeng Guang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeng_Guang "Zeng Guang") [Zhang Jixian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Jixian "Zhang Jixian") [Zhang Yongzhen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Yongzhen "Zhang Yongzhen") [Zhong Nanshan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhong_Nanshan "Zhong Nanshan") |
| Officials | |
| | |
| WHO | [Tedros Adhanom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedros_Adhanom_Ghebreyesus "Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus") (Director-General of the WHO) [Bruce Aylward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Aylward "Bruce Aylward") (Team lead of WHO-China COVID-19 mission) [Maria Van Kerkhove](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Van_Kerkhove "Maria Van Kerkhove") (Technical Lead for COVID-19 response) [Michael J. Ryan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Ryan_\(doctor\) "Michael J. Ryan (doctor)") (Executive Director of the WHO Health Emergencies Programme) |
| By location | [Frank Atherton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Atherton "Frank Atherton") (Wales) [Ashley Bloomfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_Bloomfield "Ashley Bloomfield") (New Zealand) [Catherine Calderwood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Calderwood "Catherine Calderwood") (Scotland) [Chang Shan-chwen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang_Shan-chwen "Chang Shan-chwen") (Taiwan) [Anutin Charnvirakul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anutin_Charnvirakul "Anutin Charnvirakul") (Thailand) [Chen Shih-chung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Shih-chung "Chen Shih-chung") (Taiwan) [Kenneth Chuang Yin-ching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuang_Yin-ching "Chuang Yin-ching") (Taiwan) [Victor Costache](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Costache "Victor Costache") (Romania) [Fabrizio Curcio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrizio_Curcio "Fabrizio Curcio") (Italy) [Carmen Deseda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen_Deseda "Carmen Deseda") (Puerto Rico) [Jaap van Dissel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaap_van_Dissel "Jaap van Dissel") (the Netherlands) [Christian Drosten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Drosten "Christian Drosten") (Germany) [Francisco Duque III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Duque_III "Francisco Duque III") (Philippines) [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci") (United States) [Francesco Paolo Figliuolo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Paolo_Figliuolo "Francesco Paolo Figliuolo") (Italy) [Graça Freitas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gra%C3%A7a_Freitas "Graça Freitas") (Portugal) [Henrique Gouveia e Melo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrique_Gouveia_e_Melo "Henrique Gouveia e Melo") (Portugal) [Matt Hancock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Hancock "Matt Hancock") (United Kingdom) [Hamad Hasan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamad_Hasan "Hamad Hasan") (Lebanon) [Greg Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Hunt "Greg Hunt") (Australia) [Tony Holohan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Holohan "Tony Holohan") (Ireland) [Jeong Eun-kyeong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeong_Eun-kyeong "Jeong Eun-kyeong") (South Korea) [Fahrettin Koca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrettin_Koca "Fahrettin Koca") (Turkey) [Li Keqiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Keqiang "Li Keqiang") (China) [Hugo LĂłpez-Gatell RamĂrez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_L%C3%B3pez-Gatell_Ram%C3%ADrez "Hugo LĂłpez-Gatell RamĂrez") (Mexico) [Michael McBride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_McBride_\(doctor\) "Michael McBride (doctor)") (Northern Ireland) [Oriol MitjĂ ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriol_Mitj%C3%A0 "Oriol MitjĂ ") (Andorra) [Zweli Mkhize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweli_Mkhize "Zweli Mkhize") (South Africa) [Doni Monardo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doni_Monardo "Doni Monardo") (Indonesia) [Alma Möller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_M%C3%B6ller "Alma Möller") (Iceland) [Saeed Namaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saeed_Namaki "Saeed Namaki") (Iran) [Ala Nemerenco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ala_Nemerenco "Ala Nemerenco") (Moldova) [Nguyá»
n Thanh Long](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Thanh_Long "Nguyá»
n Thanh Long") (Vietnam) [Noor Hisham Abdullah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noor_Hisham_Abdullah "Noor Hisham Abdullah") (Malaysia) [Ali Pilli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Pilli "Ali Pilli") (Northern Cyprus) [Daniel Salinas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Salinas "Daniel Salinas") (Uruguay) [JĂ©rĂŽme Salomon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Salomon "JĂ©rĂŽme Salomon") (France) [Fernando SimĂłn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Sim%C3%B3n "Fernando SimĂłn") (Spain) [Gregor Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Smith "Gregor Smith") (Scotland) [Su Ih-jen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Ih-jen "Su Ih-jen") (Taiwan) [Ćukasz Szumowski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81ukasz_Szumowski "Ćukasz Szumowski") (Poland) [Theresa Tam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_Tam "Theresa Tam") (Canada) [Anders Tegnell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Tegnell "Anders Tegnell") (Sweden) [ĂĂłrĂłlfur GuĂ°nason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B3lfur_Gu%C3%B0nason "ĂĂłrĂłlfur GuĂ°nason") (Iceland) [Sotiris Tsiodras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotiris_Tsiodras "Sotiris Tsiodras") (Greece) [Harsh Vardhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsh_Vardhan_\(Delhi_politician\) "Harsh Vardhan (Delhi politician)") (India) [VĂĂ°ir Reynisson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%AD%C3%B0ir_Reynisson "VĂĂ°ir Reynisson") (Iceland) [Carla Vizzotti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Vizzotti "Carla Vizzotti") (Argentina) [Vlad Voiculescu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_Voiculescu "Vlad Voiculescu") (Romania) [Chris Whitty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Whitty "Chris Whitty") (United Kingdom) [Lawrence Wong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Wong "Lawrence Wong") (Singapore) [Jeff Zients](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Zients "Jeff Zients") (United States) |
| Others | [Chen Qiushi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Qiushi "Chen Qiushi") [Brett Crozier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brett_Crozier "Brett Crozier") [Fang Bin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fang_Bin "Fang Bin") [Fang Fang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fang_Fang "Fang Fang") [Joseph Ashitey Hammond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Ashitey_Hammond "Joseph Ashitey Hammond") [Li Zehua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zehua "Li Zehua") [Captain Tom Moore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_Tom_Moore "Captain Tom Moore") [Qiu Menghuang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Menghuang "Qiu Menghuang") [Ren Zhiqiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren_Zhiqiang "Ren Zhiqiang") |
| [List of deaths due to COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaths_due_to_COVID-19 "List of deaths due to COVID-19") | |
| Data (templates) | |
| | |
| Global | WHO situation reports [cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_cases "COVID-19 pandemic cases") [deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_deaths "COVID-19 pandemic deaths") [World map by countries: confirmed per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") |
| Asia | [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Armenia_medical_cases_chart "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Armenia medical cases chart") [Artsakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Republic_of_Artsakh_medical_cases_chart "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Republic of Artsakh medical cases chart") China [confirmed per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Mainland_China_medical_cases_map_\(dots\) "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Mainland China medical cases map (dots)") |
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Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic
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| Readable Markdown | | | |
|---|---|
|  | This article needs to be **updated**. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. *(March 2026)* |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Duta_Besar_Baru_AS_Sung_Kim_Serahkan_Surat_Kepercayaan_Pada_Presiden_Jokowi_\(50515038461\).jpg)
US Ambassador to Indonesia [Sung Kim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sung_Kim "Sung Kim") accompanied by local officials at the [Presidential Palace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merdeka_Palace "Merdeka Palace") wearing face masks amid the COVID-19 pandemic
During the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), face masks or coverings, including [N95](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator"), [FFP2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_standards#FFP2_mask "FFP standards"), [surgical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_mask "Surgical mask"), and [cloth masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask"), were employed as public and personal health control measures against the spread of [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2"), the virus that causes [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19").
In community and healthcare settings, the use of face masks is intended as [source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)") to limit [transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_of_COVID-19 "Transmission of COVID-19") of the virus and for personal protection to prevent infection.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-AR2021-1) Properly worn masks both limit the [respiratory droplets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_droplet "Respiratory droplet") and [aerosols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_transmission "Airborne transmission") spread by infected individuals and help protect healthy individuals from infection.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Matuschek-2)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-interplay-3)
Reviews of various kinds of scientific studies have concluded that masking is effective in protecting the individual against COVID-19.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Matuschek-2)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Talic-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sci-5) Various [case-control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study "Caseâcontrol study") and population-based studies have also shown that increased levels of masking in a community reduces the spread of SARS-CoV-2,[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Talic-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sci-5) though there is a paucity of evidence from [randomized controlled trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial "Randomized controlled trial") (RCTs).[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cochrane-6)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-royalsoc-7) Masks vary in how well they work. Fitted [N95s](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator") outperform surgical masks,[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-norespirator-9) while cloth masks provide marginal protection.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ataei-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cloth_v_surgical-11) During the public health emergency, governments widely recommended and mandated mask-wearing, and prominent national and intergovernmental health agencies and their leaders recommended the use of masks to reduce transmission, including the [WHO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO "WHO"), [American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"), [European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECDC "ECDC"), and [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention") Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Many federal governmental agencies recommended using face masks to avoid COVID-19 transmission. Masks with [exhalation valves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_\(respirator\)#Exhalation_valves "Mechanical filter (respirator)") were not recommended because they expelled the wearer's breath outwards, and an infected wearer would transmit the virus through the valve. A second purpose of face masks is to protect each wearer from environments that can infect them, which can be achieved by many models of masks.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-12)
Various types of masks each provide different levels of protection against COVID-19 transmission, ease of use, and comfort:
- [cloth face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask")
- [surgical masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_masks "Surgical masks") (medical masks)
- certified [face-covering masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator"), considered respirators, with [certifications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator "Mechanical filter respirator") such as [N95](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator") and N99, and [FFP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_respirator "FFP respirator")
- [filtering respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtering_facepiece_respirator "Filtering facepiece respirator") with [certifications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator "Mechanical filter respirator") such as [N95](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator") and N99, and [FFP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_respirator "FFP respirator")
- other [respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator "Respirator"), including [elastomeric respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastomeric_respirator "Elastomeric respirator"), some of which may also be considered filtering masks
There are some other types of [personal protective equipment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment "Personal protective equipment") (PPE), such as [face shields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield") and medical [goggles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goggles "Goggles"), which are sometimes used in conjunction with face masks but were not recommended as a replacement.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-13) Other kinds of PPE include gloves, aprons, gowns, shoe covers, and hair covers.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-14)
In 2020, there were [shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") of facial masks, which have led to the use of uncertified masks, with worse performance.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-15)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twoclothfacemasks101.jpeg)
Cloth face masks
A [cloth face mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask") is worn over the mouth and nose and made of common textiles such as cotton. Masks vary widely in effectiveness, depending on factors such as material, fit and seal, and the number of layers. They are usually less effective at filtering than surgical masks and offer much less protection.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-16)[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Filtration_Efficiencies_of_Nanoscal-17) Unlike disposable masks, there are no required standards for cloth masks.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18)
One 2020 study found that a cloth mask was better than nothing, but not as good as a soft [electret](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electret "Electret")\-filter surgical mask for protecting healthcare workers while simulating the treatment of an artificially infected patient.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) Research on commonly available fabrics used in cloth masks found that cloth masks can provide significant protection against the transmission of particles in the aerosol size range, with enhanced performance across the nanoscale and microscale when masks use both mechanical and electrostatic-based filtration, but that leakage due to improper fit can degrade performance.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pmid32329337-19) A review of available research published in January 2021 concludes that cloth masks are not considered adequate to protect healthcare practitioners in a clinical setting.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-20)
A 2013 study had volunteers wear masks they made themselves from cotton T-shirts, following the pattern of a standard tie behind the head surgical mask,[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-21) and found the number of microscopic particles that leaked to the inside of the homemade masks was twice that of commercial masks. Wearing homemade masks also leaked a [median](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median "Median") average of three times as many microorganisms as commercial masks. But another 2020 study found that masks made of at least two layers of T-shirt fabric could be as protective against virus droplets as medical masks, and as breathable.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pmid32835043-22)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:How_to_wear_a_non-medical_fabric_mask_safely_-_Do%27s_%26_Don%27ts.png)
World Health Organization infographic on how to wear a non-medical fabric mask safely[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)
A 2020 peer-reviewed summary of published literature on the filtration properties of cloth and cloth masks recommends two to four layers of plain-weave cotton or flannel of at least 100 threads per inch.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pmid33012350-24) There is a trade-off in that increasing the number of layers increases the filtration of the material but decreases how easy it is for a person to breathe through the mask.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Clase2020-25)
As of May 2020, there was no research on decontaminating and reusing cloth masks.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) The CDC recommends removing a mask by handling only the ear loops or ties, placing it directly in a [washing machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine "Washing machine"), and immediately washing hands in soap and water for at least twenty seconds. Cold water is considered as effective as warm water for decontamination.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-26) The CDC also recommends washing hands before putting on the mask and again immediately after touching it.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-27)
There is no information on reusing an interlayer filter. Disposing of filters after a single use may be desirable.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) A narrative review of the literature on the filtration properties of cloth and other household materials did not find support for using a filter. A layer of cloth, if tolerated, was suggested instead,[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pmid33012350-24) or a PM2.5 filter, as a third layer.[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-28)
The [United States Environmental Protection Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency") (EPA) Study published on 5 April 2021, showed extremely varied performance across cotton masks. The results of the EPA study found that "a three-layer knitted cotton mask blocked an average of 26.5 percent of particles in the chamber, while a washed, two-layer woven nylon mask with a filter insert and metal nose bridge blocked 79 percent of particles on average."[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-EPA-Researchers-Test-Effectiveness-of-Face-Masks-2021-29) Ultimately, the researchers found that fabric and fit are the two most vital factors when recommending masks to the public and further research is being conducted on variables such as facial hair and face shape on mask fit.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-EPA-Researchers-Test-Effectiveness-of-Face-Masks-2021-29)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:How_to_a_wear_medical_mask_safely_-_Do%27s_%26_Don%27ts.png)
