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| Boilerpipe Text | Depression
Lithograph
of a person diagnosed with
melancholia
and strong suicidal tendency in 1892
Specialty
Psychiatry
,
psychology
Symptoms
Low mood, aversion to activity, loss of interest, loss of feeling pleasure
Causes
Brain chemistry, genetics, life events, medical conditions, personality
[
1
]
Risk factors
Stigma of mental health disorder
[
2
]
Diagnostic method
Patient Health Questionnaire
,
Beck Depression Inventory
Differential diagnosis
Anxiety
,
bipolar disorder
,
borderline personality disorder
Prevention
Social connections, physical activity
Treatment
Psychotherapy
,
psychopharmacology
Depression
is a
mental state
of low
mood
and aversion to activity.
[
3
]
It affects about 3.5% of the
global population
, or about 280 million people worldwide, as of 2020.
[
4
]
Depression affects a person's
thoughts
,
behavior
,
feelings
, and
sense of well-being
.
[
5
]
The
pleasure
or
joy
that a person gets from certain experiences is reduced, and the afflicted person often experiences a loss of
motivation
or interest in those activities.
[
6
]
People with depression may experience
sadness
, feelings of dejection or lack of
hope
, difficulty in
thinking and concentration
,
hypersomnia
or
insomnia
,
overeating
or
anorexia
, or
suicidal thoughts
.
Depression can have multiple, sometimes overlapping, origins. Depression can be a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the
loss of a loved one
. Additionally, depression can be a symptom of some
mood disorders
, such as
major depressive disorder
,
bipolar disorder
, and
dysthymia
.
[
7
]
Depression is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments.
Contributing factors
Allegory on melancholy, from
c.
1729
–1740, etching and engraving, in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art
(New York City)
Life events
Adversity in childhood
, such as bereavement, neglect, mental abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or unequal parental treatment of siblings, can contribute to depression in adulthood.
[
8
]
[
9
]
Childhood physical or sexual abuse in particular significantly correlates with the likelihood of experiencing depression over the survivor's lifetime.
[
10
]
People who have experienced four or more
adverse childhood experiences
are 3.2 to 4.0 times more likely to have depression.
[
11
]
Poor housing quality, non-functionality, lack of
green spaces
, and exposure to noise and air pollution are linked to depressive moods, emphasizing the need for consideration in planning to prevent such outcomes.
[
12
]
Locality has also been linked to depression and other negative moods. The rate of depression among those who reside in large urban areas is shown to be lower than those who do not.
[
13
]
Likewise, those from smaller towns and rural areas tend to have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological unwellness.
[
14
]
Studies have consistently shown that physicians have had the highest depression and suicide rates compared to people in many other lines of work—for suicide, 40% higher for male physicians and 130% higher for female physicians.
[
15
]
[
16
]
[
17
]
Life events and changes that may cause depressed mood includes, but are not limited to, childbirth, menopause, financial difficulties, unemployment, stress (such as from work, education, military service, family, living conditions, marriage, etc.), a medical diagnosis (cancer, HIV, diabetes, etc.), bullying, loss of a loved one, natural disasters, social isolation, rape, relationship troubles, jealousy, separation, or
catastrophic injury
.
[
18
]
[
19
]
[
20
]
[
21
]
[
22
]
Similar depressive symptoms are associated with
survivor's guilt
.
[
23
]
Adolescents may be especially prone to experiencing a depressed mood following
social rejection
, peer pressure, or bullying.
[
24
]
Work and depression
A body of high-quality longitudinal research has linked adverse working to increased depressive symptoms and disorders.
[
25
]
[
26
]
[
27
]
Workplace stressors that increase depression risk include
excessive workloads, little autonomy
,
an unfavorable effort-reward imbalance
, and
workplace bullying
.
[
28
]
Childhood and adolescence
Depression in childhood and adolescence is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or behavioral dyscontrol instead of the more common sad, empty, or hopeless feelings seen with adults.
[
29
]
Children who are under
stress
, experiencing loss or
grief
, or have other underlying disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Depression in young people is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other
mood disorders
, most commonly
anxiety disorders
, especially
social anxiety disorder
, and
conduct disorder
. Depression also tends to run in families.
[
30
]
Personality
Depression is associated with low
extraversion
,
[
31
]
and people who have high levels of
neuroticism
are more likely to experience depressive symptoms and are more likely to receive a diagnosis of a depressive disorder.
[
32
]
Additionally, depression is associated with low
conscientiousness
. Some factors that may arise from low conscientiousness include disorganization and dissatisfaction with life. Individuals may be more exposed to stress and depression as a result of these factors.
[
33
]
Side effect of medical treatment
It is possible that some early generation
beta-blockers
induce depression in some patients, though the evidence for this is weak and conflicting. There is strong evidence for a link between
alpha interferon
therapy and depression. One study found that a third of alpha interferon-treated patients had developed depression after three months of treatment. (
Beta
interferon therapy appears to have no effect on rates of depression.) There is moderately strong evidence that
finasteride
when used in the treatment of alopecia increases depressive symptoms in some patients. Evidence linking
isotretinoin
, an acne treatment, to depression is strong.
[
34
]
Other medicines that seem to increase the risk of depression include
anticonvulsants
,
antimigraine drugs
,
antipsychotics
, and
hormonal agents
such as
gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist
.
[
35
]
Substance-induced
Several drugs of abuse can cause or exacerbate depression, whether in intoxication, withdrawal, and from chronic use. These include alcohol, sedatives (including prescription
benzodiazepines
), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs such as heroin), stimulants (such as cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and
inhalants
.
[
36
]
Non-psychiatric illnesses
Depressed mood can be the result of a number of infectious diseases,
nutritional deficiencies
, neurological conditions, and physiological problems, including
hypoandrogenism
(in men),
Addison's disease
,
Cushing's syndrome
,
pernicious anemia
,
hypothyroidism
,
hyperparathyroidism
,
Lyme disease
,
multiple sclerosis
,
Parkinson's disease
,
celiac disease
,
[
37
]
chronic pain, stroke, diabetes, cancer, and HIV.
[
38
]
[
39
]
[
40
]
Autistic burnout
may also be misdiagnosed as depression.
[
41
]
Studies have found that anywhere from 30 to 85 percent of patients suffering from chronic pain are also clinically depressed.
[
42
]
[
43
]
[
44
]
A 2014 study by Hooley et al. concluded that chronic pain increased the chance of death by suicide by two to three times.
[
45
]
In 2017, the British Medical Association found that 49% of UK chronic pain patients also had depression.
[
46
]
As many as 1/3 of stroke survivors will later develop
post-stroke depression
. Because strokes may cause damage to the parts of the brain involved in processing emotions, reward, and cognition, stroke may be considered a direct cause of depression.
[
47
]
Psychiatric syndromes
A number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as a main symptom. The
mood disorders
are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. These include
major depressive disorder
(commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and
dysthymia
, a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet the severity of a
major depressive episode
. Another mood disorder,
bipolar disorder
, features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood,
cognition
, and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression.
[
48
]
Individuals with bipolar depression are often misdiagnosed with unipolar depression.
[
49
]
When the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as a
seasonal affective disorder
.
Outside the mood disorders:
borderline personality disorder
often features an extremely intense depressive mood;
adjustment disorder with depressed mood
is a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode;
[
50
]
and
posttraumatic stress disorder
, a mental disorder that sometimes follows
trauma
, is commonly accompanied by depressed mood.
[
51
]
Inflammation
Inflammatory processes can be triggered by negative cognition or their consequences, such as stress, violence, or deprivation. Negative cognition may therefore contribute to inflammation, which in turn can lead to depression. A 2019 meta-analysis found that chronic inflammation is associated with a 30% increased risk of developing
major depressive disorder
, supporting the link between inflammation and
mental health
.
[
52
]
Historical legacy
Research suggests possible associations between
Neanderthal genetics
and some forms of depression.
[
53
]
Authors and researchers have begun to conceptualize ways in which the historical legacies of
racism
and
colonialism
may create depressive conditions.
[
54
]
[
55
]
Given the lived experiences of marginalized peoples, ranging from conditions of
migration
,
class stratification
,
cultural genocide
,
labor exploitation
, and
social immobility
, depression can be seen as a "rational response to global conditions", according to
Ann Cvetkovich
.
[
56
]
Psychogeographical depression overlaps somewhat with the theory of "deprejudice", a portmanteau of "depression" and "
prejudice
" proposed by Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon in 2012,
[
57
]
who argue for an integrative approach to studying the often comorbid experiences. Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon are concerned with the ways in which social
stereotypes
are often
internalized
, creating negative
self-stereotypes
that then produce depressive symptoms.
Unlike the theory of "deprejudice", a psychogeographical theory of depression attempts to broaden study of the subject beyond an individual experience to one produced on a societal scale, seeing particular manifestations of depression as rooted in dispossession; historical legacies of
genocide
,
slavery
, and colonialism are productive of segregation, both material and psychic material deprivation,
[
58
]
and concomitant circumstances of violence, systemic exclusion, and lack of access to legal protections. The demands of navigating these circumstances compromise the resources available to a population to seek comfort, health, stability, and sense of security. The historical memory of this
trauma
conditions the psychological health of future generations, making psychogeographical depression an
intergenerational
experience as well.
[
citation needed
]
This work is supported by recent studies in genetic science which has demonstrated an
epigenetic
link between the trauma suffered by
Holocaust survivors
and genetic reverberations in subsequent generations.
[
59
]
[
non-primary source needed
]
Measures
Measures of depression include, but are not limited to:
Beck Depression Inventory-11
and the 9-item depression scale in the
Patient Health Questionnaire
(PHQ-9).
[
60
]
Both of these measures are psychological tests that ask personal questions of the participant, and have mostly been used to measure the severity of depression. The Beck Depression Inventory is a self-report scale that helps a therapist identify the patterns of depression symptoms and monitor recovery. The responses on this scale can be discussed in therapy to devise interventions for the most distressing symptoms of depression.
[
6
]
Theories
There are multiple
schools
of depression theory.
Beck's cognitive triad
theorizes that an individual with depression has "automatic, spontaneous, and seemingly uncontrollable negative thoughts"
[
61
]
about the self, the world or environment, and the future. The
Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression
helps to explain the common comorbidity of anxiety and depression by separating symptoms into three groups: negative affect, positive affect, and physiological hyperarousal.
[
62
]
The
epigenetics of depression
is the study of how
epigenetics
(heritable characteristics that do not involve changes in DNA sequence) contribute to depression.
Behavioral theories of depression
explain the
etiology
of depression with
behavioral science
; adherents promote the use of
behavioral therapies
for treatment.
Evolutionary approaches to depression
are attempts by
evolutionary psychologists
and
evolutionary psychiatrists
to use the theory of
evolution
to further understand
mood disorders
. The
biology of depression
is the attempt to identify a biochemical origin of depression, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes.
Management
Depressed mood may not require professional treatment, and may be a normal temporary reaction to life events, a symptom of some medical condition, or a
side effect
of some drugs or medical treatments. A prolonged depressed mood, especially in combination with other symptoms, may lead to a diagnosis of a psychiatric or medical condition which may benefit from treatment.
The UK
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
(NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that
antidepressants
should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor.
[
63
]
Physical activity has a protective effect against the emergence of depression in some people.
[
64
]
Increased daily step counts have been associated with lower depressive symptoms.
[
65
]
There is limited evidence suggesting yoga may help some people with depressive disorders or elevated levels of depression, but more research is needed.
[
66
]
[
67
]
Reminiscence
of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life.
[
68
]
It is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to a process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli. By maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels.
[
69
]
Depression is a common condition among the elderly living in
long-term care
(LTC) facilities. Although
antidepressant
medications are frequently prescribed, many residents prefer non-pharmacological treatments such as psychological therapies. A systematic review of 19 randomized controlled trials found that therapies like cognitive behavioural therapy, behavioural therapy, and reminiscence therapy may reduce depressive symptoms and improve short-term quality of life. However, the evidence was of very low certainty, and some participants were more likely to drop out of therapy. There was no clear effect on symptoms, with only short term improvements seen with psychological therapies. Further high-quality studies are needed.
[
70
]
There is limited evidence that continuing antidepressant medication for one year reduces the risk of depression recurrence with no additional harm.
[
71
]
Recommendations for psychological treatments or combination treatments in preventing recurrence are not clear.
[
71
]
For chronic and treatment-resistant forms of depression, specialized psychotherapies such as cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP) have been developed to address enduring interpersonal patterns that maintain depressive symptoms.
[
72
]
Epidemiology
Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, the United Nations (UN) health agency reported, estimating that it affects more than 300 million people worldwide – the majority of them women, young people and the elderly. An estimated 4.4 percent of the global population has depression, according to a report released by the UN World Health Organization (WHO), which shows an 18 percent increase in the number of people living with depression between 2005 and 2015.
[
73
]
[
74
]
[
75
]
Depression is a major mental-health cause of
disease burden
. Its consequences further lead to significant burden in
public health
, including a higher risk of
dementia
, premature mortality arising from physical disorders, and maternal depression impacts on child growth and development.
[
76
]
Approximately 76% to 85% of depressed people in low- and middle-income countries do not receive treatment;
[
77
]
barriers to treatment include: inaccurate assessment, lack of trained health-care providers,
social stigma
and lack of resources.
[
4
]
The stigma comes from misguided societal views that people with mental illness are different from everyone else, and they can choose to get better only if they wanted to.
[
78
]
Due to this more than half of the people with depression do not receive help with their disorders. The stigma leads to a strong preference for privacy. An analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that undergraduates who perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive had a 37% higher chance of developing depression and a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety.
[
79
]
Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles the risk of developing depression.
[
80
]
[
81
]
[
82
]
[
83
]
[
84
]
The World Health Organization has constructed guidelines – known as The Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) – aiming to increase services for people with mental, neurological and substance-use disorders.
[
4
]
Depression is listed as one of conditions prioritized by the programme. Trials conducted show possibilities for the implementation of the programme in low-resource primary-care settings dependent on primary-care practitioners and lay health-workers.
[
85
]
Examples of mhGAP-endorsed therapies targeting depression include Group Interpersonal Therapy as group treatment for depression and "Thinking Health", which utilizes
cognitive behavioral therapy
to tackle perinatal depression.
[
4
]
Furthermore, effective screening in primary care is crucial for the access of treatments. The mhGAP adopted its approach of improving detection rates of depression by training general practitioners. However, there is still weak evidence supporting this training.
[
76
]
According to 2011 study, people who are high in
hypercompetitive
traits are also likely to measure higher for depression and anxiety.
[
86
]
History
The term
depression
was derived from the Latin verb
deprimere
, "to press down".
[
87
]
From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author
Richard Baker's
Chronicle
to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author
Samuel Johnson
in a similar sense in 1753.
[
88
]
In Ancient Greece, disease was thought due to an imbalance in the four basic bodily fluids, or
humors
. Personality types were similarly thought to be determined by the dominant humor in a particular person. Derived from the
Ancient Greek
melas
, "black", and
kholé
, "bile",
[
89
]
melancholia
was described as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms by
Hippocrates
in his
Aphorisms
, where he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment.
[
90
]
During the 18th century, the humoral theory of melancholia was increasingly being challenged by mechanical and electrical explanations; references to dark and gloomy states gave way to ideas of slowed circulation and depleted energy.
[
91
]
German physician
Johann Christian Heinroth
, however, argued melancholia was a disturbance of the soul due to moral conflict within the patient.
In the 20th century, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin distinguished manic depression. The influential system put forward by Kraepelin unified nearly all types of mood disorder into
manic–depressive insanity
. Kraepelin worked from an assumption of underlying brain pathology, but also promoted a distinction between
endogenous
(internally caused) and
exogenous
(externally caused) types.
[
92
]
Other psycho-dynamic theories were proposed.
Existential
and
humanistic
theories represented a forceful affirmation of individualism.
[
93
]
Austrian existential psychiatrist
Viktor Frankl
connected depression to feelings of futility and
meaninglessness
.
[
94
]
Frankl's
logotherapy
addressed the filling of an "existential vacuum" associated with such feelings, and may be particularly useful for depressed adolescents.
[
95
]
[
96
]
Researchers theorized that depression was caused by a
chemical imbalance
in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of
reserpine
and
isoniazid
in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms.
[
97
]
During the 1960s and 70s, manic-depression came to refer to just one type of mood disorder (now most commonly known as
bipolar disorder
) which was distinguished from (unipolar) depression. The terms unipolar and bipolar had been coined by German psychiatrist
Karl Kleist
.
[
92
]
In July 2022, a systematic review by British psychiatrist
Joanna Moncrieff
, researcher
Mark Horowitz
and others in the academic journal
Molecular Psychiatry
found that depression is not caused by a serotonin imbalance in the human body.
[
98
]
[
99
]
However, the study was met with criticism from some psychiatrists, who argued the study's methodology used an indirect trace of serotonin, instead of taking direct measurements of the molecule.
[
100
]
Moncrieff said that no one should "suddenly interrupt [...]" antidepressant treatment.
[
100
]
See also
Alain Ehrenberg
, French sociologist, author of
Weariness of the Self: Diagnosing the History of Depression in the Contemporary Age
Attribution (psychology)
– Process by which individuals explain causes of behavior and events
Biopsychosocial model
– Explanatory model emphasizing the interplay among causal forces
Depression in childhood and adolescence
– Pediatric depressive disorders
Diathesis–stress model
– Psychological theory
Existential crisis
– Inner conflict due to perceived meaninglessness
Feeling
– Conscious subjective experience of emotion
Locus of control
– Concept in psychology
Melancholia
– Historical view of extreme depression
Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder
– Diagnostic category in the ICD-10
Dysthymia
Major depressive disorder
Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance
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.
^
Moncrieff, Joanna; Horowitz, Mark (20 July 2022).
"Depression is probably not caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain – new study"
.
The Conversation
. Retrieved
11 August
2022
.
^
a
b
"Study on serotonin and depression sparks fierce debate"
.
France 24
. AFP. 11 August 2022.
Further reading
Beck, Aaron (25 March 2009).
Depression: Causes and Treatment
. Berlin: University of Pennsylvania Press.
ISBN
978-0-8122-1964-7
.
Jackson, S. (1986).
Melancholia and depression: From Hippocratic times to modern times
. Yale University Press.
Rottenberg, Jonathan (2014).
The Depths: The Evolutionary Origins of the Depression Epidemic
. New York: Basic Books.
ISBN
978-0-465-02221-2
.
Sadowsky, J. (2021).
The empire of depression: A new history
. Polity Press.
Schonfeld, I.S., & Bianchi, R. (2025).
Breaking point: Job stress, occupational depression, and the myth of burnout
. John Wiley
External links
Media related to
Depression (mood)
at Wikimedia Commons |
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## Contents
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- [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\))
- [1 Contributing factors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Contributing_factors)
Toggle Contributing factors subsection
- [1\.1 Life events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Life_events)
- [1\.2 Work and depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Work_and_depression)
- [1\.3 Childhood and adolescence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Childhood_and_adolescence)
- [1\.4 Personality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Personality)
- [1\.5 Side effect of medical treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Side_effect_of_medical_treatment)
- [1\.6 Substance-induced](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Substance-induced)
- [1\.7 Non-psychiatric illnesses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Non-psychiatric_illnesses)
- [1\.8 Psychiatric syndromes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Psychiatric_syndromes)
- [1\.9 Inflammation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Inflammation)
- [1\.10 Historical legacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Historical_legacy)
- [2 Measures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Measures)
- [3 Theories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Theories)
- [4 Management](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Management)
- [5 Epidemiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Epidemiology)
- [6 History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#History)
- [7 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#See_also)
- [8 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#References)
- [9 Further reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#Further_reading)
- [10 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#External_links)
Toggle the table of contents
# Depression (mood)
93 languages
- [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressie_\(gemoedstoestand\) "Depressie (gemoedstoestand) – Afrikaans")
- [Alemannisch](https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression "Depression – Alemannic")
- [العربية](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%A8 "اكتئاب – Arabic")
- [الدارجة](https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%A8 "كتيئاب – Moroccan Arabic")
- [অসমীয়া](https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE "হতাশা – Assamese")
- [Asturianu](https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresi%C3%B3n "Depresión – Asturian")
- [تۆرکجه](https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9_\(%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA\) "دپرسلیک (حالت) – South Azerbaijani")
- [Bikol Central](https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresyon "Depresyon – Central Bikol")
- [Беларуская (тарашкевіца)](https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8C "Прыгнечанасьць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)")
- [Беларуская](https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C "Прыгнечанасць – Belarusian")
- [Български](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F "Депресия – Bulgarian")
- [বাংলা](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE_\(%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C\) "বিষাদগ্রস্ততা (মেজাজ) – Bangla")
- [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresija_\(raspolo%C5%BEenje\) "Depresija (raspoloženje) – Bosnian")
- [Català](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressi%C3%B3_\(estat_d%27%C3%A0nim\) "Depressió (estat d'ànim) – Catalan")
- [Cebuano](https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresyon "Depresyon – Cebuano")
- [کوردی](https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%D9%85%DB%86%DA%A9%DB%8C "خەمۆکی – Central Kurdish")
- [Cymraeg](https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iselder_ysbryd "Iselder ysbryd – Welsh")
- [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(hum%C3%B8r\) "Depression (humør) – Danish")
- [Ελληνικά](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%B8%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%88%CE%B7 "Κατάθλιψη – Greek")
- [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprimo "Deprimo – Esperanto")
- [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresi%C3%B3n "Depresión – Spanish")
- [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masendus "Masendus – Estonian")
- [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresio "Depresio – Basque")
- [Estremeñu](https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressi%C3%B3n "Depressión – Extremaduran")
- [فارسی](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C_\(%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA\) "افسردگی (حالت) – Persian")
- [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masennus_\(tunne\) "Masennus (tunne) – Finnish")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humeur_d%C3%A9pressive "Humeur dépressive – French")
- [Gaeilge](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BAlagar "Dúlagar – Irish")
- [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresi%C3%B3n_\(psicolox%C3%ADa\) "Depresión (psicoloxía) – Galician")
- [Avañe'ẽ](https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekokangy "Tekokangy – Guarani")
- [Ghanaian Pidgin](https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\) "Depression (mood) – Ghanaian Pidgin")
- [עברית](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%9B%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9A "דכדוך – Hebrew")
- [हिन्दी](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6 "अवसाद – Hindi")
- [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresija_\(raspolo%C5%BEenje\) "Depresija (raspoloženje) – Croatian")
- [Հայերեն](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A5%D5%BA%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A1 "Դեպրեսիա – Armenian")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresi_\(psikologi\) "Depresi (psikologi) – Indonesian")
- [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressione_esistenziale "Depressione esistenziale – Italian")
- [日本語](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%91%E3%81%86%E3%81%A4 "抑うつ – Japanese")
- [ქართული](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90 "დეპრესია – Georgian")
- [Qaraqalpaqsha](https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressiya "Depressiya – Kara-Kalpak")
- [Kabɩyɛ](https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%C5%8Bgb%C9%9Bz%C9%A9y%C9%9B "Laŋgbɛzɩyɛ – Kabiye")
- [Қазақша](https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_\(%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F\) "Депрессия (психология) – Kazakh")
- [ಕನ್ನಡ](https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%86 "ಖಿನ್ನತೆ – Kannada")
- [한국어](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EC%9A%B8%EC%A6%9D "우울증 – Korean")
- [Kurdî](https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresyon "Depresyon – Kurdish")
- [Кыргызча](https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F "Депрессия – Kyrgyz")
- [Latina](https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressio_\(psychiatria\) "Depressio (psychiatria) – Latin")
- [Luganda](https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okwenyika_omutima "Okwenyika omutima – Ganda")
- [Lingála](https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression "Depression – Lingala")
- [Latviešu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresija_\(psihisks_st%C4%81voklis\) "Depresija (psihisks stāvoklis) – Latvian")
- [Minangkabau](https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresi "Depresi – Minangkabau")
- [Македонски](https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_\(%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5\) "Депресија (расположение) – Macedonian")
- [മലയാളം](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82 "വിഷാദം – Malayalam")
- [मराठी](https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF "नैराश्य – Marathi")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemurungan "Kemurungan – Malay")
- [မြန်မာဘာသာ](https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8 "စိတ်ဓာတ်ကျခြင်း – Burmese")
- [Nedersaksies](https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressie_\(psychologie\) "Depressie (psychologie) – Low Saxon")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressie_\(psychiatrie\) "Depressie (psychiatrie) – Dutch")
- [Norsk nynorsk](https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresjon "Depresjon – Norwegian Nynorsk")
- [IsiNdebele seSewula](https://nr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukugandeleleka_ngokomkhumbulo "Ukugandeleleka ngokomkhumbulo – South Ndebele")
- [Nouormand](https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9bauchage_\(himeur\) "Débauchage (himeur) – Norman")
- [ଓଡ଼ିଆ](https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A6 "ଅବସାଦ – Odia")
- [ਪੰਜਾਬੀ](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80 "ਬੇਦਿਲੀ – Punjabi")
- [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastr%C3%B3j_depresyjny "Nastrój depresyjny – Polish")
- [پښتو](https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%BE%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86 "خپگان – Pashto")
- [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depress%C3%A3o_\(sintoma\) "Depressão (sintoma) – Portuguese")
- [ရခိုင်](https://rki.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB "စိတ်ကျရောဂါ – Arakanese")
- [Română](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresie_\(stare\) "Depresie (stare) – Romanian")
- [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F "Депрессия – Russian")
- [سنڌي](https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%8A%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%86_\(%D9%85%D9%88%DA%8A\) "ڊپريشن (موڊ) – Sindhi")
- [සිංහල](https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%85%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA_\(%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA\) "මානසික අවපීඩනය (මනෝභාවය) – Sinhala")
- [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\) "Depression (mood) – Simple English")
- [Soomaaliga](https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiiraanyo "Tiiraanyo – Somali")
- [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresioni "Depresioni – Albanian")
- [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_\(%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%9B%D0%B0%D1%98\) "Депресија (поремећај) – Serbian")
- [Kiswahili](https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unyogovu "Unyogovu – Swahili")
- [தமிழ்](https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF "மனத்தளர்ச்சி – Tamil")
- [Тоҷикӣ](https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%81%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D3%AF%D2%B3%D3%A3 "Афсурдарӯҳӣ – Tajik")
- [ไทย](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2_\(%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C\) "ความซึมเศร้า (อารมณ์) – Thai")
- [Türkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depresyon "Depresyon – Turkish")
- [Татарча / tatarça](https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F "Депрессия – Tatar")
- [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F "Депресія – Ukrainian")
- [اردو](https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_\(%D9%85%D9%88%DA%88\) "اداسی (موڈ) – Urdu")
- [Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressiya "Depressiya – Uzbek")
- [Vepsän kel’](https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressii "Depressii – Veps")
- [Tiếng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BA%A7u "Sầu – Vietnamese")
- [吴语](https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%91%E9%83%81 "抑郁 – Wu")
- [IsiXhosa](https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukudakumba_\(mood\) "Ukudakumba (mood) – Xhosa")
- [მარგალური](https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90 "დეპრესია – Mingrelian")
- [ייִדיש](https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A2 "דעפרעסיע – Yiddish")
- [粵語](https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E6%82%92 "心悒 – Cantonese")
- [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%91%E9%AC%B1 "抑鬱 – Chinese")
- [IsiZulu](https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukhwantalala "Ukhwantalala – Zulu")
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
State of low mood and aversion to activity
For depression as mental disorder, see [Major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder"). "Hopelessness" redirects here. For the album, see [*Hopelessness* (album)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopelessness_\(album\) "Hopelessness (album)"). "Despair" redirects here. For other uses, see [Despair (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despair_\(disambiguation\) "Despair (disambiguation)"). For other uses, see [Depression (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(disambiguation\) "Depression (disambiguation)").