World Health Organization infographic on how to wear a medical mask safely[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)
A surgical mask is a loose-fitting, [disposable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disposable_product "Disposable product") mask that creates a physical barrier separating the mouth and nose of the wearer from potential [contaminants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contamination "Contamination") in the immediate environment. If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle [droplets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_droplets "Respiratory droplets"), splashes, [sprays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spray_\(liquid_drop\) "Spray (liquid drop)"), or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping them from reaching the wearer's mouth and nose. Surgical masks may also help reduce exposure of others to the wearer's [saliva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saliva "Saliva") and respiratory secretions.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration-2020-30)[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-31)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:04.02_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%A6%96%E5%AF%9F%E3%80%8C%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C%E7%96%AB%E6%83%85%E6%8C%87%E6%8F%AE%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E3%80%8D_49726568957_66543b616e_o.jpg)
Taiwanese president [Tsai Ing-wen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsai_Ing-wen "Tsai Ing-wen") wearing a surgical mask
Certified medical masks are made of non-woven material, and they are mostly multi-layer. Filters may be made of [microfibers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfibers "Microfibers") with an electrostatic charge; that is, the fibers are [electrets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electret "Electret"). An electret filter increases the chances that smaller particles will veer and hit a fiber, rather than going straight through (electrostatic capture).[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-PM03-32)[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-33)[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Australia-34)\[*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*\]\[*[medical citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_\(medicine\) "Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)")*\] While there is some development work on making electret filtering materials that can be washed and reused,[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-kaist-35) current commercially produced electret filters are ruined by many forms of disinfection, including washing with soap and water or alcohol, which destroys the electric charge.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CDC_guidelines-36) During the COVID-19 pandemic, public health authorities issued guidelines on [how to save, disinfect and reuse electret-filter masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator#Disinfection_and_reuse "Mechanical filter respirator") without damaging the filtration efficiency.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CDC_guidelines-36)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-paperbag-37) Standard disposable surgical masks are not designed to be washed. Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental, or medical procedure masks.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration-2020-30) The material surgical masks are made from is much poorer at filtering very small particles (in the range of a tenth of a micrometer to a micrometer across) than that of filtering respirators (for example N95, FFP2) and the fit is much poorer.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration-2020-30) Surgical masks are made of a non-woven fabric created using a [melt blowing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melt_blowing "Melt blowing") process.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-38)[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-39) Random control studies of respiratory infections like [influenza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza "Influenza") find little difference in protection between surgical masks and respirators (such as N95 or FFP masks).[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-40) However, the filtering performance of correctly worn N95/FFP2 type filtering respirators is clearly superior to surgical and to cloth masks[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Filtration_Efficiencies_of_Nanoscal-17) and for influenza, work by the UK Health and Safety executive[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-41) found that live virus penetrated all surgical masks tested but properly fitted respirators reduced the viral dose by a factor of at least a hundred.
Surgical masks made to different standards in different regions of the world have different ranges of particles which they filter. For example, the People's Republic of China regulates two types of such masks: single-use medical masks (Chinese standard YY/T 0969) and surgical masks (YY 0469). The latter ones are required to filter bacteria-sized particles ([BFE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_filtration_efficiency "Bacterial filtration efficiency") â„ 95%) and some virus-sized particles (PFE â„ 30%), while the former ones are required to only filter bacteria-sized particles.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-standards-42)[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-YY0469-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-YY0969-44)
The effectiveness of surgical masks in limiting particle transmission is a function of material and fit.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-45) Since the start of the pandemic, scientists have evaluated various modifications to ear loop surgical masks aimed at improving mask efficacy by reducing or eliminating gaps between the mask and face.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-JAMA-modifications-46) The CDC evaluated and recommended two such modifications to ear loop masks to minimize the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Under regular use, the CDC found that a surgical mask worn by a coughing individual blocked 41.3% of simulated cough aerosols (0.1â7.0 ÎŒm particle size) from reaching a second individual six feet away. However, by applying a knot and tuck technique,[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-47) 62.9% of particles were blocked. When the surgical mask was covered with a larger cloth mask, 82% of the particles were blocked. When both the source and recipient wore masks, 84% of the particles were blocked. The number increased to more than 95% when both parties either wore double masks (surgical mask with larger cloth mask) or used the knot and tuck technique.[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-48)
Another type of modification was aimed to improve the comfort of the wearers. Early in the pandemic, healthcare workers were required to continue wearing surgical masks for 12 or more hours a day. This caused the ear loops of the masks to chafe the back of their ears. [Ear savers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear_saver "Ear saver"), plastic straps, and hooks that go around wearer's heads, were invented to move the ear loops away from the wearer's ears. They could be made on demand by using a [3D printing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing "3D printing") process.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-49)
An improved version approaches the model efficacy of N95 respirators.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-50)
### Filtering respirators
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Filtering respirators")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3M_8210.png)
N95 mask
An [N95 mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_mask "N95 mask") is a particulate-filtering facepiece [respirator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator "Respirator") that meets the N95 [air filtration rating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating "NIOSH air filtration rating") of the US [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health"), meaning it filters at least 95 percent of 0.3 ÎŒm [airborne particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_particles "Airborne particles"), while not resistant to oil like the P95. It is the most common particulate-filtering facepiece respirator.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-51) It is an example of a [mechanical filter respirator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator "Mechanical filter respirator"), which provides protection against [particulates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates "Particulates"), but not gases or [vapors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor "Vapor").[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-52) Like the middle layer of[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Naveed-53) surgical masks, the N95 mask is made of four layers[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) of melt-blown nonwoven polypropylene fabric.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-VOADeliver-54)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-55)\[*[unreliable medical source?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_\(medicine\) "Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)")*\] The corresponding face mask used in the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") is the [FFP2 respirator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_mask "FFP mask").[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-56)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-57)
Hard electret-filter masks like N95 and FFP masks must fit the face to provide full protection. Untrained users often get a reasonable fit, but fewer than one in four gets a perfect fit. Fit testing is thus standard, though debated.[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-58)[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-59) A line of [petroleum jelly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_jelly "Petroleum jelly") on the edge of the mask[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-source-60) has been shown to reduce edge leakage[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) in lab tests using [mannequins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannequin "Mannequin") that simulate breathing.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-source-60)
Some N95 series respirators, especially those intended for industrial use, have an exhalation valve to improve comfort, making exhalation easier and reducing leakage on exhalation and steaming up of glasses. But those respirators are not reliable for the control of infected people ([source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)")) in respiratory diseases such as COVID-19, because infected users (asymptomatic or not) would transmit the virus to others through the valve.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-61)
During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were shortages of filtering facepiece respirators, and they had to be used for extended periods, and/or disinfected and reused. At the time, public health authorities issued guidelines on [how to save, disinfect and reuse masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_respirator#Disinfection_and_reuse "Mechanical filter respirator"), as some disinfection methods damaged their filtration efficiency.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CDC_guidelines-36)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-paperbag-37) Some hospitals stockpiled used masks as a precaution,[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-62) and some had to sanitize and reuse masks.
### Face shields and eye protection
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Face shields and eye protection")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Personal_protective_equipment_infographic.png)
Guidelines for recommended use of face shield in conjunction with N95 respirators and medical face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:200323-Z-NI803-0964.jpg)
A medical worker wearing a [face shield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield") adjunct to other [personal protective equipment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment "Personal protective equipment") at a COVID-19 testing site
The US [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC) does not recommend the use of face shields as a substitute for masks to help slow the spread of COVID-19.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc7820-63) In a study by Lindsley *et al.* (7 January 2021) funded by the [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health"), part of the CDC, face shields were found to block very few cough aerosols in contrast to face coverings â such as cloth masks, procedure masks, and N95 respirators â indicating that face shields are not effective as source control devices for small respiratory aerosols and that face coverings are more effective than face shields as source control devices to reduce the community transmission of SARS-CoV-2.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lin-eff-64)
In a scoping review, Godoy *et al.* (5 May 2020) said face shields are used for barrier protection against splash and splatter contamination but should not be used as primary protection against respiratory disease transmission due to the lack of a peripheral seal rather than as an adjunct to other facial protection.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) They remarked that face shields have been used like this alongside medical-grade masks during the COVID-19 pandemic.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-scoping-18) They cited a cough simulation study by Lindsley *et al.* (2014) in which face shields were shown to reduce the risk of inhalation exposure up to 95% immediately following aerosol production, but the protection was decreased with smaller aerosol particles and persistent airborne particles around the sides.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-65)
There is weak evidence that the use of eye protection including face shields is associated with less infection.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lan-chu-66)
### Elastomeric respirators
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Elastomeric respirators")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD45.jpg)
Surgeons wearing full-facepiece elastomeric respirators while doing [tracheostomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracheostomy "Tracheostomy") to a COVID-19 patient in Russia
Elastomeric respirators are reusable personal protective equipment comprising a tight-fitting half-facepiece or full-facepiece respirator with exchangeable filters such as cartridge filters.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-elastomeric-67) They provide an alternative respiratory protection option to filtering facepiece respirators such as N95 masks. Some healthcare workers have used them during times of short supply caused by the pandemic, as they can be reused over an extended period in healthcare settings.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-elastomeric-67)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-chi-ela-68) However, most elastomeric respirators have an unfiltered exhalation vent which would allow the virus to spread from the wearer.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-chi-ela-68)
For the COVID-19 response when supplies are short, the US CDC says contingency and crisis strategies should be followed: Each elastomeric respirator is issued for the exclusive use of an individual healthcare provider but must be cleaned and disinfected as often as necessary to remain unspoiled and sanitary. If there is no other option than to share a respirator between healthcare providers, the respirator must be cleaned and disinfected before it is worn by a different individual. Filters (except for unprotected disc types) may be used for an extended period, but the filter housing of cartridge types must be disinfected after each patient interaction.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-elastomeric-67)
### Powered air-purifying respirators
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Powered air-purifying respirators")\]
A powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR) is a personal protective equipment in which a device with a filter and fan creates a highly filtered airflow towards the headpiece and a positive outflow of air from the headpiece.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-how-agp-69)
There is an increased risk for healthcare workers to become exposed to SARS-CoV-2 when they conduct [aerosol-generating procedures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol-generating_procedure "Aerosol-generating procedure") on COVID-19 patients, which is why it is argued that such situations may require enhanced personal protective equipment (i.e., higher than N95) such as PAPRs for healthcare workers.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-how-agp-69)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-70)
In a systematic review, Licina, Silvers, and Stuart (8 August 2020) said field studies indicate that there were equivalent rates of infection among healthcare workers who performed airway procedures on critical COVID-19 patients using PAPRs or other appropriate respiratory equipment (such as N95 or FFP2), but remarked that there is a need to further collect field data about optimal respiratory protection during highly virulent pandemics.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-71)
### Face masks with exhalation valves
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: Face masks with exhalation valves")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flow_visualization_of_an_N95_respirator_with_and_without_an_exhalation_valve_using_schlieren_imaging_and_light_scattering_\(mannequin\).jpg)
Flow visualizations comparing face mask efficacy with and without exhalation valve, illustrating the concern that exhalation valves allow exhaled respiratory droplets to reach others in proximity and would therefore not be appropriate in [source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)") strategies[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-72)
Some masks include an exhalation valve to expel the breath outwards, but that airflow is not filtered. Certification (as N95 or FFP2) is about the mask itself and does not warrant any safety about the air that is exhaled. Putting tape over the exhalation valve can make a mask or respirator as effective as one without a valve.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-73)
Scientists have visualized droplet dispersal for [masks with exhalation valves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_filter_\(respirator\)#Exhalation_valves "Mechanical filter (respirator)") and [face shields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield") and concluded that they can be ineffective against COVID-19 spread (e.g., after a cough) and recommended alternatives.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-74)[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-75) A later study showed that some (but not all) respirators with exhalation valves can perform as well as a surgical mask. However, a respirator *without* an exhalation valve should still be preferred.[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-new_exhale-76)
The use of face masks or coverings by the general public has been recommended by health officials to minimize the risk of transmissions, with authorities either requiring their use in certain settings, such as on public transport and in shops, or universally in public.
Health officials had advised that medical-grade face masks, such as [respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator "Respirator"), should be prioritized for use by healthcare workers in view of critical shortages, so they used to generally first and foremost recommend cloth masks for the general public.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ecdc-apr-77)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who20200606-78) However, recommendations have changed as the body of scientific knowledge evolved.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-mask_not_mask-79) Scientists now recommend having a triple-layered surgical mask and a respirator.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-80)
According to \#Masks4All, in September 2020, approximately 95% of the world population lived in a country where the government and leading disease experts recommend or require the use of masks in public places to limit the spread of COVID-19.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-masks4all-81)
### World Health Organization
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: World Health Organization")\]
A video from the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") regarding different types of face masks and how to use them
Early in 2020, the [WHO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") had only recommended medical masks for people with suspected infection and respiratory symptoms, their caregivers and those sharing living space, and healthcare workers.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-82)[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-83)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-6420-84) In April 2020, the WHO acknowledged that wearing a medical mask can limit the spread of certain respiratory viral diseases including COVID-19 but claimed that medical masks would create a false sense of security and neglect of other necessary measures, such as hand hygiene.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-6420-84)
The early WHO advice on limited mask usage was scrutinized for several reasons. First, experts and researchers pointed out the asymptomatic transmission of the virus.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-kes-pma-85)[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pri.org-86)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-BackfiredNYT-87)[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-feng-rati-88)[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-89) Second, according to Marteau *et al.* (27 July 2020), available evidence does not support the notion that masking adversely affects hand hygiene:[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-90) Dame [Theresa Marteau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_Marteau "Theresa Marteau"), one of the researchers, remarked that "The concept of [risk compensation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_compensation "Risk compensation"), rather than risk compensation itself, seems the greater threat to public health through delaying potentially effective interventions that can help prevent the spread of disease."[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-91)
The WHO revised its mask guidance in June 2020, with its officials acknowledging that studies indicated asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic spread.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-92) The updated advice recommended that the general public should wear non-medical [fabric masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_face_mask "Cloth face mask") where there is known or suspected widespread transmission and where physical distancing is not possible, and that vulnerable people (60 and over, or with underlying health risks) and people with any symptoms suggestive of COVID-19 as well as caregivers and healthcare workers should wear [surgical or procedure masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_mask "Surgical mask").[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who20200606-78) They stated that the purpose of mask usage is to prevent the wearer transmitting the virus to others (source control) and to offer protection to healthy wearers against infection (prevention).[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who20200606-78)
The WHO advises that non-medical fabric masks should comprise a minimum of three layers,[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who20200606-78) suggesting an inner layer made of [absorbent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophilic "Hydrophilic") material (such as cotton), a middle layer made of [non-woven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-woven "Non-woven") material (such as polypropylene) which may enhance filtration or retain droplets, and an outer layer made of [non-absorbent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobic "Hydrophobic") material (such as polyester or its blends) which may limit external contamination from penetration.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-93)
On 21 August 2020, the WHO and [UNICEF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNICEF "UNICEF") released an annex guidance for children.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-chi-94) For children five and younger, they advise that masks should not be required in consideration to a child's developmental milestones, compliance challenges, and autonomy required to use a mask properly, but recognized that the evidence supporting their cut-off age is limited and countries may hold a different and lower age of cut-off.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-chi-94) For children 6â11, they advise that mask usage should be decided in consideration of several factors including the intensity of local viral transmission, (the latest evidence about) the risk of infection for the age group, the social and cultural environment (which influences social interactions in communities and populations), the capacity to comply with appropriate mask usage, the availability of appropriate adult supervision, and the potential impact on learning and psychosocial development, as well as additional factors involving specific settings or circumstances (such as disabilities, underlying diseases, elderly people, sport activities, and schools).[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-chi-94) For children 12 and older, they advise that masks should be worn under the same conditions for adults in accordance with WHO guidance or national guidelines.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-who-chi-94)
Regarding the use of non-medical fabric masks in the general population, the WHO has stated that high-quality evidence for its widespread use is limited, but advises governments to encourage its use as physical distancing may not be possible in some settings, there is some evidence for asymptomatic transmission, and masks could be helpful to provide a barrier to limit the spread of potentially infectious droplets.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-95)
### United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Use_of_Cloth_Face_Coverings_to_Help_Slow_the_Spread_of_COVID-19.pdf)
Guidance from the US [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") on using and making cloth masks during the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic")[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-96)
Early in 2020, the [United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC) said it did not recommend the use of face masks for the general public.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bi-clg-97)[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-98) However, on 3 April 2020, the CDC changed its advice to recommend that people wear cloth face coverings "in public settings when around people outside their household, especially when social distancing measures are difficult to maintain".[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-99)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-100) In response to a media inquiry by [National Public Radio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Radio "National Public Radio"), the CDC said that this change in guidelines was due to the increasing and widespread transmission of the virus, citing studies published in February and March showing pre-symptomatic and asymptomatic transmission.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-NPRMasks2-101) In a subsequent interview and *[JAMA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAMA "JAMA")* editorial, the CDC director [Robert R. Redfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_R._Redfield "Robert R. Redfield") explained that the CDC's early guidance had been premised on an initial [absence of evidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absence_of_evidence "Absence of evidence") of disease transmission from pre- and asymptomatic individuals.[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-102)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-jama-umt-103)[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-104)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atemluftfilter_Einwegmaske.jpg)
The CDC does not recommend masks with [exhalation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhalation "Exhalation") valves or vents for source control.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc7820-63) In the healthcare workers' guidance, if only respirators with valves are available and source control is needed, the CDC recommends that the valve should be covered with a surgical mask, procedure mask, or cloth face covering.[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-105)
On 28 June, the CDC stated the "CDC recommends that people wear cloth face coverings in public settings and when around people who don't live in your household, especially when other [social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") measures are difficult to maintain. Cloth face coverings may help prevent people who have COVID-19 from spreading the virus to others. Cloth face coverings are most likely to reduce the spread of COVID-19 when they are widely used by people in public settings."[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-con28620-106) The CDC provided the caveat that cloth face coverings should not be worn by children under the age of two, people who have trouble breathing, or people who are unconscious, incapacitated, or otherwise unable to remove the mask without assistance.[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-con28620-106) In August 2020, the CDC added that [exhalation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhalation "Exhalation") valves or vents in masks do not help prevent the person wearing the mask from spreading COVID-19 to others.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc7820-63)[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-107)
In a November 2020 scientific brief, the CDC reiterated their recommendation for the community use of masks and specifically non-valved multi-layer cloth masks to prevent transmission of SARS-CoV-2.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sccom-108) They say the community's use of masks serves two primary purposes: to reduce the emission of virus-laden droplets from exhalation into the environment ([source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)")), which is especially relevant for asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic infected wearers who feel well and may be unaware of their infectiousness to others, and to reduce inhalation of these droplets through filtration for the wearer (personal protection).[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sccom-108) For filtration, the CDC says some fabrics (such as silk) may [hydrophobically](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobe "Hydrophobe") repel moist droplets, whereas other fabrics (such as [polyester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester "Polyester") or [polypropylene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylene "Polypropylene")) may [electrostatically](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatics "Electrostatics") capture droplets.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sccom-108) They concluded that the benefit of masking for [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2 "Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2") control is derived from the combination of source control and personal protection, which is likely complementary and possibly synergistic so that individual benefit increases with increasing community mask use.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sccom-108)
The CDC said healthcare personnel should wear a NIOSH-approved N95 (or equivalent or higher-level) respirator or a face mask (if a respirator is not available) with a face shield or goggles as part of their [personal protective equipment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment "Personal protective equipment"), while patients with suspected or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection should wear a face mask or cloth face covering during transport.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdcppe-109) As crisis strategy for known shortages of N95 respirators in healthcare settings, among other sequential measures, the CDC suggests use of respirators beyond the manufacturer-designated shelf life, use of respirators approved under standards used in other countries that are similar to NIOSH-approved respirators, limited re-use of respirators, use of additional respirators beyond the manufacturer-designated shelf life that have not been evaluated by NIOSH, and prioritizing the use of respirators and face masks by activity type.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-110)
In late July 2021, the CDC changed guidelines to recommend people, including those who are vaccinated, to continue masking in public indoor settings in areas with substantial and high transmissionâas there are indications that the [coronavirus such as the Delta variant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant") may infect even vaccinated people in rare occasionsâto help prevent transmission to other people.[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-111)[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-112) Previously, the CDC updated public guidance from May 2021 stated that those who are fully vaccinated can "resume activities without wearing masks or physically distancing, except where required by federal, state, local, tribal, or territorial laws, rules and regulations, including local business and workplace guidance."[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-113) However, critics posited that it was predicated on a key social factor, namely whether people can be trusted to wear a mask if they are not fully vaccinated.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-114)[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-115)[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-116)
On 25 February 2022, the CDC changed its guidelines to suggest that 70% of Americans need no longer wear masks, and no longer need to social distance or avoid crowded spaces.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-117) Under the new guidance, Americans in counties designated as medium-to-low-risk can go indoors without masks. In accordance with these new CDC guidelines, a number of US states ended their mask mandates for indoor spaces. However, federal officials emphasized that regardless of local conditions, individuals with COVID-19 or COVID-19 symptoms, as well as individuals who consider themselves to be high-risk, should continue to wear facial coverings. In addition to this, the CDC also dropped its recommendation for universal school mask mandates.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-118) These new recommendations assessed COVID-19 hospitalizations as well as the proportion of beds occupied by COVID-19 patients in certain areas.