Medical condition
| Depression | |
|---|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_man_diagnosed_as_suffering_from_melancholia_with_strong_su_Wellcome_L0026693.jpg) | |
| [Lithograph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithograph "Lithograph") of a person diagnosed with *[melancholia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia "Melancholia")* and strong suicidal tendency in 1892 | |
| [Specialty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_specialty "Medical specialty") | [Psychiatry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry "Psychiatry"), [psychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology "Psychology") |
| [Symptoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms "Signs and symptoms") | Low mood, aversion to activity, loss of interest, loss of feeling pleasure |
| [Causes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_\(medicine\) "Cause (medicine)") | Brain chemistry, genetics, life events, medical conditions, personality[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-clevelandclinic-1) |
| [Risk factors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_factor "Risk factor") | Stigma of mental health disorder[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-shrivastavaA-2) |
| [Diagnostic method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis "Medical diagnosis") | [Patient Health Questionnaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Health_Questionnaire "Patient Health Questionnaire"), [Beck Depression Inventory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck_Depression_Inventory "Beck Depression Inventory") |
| [Differential diagnosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis "Differential diagnosis") | [Anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety "Anxiety"), [bipolar disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder "Bipolar disorder"), [borderline personality disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder "Borderline personality disorder") |
| Prevention | Social connections, physical activity |
| Treatment | [Psychotherapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy "Psychotherapy"), [psychopharmacology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopharmacology "Psychopharmacology") |
| |
|---|
| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Emotions "Category:Emotions") on |
| [Emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion "Emotion") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plutchik-wheel.svg)[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plutchik_Dyads.svg) |
| [Affect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_\(psychology\) "Affect (psychology)") [Classification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification "Emotion classification") [In animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_in_animals "Emotion in animals") [Emotional intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence "Emotional intelligence") [Mood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_\(psychology\) "Mood (psychology)") [Self-regulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_self-regulation "Emotional self-regulation") [Interpersonal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_emotion_regulation "Interpersonal emotion regulation") [Dysregulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation "Emotional dysregulation") [Valence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_\(psychology\) "Valence (psychology)") |
| Emotions [Acceptance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance "Acceptance") [Admiration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiration "Admiration") [Affection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affection "Affection") [Amusement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement "Amusement") [Anger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger "Anger") [Angst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angst "Angst") [Anguish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguish "Anguish") [Annoyance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annoyance "Annoyance") [Anticipation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipation "Anticipation") [Anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety "Anxiety") [Apathy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apathy "Apathy") [Arousal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousal "Arousal") [Awe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awe "Awe") [Belongingness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belongingness "Belongingness") [Boredom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boredom "Boredom") [Confidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence "Confidence") [Confusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confusion "Confusion") [Contempt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contempt "Contempt") [Contentment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contentment "Contentment") [Courage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courage "Courage") [Curiosity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity "Curiosity") [Depression]() [Desire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire "Desire") [Determination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determination "Determination") [Disappointment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappointment "Disappointment") [Disgust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgust "Disgust") [Distrust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distrust "Distrust") [Doubt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubt "Doubt") [Dysphoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphoria "Dysphoria") [Ecstasy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecstasy_\(emotion\) "Ecstasy (emotion)") [Elevation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevation_\(emotion\) "Elevation (emotion)") [Embarrassment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embarrassment "Embarrassment") [Emotional detachment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_detachment "Emotional detachment") [Empathy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy "Empathy") [Enthusiasm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthusiasm "Enthusiasm") [Envy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envy "Envy") [Euphoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphoria "Euphoria") [Faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith "Faith") [Fear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear "Fear") [Frustration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustration "Frustration") [Gratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratification "Gratification") [Gratitude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratitude "Gratitude") [Greed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greed "Greed") [Grief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief "Grief") [Guilt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilt_\(emotion\) "Guilt (emotion)") [Happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness "Happiness") [Hatred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatred "Hatred") [Hope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope "Hope") [Horror](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror_and_terror "Horror and terror") [Hostility](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostility "Hostility") [Hubris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubris "Hubris") [Humiliation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humiliation "Humiliation") [Interest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest_\(emotion\) "Interest (emotion)") [Jealousy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealousy "Jealousy") [Joy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy "Joy") [Kindness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindness "Kindness") [Limerence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerence "Limerence") [Loneliness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness "Loneliness") [Love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love "Love") [Lust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lust "Lust") [Nostalgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostalgia "Nostalgia") [Outrage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outrage_\(emotion\) "Outrage (emotion)") [Panic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic "Panic") [Passion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_\(emotion\) "Passion (emotion)") [Pity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pity "Pity") [Pleasure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure "Pleasure") [Pride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride "Pride") [Rage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rage_\(emotion\) "Rage (emotion)") [Regret](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret "Regret") [Rejection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection") [Relief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief_\(emotion\) "Relief (emotion)") [Remorse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remorse "Remorse") [Resentment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resentment "Resentment") [Sadness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadness "Sadness") [Saudade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudade "Saudade") [Schadenfreude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schadenfreude "Schadenfreude") [Self-pity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-pity "Self-pity") [Shame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shame "Shame") [Shock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction "Acute stress reaction") [Shyness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyness "Shyness") [Social connection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_connection "Social connection") [Sorrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorrow_\(emotion\) "Sorrow (emotion)") [Suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering "Suffering") [Surprise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surprise_\(emotion\) "Surprise (emotion)") [Suspicion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspicion_\(emotion\) "Suspicion (emotion)") [Trust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_\(social_science\) "Trust (social science)") [Wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_\(emotion\) "Wonder (emotion)") [Worry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worry "Worry") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Emotion_sidebar "Template:Emotion sidebar") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Emotion_sidebar "Template talk:Emotion sidebar") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emotion_sidebar "Special:EditPage/Template:Emotion sidebar") |
**Depression** is a [mental state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_state "Mental state") of low [mood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_\(psychology\) "Mood (psychology)") and aversion to activity.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-3) It affects about 3.5% of the [global population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_population "Global population"), or about 280 million people worldwide, as of 2020.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:3-4) Depression affects a person's [thoughts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoughts "Thoughts"), [behavior](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior "Behavior"), [feelings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feelings "Feelings"), and [sense of well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being "Subjective well-being").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-5) The [pleasure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure "Pleasure") or [joy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy "Joy") that a person gets from certain experiences is reduced, and the afflicted person often experiences a loss of [motivation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation "Motivation") or interest in those activities.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:1-6) People with depression may experience [sadness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadness "Sadness"), feelings of dejection or lack of [hope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope "Hope"), difficulty in [thinking and concentration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition "Cognition"), [hypersomnia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersomnia "Hypersomnia") or [insomnia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insomnia "Insomnia"), [overeating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overeating "Overeating") or [anorexia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_\(symptom\) "Anorexia (symptom)"), or [suicidal thoughts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation").
Depression can have multiple, sometimes overlapping, origins. Depression can be a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the [loss of a loved one](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief "Grief"). Additionally, depression can be a symptom of some [mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorders "Mood disorders"), such as [major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder"), [bipolar disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder "Bipolar disorder"), and [dysthymia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia "Dysthymia").[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-7) Depression is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments.
## Contributing factors
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Allegory_on_Melancholy_Met_DP885774.jpg)
Allegory on melancholy, from
c.