#### Criticism of guidance
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: Criticism of guidance")\]
[Larry Gostin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Gostin "Larry Gostin"), a professor of public health law, said initial CDC and WHO guidance had given the public the wrong impression that masks do not work, even though scientific evidence to the contrary was already available.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-NPRMasks2-101) The confusing changing advice from discouraging to recommending public masking has led to decreasing public trust in the CDC.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-BackfiredNYT-87)[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-119) In June 2020 [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci"), a leading infectious disease expert for the United States government, stated that the delay in recommending general mask use was motivated by a desire to conserve dwindling supplies for medical professionals.[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-JankowiczBI-120) Since September 2021, the director of the CDC, Rochelle Walensky, indicated that the schools that did not have mask mandates were 3.5 times as likely to experience COVID outbreaks as the ones that did. This statement caused controversy because the basis for it was an outlier study criticized by some experts as unreliable and basically useless to learn about the effects of mask mandates.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-121)
In March 2020, when asked about the mistakes that other countries were making during the pandemic, the [Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention") director-general [George Fu Gao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Fu_Gao "George Fu Gao") said:
> The big mistake in the U.S. and Europe, in my opinion, is that people aren't wearing masks. This virus is transmitted by droplets and close contact. Droplets play a very important role â you've got to wear a mask because when you speak, there are always droplets coming out of your mouth. Many people have [asymptomatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic "Asymptomatic") or pre-symptomatic infections. If they are wearing face masks, it can prevent droplets that carry the virus from escaping and infecting others.[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-122)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mille_Miglia_2020_partenza_N_8_e_9_in_Viale_Venezia_a_Brescia.jpg)
Masked participants in the 2020 edition of the [Mille Miglia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mille_Miglia "Mille Miglia") road race in [Brescia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brescia "Brescia"), [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy "Italy")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Munchin%27s_College_6.jpg)
Boys of [St Munchin's College](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Munchin%27s_College "St Munchin's College") in Ireland wearing face masks in class during the pandemic
Most countries in Europe introduced mandatory face mask rules for public places.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-123)[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-voa-nor-124) On 8 April 2020, the [European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control "European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control") (ECDC) published its masking recommendations, saying that the "use of face masks in the community could be considered, especially when visiting busy, closed spaces".[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-125)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ecdc-apr-77) On 15 February 2021, ECDC updated the recommendation stating, "Although the evidence for the use of medical face masks in the community to prevent COVID-19 is limited, face masks should be considered as a non-pharmaceutical intervention in combination with other measures as part of efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic."[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-126)
The [Nordic countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countries "Nordic countries") and [the Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") were notable exceptions in supporting the use of face masks,[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-voa-nor-124)[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-127) but eventually started to recommend masks. For example, due to the [COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands"), wearing a mouth/nose mask was made mandatory on public transportation per 1 June 2020.[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-amsterdamshallowman.com-128) The main reasoning against masks recommendations given by officials in the Nordic countries was that public masking is deemed an unnecessary precaution when infection levels remain low.[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-129) In June 2020, the [Norwegian Institute of Public Health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Institute_of_Public_Health "Norwegian Institute of Public Health") said asymptomatic individuals wearing face masks were not to be recommended due to the low prevalence of COVID-19 in the country but noted that it should be reconsidered if cases rise.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-130) Similarly, on 30 July 2020, the [Danish Health Authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Health_Authority "Danish Health Authority") director [SĂžren BrostrĂžm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Brostr%C3%B8m "SĂžren BrostrĂžm") said face covers did not make sense in the current situation with low infection levels, but that they needed to evaluate whether it could make sense in the long term.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bar-den-131)[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-132)
Sweden was notable as a country where face masks were not recommended to the general public and the [State Epidemiologist of Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_epidemiologist_\(Sweden\) "State epidemiologist (Sweden)"), [Anders Tegnell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Tegnell "Anders Tegnell"), was an opponent to face masks among the general population, although he stated that face masks might be suitable in workplaces where people are one to two meters from each other for more than fifteen minutes, something which some Swedish and foreign media have interpreted as a recommendation.[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-133)[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-134) This position was slightly reversed when [Prime Minister of Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Sweden "Prime Minister of Sweden"), [Stefan Löfven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_L%C3%B6fven "Stefan Löfven"), announced that they were recommending face masks on 18 December 2020.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-135) The [Public Health Agency of Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Sweden "Public Health Agency of Sweden") later clarified on their website that the recommendation would include citizens born before 2004 to wear masks during rush hour on public transportation throughout the country from 7 January 2021 onward.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-fol-7jan-136) On 20 December 2020, two days after the announcement was made, Prime Minister Löfven was [paparazzied](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paparazzi "Paparazzi") in a shopping mall in central Stockholm without wearing a face mask.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-137) By 22 January 2021, the [Stockholm Public Transport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storstockholms_Lokaltrafik "Storstockholms Lokaltrafik") estimated that about half of all passengers on trains and buses wore face masks during rush hour.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-138) Among those who chose not to follow the recommendation were Johan Carlson, the Director-General of the Public Health Agency, and Anders Tegnell, the state epidemiologist.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-139)[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-140)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Two_subjects_in_position_in_front_of_the_schlieren_mirror._Figure_4,_Journal.pone.0021392.g004.png)
[Schlieren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlieren "Schlieren") image showing the interaction of exhaled airflows between two people[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-141)
Masks are used to limit the transmission of [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") by respiratory droplets and aerosols, which are thought to be the major pathways of infection, exhaled from infected individuals during breathing, speaking, coughing, and sneezing.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-AR2021-1)[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ver-vis-142)[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-143) Properly worn masks are effective in both limiting the spread of the virus by an infected individual and protecting an uninfected individual from infection.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-interplay-3)
The [National Health Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Commission "National Health Commission") of China cited the following reasons for the wearing of masks by the public, including healthy individuals:
1. Asymptomatic transmission. Many people can be infected without symptoms or only with mild symptoms.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
2. Difficulty or impossibility of appropriate social distancing in many public places at all times.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
3. Cost-benefit mismatch. If only infected individuals wear masks, they would have a negative incentive to do so. An infected individual might get nothing positive, but only bear the costs such as inconvenience, purchasing expenses, and even prejudice.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
4. There is no shortage of masks in China. The country has the production capacity to meet the demand for masks.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
In a comment to *The Lancet*, Kar Keung Cheng, Tai Hing Lam, and Chi Chiu Leung argued that a public health rationale for mass masking is [source control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_control_\(respiratory_disease\) "Source control (respiratory disease)") to protect others from respiratory droplets and underscored the importance of this approach due to asymptomatic transmission. Wang Linfa, an infectious disease expert who heads a joint [Duke University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University") and [National University of Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Singapore "National University of Singapore") research team, said masking is about "preventing the [spread of disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_\(medicine\) "Transmission (medicine)") rather than preventing [getting the disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection "Infection")", remarking that the point is to cover the faces of people who are infected but do not know it, so it is imperative for everyone to wear one in public.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pri.org-86) The US CDC also highlighted the use of masks for source control, pointing out that asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic cases are estimated to account for over 50% of the transmissions.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-cbcu-146)
[Monica Gandhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monica_Gandhi "Monica Gandhi"), a medical professor at the [University of California, San Francisco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Francisco "University of California, San Francisco"), says [viral shedding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_shedding "Viral shedding") at high quantities from the [upper respiratory tract](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract "Upper respiratory tract"), characterized by unusually high levels of viral particles, means universal mask wearing is one of the best ways to limit the asymptomatic spread of the virus.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-147) Yixuan Hou *et al.* (July 2020) found that the [nasal cavity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_cavity "Nasal cavity") is the dominant initial site for SARS-CoV-2 infection with subsequent aspiration-mediated virus seeding into the lungs; the authors note that these findings argue for the widespread use of masks to prevent exposure to the nasal passages.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-148)
In a perspective, Monica Gandhi, [Chris Beyrer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Beyrer "Chris Beyrer"), and [Eric Goosby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Goosby "Eric Goosby") posit that masking reduces the dose of the virus for the wearer and thus helps lower the severity of infection.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gbg-ino-149) They highlighted that the proportion of asymptomatic and mild infection increased in settings adopting population-level masking.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gbg-ino-149) One example involved a comparison of [outbreaks on cruise ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_cruise_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships"): the *[Diamond Princess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_Princess_\(ship\) "Diamond Princess (ship)")* had 18% asymptomatic cases among all the infected people, but this was 81% in the *[Greg Mortimer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Mortimer_\(ship\) "Greg Mortimer (ship)")* where masks were given to passengers and staff members.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gbg-ino-149)
[Trisha Greenhalgh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisha_Greenhalgh "Trisha Greenhalgh") *et al.* argue for the [precautionary principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precautionary_principle "Precautionary principle") as a reason to adopt policies encouraging the wearing of face masks in public, given that there's much to gain and little to lose from adopting masks considering the seriousness of the outbreak.[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-150) Others agreed, based on the evidence-based principle that the likely benefits outweighed the likely harms.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-151)[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-152)
Leonardo Setti *et al.* argue that face masks should be used to complement [social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") of six feet or two meters, because this inter-personal distance is more effective if people are masked as studies indicate that SARS-CoV-2 could be transmitted over greater distances.[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-153) Chi Chiu Leung *et al.* also argue that face masks complement social distancing, as a high degree of compliance for distancing is necessary to achieve the greatest impact but is not always achievable.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-leu-com-154) For instance, even if social distancing is rigorously practiced, there are necessary person-to-person contacts (such as going to the supermarket and other necessary activities to sustain livelihoods), so masks would help in situations when social distancing is not feasible and maximize the effectiveness of social distancing.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-leu-com-154)
According to Stephen Griffin, a virologist at the [University of Leeds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leeds "University of Leeds"), "Wearing a mask can reduce the propensity for people to touch their faces, which is a major source of infection without proper hand hygiene."[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-155) Ka Hung Chan and Kwok-Yung Yuen argue that face masks can reduce [fomite transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite_transmission "Fomite transmission") (in addition to the transmission through droplets or aerosol) of the virus, as masks can prevent people from spreading body fluids by touching their noses or mouths (such as trying to cover up a sneeze or cough).[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-dis-re-156)
A paper by Miyu Moriyama *et al.* (September 2020), which links the seasonality of respiratory viral diseases to decreased air [humidity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity "Humidity") due to indoor heating, argues that mask-wearing helps limit respiratory virus transmission in winter because masks keep the nose warm and moist.[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-157)
Social media claims that masks could reduce the oxygen levels in older people were refuted by a small study of [SpO2 levels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_\(medicine\) "Oxygen saturation (medicine)"), the results of which were published by JAMA.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-158)
Observational studies, randomised controlled trials (RCTs), and mask filtration testing were used to evaluate the effectiveness of masks. Most of the evidence for the efficacy of masks against COVID comes from observational studies.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-roy-soc-159) One paper did not consider RCTs a "gold standard" of evidence, since most effective public health policies had never been evaluated through an RCT, but that, overall, there was "robust data" to support the use of face masks to reduce community transmission of COVID.[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CashGoldwasser-2023-160) Another review said that non-RCT evidence cannot be ignored.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-longreview-161) As of August 2023, RCTs played a relatively small role in the evaluation of non-pharmaceutical interventions during the pandemic.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-roy-soc-159)
A 2023 systematic review from the [Cochrane Collaboration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_Collaboration "Cochrane Collaboration") said the evidence from [randomized controlled trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial "Randomized controlled trial") was still inconclusive over whether masking prevented the spread of influenza/COVIDâlike illness through a population, noting that the answer could be different for different viruses.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cochrane-6) This Cochrane review was criticized for combining studies about influenza and about COVID, which could "yield invalid conclusions".[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CashGoldwasser-2023-160) Another 2023 systematic review, by the [Royal Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society "Royal Society"), found the evidence from RCTs was that masks reduced risk by 12% to 18%.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-royalsoc-7)
A 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on face mask use in *[PLOS One](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLOS_One "PLOS One")* showed that with 95% confidence, masks reduced respiratory infection incidence by between 3% and 19% in a community setting.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ollila2022-162) A 2023 article in *[JAMA Network Open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAMA_Network_Open "JAMA Network Open")* found that "robust data" support the use of face masks to reduce community transmission of COVID.[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-CashGoldwasser-2023-160) A 2023 review in *[Archives of Disease in Childhood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archives_of_Disease_in_Childhood "Archives of Disease in Childhood")* on mask wearing by children found no good clinical evidence that mask wearing was of benefit for them in preventing COVID-19 transmission or infection.[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-163)
A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of masks published in *[The BMJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_BMJ "The BMJ")* in November 2021 showed that with 95% confidence, masks reduced COVID incidence by between 25% and 71%. This result is based on six primary studies. These studies were of several different types: case-control studies in Thailand and three Western countries (where cases identified whether they were wearing a mask when they had contact with a known positive patient), a randomized control study in Denmark which assessed the impact on mask-wearing on the wearer, a natural experiment that compared US states that implemented mask mandates on the level of COVID, a cross-sectional comparative study in China which surveyed whether a mask protected the wearer, and a retrospective cohort study in China which assessed the impact of masks worn by infected and uninfected family members. Another five studies were not included because they were not directly comparable. They assessed the impact of mask mandates across countries on mortality (finding a 45.7% reduction), of mask mandates in the US on [R](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number#Effective_reproduction_number "Basic reproduction number") (finding a 29% reduction), a comparative incidence of COVID associated with mask-wearing comparing HK and South Korea (finding a significant reduction), a natural experiment across US states finding a significant effect on case rates, and a cross-sectional study assessing a 10% increase in mask wearing led to a 71% reduction in the risk to others. A lot of other papers had to be rejected because of the risk of [confounding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confounding "Confounding") influences.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Talic-4) Other reviews in 2020 and 2021 found that there is consistent evidence that mask-wearing is effective in reducing the spread of the [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") virus[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-sci-5)[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-164) and that population-wide masking proved significant in reducing the transmission of COVID-19.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8)[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-165)
Masks are not of equal efficacy. While N95 masks outperform surgical masks in filtration, healthcare worker population studies have not shown a significant difference between the two, as of June 2021.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) A later study performed in 2024, however, criticized the methodology of such studies due to substantial healthcare worker compliance problems.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-longreview-161)
N95 and surgical masks, both designed for single use, can be decontaminated at a loss to mask integrity and filtration efficacy.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) Both N95 and surgical outperform cloth masks, which the general public has used based on their greater availability during mask supply shortages.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) Cloth and fabric masks have protected wearers from COVID-19, with some variability,[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ataei-10) such as fabric type, layer count, and mask fit.[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-166) Several observational studies, including four reviewed in a 2020 *[Lancet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet "The Lancet")* meta-analysis, have found that masks offer statistically significant protection from infection, although the level of protection varies according to the mask type and setting.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lan-chu-66)
Evaluation of cloth mask efficacy is further complicated by the wide variation in fabric and fit, among other factors.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) Concerning the precedent of mask efficacy in limiting transmission of respiratory viral illnesses other than COVID, a clinical trial meta-analysis in May 2021 showed no significant evidence of efficacy, though the authors noted the evidence to be poor quality and subject to confounding factors like consistent mask usage adherence.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Nanda-167)
Protection efficiency can also be evaluated by generated aerosol. In a paper evaluating the efficacy of various N95, surgical and cloth masks, the tested N95 respirator (a 3M 8210) performed the best in filtration in both inhalation and exhalation, while the surgical (from BYD Care) and cloth masks (Forever Family and Maskfit Proshield) performed similarly in filtration, with cloth masks performing worse than surgical masks in SPS30 readings, and double-masking providing little benefit. The tested N95, when not fitted, performed as well as a surgical or cloth mask, depending on the exercise.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cloth_v_surgical-11)
Community studies have shown some cloth masks to be effective at filtering respiratory droplets, which can carry SARS-CoV-2.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8) Cloth masks of a cotton quilt (120 thread per inch), bonded copy paper, flannel, and a chiffon or silk hybrid with cotton are over 90% effective at blocking particles the size droplets that carry SARS-CoV-2, according to an October 2021 review of 42 studies. Multilayered fabrics provided improved breathability and filtration efficacy. Among readily available fabrics, two-layered 100% cotton, two-layered cotton quilt, hybrid masks, and cotton flannel performed best.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ataei-10) Filtration effectiveness generally improves with thread count.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Ju-8)
The use of a face mask can result in significant risk reduction of infection with epidemic-causative [beta coronaviruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betacoronavirus "Betacoronavirus"). N95 or similar respirators account for a larger risk reduction than disposable surgical or other similar masks.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lan-chu-66) Masks are protective for both healthcare workers and people in communities exposed to infection; evidence supports masking in both healthcare and non-healthcare settings, with no striking differences detected in the effectiveness of masks between the settings.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lan-chu-66)
The CDC highlighted a number of studies in their 10 November 2020, scientific brief detailing the benefits of community masking.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-cbcu-146) In a study of 124 Beijing households with at least one laboratory-confirmed case of SARS-CoV-2 infection, mask use by the [index patient](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_case "Index case") and family contacts before the index patient developed symptoms reduced secondary transmission within the households by 79%.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-168) A retrospective case-control study from [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") documented that, among more than 1,000 people interviewed as part of [contact tracing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_tracing "Contact tracing") investigations, those who reported having always worn a mask during high-risk exposures experienced a greater than 70% reduced risk of acquiring infection compared with people who did not wear masks under these circumstances.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-169) A similar study in three Western countries also came up with a 70% risk reduction.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-170) Investigations involving [infected passengers aboard flights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_aviation "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation") longer than ten hours strongly suggest that masking prevented in-flight transmissions, as demonstrated by the absence of infection developing in other passengers and crew in the 14 days following exposure.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-171) In addition, the CDC said the benefit of universal masking, including reductions in infections and mortality, has been demonstrated in community-level analyses by a set of studies involving the [Massachusetts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") hospital system, the German city [Jena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jena "Jena"), the American state [Arizona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona "Arizona"), a panel of 15 American states and Washington, D.C., Canada nationally, and the United States nationally.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdc-cbcu-146)
In addition to studying the impact of mask-wearing on transmission in a community, direct studies can be done on whether a mask filters out virus-carrying particles from the air. In August 2021, a study of the fabric of masks worn in the community found that they filtered out between half and three-quarters of the viral RNA.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-172) Respirators made to a standard such as [N95](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator "N95 respirator") or [FFP2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFP_standards "FFP standards") when properly fitted should filter out at least 95% of the virus.
### Optimal face mask designs and use
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=26 "Edit section: Optimal face mask designs and use")\]
A [scientific review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_review "Scientific review") of research about the overall efficacy of face masks in terms of [product design](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_design "Product design") (such as thermal comfort and flow resistance) and ways of usage found that [fluid dynamics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamics "Fluid dynamics") and fabrication techniques have a significant impact on performance. According to the review, studies showed that cotton and surgical masks had a microorganism filtration efficiency of 86.4% and 99.9% respectively, while the surgical mask was three times more effective in blocking transmission than the cotton mask and could lead to a decrease of the [effective reproduction number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_reproduction_number "Effective reproduction number") to below 1 â which could halt epidemic spread in a region where 70% of residents use them consistently in public.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-173)[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-174)
By January 2021, several lines of research recommended double-masking (wearing a cloth mask over a surgical mask, along with using a mask filter, or wearing a nylon covering over a mask) as being efficacious.[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-175)
## Correct handling and wearing of masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=27 "Edit section: Correct handling and wearing of masks")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:17.Before.NDOP.BaltimoreMD.30May2020_\(50021311482\).jpg)
A properly-worn face mask or covering covers the nose, mouth, and chin.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdchow-176)
As masking became widespread during the pandemic, it gave rise to the issue that many individuals of the public are not correctly handling and wearing their masks.[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-177)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-178)[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-179) Suzanne Willard, a clinical professor at [Rutgers School of Nursing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_School_of_Nursing "Rutgers School of Nursing"), remarked that the general public is not used to wearing masks and lay people are asked to use a tool health care professionals are trained to use.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-180)
A commonly seen issue is that people are wearing masks pulled down below the nose, which is an incorrect way to wear a mask.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ct-pro-181)[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-182) Zane Saul, the chief of infectious disease at [Bridgeport Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeport_Hospital "Bridgeport Hospital"), remarked that "I really have observed people not covering their noses and just covering their mouths. It's just as important to cover your nose."[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ct-pro-181) Daniel Gottschall, the vice president of medical affairs for the Fairfield region of Hartford HealthCare and St. Vincent's Medical Center in Bridgeport, explained that "By wearing a mask you're keeping a lot of those secretions inside of you. If you wear it just over your nose or just over your mouth and you're not diligent (about keeping it in place), you're exposing the secretions that come out of that part of the body to other people."[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ct-pro-181)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gov._Wolf_Announces_$225_Million_Grant_Program_for_Small_Businesses_Impacted_by_COVID-19_\(49984832558\).jpg)
A face mask is carefully taken off by handling the ties or loops without touching the front.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cdchow-176)
[Zeynep Tufekci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeynep_Tufekci "Zeynep Tufekci"), a professor of information science, remarked that messaging on masking should have been used to provide proper instructions to the public (as was done for hand washing) rather than used to discourage people from masking because of the possibility that they would wear them improperly, as had happened early in the pandemic.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-BackfiredNYT-87) The [European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control "European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control") highlighted that the appropriate use of face masks in communities could be improved through education campaigns and is key for its effectiveness as a measure.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ecdc-apr-77) Health institutions such as the World Health Organization have provided public guidance on the do's and don'ts on masking.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wahtum-23)
## Shortages of face masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=28 "Edit section: Shortages of face masks")\]
### Early epidemic in mainland China
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=29 "Edit section: Early epidemic in mainland China")\]
As the epidemic accelerated, the mainland market in China saw a shortage of [face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_mask "Surgical mask") due to increased public demand.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-sohu161795-183) Face masks were quickly sold out in stores throughout China.[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-udn4304194-184) [Hoarding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoarding "Hoarding") and price gouging drove up prices, so the market regulator said it would crack down on such acts.[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-southcn190111854-185)[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gov1620613-186) In January 2020, price controls were imposed on all face masks on [Taobao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taobao "Taobao") and [Tmall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tmall "Tmall").[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ycwb30486944-187) Other Chinese e-commerce platforms â [JD.com](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JD.com "JD.com"),[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bjnews677805-188) [Suning.com](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suning.com "Suning.com"),[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bjnews677740-189) [Pinduoduo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinduoduo "Pinduoduo")[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bjnews677744-190) â did likewise; third-party vendors would be subject to price caps, with violators subject to sanctions.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
By March, China had quadrupled its production capacity to a hundred million masks per day.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nhc_why-144)
### National stocks and shortages
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=30 "Edit section: National stocks and shortages")\]
At the beginning of the [COVID-19 outbreak in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States"), the U.S.'s [Strategic National Stockpile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_National_Stockpile "Strategic National Stockpile") contained just twelve million N95 respirators, far fewer than estimates of the amount required.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Khazan-191) Millions of N95s and other supplies were purchased from 2005 to 2007 using congressional supplemental funding, but 85 million N95s were distributed to combat the [2009 swine flu pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic "2009 swine flu pandemic"), and Congress did not make the necessary appropriations to replenish stocks.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Khazan-191) The Stockpile's primary focus has also primarily been on [biodefense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodefense "Biodefense") (defense against a terrorist or [weapon of mass destruction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction "Weapon of mass destruction") attack) and response to natural disaster, with the infectious disease a secondary focus.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Khazan-191) By 1 April 2020, the Stockpile was nearly emptied of protective gear.[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-washingtonpost7148009252-192) In January and February 2020, U.S. manufacturers, with the encouragement of the Trump administration, shipped millions of face masks and other personal protective equipment to the PRC, a decision that subsequently prompted criticism given the mask shortage that the U.S. faced during the pandemic.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-193)
In France, [2009 H1N1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic "2009 swine flu pandemic")\-related spending rose to âŹ382 million, mainly on supplies and vaccines, which was later criticized.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194)[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-BFMTV-195) It was decided in 2011 to not replenish its stocks and rely more on supply from China and [just-in-time logistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time_manufacturing "Just-in-time manufacturing").[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194) In 2010, its stock included a billion surgical masks and 600 million FFP2 masks; in early 2020, it was 150 million and zero respectively.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194) While stocks were progressively reduced, a 2013 rationale stated the aim to reduce costs of acquisition and storage, now distributing this effort to all private enterprises as an optional best practice to ensure their workers' protection.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194) This was especially relevant to FFP2 masks, more costly to acquire and store.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194)[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-196) As the [COVID-19 pandemic in France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France "COVID-19 pandemic in France") took an increasing toll on medical supplies, masks and PPE supplies ran low, causing national outrage. France needed forty million masks per week, according to French president [Emmanuel Macron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron "Emmanuel Macron").[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Radio-France-Internationale-2020-197) France instructed its few remaining mask-producing factories to work 24/7 shifts and to ramp up national production to forty million masks per month.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Radio-France-Internationale-2020-197) French lawmakers opened an inquiry on the past management of these strategic stocks.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-198) The mask shortage has been called a *"scandal d'Ătat"* (State scandal).[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-199) Thousands of French individuals and companies teamed up during the outbreak to form a decentralized network of [Fab labs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_lab "Fab lab") and ad-hoc retooled production facilities, producing more than a million [face shields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield"), masks and other kinds of PPE during the height of the pandemic.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-200)
In late March and early April 2020, as Western countries were, in turn, dependent on China for supplies of masks and other equipment, China was seen as making a soft-power play to influence world opinion.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bbc52092395-201)[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-20200402businessinsider-202) However, a batch of masks purchased by the Netherlands was rejected as being sub-standard. The Dutch health ministry issued a recall of 600,000 face masks from a Chinese supplier on 21 March which did not fit properly and whose filters did not work as intended despite them having a quality certificate.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bbc52092395-201)[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-20200402businessinsider-202) The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded that the customer should "double-check the instructions to make sure that you ordered, paid for, and distributed the right ones. Do not use non-surgical masks for surgical purposes."[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-20200402businessinsider-202) Eight million of eleven million masks delivered to Canada in May also failed to meet standards.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-203)[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-204)
Thefts of face masks and other personal protective equipment were reported at hospitals in the United States and other countries.[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-qz-205) The [Naval Medical Center San Diego](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Medical_Center_San_Diego "Naval Medical Center San Diego") began mandatory random bag checks for staff members, after several incidents of theft.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-206) Hospitals in Canada reported that theft of PPE had become so commonplace that face masks had to be locked away. According to hospital staff, the policy of locking up PPE often resulted in staff requests for PPE being denied.[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-207) Thefts of N95 masks were reported from a locked hospital office in South Carolina and off-loading docks at the [University of Washington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington "University of Washington").[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-aamc-208)
Two thousand surgical masks were stolen from a hospital in Marseille, France, during the early months of the COVID-19 outbreak, in March. The masks were stolen from an area of the hospital that could only be accessed by surgery patients and staff.[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-209) A hospital employee in [Cooperstown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperstown,_New_York "Cooperstown, New York"), New York, was charged with misdemeanor [larceny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larceny "Larceny") for a similar incident.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-210) Hospital employees in [West Java](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Java "West Java"), [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"), were arrested for stealing hundreds of boxes of face masks and selling them on the black market.[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-211)
One month later an Indiana hospital pharmacy reported a theft to the [Drug Enforcement Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration "Drug Enforcement Administration"). Along with [morphine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine "Morphine"), with a street value estimated at \$3000, the thieves, one of whom was an employee of the hospital and had an access card, had stolen masks and other in-demand goods. In the criminal complaint, filed in Indiana federal court, a DEA task force officer said:[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-qz-205)
> Based on my training and experience, I know these items are highly sought after in the secondary market due to shortages resulting from the Coronavirus pandemic and that these types of items are being sold on the secondary market at an increased price well over fair market value.