1729–1740, etching and engraving, in the [Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art "Metropolitan Museum of Art") (New York City)
### Life events
[Adversity in childhood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences "Adverse childhood experiences"), such as bereavement, neglect, mental abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or unequal parental treatment of siblings, can contribute to depression in adulthood.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-9) Childhood physical or sexual abuse in particular significantly correlates with the likelihood of experiencing depression over the survivor's lifetime.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-10) People who have experienced four or more [adverse childhood experiences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences "Adverse childhood experiences") are 3.2 to 4.0 times more likely to have depression.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Anda2006-11) Poor housing quality, non-functionality, lack of [green spaces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_green_space "Urban green space"), and exposure to noise and air pollution are linked to depressive moods, emphasizing the need for consideration in planning to prevent such outcomes.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-12) Locality has also been linked to depression and other negative moods. The rate of depression among those who reside in large urban areas is shown to be lower than those who do not.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-13) Likewise, those from smaller towns and rural areas tend to have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological unwellness.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-14)
Studies have consistently shown that physicians have had the highest depression and suicide rates compared to people in many other lines of work—for suicide, 40% higher for male physicians and 130% higher for female physicians.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-16)[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-nytimes2-17)
Life events and changes that may cause depressed mood includes, but are not limited to, childbirth, menopause, financial difficulties, unemployment, stress (such as from work, education, military service, family, living conditions, marriage, etc.), a medical diagnosis (cancer, HIV, diabetes, etc.), bullying, loss of a loved one, natural disasters, social isolation, rape, relationship troubles, jealousy, separation, or [catastrophic injury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophic_injury "Catastrophic injury").[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-18)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-19)[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-20)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-21)[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-22) Similar depressive symptoms are associated with [survivor's guilt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survivor_guilt "Survivor guilt").[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-23) Adolescents may be especially prone to experiencing a depressed mood following [social rejection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection"), peer pressure, or bullying.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-24)
### Work and depression
A body of high-quality longitudinal research has linked adverse working to increased depressive symptoms and disorders.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-25)[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-26)[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-27) Workplace stressors that increase depression risk include [excessive workloads, little autonomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology#Demand-control-support_model "Occupational health psychology"), [an unfavorable effort-reward imbalance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology#Demand-control-support_model "Occupational health psychology"), and [workplace bullying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_bullying "Workplace bullying").[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-28)
### Childhood and adolescence
Main article: [Depression in childhood and adolescence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_in_childhood_and_adolescence "Depression in childhood and adolescence")
Depression in childhood and adolescence is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or behavioral dyscontrol instead of the more common sad, empty, or hopeless feelings seen with adults.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Birmaher-29) Children who are under [stress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress "Psychological stress"), experiencing loss or [grief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief "Grief"), or have other underlying disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Depression in young people is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other [mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorders "Mood disorders"), most commonly [anxiety disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_disorder "Anxiety disorder"), especially [social anxiety disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder "Social anxiety disorder"), and [conduct disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduct_disorder "Conduct disorder"). Depression also tends to run in families.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-30)
### Personality
Depression is associated with low [extraversion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion "Extraversion"),[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-31) and people who have high levels of [neuroticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism "Neuroticism") are more likely to experience depressive symptoms and are more likely to receive a diagnosis of a depressive disorder.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-NeuroticismMA-32) Additionally, depression is associated with low [conscientiousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness "Conscientiousness"). Some factors that may arise from low conscientiousness include disorganization and dissatisfaction with life. Individuals may be more exposed to stress and depression as a result of these factors.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-33)
### Side effect of medical treatment
It is possible that some early generation [beta-blockers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-blocker "Beta-blocker") induce depression in some patients, though the evidence for this is weak and conflicting. There is strong evidence for a link between [alpha interferon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_interferon "Alpha interferon") therapy and depression. One study found that a third of alpha interferon-treated patients had developed depression after three months of treatment. (*Beta* interferon therapy appears to have no effect on rates of depression.) There is moderately strong evidence that [finasteride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finasteride "Finasteride") when used in the treatment of alopecia increases depressive symptoms in some patients. Evidence linking [isotretinoin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotretinoin "Isotretinoin"), an acne treatment, to depression is strong.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-34) Other medicines that seem to increase the risk of depression include [anticonvulsants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticonvulsants "Anticonvulsants"), [antimigraine drugs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimigraine_drug "Antimigraine drug"), [antipsychotics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipsychotics "Antipsychotics"), and [hormonal agents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone_therapy "Hormone therapy") such as [gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone_agonist "Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist").[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-35)
### Substance-induced
Several drugs of abuse can cause or exacerbate depression, whether in intoxication, withdrawal, and from chronic use. These include alcohol, sedatives (including prescription [benzodiazepines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine "Benzodiazepine")), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs such as heroin), stimulants (such as cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and [inhalants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalants "Inhalants").[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-36)
### Non-psychiatric illnesses
Main article: [Depression (differential diagnoses)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(differential_diagnoses\) "Depression (differential diagnoses)")
Depressed mood can be the result of a number of infectious diseases, [nutritional deficiencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritional_deficiency "Nutritional deficiency"), neurological conditions, and physiological problems, including [hypoandrogenism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoandrogenism "Hypoandrogenism") (in men), [Addison's disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison%27s_disease "Addison's disease"), [Cushing's syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushing%27s_syndrome "Cushing's syndrome"), [pernicious anemia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia "Pernicious anemia"), [hypothyroidism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothyroidism "Hypothyroidism"), [hyperparathyroidism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperparathyroidism "Hyperparathyroidism"), [Lyme disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyme_disease "Lyme disease"), [multiple sclerosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis "Multiple sclerosis"), [Parkinson's disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease "Parkinson's disease"), [celiac disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celiac_disease "Celiac disease"),[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-37) chronic pain, stroke, diabetes, cancer, and HIV.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-38)[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-39)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-40) [Autistic burnout](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autistic_burnout "Autistic burnout") may also be misdiagnosed as depression.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-41)
Studies have found that anywhere from 30 to 85 percent of patients suffering from chronic pain are also clinically depressed.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-42)[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-44) A 2014 study by Hooley et al. concluded that chronic pain increased the chance of death by suicide by two to three times.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-45) In 2017, the British Medical Association found that 49% of UK chronic pain patients also had depression.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-46)
As many as 1/3 of stroke survivors will later develop [post-stroke depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-stroke_depression "Post-stroke depression"). Because strokes may cause damage to the parts of the brain involved in processing emotions, reward, and cognition, stroke may be considered a direct cause of depression.[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-47)
### Psychiatric syndromes
Main article: [Depressive mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorder#Depressive_disorders "Mood disorder")
A number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as a main symptom. The [mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorder "Mood disorder") are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. These include [major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder") (commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and [dysthymia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia "Dysthymia"), a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet the severity of a [major depressive episode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_episode "Major depressive episode"). Another mood disorder, [bipolar disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder "Bipolar disorder"), features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood, [cognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition "Cognition"), and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-48) Individuals with bipolar depression are often misdiagnosed with unipolar depression.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-49) When the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as a [seasonal affective disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_affective_disorder "Seasonal affective disorder").
Outside the mood disorders: [borderline personality disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder "Borderline personality disorder") often features an extremely intense depressive mood; [adjustment disorder with depressed mood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustment_disorder "Adjustment disorder") is a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode;[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-50) and [posttraumatic stress disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder "Posttraumatic stress disorder"), a mental disorder that sometimes follows [trauma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_trauma "Major trauma"), is commonly accompanied by depressed mood.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-51)
### Inflammation
This section is an excerpt from [Inflammation § Connection to depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation#Connection_to_depression "Inflammation").\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit)\]
Inflammatory processes can be triggered by negative cognition or their consequences, such as stress, violence, or deprivation. Negative cognition may therefore contribute to inflammation, which in turn can lead to depression. A 2019 meta-analysis found that chronic inflammation is associated with a 30% increased risk of developing [major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder"), supporting the link between inflammation and [mental health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health "Mental health").[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-52)
### Historical legacy
See also: [Historical trauma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_trauma "Historical trauma")
Research suggests possible associations between [Neanderthal genetics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal_genetics "Neanderthal genetics") and some forms of depression.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-53)
Authors and researchers have begun to conceptualize ways in which the historical legacies of [racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism "Racism") and [colonialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism") may create depressive conditions.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-54)[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-55) Given the lived experiences of marginalized peoples, ranging from conditions of [migration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migration "Human migration"), [class stratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_stratification "Class stratification"), [cultural genocide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_genocide "Cultural genocide"), [labor exploitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_exploitation "Labor exploitation"), and [social immobility](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mobility "Social mobility"), depression can be seen as a "rational response to global conditions", according to [Ann Cvetkovich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Cvetkovich "Ann Cvetkovich").[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-56)
Psychogeographical depression overlaps somewhat with the theory of "deprejudice", a portmanteau of "depression" and "[prejudice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice")" proposed by Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon in 2012,[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Cox2012-57) who argue for an integrative approach to studying the often comorbid experiences. Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon are concerned with the ways in which social [stereotypes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype "Stereotype") are often [internalized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalisation_\(sociology\) "Internalisation (sociology)"), creating negative [self-stereotypes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-stereotyping "Self-stereotyping") that then produce depressive symptoms.
Unlike the theory of "deprejudice", a psychogeographical theory of depression attempts to broaden study of the subject beyond an individual experience to one produced on a societal scale, seeing particular manifestations of depression as rooted in dispossession; historical legacies of [genocide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide "Genocide"), [slavery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery "Slavery"), and colonialism are productive of segregation, both material and psychic material deprivation,[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-58) and concomitant circumstances of violence, systemic exclusion, and lack of access to legal protections. The demands of navigating these circumstances compromise the resources available to a population to seek comfort, health, stability, and sense of security. The historical memory of this [trauma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_trauma "Psychological trauma") conditions the psychological health of future generations, making psychogeographical depression an [intergenerational](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenerational_trauma "Transgenerational trauma") experience as well.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
This work is supported by recent studies in genetic science which has demonstrated an [epigenetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetic "Epigenetic") link between the trauma suffered by [Holocaust survivors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_survivor "Holocaust survivor") and genetic reverberations in subsequent generations.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-59)\[*[non-primary source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources "Wikipedia:No original research")*\]
## Measures
Measures of depression include, but are not limited to: [Beck Depression Inventory-11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck_Depression_Inventory "Beck Depression Inventory") and the 9-item depression scale in the [Patient Health Questionnaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Health_Questionnaire "Patient Health Questionnaire") (PHQ-9).[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-60) Both of these measures are psychological tests that ask personal questions of the participant, and have mostly been used to measure the severity of depression. The Beck Depression Inventory is a self-report scale that helps a therapist identify the patterns of depression symptoms and monitor recovery. The responses on this scale can be discussed in therapy to devise interventions for the most distressing symptoms of depression.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:1-6)
## Theories
There are multiple [schools](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_thought "School of thought") of depression theory. [Beck's cognitive triad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck%27s_cognitive_triad "Beck's cognitive triad") theorizes that an individual with depression has "automatic, spontaneous, and seemingly uncontrollable negative thoughts"[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-61) about the self, the world or environment, and the future. The [Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite_Model_of_Anxiety_and_Depression "Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression") helps to explain the common comorbidity of anxiety and depression by separating symptoms into three groups: negative affect, positive affect, and physiological hyperarousal.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-62) The [epigenetics of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics_of_depression "Epigenetics of depression") is the study of how [epigenetics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics "Epigenetics") (heritable characteristics that do not involve changes in DNA sequence) contribute to depression. [Behavioral theories of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_theories_of_depression "Behavioral theories of depression") explain the [etiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiology "Etiology") of depression with [behavioral science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_sciences "Behavioural sciences"); adherents promote the use of [behavioral therapies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_theories_of_depression#Behavioral_therapies "Behavioral theories of depression") for treatment. [Evolutionary approaches to depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression "Evolutionary approaches to depression") are attempts by [evolutionary psychologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology "Evolutionary psychology") and [evolutionary psychiatrists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry "Evolutionary psychiatry") to use the theory of [evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution "Evolution") to further understand [mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorder "Mood disorder"). The [biology of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_of_depression "Biology of depression") is the attempt to identify a biochemical origin of depression, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes.
## Management
Main article: [Management of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_of_depression "Management of depression")
Depressed mood may not require professional treatment, and may be a normal temporary reaction to life events, a symptom of some medical condition, or a [side effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_effect "Side effect") of some drugs or medical treatments. A prolonged depressed mood, especially in combination with other symptoms, may lead to a diagnosis of a psychiatric or medical condition which may benefit from treatment.
The UK [National Institute for Health and Care Excellence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence "National Institute for Health and Care Excellence") (NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that [antidepressants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant "Antidepressant") should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-63)
Physical activity has a protective effect against the emergence of depression in some people.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Sc2018-64) Increased daily step counts have been associated with lower depressive symptoms.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-65)
There is limited evidence suggesting yoga may help some people with depressive disorders or elevated levels of depression, but more research is needed.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-67)
[Reminiscence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reminiscence "Reminiscence") of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-68) It is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to a process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli. By maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels.[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-69)
Depression is a common condition among the elderly living in [long-term care](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care "Long-term care") (LTC) facilities. Although [antidepressant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant "Antidepressant") medications are frequently prescribed, many residents prefer non-pharmacological treatments such as psychological therapies. A systematic review of 19 randomized controlled trials found that therapies like cognitive behavioural therapy, behavioural therapy, and reminiscence therapy may reduce depressive symptoms and improve short-term quality of life. However, the evidence was of very low certainty, and some participants were more likely to drop out of therapy. There was no clear effect on symptoms, with only short term improvements seen with psychological therapies. Further high-quality studies are needed.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-70)
There is limited evidence that continuing antidepressant medication for one year reduces the risk of depression recurrence with no additional harm.[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:4-71) Recommendations for psychological treatments or combination treatments in preventing recurrence are not clear.[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:4-71) For chronic and treatment-resistant forms of depression, specialized psychotherapies such as cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP) have been developed to address enduring interpersonal patterns that maintain depressive symptoms.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-72)
## Epidemiology
Main article: [Epidemiology of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_depression "Epidemiology of depression")
Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, the United Nations (UN) health agency reported, estimating that it affects more than 300 million people worldwide – the majority of them women, young people and the elderly. An estimated 4.4 percent of the global population has depression, according to a report released by the UN World Health Organization (WHO), which shows an 18 percent increase in the number of people living with depression between 2005 and 2015.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-73)[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-74)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-75)
Depression is a major mental-health cause of [disease burden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_burden "Disease burden"). Its consequences further lead to significant burden in [public health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health "Public health"), including a higher risk of [dementia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia "Dementia"), premature mortality arising from physical disorders, and maternal depression impacts on child growth and development.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:2-76) Approximately 76% to 85% of depressed people in low- and middle-income countries do not receive treatment;[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-77) barriers to treatment include: inaccurate assessment, lack of trained health-care providers, [social stigma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and lack of resources.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:3-4)
The stigma comes from misguided societal views that people with mental illness are different from everyone else, and they can choose to get better only if they wanted to.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-78) Due to this more than half of the people with depression do not receive help with their disorders. The stigma leads to a strong preference for privacy. An analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that undergraduates who perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive had a 37% higher chance of developing depression and a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-79) Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles the risk of developing depression.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-80)[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-81)[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-82)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-83)[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-84)
The World Health Organization has constructed guidelines – known as The Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) – aiming to increase services for people with mental, neurological and substance-use disorders.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:3-4) Depression is listed as one of conditions prioritized by the programme. Trials conducted show possibilities for the implementation of the programme in low-resource primary-care settings dependent on primary-care practitioners and lay health-workers.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-85) Examples of mhGAP-endorsed therapies targeting depression include Group Interpersonal Therapy as group treatment for depression and "Thinking Health", which utilizes [cognitive behavioral therapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy "Cognitive behavioral therapy") to tackle perinatal depression.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:3-4) Furthermore, effective screening in primary care is crucial for the access of treatments. The mhGAP adopted its approach of improving detection rates of depression by training general practitioners. However, there is still weak evidence supporting this training.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:2-76)
According to 2011 study, people who are high in [hypercompetitive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition "Competition") traits are also likely to measure higher for depression and anxiety.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-86)
## History
Main article: [History of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_depression "History of depression")
The term *depression* was derived from the Latin verb *deprimere*, "to press down".[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-87) From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author [Richard Baker's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Baker_\(chronicler\) "Richard Baker (chronicler)") *Chronicle* to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author [Samuel Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnson "Samuel Johnson") in a similar sense in 1753.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-88)
In Ancient Greece, disease was thought due to an imbalance in the four basic bodily fluids, or *[humors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humorism "Humorism")*. Personality types were similarly thought to be determined by the dominant humor in a particular person. Derived from the [Ancient Greek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek "Ancient Greek") *melas*, "black", and *kholé*, "bile",[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Liddell1980-89) [melancholia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia "Melancholia") was described as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms by [Hippocrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates "Hippocrates") in his *Aphorisms*, where he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-90)
During the 18th century, the humoral theory of melancholia was increasingly being challenged by mechanical and electrical explanations; references to dark and gloomy states gave way to ideas of slowed circulation and depleted energy.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Jackson83-91) German physician [Johann Christian Heinroth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Christian_August_Heinroth "Johann Christian August Heinroth"), however, argued melancholia was a disturbance of the soul due to moral conflict within the patient.