A former hospital employee in Georgia was arrested on allegations of stealing masks and gloves from the hospital on five separate occasions after he was fired.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-212) Also in April, an employee of the Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center was charged with a misdemeanor for stealing disposable gowns and surgical masks from the hospital.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-213) PPE, including masks, were reported stolen by a member of the housekeeping staff at a hospital in Arizona and a physician's assistant in Florida.[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-214)[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-215)
According to a [BBC News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News") report from August 2020, hospital staff in Ghana were selling PPE on the black market.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-216)
Two government workers from the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in [North Charleston](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Charleston,_South_Carolina "North Charleston, South Carolina"), South Carolina, were charged in October for conspiracy to steal PPE, [obstruction of justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice "Obstruction of justice") and lying to the FBI.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-217)
N95 and FFP masks were in short supply and high demand during the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-218)[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Public-Senat-2020-194) Production of N95 masks was limited due to constraints on the supply of [nonwoven polypropylene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonwoven_polypropylene "Nonwoven polypropylene") fabric (which is used as the primary filter), as well as the cessation of exports from China.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-VOADeliver-54)[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-219) China controls fifty percent of global production of masks, and facing its own coronavirus epidemic, dedicated all its production for domestic use, only allowing exports through government-allocated humanitarian assistance.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-VOADeliver-54)
The [Strategic National Stockpile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_National_Stockpile "Strategic National Stockpile") had not been refilled following the [H1N1 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H1N1_pandemic "H1N1 pandemic"),[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-220) which quickly led to respirator and other PPE shortages.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-221)
In March 2020, US President [Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") applied the [Defense Production Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Production_Act "Defense Production Act") against the American company [3M](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3M "3M"), which allows the [Federal Emergency Management Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency "Federal Emergency Management Agency") to obtain N95 respirators from 3M.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Fabian-222)[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-223) [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House "White House") trade adviser [Peter Navarro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Navarro "Peter Navarro") said there were concerns that 3M products were not making their way to the US.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Fabian-222) 3M replied that it has not changed the prices it charges, and was unable to control the prices its dealers or retailers charge.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Fabian-222)
[Jared Moskowitz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Moskowitz "Jared Moskowitz"), the head of the [Florida Division of Emergency Management](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_Division_of_Emergency_Management "Florida Division of Emergency Management"), accused 3M of selling N95 masks directly to foreign countries for cash, instead of to the US. Moskowitz said 3M agreed to authorize distributors and brokers to represent they were selling the masks to Florida, but instead his team for the last several weeks "get to warehouses that are completely empty". He then said the 3M-authorized US distributors later told him the masks Florida contracted for never showed up because the company instead prioritized orders that came in later, for higher prices, from foreign countries (including Germany, Russia, and France).[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-224)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-225)[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-226)
*[Forbes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes "Forbes")* reported that "roughly 280 million masks from warehouses around the US had been purchased by foreign buyers \[on 30 March 2020\] and were earmarked to leave the country, according to the broker â and that was in *one* day", causing massive critical shortages of masks in the US.[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-227)[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-228)
Masks were still in short supply in late September, eight months into the pandemic. The [Defense Production Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Production_Act "Defense Production Act") powers that averted a ventilator shortage were not used as extensively to increase N95 production, despite outcry from healthcare workers. Even though 3M has increased domestic production from 20 million to 95 million masks a month, they say "the demand is more than we, and the entire industry, can supply for the foreseeable future."[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-septshortage-229)[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-230) N95 manufacturers and other companies were reluctant to invest more in domestic mask production because manufacturing in the United States is not profitable for them. There are some American companies who can shift production temporarily to meet the demand for masks but most of them have not received any funding through the DPA. Some have taken the initiative but there were problems with the fit of the masks and obtaining regulatory approvals. 3M and other N95 manufacturers have not entered into any corporate partnerships to share intellectual property or increase N95 production.[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-septshortage-229)
Trump gave Rear Admiral John Polowczyk the responsibility for PPE logistics. Polowczyk said he believed "hospital systems are making management decisions that might lead to an appearance that we still don't have masks, which is the farthest from the truth."[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-septshortage-229)
By February 2021, suppliers had increased production but not enough to meet demand. Companies cited concerns about post-pandemic demand as a reason for not entering the market. Hospitals increased supplies, but even at well-funded hospitals, healthcare workers could be expected to wear their masks for up to a month. Counterfeits continued to pose problems for purchasers.[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-231) Numerous calls by public health experts had been made to provide high-filtration masks such as N95s or their equivalents to the general public in high-risk settings.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-232)[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-233)
On 19 January 2022, the [Biden administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biden_administration_COVID-19_action_plan "Biden administration COVID-19 action plan") is reported to begin freely providing 400 million N95 masks in the United States.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-NYT-20220119-234)
In early April 2020, the Berlin politician [Andreas Geisel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Geisel "Andreas Geisel") alleged that a shipment of 200,000 N95 masks it had ordered from American producer 3M's China facility was intercepted in [Bangkok](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok "Bangkok"), Thailand, and diverted to the United States. 3M said they had no knowledge of the shipment, stating "We know nothing of an order from the Berlin police for 3M masks that come from China." The US government denied any confiscation and said they use appropriate channels for all their purchases.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Betschka-235)[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-236) Berlin police later confirmed that the shipment was not seized by US authorities.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
This revelation outraged the Berlin opposition, whose [CDU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany "Christian Democratic Union of Germany") parliamentary group leader Burkard Dregger accused Geisel of "deliberately misleading Berliners" in order "to cover up its own inability to obtain protective equipment". [FDP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_\(Germany\) "Free Democratic Party (Germany)") interior expert Marcel Luthe also criticized Geisel.[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-237) *[Politico Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politico_Europe "Politico Europe")* reported that "the Berliners are taking a page straight out of the Trump playbook and not letting facts get in the way of a good story."[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-238) *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")* also reported that "There is no solid proof Trump \[nor any other American official\] approved the \[German\] heist."[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-239)
German citizens decided to contribute to solving the supply crisis by [making](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture "Maker culture") their own masks and other types of PPE like [face shields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield "Face shield") that gave masks additional protection; the largest group of makers measured 6,800 individuals, collectively producing more than 100,000 pieces of protective equipment.[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-240)
As more countries restricted the export of N95 masks, Novo Textiles in [British Columbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia") announced plans to start producing N95 masks in Canada.[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-241) AMD Medicom in [Quebec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec "Quebec") had long been the main Canadian company producing N95s, but China, France, the Republic of China ([Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan")) and the United States all banned exports of medical equipment, barring Medicom's factories there from exporting the masks to Canada. The [Government of Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Canada "Government of Canada") subsequently awarded Medicom a 10-year contract to build a factory to produce masks in Montreal.[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-242)
| | |
|---|---|
|  | This section needs to be **updated**. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. *(January 2021)* |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:02.05_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%AA%E8%A6%96%E3%80%8C%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E5%BA%B7%E5%8C%A0%E8%A3%BD%E9%80%A0%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8%E3%80%8D_\(49491845167\).jpg)
Masks being produced in [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan")
As of 2019, mainland China manufactured half the world's output of masks.[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-243) As COVID-19 spread, enterprises in several countries quickly started or increased the production of face masks.[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-244) Cottage industries and volunteer groups also emerged, manufacturing cloth masks for localized use. They used various patterns, including some with a bend-to-fit nosepiece insert. Individual hospitals developed and requested a library of specific patterns.[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-245)[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-246)[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-247)[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-248)
In the first five months of 2020, 70,802 new companies registered in China to make or trade face masks, a 1,256% increase compared to 2019, and 7,296 new companies registered to make or trade [melt blown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melt_blowing "Melt blowing") fabrics, a key component of face masks, a 2,277% rise from 2019.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-prod12-249)
In April, however, the Chinese government stepped in with tighter regulations. 867 producers of the melt-blown fabric were shut down in [Yangzhong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangzhong "Yangzhong") city alone. Many speculative manufacturers were forced to quit due to changing export rules and tighter licensing requirements in China and weaker demand for lower quality products globally.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-prod12-249)
#### Open-Source and Do-It-Yourself Masks
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=39 "Edit section: Open-Source and Do-It-Yourself Masks")\]
[Open Source Medical Supplies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Medical_Supplies "Open Source Medical Supplies") coordinated and shared open-source mask designs.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-250)
Some clinical stockpiles have proved inadequate in scale, and the non-medical market demand expanded dramatically as the [general public](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_public "General public") determined that masks were essential, or they began obeying [public health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health "Public health") mandates, or both.[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-251)
Between April and June 2020, sellers on [Etsy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etsy "Etsy") sold 29 million cloth face masks worth an estimated \$364 million. Approximately four million people (about seven percent of buyers) visited the website *just* to buy masks.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-252)
## Society and culture
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic&action=edit§ion=41 "Edit section: Society and culture")\]
In mid-2020 as the pandemic grew, the public interest in face masks as a means of protection was greatly increased,[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-253) often even before governments implemented mandatory mask-wearing.[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-254)
In [East Asian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian "East Asian") societies, a primary reason for mask-wearing is to protect others from oneself.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nyt-mwi-255)[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wo-wsc-256) The broad assumption behind the act is that anyone, including seemingly healthy people, can be a carrier of the coronavirus.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wo-wsc-256) The usage of masks is seen as a collective responsibility to reduce the transmission of the virus.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-zh-fmc-257) A face mask is thus seen as a symbol of solidarity in Eastern countries.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-zh-fmc-257) Elsewhere, the need for mask-wearing is still often seen from an individual perspective where masks only serve to protect oneself.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nyt-mwi-255) In April 2020, a study comparing masking-related perceptions between China and three German speaking countries (Austria, Germany, and Switzerland) also showed that Chinese had stronger pro-masking perceptions than the European participants.[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ReferenceA-258) However, in 2020, people began promoting a new meaning of masking as an act of solidarity to each other.[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-259)[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-260)[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-261)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koronav%C3%ADrus_-_Bratislavsk%C3%BD_samospr%C3%A1vny_kraj_\(49677032937\).jpg)
[Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") was one of the first countries in the world to introduce universal masking in public places.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-262)
Existing cultural norms and social pressure may impede mask-wearing in public, which may explain why masking was initially avoided in the West.[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-le-wfm-263) According to Joseph Tsang, a Hong Kong doctor, and infectious disease expert, the promotion of universal masking may resolve perceptions against mask-wearing because mask-wearing is intimidating if few people wear masks due to cultural barriers, but if all people wear masks it shows a message that people are in this together.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-pri.org-86) A May 2020 study surveying people in Spain showed that an individual's likelihood of voluntarily wearing a mask is positively correlated with the proportion of uptake in the surrounding area.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-264)
Helene-Mari van der Westhuizen *et al.* state that successful implementation of public masking policies, especially in communities that have no cultural traditions for such interventions, requires a reframing of social meanings and moral worth, and that public messages help to conceptualize who typically wear masks and what the moral valence of masking is.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-west-fcfc-265) They note that the earliest members who wear face coverings may be seen as deviant when the community starts to adopt masking, but that changing narratives will generate new meanings that construe those who do not mask as deviant.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-west-fcfc-265) Their argument is that public health messaging about face coverings should shift from masks as a [medical intervention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_intervention "Medical intervention") to masks as a [social practice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_practice "Social practice") based on values such as social responsibility and solidarity, as a successful uptake requires face coverings to be grounded in the social and cultural realities of affected communities.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-west-fcfc-265) Clemens Eisenmann and Christian Meyer argue that the question, how the meaning of wearing face masks develops in society, depends on their practical and public uses within everyday social interactions.[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note--e-m-rec-266) They explain that masking has destabilized interactional infrastructures embedded in routines, revealing both taken-for-granted infrastructures of everyday life â including social inequalities (such as those of people reliant on lip reading) and moral evaluations in transcultural situations (such as those involving implicit racism in which the health instructions of essential workers belonging to certain groups are disregarded) â and new challenges on the interactional level.[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note--e-m-rec-266)
In the Western world, as of 2020 the public usage of masks still often carried a large stigma,[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nyt-mwi-255)[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-zh-fmc-257)[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-te-wwm-267) being seen as a sign of sickness.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-te-wwm-267) This stigmatization is a large obstacle to overcome, because people may feel too ashamed to wear a mask in public and therefore opt to not wear one.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-268) There is also a divide within the Western world, as seen in the [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic") and [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia") where mass mobilization has occurred to reinforce the solidarity in mask-wearing since March 2020.[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nyt-mwi-255)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\]
Mask-wearing has been called a [prosocial behavior](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosocial_behavior "Prosocial behavior") in which one protects others within their community.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hj-wapo-269)[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-270)[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271) On social media, there has been an effort with the \#masks4all campaign to encourage people to use masks.[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-272) Nevertheless, there were many occurrences of violence and hostility by people who became aggressive after they were requested to wear a mask or saw people wearing masks in [customer-based](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_industry "Service industry") establishments.[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-273)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-274)[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-275)[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-276) Multiple people were killed in attacks by people who [refused to wear masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask_refusal "Mask refusal").[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-277) It led to concerns about worker safety, so employees were discouraged to actively enforce masking policies due to the potential of hostile situations, while enforcement by official authorities is severely lacking.[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-278)
Masking has been subjected to racial politics in Western countries.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-conv-utr-279) For instance, in 2020 it had been heavily racialized as an Asian phenomenon.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-zh-fmc-257)[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note--e-m-rec-266) This had been reinforced in a lot of media discourses, where stories about the pandemic were often accompanied by unrelated imagery of Asian people in masks.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-conv-utr-279)[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-280) The focus on race brought hostility towards Asians who are confronted with the choice to wear masks as a precaution while they face discrimination for it.[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-conv-utr-279)[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-281) Huang Yinxiang, a sociologist from the University of Manchester, described maskaphobia (negative prejudice, fear or bitter hatred against people wearing face masks) as making Asians in Western countries into targets for racists who want to legitimize [xenophobia during the COVID-19 outbreak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic").[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-282) Likewise, people from certain groups such as [Black Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Americans "Black Americans") may not feel comfortable wearing masks, especially those that are not clearly medical but homemade masks, due to concerns of racial profiling.[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-283)[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-284)[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-285)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hospital_Authority_staff_strike_during_the_COVID-19,_transparent_surgical_mask.jpg)
A [sign language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_language "Sign language") interpreter (on the right) in Hong Kong is wearing a transparent mask to allow [lip reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip_reading "Lip reading").