In the 20th century, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin distinguished manic depression. The influential system put forward by Kraepelin unified nearly all types of mood disorder into *manic–depressive insanity*. Kraepelin worked from an assumption of underlying brain pathology, but also promoted a distinction between [endogenous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogenous "Endogenous") (internally caused) and [exogenous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exogenous "Exogenous") (externally caused) types.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Davison20062-92)
Other psycho-dynamic theories were proposed. [Existential](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychology "Existential psychology") and [humanistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology "Humanistic psychology") theories represented a forceful affirmation of individualism.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-93) Austrian existential psychiatrist [Viktor Frankl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl "Viktor Frankl") connected depression to feelings of futility and [meaninglessness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_\(existential\) "Meaning (existential)").[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Frankl-94) Frankl's [logotherapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logotherapy "Logotherapy") addressed the filling of an "existential vacuum" associated with such feelings, and may be particularly useful for depressed adolescents.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-95)[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-96)
Researchers theorized that depression was caused by a [chemical imbalance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_imbalance_theory "Chemical imbalance theory") in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of [reserpine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserpine "Reserpine") and [isoniazid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoniazid "Isoniazid") in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-97) During the 1960s and 70s, manic-depression came to refer to just one type of mood disorder (now most commonly known as [bipolar disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder "Bipolar disorder")) which was distinguished from (unipolar) depression. The terms unipolar and bipolar had been coined by German psychiatrist [Karl Kleist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Kleist "Karl Kleist").[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Davison20062-92)
In July 2022, a systematic review by British psychiatrist [Joanna Moncrieff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Moncrieff "Joanna Moncrieff"), researcher [Mark Horowitz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Abie_Horowitz "Mark Abie Horowitz") and others in the academic journal *[Molecular Psychiatry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Psychiatry "Molecular Psychiatry")* found that depression is not caused by a serotonin imbalance in the human body.[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-98)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-99) However, the study was met with criticism from some psychiatrists, who argued the study's methodology used an indirect trace of serotonin, instead of taking direct measurements of the molecule.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:5-100) Moncrieff said that no one should "suddenly interrupt \[...\]" antidepressant treatment.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:5-100)
## See also
- [Alain Ehrenberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Ehrenberg "Alain Ehrenberg"), French sociologist, author of *Weariness of the Self: Diagnosing the History of Depression in the Contemporary Age*
- [Attribution (psychology)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_\(psychology\) "Attribution (psychology)") – Process by which individuals explain causes of behavior and events
- [Biopsychosocial model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychosocial_model "Biopsychosocial model") – Explanatory model emphasizing the interplay among causal forces
- [Depression in childhood and adolescence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_in_childhood_and_adolescence "Depression in childhood and adolescence") – Pediatric depressive disorders
- [Diathesis–stress model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diathesis%E2%80%93stress_model "Diathesis–stress model") – Psychological theory
- [Existential crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_crisis "Existential crisis") – Inner conflict due to perceived meaninglessness
- [Feeling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling "Feeling") – Conscious subjective experience of emotion
- [Locus of control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_control "Locus of control") – Concept in psychology
- [Melancholia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia "Melancholia") – Historical view of extreme depression
- [Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_anxiety%E2%80%93depressive_disorder "Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder") – Diagnostic category in the ICD-10
- [Dysthymia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia "Dysthymia")
- [Major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder")
- [Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_and_Bipolar_Support_Alliance "Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance")
## References
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_ref-clevelandclinic_1-0)**
["Depression"](https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression). Cleveland Clinic. 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
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Holmes, Alex; Christelis, Nicholas; Arnold, Carolyn (October 2013). "Depression and chronic pain". *Medical Journal of Australia*. **199** (S6): S17-20. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.5694/mja12.10589](https://doi.org/10.5694%2Fmja12.10589). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [25370278](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25370278). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [27576624](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27576624).
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Medeiros, Gustavo C.; Roy, Durga; Kontos, Nicholas; Beach, Scott R. (1 September 2020). ["Post-stroke depression: A 2020 updated review"](https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0163834320300955). *General Hospital Psychiatry*. **66**: 70–80\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.genhosppsych.2020.06.011](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.genhosppsych.2020.06.011). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0163-8343](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0163-8343). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32717644](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32717644).
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Jackel, Donna (24 January 2024). ["Bipolar Depression vs. Unipolar Depression"](https://www.bphope.com/everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-bipolar-depression/). *bpHope.com*. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
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American Psychiatric Association (2000). *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision: DSM-IV-TR*. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. p. 355. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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Vieweg WV, Julius DA, Fernandez A, Beatty-Brooks M, Hettema JM, Pandurangi AK (May 2006). ["Posttraumatic stress disorder: clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amjmed.2005.09.027). *The American Journal of Medicine*. **119** (5): 383–90\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.amjmed.2005.09.027](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amjmed.2005.09.027). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [16651048](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16651048).
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Osimo EF, Pillinger T, Rodriguez IM, Khandaker GM, Pariante CM, Howes OD (July 2020). ["Inflammatory markers in depression: A meta-analysis of mean differences and variability in 5,166 patients and 5,083 controls"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7327519). *Brain, Behavior, and Immunity*. **87**: 901–909\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.bbi.2020.02.010](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbi.2020.02.010). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [7327519](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7327519). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32113908](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32113908).
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Whitley, David S. (24 July 2019). "The archaeology of madness". In Henley, Tracy B.; Rossano, Matt J.; Kardas, Edward P. (eds.). [*Handbook of Cognitive Archaeology: Psychology in Prehistory*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LjKoDwAAQBAJ). New York: Routledge. p. 462. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_ref-54)**
Cvetkovich A (2012). *Depression: A Public Feeling*. Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books. pp. 126–127\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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. "As a story about gaps in the historical record, *Lose Your Mother* sheds light on the gaps in my own efforts to track the relation between depression and the histories of slavery, genocide, and colonialism that lie at the heart of the founding of U.S. culture. I want depression, too, to be considered part of the 'afterlife of slavery,' but it can be hard to trace the connections between contemporary everyday feelings (especially those of white middle-class people) and the traumatic violence of the past - they might emerge as ghosts or feelings of hopelessness, rather than as scientific evidence or existing bodies of research or material forms of deprivation. \[...\] *Lose Your Mother* not only puts the category of depression in contact with histories of racism and colonialism but also lends itself to being read as a text of political depression."
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Cox, William T.L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (September 2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". *Perspectives on Psychological Science*. **7** (5): 427–449\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/1745691612455204](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691612455204). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [26168502](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26168502). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [1512121](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1512121). "Social psychologists fighting prejudice and clinical psychologists fighting depression have long been separated by the social–clinical divide, unaware that they were facing a common enemy. Stereotypes about others leading to prejudice (e.g., Devine, 1989) and schemas about the self leading to depression (e.g., A. T. Beck, 1967) are fundamentally the same type of cognitive structure."
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paywall "closed access publication – behind paywall")
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Cvetkovich, Ann (2012). [*Depression: A Public Feeling*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qn9jSPVRcDMC&pg=PA25). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. p. 25. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [779876753](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/779876753). "…the histories of genocide, slavery, and exclusion and oppression of immigrants that seep into our daily lives of segregation, often as invisible forces that structure comfort and privilege for some and lack of resources for others, inequities whose connection to the past frequently remain obscure. These are depressing conditions, indeed, ones that make depression seem not so much a medical or biochemical dysfunction as a very rational response to global conditions."
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Cox, William T.L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (September 2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". *Perspectives on Psychological Science*. **7** (5): 427–49\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/1745691612455204](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691612455204). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [26168502](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26168502). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [1512121](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1512121).
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## Further reading
- Beck, Aaron (25 March 2009). *Depression: Causes and Treatment*. Berlin: University of Pennsylvania Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8122-1964-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1964-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1964-7")
.
- Jackson, S. (1986). *Melancholia and depression: From Hippocratic times to modern times*. Yale University Press.
- Rottenberg, Jonathan (2014). *[The Depths: The Evolutionary Origins of the Depression Epidemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Depths:_The_Evolutionary_Origins_of_the_Depression_Epidemic "The Depths: The Evolutionary Origins of the Depression Epidemic")*. New York: Basic Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-465-02221-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02221-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02221-2")
.
- Sadowsky, J. (2021). *The empire of depression: A new history*. Polity Press.
- Schonfeld, I.S., & Bianchi, R. (2025). *Breaking point: Job stress, occupational depression, and the myth of burnout*. John Wiley
## External links
**Depression (mood)** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects "Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects")
- [Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Depression "q:Depression") from Wikiquote
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg)[Textbooks](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Living_With_Depression "b:Living With Depression") from Wikibooks
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- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg) Media related to [Depression (mood)](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Depression_\(mood\) "commons:Category:Depression (mood)") at Wikimedia Commons
| | |
|---|---|
| Classification | [D](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4340209 "d:Q4340209") **[ICD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems "International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems")\-[11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-11 "ICD-11")**: [6A7](https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#1563440232) **[ICD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems "International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems")\-[10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-10 "ICD-10")**: [F32](https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F32), [F33](https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F33) **[MeSH](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings "Medical Subject Headings")**: [D003863](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003863) **[DiseasesDB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseases_Database "Diseases Database")**: [3589](http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb3589.htm) |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Emotion_navbox "Template:Emotion navbox") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Emotion_navbox "Template talk:Emotion navbox") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emotion_navbox "Special:EditPage/Template:Emotion navbox")[Emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion "Emotion") ([list](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification "Emotion classification")) | | |
|---|---|---|
| [Emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion "Emotion") | [Acceptance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance "Acceptance") [Admiration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiration "Admiration") [Adoration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoration "Adoration") [Aesthetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions "Aesthetic emotions") [Affection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affection "Affection") [Agitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation "Psychomotor agitation") [Agony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain "Pain") [Amusement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement "Amusement") [Anger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger "Anger") [Angst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angst "Angst") [Anguish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguish "Anguish") [Annoyance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annoyance "Annoyance") [Anticipation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipation "Anticipation") [Antipathy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipathy "Antipathy") [Anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety "Anxiety") [Apathy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apathy "Apathy") [Arousal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousal "Arousal") [Attraction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_attraction "Interpersonal attraction") [Awe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awe "Awe") [Belongingness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belongingness "Belongingness") [Boredom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boredom "Boredom") [Calmness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calmness "Calmness") [Comfort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort "Comfort") [Compassion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compassion "Compassion") [Confidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence "Confidence") [Confusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confusion "Confusion") [Contempt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contempt "Contempt") [Contentment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contentment "Contentment") [Courage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courage "Courage") [Cruelty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruelty "Cruelty") [Curiosity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity "Curiosity") [Defeat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defeatism "Defeatism") [Depression]() [Desire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire "Desire") [Disappointment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappointment "Disappointment") [Disgust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgust "Disgust") [Distrust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distrust "Distrust") [Doubt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubt "Doubt") [Dysphoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphoria "Dysphoria") [Ecstasy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecstasy_\(emotion\) "Ecstasy (emotion)") [Embarrassment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embarrassment "Embarrassment") [vicarious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_embarrassment "Vicarious embarrassment") [Emotion work](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_work "Emotion work") [Empathy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy "Empathy") [Emptiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emptiness "Emptiness") [Enthrallment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention "Attention") [Enthusiasm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthusiasm "Enthusiasm") [Envy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envy "Envy") [Euphoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphoria "Euphoria") [Excitement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulation "Stimulation") [Faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith "Faith") [Fear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear "Fear") [Flow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_\(psychology\) "Flow (psychology)") [Frustration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustration "Frustration") [Fun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fun "Fun") [Gratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratification "Gratification") [Gratitude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratitude "Gratitude") [Greed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greed "Greed") [Grief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief "Grief") [Guilt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilt_\(emotion\) "Guilt (emotion)") [Happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness "Happiness") *[Joie de vivre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joie_de_vivre "Joie de vivre")* [Hatred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatred "Hatred") [self-hatred](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-hatred "Self-hatred") *[Hiraeth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraeth "Hiraeth")* [Homesickness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homesickness "Homesickness") [Hope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope "Hope") [Horror](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror_and_terror "Horror and terror") [Hostility](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostility "Hostility") [Humiliation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humiliation "Humiliation") *[Hygge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge "Hygge")* [Hysteria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteria "Hysteria") [*Ikigai* (sense of purpose)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikigai "Ikigai") [Indulgence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonism "Hedonism") [Infatuation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infatuation "Infatuation") [Insecurity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecurity_\(emotion\) "Insecurity (emotion)") [Insignificance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insignificance "Insignificance") [Inspiration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_inspiration "Artistic inspiration") [Interest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest_\(emotion\) "Interest (emotion)") [Irritation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irritability "Irritability") [Isolation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_\(psychology\) "Isolation (psychology)") [Jealousy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealousy "Jealousy") [Joy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy "Joy") [Kindness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindness "Kindness") [Loneliness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness "Loneliness") [Love](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love "Love") [at first sight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_at_first_sight "Love at first sight") [limerence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerence "Limerence") [obsessive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive_love "Obsessive love") [parental](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_love "Parental love") [passionate and companionate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passionate_and_companionate_love "Passionate and companionate love") [Lust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lust "Lust") *[Mono no aware](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mono_no_aware "Mono no aware")* [Neglect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neglect "Neglect") [Nostalgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostalgia "Nostalgia") [Outrage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outrage_\(emotion\) "Outrage (emotion)") [Panic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic "Panic") [Passion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_\(emotion\) "Passion (emotion)") [Pity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pity "Pity") [self-pity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-pity "Self-pity") [Pleasure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure "Pleasure") [Pride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride "Pride") [grandiosity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandiosity "Grandiosity") [hubris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubris "Hubris") [insult](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult "Insult") [vanity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity "Vanity") [Rage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rage_\(emotion\) "Rage (emotion)") [Regret](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret "Regret") [Rejection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection") [Relaxation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaxation_\(psychology\) "Relaxation (psychology)") [Relief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief_\(emotion\) "Relief (emotion)") [Remorse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remorse "Remorse") [Resentment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resentment "Resentment") [Revenge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenge "Revenge") [Sadness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadness "Sadness") [melancholy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia "Melancholia") *[Saudade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudade "Saudade")* *[Schadenfreude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schadenfreude "Schadenfreude")* *[Sehnsucht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sehnsucht "Sehnsucht")* [Sentimentality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentimentality "Sentimentality") [Shame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shame "Shame") [Shock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction "Acute stress reaction") [Shyness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyness "Shyness") [Solitude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitude "Solitude") [Social connection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_connection "Social connection") [Sorrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorrow_\(emotion\) "Sorrow (emotion)") [Spite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spite_\(sentiment\) "Spite (sentiment)") [Stress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress "Psychological stress") [chronic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_stress "Chronic stress") [Suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering "Suffering") [Surprise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surprise_\(emotion\) "Surprise (emotion)") [Suspense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspense "Suspense") [Suspicion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspicion_\(emotion\) "Suspicion (emotion)") [Sympathy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy "Sympathy") [Trust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_\(social_science\) "Trust (social science)") [Wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_\(emotion\) "Wonder (emotion)") [sense of wonder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_wonder "Sense of wonder") [Worry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worry "Worry") [Zest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zest_\(positive_psychology\) "Zest (positive psychology)") | [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plutchik-wheel.svg) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plutchik_Dyads.svg) |
| [Worldviews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldview "Worldview") | [Cynicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_\(contemporary\) "Cynicism (contemporary)") [Defeatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defeatism "Defeatism") [Fatalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatalism "Fatalism") [Misanthropy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misanthropy "Misanthropy") [Nihilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism "Nihilism") [Optimism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism "Optimism") [Pessimism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pessimism "Pessimism") [Reclusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recluse "Recluse") *[Weltschmerz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weltschmerz "Weltschmerz")* | |
| Related | Affect [consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_consciousness "Affect consciousness") [in education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_in_education "Affect in education") [measures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_measures "Affect measures") [in psychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_\(psychology\) "Affect (psychology)") Affective [computing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_computing "Affective computing") [forecasting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_forecasting "Affective forecasting") [neuroscience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neuroscience "Affective neuroscience") [science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_science "Affective science") [spectrum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_spectrum "Affective spectrum") Affectivity [positive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_affectivity "Positive affectivity") [negative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_affectivity "Negative affectivity") [Appeal to emotion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion "Appeal to emotion") [Amygdala hijack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala_hijack "Amygdala hijack") Emotion [and art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_and_emotion "Art and emotion") [and memory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory "Emotion and memory") [and music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_and_emotion "Music and emotion") [and sex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology "Sex differences in psychology") [and sleep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_and_emotions "Sleep and emotions") [classification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification "Emotion classification") [circumplex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification#Circumplex_model "Emotion classification") [EmojiGrid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EmojiGrid "EmojiGrid") [Lövheim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6vheim_Cube_of_Emotions "Lövheim Cube of Emotions") [PAD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAD_emotional_state_model "PAD emotional state model") [Plutchik](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification#Plutchik's_wheel_of_emotions "Emotion classification") [evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion "Evolution of emotion") [expressed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressed_emotion "Expressed emotion") [functional accounts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_accounts_of_emotion "Functional accounts of emotion") [group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_emotion "Group emotion") [homeostatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostatic_feeling "Homeostatic feeling") [in animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_in_animals "Emotion in animals") [perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_perception "Emotion perception") [recognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_recognition "Emotion recognition") [in conversation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation "Emotion recognition in conversation") [regulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_self-regulation "Emotional self-regulation") [interpersonal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_emotion_regulation "Interpersonal emotion regulation") [work](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_work "Emotion work") Emotional [aperture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_aperture "Emotional aperture") [bias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_bias "Emotional bias") [blackmail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_blackmail "Emotional blackmail") [competence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_competence "Emotional competence") [conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_conflict "Emotional conflict") [contagion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_contagion "Emotional contagion") [detachment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_detachment "Emotional detachment") [dysregulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation "Emotional dysregulation") [eating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_eating "Emotional eating") [exhaustion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_exhaustion "Emotional exhaustion") [expression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_expression "Emotional expression") [and gender](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_and_emotional_expression "Gender and emotional expression") [intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence "Emotional intelligence") [and bullying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullying_and_emotional_intelligence "Bullying and emotional intelligence") [Empathy quotient](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy_quotient "Empathy quotient") [intimacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intimacy "Emotional intimacy") [isolation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_isolation "Emotional isolation") [lability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_lability "Emotional lability") [labor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_labor "Emotional labor") [lateralization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_lateralization "Emotional lateralization") [literacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_literacy "Emotional literacy") [prosody](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_prosody "Emotional prosody") [reasoning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_reasoning "Emotional reasoning") [responsivity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_responsivity "Emotional responsivity") [security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecurity_\(emotion\) "Insecurity (emotion)") [symbiosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_symbiosis "Emotional symbiosis") [thought method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_thought_method "Emotional thought method") [well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_well-being "Emotional well-being") [Emotionality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionality "Emotionality") [bounded](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_emotionality "Bounded emotionality") Emotions [and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_and_culture "Emotions and culture") [history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_emotions "History of emotions") [in decision-making](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_decision-making "Emotions in decision-making") [in the workplace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_the_workplace "Emotions in the workplace") [in virtual communication](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_virtual_communication "Emotions in virtual communication") [moral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_emotions "Moral emotions") [self-conscious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-conscious_emotions "Self-conscious emotions") [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_emotions "Social emotions") [social sharing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sharing_of_emotions "Social sharing of emotions") [sociology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions "Sociology of emotions") [Vocabulary of emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulary_of_emotions "Vocabulary of emotions") [Feeling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling "Feeling") [Group affective tone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_affective_tone "Group affective tone") [Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactions_between_the_emotional_and_executive_brain_systems "Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems") [Jealousy in art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealousy_in_art "Jealousy in art") [Mental state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_state "Mental state") [Meta-emotion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-emotion "Meta-emotion") [Pathognomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomy "Pathognomy") [Pathos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathos "Pathos") [Social emotional development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_emotional_development "Social emotional development") [Stoic passions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoic_passions "Stoic passions") Theory [affect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_theory "Affect theory") [affect as information](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_as_information_hypothesis "Affect as information hypothesis") [appraisal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appraisal_theory "Appraisal theory") [Cannon–Bard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon%E2%80%93Bard_theory "Cannon–Bard theory") [constructed emotion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_constructed_emotion "Theory of constructed emotion") [discrete emotion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_emotion_theory "Discrete emotion theory") [Emotion regime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_regime "Emotion regime") [James–Lange](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%E2%80%93Lange_theory "James–Lange theory") [somatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_theory "Somatic theory") [somatic marker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis "Somatic marker hypothesis") [two-factor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-factor_theory_of_emotion "Two-factor theory of emotion") | |
| *Italics* indicate emotion names in foreign languages  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Emotion "Category:Emotion") | | |
| [Authority control databases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control "Help:Authority control") [](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4340209#identifiers "Edit this at Wikidata") | |
|---|---|
| International | [GND](https://d-nb.info/gnd/4011474-0) |
| National | [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119384&CON_LNG=ENG) |
| Other | [Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine](http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=26039) |
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Depression (mood)
93 languages
[Add topic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)) |
| Readable Markdown | | Depression | |
|---|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_man_diagnosed_as_suffering_from_melancholia_with_strong_su_Wellcome_L0026693.jpg) | |
| [Lithograph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithograph "Lithograph") of a person diagnosed with *[melancholia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia "Melancholia")* and strong suicidal tendency in 1892 | |
| [Specialty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_specialty "Medical specialty") | [Psychiatry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry "Psychiatry"), [psychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology "Psychology") |
| [Symptoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms "Signs and symptoms") | Low mood, aversion to activity, loss of interest, loss of feeling pleasure |
| [Causes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_\(medicine\) "Cause (medicine)") | Brain chemistry, genetics, life events, medical conditions, personality[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-clevelandclinic-1) |
| [Risk factors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_factor "Risk factor") | Stigma of mental health disorder[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-shrivastavaA-2) |
| [Diagnostic method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis "Medical diagnosis") | [Patient Health Questionnaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Health_Questionnaire "Patient Health Questionnaire"), [Beck Depression Inventory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck_Depression_Inventory "Beck Depression Inventory") |
| [Differential diagnosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis "Differential diagnosis") | [Anxiety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety "Anxiety"), [bipolar disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder "Bipolar disorder"), [borderline personality disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder "Borderline personality disorder") |
| Prevention | Social connections, physical activity |
| Treatment | [Psychotherapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy "Psychotherapy"), [psychopharmacology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopharmacology "Psychopharmacology") |
**Depression** is a [mental state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_state "Mental state") of low [mood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_\(psychology\) "Mood (psychology)") and aversion to activity.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-3) It affects about 3.5% of the [global population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_population "Global population"), or about 280 million people worldwide, as of 2020.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:3-4) Depression affects a person's [thoughts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoughts "Thoughts"), [behavior](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior "Behavior"), [feelings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feelings "Feelings"), and [sense of well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being "Subjective well-being").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-5) The [pleasure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure "Pleasure") or [joy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy "Joy") that a person gets from certain experiences is reduced, and the afflicted person often experiences a loss of [motivation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation "Motivation") or interest in those activities.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:1-6) People with depression may experience [sadness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadness "Sadness"), feelings of dejection or lack of [hope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope "Hope"), difficulty in [thinking and concentration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition "Cognition"), [hypersomnia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersomnia "Hypersomnia") or [insomnia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insomnia "Insomnia"), [overeating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overeating "Overeating") or [anorexia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_\(symptom\) "Anorexia (symptom)"), or [suicidal thoughts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicidal_ideation "Suicidal ideation").