There have also been concerns that wearing masks may also further isolate disadvantaged communities. Concerns had been expressed that masks would make communication difficult for people who are [deaf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deafness "Deafness") or [hard-of-hearing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_loss "Hearing loss").[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bi-deaf-286)[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bbc-deaf-287)[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-288)[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-289)[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-290) This led to calls for wider distributions of transparent masks, which allow for [lip reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip_reading "Lip reading").[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bi-deaf-286)[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bbc-deaf-287)[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-291)
Similar concerns over difficulty in communicating were expressed by those who may depend on dogs for [therapeutic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistance_dog "Assistance dog") or [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog#As_pets "Dog") reasons, as the animals depend on body language such as facial expressions.[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-292) Conversely, people who are exempt from wearing masks on medical grounds or due to a disability, fear they will be [subjected to abuse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability_hate_crime "Disability hate crime") for not wearing a mask, even if they are legally exempt from doing so.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-mtr-dis-293) For instance, in the United Kingdom, the charity [Disability Rights UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability_Rights_UK "Disability Rights UK") received numerous reports about people being confronted on trains and buses.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-mtr-dis-293) Health organizations such as the [American Lung Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Lung_Association "American Lung Association") commented that, even though there may be people who will seek an exemption, the individual's concerns needs to be weighed against the societal needs to limit the spread of the virus.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-abc-med-294)[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-295) However, anti-maskers have called upon bogus claims about legal or medical exemptions in their refusal to wear masks.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-abc-med-294) They have, for instance, claimed that the [Americans with Disabilities Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act "Americans with Disabilities Act") (designed to prohibit discrimination based on disabilities) allows exemption from mask requirements, but the [United States Department of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice "United States Department of Justice") responded that the act "does not provide a blanket exemption to people with disabilities from complying with legitimate safety requirements necessary for safe operations".[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-296)
There were concerns about the effects of mask-wearing on young children's [language development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_development "Language development") and [social emotional development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_emotional_development "Social emotional development").[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-297)[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-298)[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-299)[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-300)[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-301) It has been argued that mask mandates for children may have taken insufficient consideration of children's human rights.[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-302)
In November 2020, there were feelings of mask fatigue among the general public, exacerbated by frustrations about people who are not taking the mask and other guidelines seriously as the pandemic and its intensity continued on.[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-303)
| | |
|---|---|
|  | This section needs to be **updated**. The reason given is: **it is missing info about what happened between the vaccine and the end of the emergency**. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. *(May 2023)* |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2_boys_sporting_n100_covid19_protective_facemask.jpg)
Two Indian boys sporting face mask at a public event
Among the European countries surveyed by [YouGov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouGov "YouGov") in the first half of 2020, the likelihood for people to wear masks was split: In Northern Europe (e.g., Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark), people were very unlikely to wear a mask.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-en-htw-304) In Western Europe (e.g., Italy, Spain, France, and Germany), people were initially unlikely to use a mask, but mask wearing greatly changed from low levels in March to higher levels in May.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-en-htw-304) A similar, if delayed, pattern was seen in some northern European countries. For example, mask usage was very low in Denmark up until the summer of 2020 but rapidly increased in the autumn as rules on their use in publicly accessible indoor places were introduced.[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Petersen2021-305) An exception was the United Kingdom where mask usage only grew gradually in the first half of 2020,[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-en-htw-304) but it rose very quickly after official policy changes in July mandated masking in stores.[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-306) In May 2020, masking was gradually shifting to become a new social norm.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-307)
A survey among people from the United States (conducted from April to June 2020) indicates that age was a factor in whether people were likely to wear a mask, as the likelihood rose with the age group, but the reported use of face masks increased significantly across all age groups over time.[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hut-mit-308) Furthermore, people who did not report mask use also reported engaging in significantly fewer other mitigation behaviors than those who did report mask use.[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hut-mit-308)
In 2020, gender played a role in the willingness to wear masks; men were overall less inclined to wear masks in public than women.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lat-ms-309)[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hill-ml-310)[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-311) There were indications that men were more likely to feel negative emotions (such as shame) and stigma for wearing masks.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-lat-ms-309)[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-hill-ml-310) It was suggested that this male behavior is driven by a sense of masculinity, where the act of masking is possibly perceived to run counter to it, which led to an increase in men not wearing masks.[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-312)[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-313) A 2020 survey among participants recruited from [Amazon Mechanical Turk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Mechanical_Turk "Amazon Mechanical Turk") about face mask perceptions found that men and women may have different reasons when they do not wear masks in public: Men were more likely to see masks as an infringement upon their independence and women were more likely to perceive masks as being uncomfortable, while perceptions on efficacy, accessibility, compensation, inconvenience, appearance, and attention did not differ.[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-314)
By 2023, most jurisdictions had ended their mask mandates.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-royalsoc-7) By May 2023, people in most countries largely stopped wearing masks.[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-315)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_reapertura_de_la_frontera_entre_Espa%C3%B1a_y_Portugal,_Badajoz_y_Elvas,_mi%C3%A9rcoles_1_de_julio_de_2020_\(10\).png)
The [heads of state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_state "Head of state") and [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_government "Head of government") of Portugal and Spain wearing face masks during an official ceremony in July 2020
The pandemic has raised questions about the role of governments in mask policies, either voluntary or mandatory policies, especially in terms of the social and behavioral consequences involving the general public.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271)
The results from a study surveying people in Germany indicate that the act of wearing a mask, independent of the policy, is considered a [social contract](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract "Social contract") in which compliant people perceive each other more positively and noncompliance is negatively evaluated.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271) However, it also suggests that voluntary policies have the potential effect to increase [polarization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_polarization "Social polarization") and thus cause more stigmatization.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271) The authors recommended that countries and communities should adopt a mandatory policy along with explicit communication of the benefits of both masking (e.g., risk reduction, mutual protection, positive [social signaling](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_signaling&action=edit&redlink=1 "Social signaling (page does not exist)")) and mandatory policies (e.g., fairness, less stigmatization, higher effectiveness) to encourage the public to wear masks.[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-bets-pnas-271)
World leaders as role models for masking have also received much scrutiny, as they are key to convey the critical public health message to the public.[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-316)[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-317) For example, Slovakia has been cited as a country where its public figures (including President [Zuzana ÄaputovĂĄ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuzana_%C4%8Caputov%C3%A1 "Zuzana ÄaputovĂĄ") and her administration) set the example by wearing masks and played a crucial role to normalize masks.[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-318) In contrast, in the United States, President [Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") and his administration came under criticism for [communicating an inconsistent and confusing message about masking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_administration_communication_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#Mask_wearing "Trump administration communication during the COVID-19 pandemic").[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-319)[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-320) They were often criticized for undercutting national and local public health advice to wear masks.[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-321)[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-322)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_House_Coronavirus_Update_Briefing_\(49810101702\).jpg)
[U.S. Surgeon General](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Surgeon_General "U.S. Surgeon General") [Jerome Adams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Adams "Jerome Adams") urged people to wear face masks and acknowledged that it is difficult to correct earlier messaging that masks do not work for the general public.[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-323)
Although authorities, especially in Asia, recommended people to wear face masks in public, in many other parts of the world, conflicting advice caused much confusion among the general population.[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cnn-amhb-324) Several governments and institutions, such as in the United States, initially dismissed the use of face masks by the general population, often with misleading or incomplete information about the usefulness of masks.[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-thenational.scot-325)[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-vanityfair.com-326)[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-npr-wta-327) Commentators have attributed the anti-mask messaging to efforts to manage the mask shortages, as governments did not act quickly enough, remarking that the claims go beyond the science or were simply lies.[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-npr-wta-327)[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-328)[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-329)[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-nytimes.com-330) On 12 June 2020, [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci"), a key member of the [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House "White House") coronavirus task force, confirmed that the American public were not told to wear masks from the beginning due to the shortages of masks and explained that masks do actually work.[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-331)[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-332)[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-333)[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-334)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-335)\[*[excessive citations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
In the United States, public masking has become a political issue, as opponents argue that it inhibits personal freedom and proponents emphasize the importance of masks for public health.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-hdf-336) Some people may see it as a political statement.[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fmps-337) Party affiliation partly determined how likely people were to embrace the wearing of masks in public.[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fmps-337)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-for-ncc-338) [Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_\(United_States\) "Democratic Party (United States)") were more likely to wear masks than [Republicans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_\(United_States\) "Republican Party (United States)").[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fmps-337)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-for-ncc-338) Masks have become an aspect of the [culture war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_war "Culture war") that has emerged over the course of the pandemic.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-hdf-336)[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fmps-337)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-for-ncc-338) Commentators argue that the resistance against masks partly stems from the confusing and mixed messaging about masking.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-hdf-336)[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-339)[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-340)
Matthew Facciani, a sociologist at Vanderbilt University, says the uncertainty from health experts during the early days of the pandemic paved the way for political leaders to become a prominent source of guidance and clarity.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-fac-pol-341) He argues that once mask-wearing became informed by political beliefs, it is difficult to correct due to the motivation to protect one's identity in relation to a political group and the reinforcement from political echo chambers, no matter that scientists began to better understand the severity of the virus and the evidence in favor for mask wearing became clearer.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-fac-pol-341) Moreover, how people observe the masking rules seems to be different across countries and these differences may be attributed to cultural or management factors.[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ReferenceA-258)
In April 2020, health officials from Taiwan's [Central Epidemic Command Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Epidemic_Command_Center "Central Epidemic Command Center") (CECC) pushed back on school bullying of boys in pink face masks.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wa-tcg-342) The CECC officials and Minister of Health and Welfare Chen Shih-chung wore pink masks to challenge gender norms at a press conference, while various government agencies demonstrated solidarity by changing the colors on their Facebook pages to pink.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wa-tcg-342) The minister later tweeted "Pink is for everyone and no color is exclusive for girls or boys. Gender Equality lies at the heart of Taiwan values."[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wa-tcg-342) The press conference was held amid reports that male students were too embarrassed to wear their pink face masks, jeopardizing their safety and the safety of others in the face of COVID-19.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-wa-tcg-342)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ReOpen_Ohio_\(Again\)_bIMG_1235_\(49903512197\).jpg)
"Masks Don't Work", a protest placard in Ohio, United States, during the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020.