Depression can have multiple, sometimes overlapping, origins. Depression can be a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the [loss of a loved one](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief "Grief"). Additionally, depression can be a symptom of some [mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorders "Mood disorders"), such as [major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder"), [bipolar disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder "Bipolar disorder"), and [dysthymia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia "Dysthymia").[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-7) Depression is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments.
Contributing factors
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Allegory_on_Melancholy_Met_DP885774.jpg)
Allegory on melancholy, from
c.
1729–1740, etching and engraving, in the [Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art "Metropolitan Museum of Art") (New York City)
Life events
[Adversity in childhood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences "Adverse childhood experiences"), such as bereavement, neglect, mental abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or unequal parental treatment of siblings, can contribute to depression in adulthood.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-9) Childhood physical or sexual abuse in particular significantly correlates with the likelihood of experiencing depression over the survivor's lifetime.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-10) People who have experienced four or more [adverse childhood experiences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences "Adverse childhood experiences") are 3.2 to 4.0 times more likely to have depression.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Anda2006-11) Poor housing quality, non-functionality, lack of [green spaces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_green_space "Urban green space"), and exposure to noise and air pollution are linked to depressive moods, emphasizing the need for consideration in planning to prevent such outcomes.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-12) Locality has also been linked to depression and other negative moods. The rate of depression among those who reside in large urban areas is shown to be lower than those who do not.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-13) Likewise, those from smaller towns and rural areas tend to have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological unwellness.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-14)
Studies have consistently shown that physicians have had the highest depression and suicide rates compared to people in many other lines of work—for suicide, 40% higher for male physicians and 130% higher for female physicians.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-16)[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-nytimes2-17)
Life events and changes that may cause depressed mood includes, but are not limited to, childbirth, menopause, financial difficulties, unemployment, stress (such as from work, education, military service, family, living conditions, marriage, etc.), a medical diagnosis (cancer, HIV, diabetes, etc.), bullying, loss of a loved one, natural disasters, social isolation, rape, relationship troubles, jealousy, separation, or [catastrophic injury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophic_injury "Catastrophic injury").[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-18)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-19)[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-20)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-21)[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-22) Similar depressive symptoms are associated with [survivor's guilt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survivor_guilt "Survivor guilt").[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-23) Adolescents may be especially prone to experiencing a depressed mood following [social rejection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection "Social rejection"), peer pressure, or bullying.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-24)
Work and depression
A body of high-quality longitudinal research has linked adverse working to increased depressive symptoms and disorders.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-25)[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-26)[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-27) Workplace stressors that increase depression risk include [excessive workloads, little autonomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology#Demand-control-support_model "Occupational health psychology"), [an unfavorable effort-reward imbalance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology#Demand-control-support_model "Occupational health psychology"), and [workplace bullying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_bullying "Workplace bullying").[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-28)
Childhood and adolescence
Depression in childhood and adolescence is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or behavioral dyscontrol instead of the more common sad, empty, or hopeless feelings seen with adults.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Birmaher-29) Children who are under [stress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress "Psychological stress"), experiencing loss or [grief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief "Grief"), or have other underlying disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Depression in young people is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other [mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorders "Mood disorders"), most commonly [anxiety disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_disorder "Anxiety disorder"), especially [social anxiety disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder "Social anxiety disorder"), and [conduct disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduct_disorder "Conduct disorder"). Depression also tends to run in families.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-30)
Personality
Depression is associated with low [extraversion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion "Extraversion"),[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-31) and people who have high levels of [neuroticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism "Neuroticism") are more likely to experience depressive symptoms and are more likely to receive a diagnosis of a depressive disorder.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-NeuroticismMA-32) Additionally, depression is associated with low [conscientiousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness "Conscientiousness"). Some factors that may arise from low conscientiousness include disorganization and dissatisfaction with life. Individuals may be more exposed to stress and depression as a result of these factors.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-33)
Side effect of medical treatment
It is possible that some early generation [beta-blockers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-blocker "Beta-blocker") induce depression in some patients, though the evidence for this is weak and conflicting. There is strong evidence for a link between [alpha interferon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_interferon "Alpha interferon") therapy and depression. One study found that a third of alpha interferon-treated patients had developed depression after three months of treatment. (*Beta* interferon therapy appears to have no effect on rates of depression.) There is moderately strong evidence that [finasteride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finasteride "Finasteride") when used in the treatment of alopecia increases depressive symptoms in some patients. Evidence linking [isotretinoin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotretinoin "Isotretinoin"), an acne treatment, to depression is strong.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-34) Other medicines that seem to increase the risk of depression include [anticonvulsants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticonvulsants "Anticonvulsants"), [antimigraine drugs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimigraine_drug "Antimigraine drug"), [antipsychotics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipsychotics "Antipsychotics"), and [hormonal agents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone_therapy "Hormone therapy") such as [gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone_agonist "Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist").[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-35)
Substance-induced
Several drugs of abuse can cause or exacerbate depression, whether in intoxication, withdrawal, and from chronic use. These include alcohol, sedatives (including prescription [benzodiazepines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine "Benzodiazepine")), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs such as heroin), stimulants (such as cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and [inhalants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalants "Inhalants").[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-36)
Non-psychiatric illnesses
Depressed mood can be the result of a number of infectious diseases, [nutritional deficiencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritional_deficiency "Nutritional deficiency"), neurological conditions, and physiological problems, including [hypoandrogenism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoandrogenism "Hypoandrogenism") (in men), [Addison's disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison%27s_disease "Addison's disease"), [Cushing's syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushing%27s_syndrome "Cushing's syndrome"), [pernicious anemia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pernicious_anemia "Pernicious anemia"), [hypothyroidism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothyroidism "Hypothyroidism"), [hyperparathyroidism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperparathyroidism "Hyperparathyroidism"), [Lyme disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyme_disease "Lyme disease"), [multiple sclerosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis "Multiple sclerosis"), [Parkinson's disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease "Parkinson's disease"), [celiac disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celiac_disease "Celiac disease"),[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-37) chronic pain, stroke, diabetes, cancer, and HIV.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-38)[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-39)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-40) [Autistic burnout](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autistic_burnout "Autistic burnout") may also be misdiagnosed as depression.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-41)
Studies have found that anywhere from 30 to 85 percent of patients suffering from chronic pain are also clinically depressed.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-42)[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-44) A 2014 study by Hooley et al. concluded that chronic pain increased the chance of death by suicide by two to three times.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-45) In 2017, the British Medical Association found that 49% of UK chronic pain patients also had depression.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-46)
As many as 1/3 of stroke survivors will later develop [post-stroke depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-stroke_depression "Post-stroke depression"). Because strokes may cause damage to the parts of the brain involved in processing emotions, reward, and cognition, stroke may be considered a direct cause of depression.[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-47)
Psychiatric syndromes
A number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as a main symptom. The [mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorder "Mood disorder") are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. These include [major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder") (commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and [dysthymia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia "Dysthymia"), a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet the severity of a [major depressive episode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_episode "Major depressive episode"). Another mood disorder, [bipolar disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder "Bipolar disorder"), features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood, [cognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition "Cognition"), and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-48) Individuals with bipolar depression are often misdiagnosed with unipolar depression.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-49) When the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as a [seasonal affective disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_affective_disorder "Seasonal affective disorder").
Outside the mood disorders: [borderline personality disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder "Borderline personality disorder") often features an extremely intense depressive mood; [adjustment disorder with depressed mood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustment_disorder "Adjustment disorder") is a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode;[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-50) and [posttraumatic stress disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder "Posttraumatic stress disorder"), a mental disorder that sometimes follows [trauma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_trauma "Major trauma"), is commonly accompanied by depressed mood.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-51)
Inflammation
Inflammatory processes can be triggered by negative cognition or their consequences, such as stress, violence, or deprivation. Negative cognition may therefore contribute to inflammation, which in turn can lead to depression. A 2019 meta-analysis found that chronic inflammation is associated with a 30% increased risk of developing [major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder"), supporting the link between inflammation and [mental health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health "Mental health").[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-52)
Historical legacy
Research suggests possible associations between [Neanderthal genetics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal_genetics "Neanderthal genetics") and some forms of depression.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-53)
Authors and researchers have begun to conceptualize ways in which the historical legacies of [racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism "Racism") and [colonialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism") may create depressive conditions.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-54)[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-55) Given the lived experiences of marginalized peoples, ranging from conditions of [migration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migration "Human migration"), [class stratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_stratification "Class stratification"), [cultural genocide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_genocide "Cultural genocide"), [labor exploitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_exploitation "Labor exploitation"), and [social immobility](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mobility "Social mobility"), depression can be seen as a "rational response to global conditions", according to [Ann Cvetkovich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Cvetkovich "Ann Cvetkovich").[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-56)
Psychogeographical depression overlaps somewhat with the theory of "deprejudice", a portmanteau of "depression" and "[prejudice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice")" proposed by Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon in 2012,[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Cox2012-57) who argue for an integrative approach to studying the often comorbid experiences. Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon are concerned with the ways in which social [stereotypes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype "Stereotype") are often [internalized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalisation_\(sociology\) "Internalisation (sociology)"), creating negative [self-stereotypes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-stereotyping "Self-stereotyping") that then produce depressive symptoms.
Unlike the theory of "deprejudice", a psychogeographical theory of depression attempts to broaden study of the subject beyond an individual experience to one produced on a societal scale, seeing particular manifestations of depression as rooted in dispossession; historical legacies of [genocide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide "Genocide"), [slavery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery "Slavery"), and colonialism are productive of segregation, both material and psychic material deprivation,[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-58) and concomitant circumstances of violence, systemic exclusion, and lack of access to legal protections. The demands of navigating these circumstances compromise the resources available to a population to seek comfort, health, stability, and sense of security. The historical memory of this [trauma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_trauma "Psychological trauma") conditions the psychological health of future generations, making psychogeographical depression an [intergenerational](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenerational_trauma "Transgenerational trauma") experience as well.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
This work is supported by recent studies in genetic science which has demonstrated an [epigenetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetic "Epigenetic") link between the trauma suffered by [Holocaust survivors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_survivor "Holocaust survivor") and genetic reverberations in subsequent generations.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-59)\[*[non-primary source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources "Wikipedia:No original research")*\]
Measures
Measures of depression include, but are not limited to: [Beck Depression Inventory-11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck_Depression_Inventory "Beck Depression Inventory") and the 9-item depression scale in the [Patient Health Questionnaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Health_Questionnaire "Patient Health Questionnaire") (PHQ-9).[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-60) Both of these measures are psychological tests that ask personal questions of the participant, and have mostly been used to measure the severity of depression. The Beck Depression Inventory is a self-report scale that helps a therapist identify the patterns of depression symptoms and monitor recovery. The responses on this scale can be discussed in therapy to devise interventions for the most distressing symptoms of depression.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:1-6)
Theories
There are multiple [schools](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_thought "School of thought") of depression theory. [Beck's cognitive triad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck%27s_cognitive_triad "Beck's cognitive triad") theorizes that an individual with depression has "automatic, spontaneous, and seemingly uncontrollable negative thoughts"[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-61) about the self, the world or environment, and the future. The [Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite_Model_of_Anxiety_and_Depression "Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression") helps to explain the common comorbidity of anxiety and depression by separating symptoms into three groups: negative affect, positive affect, and physiological hyperarousal.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-62) The [epigenetics of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics_of_depression "Epigenetics of depression") is the study of how [epigenetics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics "Epigenetics") (heritable characteristics that do not involve changes in DNA sequence) contribute to depression. [Behavioral theories of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_theories_of_depression "Behavioral theories of depression") explain the [etiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiology "Etiology") of depression with [behavioral science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_sciences "Behavioural sciences"); adherents promote the use of [behavioral therapies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_theories_of_depression#Behavioral_therapies "Behavioral theories of depression") for treatment. [Evolutionary approaches to depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression "Evolutionary approaches to depression") are attempts by [evolutionary psychologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology "Evolutionary psychology") and [evolutionary psychiatrists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry "Evolutionary psychiatry") to use the theory of [evolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution "Evolution") to further understand [mood disorders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorder "Mood disorder"). The [biology of depression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_of_depression "Biology of depression") is the attempt to identify a biochemical origin of depression, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes.
Management
Depressed mood may not require professional treatment, and may be a normal temporary reaction to life events, a symptom of some medical condition, or a [side effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_effect "Side effect") of some drugs or medical treatments. A prolonged depressed mood, especially in combination with other symptoms, may lead to a diagnosis of a psychiatric or medical condition which may benefit from treatment.
The UK [National Institute for Health and Care Excellence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence "National Institute for Health and Care Excellence") (NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that [antidepressants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant "Antidepressant") should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-63)
Physical activity has a protective effect against the emergence of depression in some people.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Sc2018-64) Increased daily step counts have been associated with lower depressive symptoms.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-65)
There is limited evidence suggesting yoga may help some people with depressive disorders or elevated levels of depression, but more research is needed.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-67)
[Reminiscence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reminiscence "Reminiscence") of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-68) It is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to a process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli. By maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels.[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-69)
Depression is a common condition among the elderly living in [long-term care](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care "Long-term care") (LTC) facilities. Although [antidepressant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant "Antidepressant") medications are frequently prescribed, many residents prefer non-pharmacological treatments such as psychological therapies. A systematic review of 19 randomized controlled trials found that therapies like cognitive behavioural therapy, behavioural therapy, and reminiscence therapy may reduce depressive symptoms and improve short-term quality of life. However, the evidence was of very low certainty, and some participants were more likely to drop out of therapy. There was no clear effect on symptoms, with only short term improvements seen with psychological therapies. Further high-quality studies are needed.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-70)
There is limited evidence that continuing antidepressant medication for one year reduces the risk of depression recurrence with no additional harm.[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:4-71) Recommendations for psychological treatments or combination treatments in preventing recurrence are not clear.[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:4-71) For chronic and treatment-resistant forms of depression, specialized psychotherapies such as cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP) have been developed to address enduring interpersonal patterns that maintain depressive symptoms.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-72)
Epidemiology
Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, the United Nations (UN) health agency reported, estimating that it affects more than 300 million people worldwide – the majority of them women, young people and the elderly. An estimated 4.4 percent of the global population has depression, according to a report released by the UN World Health Organization (WHO), which shows an 18 percent increase in the number of people living with depression between 2005 and 2015.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-73)[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-74)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-75)
Depression is a major mental-health cause of [disease burden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_burden "Disease burden"). Its consequences further lead to significant burden in [public health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health "Public health"), including a higher risk of [dementia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia "Dementia"), premature mortality arising from physical disorders, and maternal depression impacts on child growth and development.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:2-76) Approximately 76% to 85% of depressed people in low- and middle-income countries do not receive treatment;[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-77) barriers to treatment include: inaccurate assessment, lack of trained health-care providers, [social stigma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stigma "Social stigma") and lack of resources.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:3-4)
The stigma comes from misguided societal views that people with mental illness are different from everyone else, and they can choose to get better only if they wanted to.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-78) Due to this more than half of the people with depression do not receive help with their disorders. The stigma leads to a strong preference for privacy. An analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that undergraduates who perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive had a 37% higher chance of developing depression and a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-79) Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles the risk of developing depression.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-80)[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-81)[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-82)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-83)[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-84)
The World Health Organization has constructed guidelines – known as The Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) – aiming to increase services for people with mental, neurological and substance-use disorders.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:3-4) Depression is listed as one of conditions prioritized by the programme. Trials conducted show possibilities for the implementation of the programme in low-resource primary-care settings dependent on primary-care practitioners and lay health-workers.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-85) Examples of mhGAP-endorsed therapies targeting depression include Group Interpersonal Therapy as group treatment for depression and "Thinking Health", which utilizes [cognitive behavioral therapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy "Cognitive behavioral therapy") to tackle perinatal depression.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:3-4) Furthermore, effective screening in primary care is crucial for the access of treatments. The mhGAP adopted its approach of improving detection rates of depression by training general practitioners. However, there is still weak evidence supporting this training.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:2-76)
According to 2011 study, people who are high in [hypercompetitive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition "Competition") traits are also likely to measure higher for depression and anxiety.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-86)
History
The term *depression* was derived from the Latin verb *deprimere*, "to press down".[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-87) From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author [Richard Baker's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Baker_\(chronicler\) "Richard Baker (chronicler)") *Chronicle* to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author [Samuel Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnson "Samuel Johnson") in a similar sense in 1753.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-88)
In Ancient Greece, disease was thought due to an imbalance in the four basic bodily fluids, or *[humors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humorism "Humorism")*. Personality types were similarly thought to be determined by the dominant humor in a particular person. Derived from the [Ancient Greek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek "Ancient Greek") *melas*, "black", and *kholé*, "bile",[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Liddell1980-89) [melancholia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia "Melancholia") was described as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms by [Hippocrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates "Hippocrates") in his *Aphorisms*, where he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-90)
During the 18th century, the humoral theory of melancholia was increasingly being challenged by mechanical and electrical explanations; references to dark and gloomy states gave way to ideas of slowed circulation and depleted energy.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Jackson83-91) German physician [Johann Christian Heinroth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Christian_August_Heinroth "Johann Christian August Heinroth"), however, argued melancholia was a disturbance of the soul due to moral conflict within the patient.
In the 20th century, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin distinguished manic depression. The influential system put forward by Kraepelin unified nearly all types of mood disorder into *manic–depressive insanity*. Kraepelin worked from an assumption of underlying brain pathology, but also promoted a distinction between [endogenous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogenous "Endogenous") (internally caused) and [exogenous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exogenous "Exogenous") (externally caused) types.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Davison20062-92)
Other psycho-dynamic theories were proposed. [Existential](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychology "Existential psychology") and [humanistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology "Humanistic psychology") theories represented a forceful affirmation of individualism.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-93) Austrian existential psychiatrist [Viktor Frankl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl "Viktor Frankl") connected depression to feelings of futility and [meaninglessness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_\(existential\) "Meaning (existential)").[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Frankl-94) Frankl's [logotherapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logotherapy "Logotherapy") addressed the filling of an "existential vacuum" associated with such feelings, and may be particularly useful for depressed adolescents.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-95)[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-96)
Researchers theorized that depression was caused by a [chemical imbalance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_imbalance_theory "Chemical imbalance theory") in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of [reserpine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserpine "Reserpine") and [isoniazid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoniazid "Isoniazid") in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-97) During the 1960s and 70s, manic-depression came to refer to just one type of mood disorder (now most commonly known as [bipolar disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder "Bipolar disorder")) which was distinguished from (unipolar) depression. The terms unipolar and bipolar had been coined by German psychiatrist [Karl Kleist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Kleist "Karl Kleist").[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-Davison20062-92)
In July 2022, a systematic review by British psychiatrist [Joanna Moncrieff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Moncrieff "Joanna Moncrieff"), researcher [Mark Horowitz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Abie_Horowitz "Mark Abie Horowitz") and others in the academic journal *[Molecular Psychiatry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Psychiatry "Molecular Psychiatry")* found that depression is not caused by a serotonin imbalance in the human body.[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-98)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-99) However, the study was met with criticism from some psychiatrists, who argued the study's methodology used an indirect trace of serotonin, instead of taking direct measurements of the molecule.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:5-100) Moncrieff said that no one should "suddenly interrupt \[...\]" antidepressant treatment.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_note-:5-100)
See also
- [Alain Ehrenberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Ehrenberg "Alain Ehrenberg"), French sociologist, author of *Weariness of the Self: Diagnosing the History of Depression in the Contemporary Age*
- [Attribution (psychology)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_\(psychology\) "Attribution (psychology)") – Process by which individuals explain causes of behavior and events
- [Biopsychosocial model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychosocial_model "Biopsychosocial model") – Explanatory model emphasizing the interplay among causal forces
- [Depression in childhood and adolescence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_in_childhood_and_adolescence "Depression in childhood and adolescence") – Pediatric depressive disorders
- [Diathesis–stress model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diathesis%E2%80%93stress_model "Diathesis–stress model") – Psychological theory
- [Existential crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_crisis "Existential crisis") – Inner conflict due to perceived meaninglessness
- [Feeling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling "Feeling") – Conscious subjective experience of emotion
- [Locus of control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_control "Locus of control") – Concept in psychology
- [Melancholia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia "Melancholia") – Historical view of extreme depression
- [Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_anxiety%E2%80%93depressive_disorder "Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder") – Diagnostic category in the ICD-10
- [Dysthymia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia "Dysthymia")
- [Major depressive disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder "Major depressive disorder")
- [Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_and_Bipolar_Support_Alliance "Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance")
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Whitley, David S. (24 July 2019). "The archaeology of madness". In Henley, Tracy B.; Rossano, Matt J.; Kardas, Edward P. (eds.). [*Handbook of Cognitive Archaeology: Psychology in Prehistory*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LjKoDwAAQBAJ). New York: Routledge. p. 462. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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Cvetkovich A (2012). *Depression: A Public Feeling*. Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books. pp. 126–127\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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. "As a story about gaps in the historical record, *Lose Your Mother* sheds light on the gaps in my own efforts to track the relation between depression and the histories of slavery, genocide, and colonialism that lie at the heart of the founding of U.S. culture. I want depression, too, to be considered part of the 'afterlife of slavery,' but it can be hard to trace the connections between contemporary everyday feelings (especially those of white middle-class people) and the traumatic violence of the past - they might emerge as ghosts or feelings of hopelessness, rather than as scientific evidence or existing bodies of research or material forms of deprivation. \[...\] *Lose Your Mother* not only puts the category of depression in contact with histories of racism and colonialism but also lends itself to being read as a text of political depression."
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Cox, William T.L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (September 2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". *Perspectives on Psychological Science*. **7** (5): 427–449\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/1745691612455204](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691612455204). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [26168502](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26168502). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [1512121](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1512121). "Social psychologists fighting prejudice and clinical psychologists fighting depression have long been separated by the social–clinical divide, unaware that they were facing a common enemy. Stereotypes about others leading to prejudice (e.g., Devine, 1989) and schemas about the self leading to depression (e.g., A. T. Beck, 1967) are fundamentally the same type of cognitive structure."
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paywall "closed access publication – behind paywall")
56. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_ref-56)**
Cvetkovich, Ann (2012). [*Depression: A Public Feeling*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qn9jSPVRcDMC&pg=PA25). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. p. 25. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
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. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [779876753](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/779876753). "…the histories of genocide, slavery, and exclusion and oppression of immigrants that seep into our daily lives of segregation, often as invisible forces that structure comfort and privilege for some and lack of resources for others, inequities whose connection to the past frequently remain obscure. These are depressing conditions, indeed, ones that make depression seem not so much a medical or biochemical dysfunction as a very rational response to global conditions."
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Cox, William T.L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (September 2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". *Perspectives on Psychological Science*. **7** (5): 427–49\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/1745691612455204](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691612455204). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [26168502](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26168502). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [1512121](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1512121).
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Moncrieff, Joanna; Cooper, Ruth E.; Stockmann, Tom; Amendola, Simone; Hengartner, Michael P.; Horowitz, Mark A. (August 2023). ["The serotonin theory of depression: a systematic umbrella review of the evidence"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10618090). *Molecular Psychiatry*. **28** (8): 3243–3256\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/s41380-022-01661-0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41380-022-01661-0). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [10618090](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10618090). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [35854107](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35854107). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [250646781](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250646781).
99. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_ref-99)**
Moncrieff, Joanna; Horowitz, Mark (20 July 2022). ["Depression is probably not caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain – new study"](https://theconversation.com/depression-is-probably-not-caused-by-a-chemical-imbalance-in-the-brain-new-study-186672). *The Conversation*. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
100. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_ref-:5_100-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_\(mood\)#cite_ref-:5_100-1)
["Study on serotonin and depression sparks fierce debate"](https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220811-study-on-serotonin-and-depression-sparks-fierce-debate). *France 24*. AFP. 11 August 2022.
Further reading
- Beck, Aaron (25 March 2009). *Depression: Causes and Treatment*. Berlin: University of Pennsylvania Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-8122-1964-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1964-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1964-7")
.
- Jackson, S. (1986). *Melancholia and depression: From Hippocratic times to modern times*. Yale University Press.
- Rottenberg, Jonathan (2014). *[The Depths: The Evolutionary Origins of the Depression Epidemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Depths:_The_Evolutionary_Origins_of_the_Depression_Epidemic "The Depths: The Evolutionary Origins of the Depression Epidemic")*. New York: Basic Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-465-02221-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02221-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02221-2")
.
- Sadowsky, J. (2021). *The empire of depression: A new history*. Polity Press.
- Schonfeld, I.S., & Bianchi, R. (2025). *Breaking point: Job stress, occupational depression, and the myth of burnout*. John Wiley
External links
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg) Media related to [Depression (mood)](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Depression_\(mood\) "commons:Category:Depression (mood)") at Wikimedia Commons |
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