In some countries, large rallies took place in protest against masking mandates.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cnn-hod-343)[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-344)[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ctv-mtu-345)[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-346) In Canada, opponents of masking hailed their protests as the "March to Unmask".[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ctv-mtu-345)[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-347) In the United Kingdom, new protests came in the wake of the official announcement that masking will be compulsory in shops.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-cnn-hod-343) After eight months since the beginning of the lockdown in the [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic"), mass manifestations against the restrictions imposed by the government arose.[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-348)[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-349) Some anti-mask protestors co-opted the feminist slogan "[my body, my choice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_body,_my_choice "My body, my choice")"[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-350)[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-351)[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-352) and the Black Lives Matter slogan "[I can't breathe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_can%27t_breathe "I can't breathe")".[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-353) Businesses were also purposely disrupted by anti-maskers (purportedly in defense of their constitutional rights).[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Downtown_Boise_businesses_targeted_by_anti-mask_protesters-354)
In the United States, opposition to mask-wearing during the COVID-19 pandemic came during then-President [Donald Trump's politicization of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_administration_political_interference_with_science_agencies "Trump administration political interference with science agencies")[\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-355) and more generally during decades-old period of [politicization of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science "Politicization of science"). American opposition to mask-wearing during pandemics is not new; during the [1918 influenza pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu "Spanish flu"), the [Anti-Mask League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Mask_League_of_San_Francisco "Anti-Mask League of San Francisco") was established in San Francisco, California.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-356)
In May 2021, *[Vice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_\(magazine\) "Vice (magazine)")* reported that some members of the anti-vaccine community were promoting the use of masks and social distancing to protect themselves from those who have received vaccines, citing false claims that those vaccinated for COVID-19 "shed" spike proteins that can be harmful to people in their proximity, and former research scientist [Judy Mikovits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Mikovits "Judy Mikovits") claimed that she had been kicked off a plane for wearing a mask lined with [colloidal silver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidal_silver "Colloidal silver").[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-357)
Face masks are sometimes deemed to make people look more attractive. This may be because they hide unattractive features or are associated with medical personnel.[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-358)
Some people, including [introverts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introverts "Introverts") and those with [social anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anxiety "Social anxiety"), prefer using face masks because of the near-anonymity it provides, allowing them to easily blend in, feel psychologically protected, and be more open in talking to strangers.[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-359)
In 2020, in the state of Utah, Christian clergy from the Lutheran, Catholic, Presbyterian, Anglican, Baptist, and Latter-day Saint traditions, as well as those from the Jewish, Buddhist, and Unitarian religions, implored people to wear masks by signing a letter sent out by Governor Gary Herbert's office.[\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-Steinbrecher2020-360)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Face_mask_for_style_and_function_during_the_COVID-19.jpg)
A cloth face mask matching the rest of the ensemble
As the pandemic progressed, people began making use of face masks as accessories,[\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-ap-fas-361)[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-cou-362)[\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-per-363)[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-for-20-364) matching them to their outfits and so on.[\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-365)[\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-366) Early in the pandemic, people and businesses from the fashion industry responded to official calls for help in overcoming the shortages of protective personal equipment including face masks.[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-367) These masks were sheerly utilitarian as the only consideration at the time was function.[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-368) What began as a public health necessity however gradually evolved into a new category of accessories subject to similar design and marketing considerations as other accessories.[\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-369) Fashion brands eventually reopened their factories for production due to the increasing demand for masks and started to manufacture masks in a wider variety of styles.[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-gua-cou-362) Smaller brands, who primarily sold their products online, found that selling masks was a good strategy to maintain sales.[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-tel-hin-370) [Etsy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etsy "Etsy") became a major online platform where many designers sold their masks.[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-tel-hin-370) Designers started making masks that matched other pieces of clothing and accessories,[\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-371)[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-vog-bel-372) a trend which may have begun unintentionally as even fabric remnants were repurposed.[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-vog-bel-372)
The city of [Vilnius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius "Vilnius") in Lithuania held a "Mask Fashion Week" in May 2020, which was promoted with billboards (with no catwalks or displays) around the city featuring local people including Mayor Remigijus Simasius wearing face masks.[\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-373)
[The Walt Disney Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company "The Walt Disney Company") introduced uniform face masks for their employees at [Walt Disney World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_World "Walt Disney World") and [Disneyland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland") in the United States.[\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-374)[\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-375)
Large numbers of disposed face masks have led to an increase in [plastic waste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_waste "Plastic waste"), negatively impacting the environment.[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-376)[\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-377)[\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-378) Moreover, the production of face masks also contributes the emission of carbon dioxide, which accelerates global warming.[\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-379) Considering the risk of [plastic pollution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_pollution "Plastic pollution"), researchers have focused on using biodegradable polymers to fabricate facemask with antimicrobial properties.[\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-380) Various studies were conducted in order to utilize end-of-life face masks, including [thermochemical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_depolymerization "Thermal depolymerization") conversion of [polymers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer "Polymer") used in face-masks to [hydrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") rich gas. Thermochemical methods included [carbon-dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide") [gasification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasification "Gasification") and [steam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam "Steam") [gasification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasification "Gasification").[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-381)[\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-382)
Due to the rarity of their use in non-medical settings outside East Asia, many languages lacked commonly used terms for facemasks, especially since legal issues prevent the usage of terms which might imply medical standards the masks do not meet.[\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-383) In languages such as [Saterland Frisian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language "Saterland Frisian language") public competitions were held[\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-384) to create a [neologism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologism "Neologism") for the device in the language and thus not having to rely on [loanwords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") or [calques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calque "Calque").[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-385)[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-386) The [Friisk Foriining](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friisk_Foriining&action=edit&redlink=1 "Friisk Foriining (page does not exist)") \[[frr](https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friisk_Foriining "frr:Friisk Foriining")\] held a similar competition for the [North Frisian language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Frisian_language "North Frisian language").[\[386\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-387)[\[387\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-388)
- [Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States")
- [National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic")
- [Anti-mask law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-mask_law "Anti-mask law")
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-47)** **Knot and tuck technique:** Modification to ear loop masks where the top and bottom of the ear loop string are knotted together at the mask's edges and extra material is tucked in towards the face.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_note-JAMA-modifications-46)
1. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-AR2021_1-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-AR2021_1-1)
Bourouiba L (July 2021). "Fluid Dynamics of Respiratory Infectious Diseases". *Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering*. **23** (1): 547â577\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1146/annurev-bioeng-111820-025044](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-bioeng-111820-025044). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_\(identifier\) "Hdl (identifier)"):[1721\.1/131115](https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F131115). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34255991](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34255991). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [235823756](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235823756).
2. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-Matuschek_2-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-Matuschek_2-1)
Matuschek C, Moll F, Fangerau H, Fischer JC, ZĂ€nker K, van Griensven M, et al. (August 2020). ["Face masks: benefits and risks during the COVID-19 crisis"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7422455). *European Journal of Medical Research*. **25** (1) 32. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1186/s40001-020-00430-5](https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40001-020-00430-5). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [7422455](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7422455). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32787926](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32787926).
3. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-interplay_3-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-interplay_3-1)
Catching A, Capponi S, Yeh MT, Bianco S, Andino R (August 2021). ["Examining the interplay between face mask usage, asymptomatic transmission, and social distancing on the spread of COVID-19"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8346500). *Scientific Reports*. **11** (1) 15998. [Nature Portfolio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Portfolio "Nature Portfolio"). [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2021NatSR..1115998C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatSR..1115998C). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/s41598-021-94960-5](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-021-94960-5). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8346500](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8346500). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34362936](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34362936). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [236947786](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236947786). "Masks prevent the spread of droplets and aerosols generated by an infected individual, and when correctly worn surgical masks can reduce viral transmission by 95%. Uninfected individuals wearing a surgical mask are about 85% protected against infection."
4. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-Talic_4-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-Talic_4-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-Talic_4-2)
Talic S, Shah S, Wild H, Gasevic D, Maharaj A, Ademi Z, et al. (November 2021). ["Effectiveness of public health measures in reducing the incidence of covid-19, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and covid-19 mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9423125). *BMJ*. **375** e068302. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1136/bmj-2021-068302](https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj-2021-068302). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [9423125](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9423125). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34789505](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34789505). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [244271780](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244271780). "The results of additional studies that assessed mask wearing ... indicate a reduction in covid-19 incidence, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and covid-19 mortality. Specifically, a natural experiment across 200 countries showed 45.7% fewer covid-19 related mortality in countries where mask-wearing was mandatory. Another natural experiment study in the US reported a 29% reduction in SARS-CoV-2 transmission (measured as the time-varying reproductive number Rt) (risk ratio 0.71, 95% confidence interval 0.58 to 0.75) in states where mask-wearing was mandatory. A comparative study in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region reported a statistically significantly lower cumulative incidence of covid-19 associated with mask-wearing than in selected countries where mask-wearing was not mandatory."
5. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-cdc-sci_5-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-cdc-sci_5-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-cdc-sci_5-2)
["Science Brief: Community Use of Masks to Control the Spread of SARS-CoV-2"](https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/science/science-briefs/masking-science-sars-cov2.html). CDC. 11 February 2020. "Experimental and epidemiologic data support community masking to reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2, including alpha and delta variants, among adults and children. \[...\] Mask use has been found to be safe and is not associated with clinically significant impacts on respiration or gas exchange under most circumstances, except for intense exercise. The limited available data indicate no clear evidence that masking impairs emotional or language development in children.\[I\]n combination with other contextual cues, masks are unlikely to produce serious impairments of children's social interactions. A study of 2-year-old children concluded that they were able to recognize familiar words presented without a mask and when hearing words through opaque masks. Among children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), interventions including positive reinforcement and coaching caregivers to teach mask-wearing have improved participants' ability to wear a face mask. These findings suggest that even children who may have difficulty wearing a mask can do so effectively through targeted interventions."
6. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-cochrane_6-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-cochrane_6-1)
Jefferson T, Dooley L, Ferroni E, Al-Ansary LA, van Driel ML, Bawazeer GA, et al. (January 2023). ["Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9885521). *The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews*. **1** (4) CD006207. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1002/14651858.CD006207.pub6](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD006207.pub6). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [9885521](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9885521). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [36715243](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36715243).
7. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-royalsoc_7-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-royalsoc_7-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-royalsoc_7-2)
Boulos L, Curran JA, Gallant A, Wong H, Johnson C, Delahunty-Pike A, et al. (2023). ["Effectiveness of face masks for reducing transmission of SARS-CoV-2: A rapid systematic review"](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2023.0133). *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences*. **381** (2257) 20230133. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2023RSPTA.38130133B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023RSPTA.38130133B). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1098/rsta.2023.0133](https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2023.0133). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [10446908](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10446908). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [37611625](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37611625).
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Ju JT, Boisvert LN, Zuo YY (June 2021). ["Face masks against COVID-19: Standards, efficacy, testing and decontamination methods"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8084286). *Advances in Colloid and Interface Science*. **292** 102435. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.cis.2021.102435](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cis.2021.102435). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8084286](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8084286). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [33971389](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33971389).
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-norespirator_9-0)**
Zayas G, Chiang MC, Wong E, MacDonald F, Lange CF, Senthilselvan A, et al. (2013). ["Effectiveness of cough etiquette maneuvers in disrupting the chain of transmission of infectious respiratory diseases"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3846148). *BMC Public Health*. **13** 811. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1186/1471-2458-13-811](https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2458-13-811). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [3846148](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3846148). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [24010919](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24010919).
10. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-Ataei_10-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-Ataei_10-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic#cite_ref-Ataei_10-2)
Ataei M, Shirazi FM, Nakhaee S, Abdollahi M, Mehrpour O (October 2021). ["Assessment of cloth masks ability to limit Covid-19 particles spread: a systematic review"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8541808). *Environmental Science and Pollution Research International*. **29** (2): 1645â1676\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1007/s11356-021-16847-2](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11356-021-16847-2). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8541808](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8541808). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34689269](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34689269).
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Deepthi R, Masthi NR, Nirmala CJ, Manjula R, Vinothkumar S (20 April 2020). ["Personal Protective Equipments (PPE) â Prerequisites, Rationale, and Challenges during COVID 19 Pandemic"](https://doi.org/10.47203%2FIJCH.2020.v32i02SUPP.005). *Indian Journal of Community Health*. **32** (2 (Supp)): 196â205\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.47203/IJCH.2020.v32i02SUPP.005](https://doi.org/10.47203%2FIJCH.2020.v32i02SUPP.005). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [225952423](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225952423).
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| Shard | 152 (laksa) |
| Root Hash | 17790707453426894952 |
| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic s443 |