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URLhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine
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COVID-19 vaccine Vaccine description Target SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine type mRNA, viral, inactivated, protein Clinical data License data US   DailyMed :  COVID-19 vaccine Routes of administration Mostly Intramuscular , also via nasal spray ATC code J07BN01 ( WHO ) J07BN02 ( WHO ), J07BN03 ( WHO ), J07BN04 ( WHO ), J07BN05 ( WHO ) Identifiers CAS Number None How COVID‑19 vaccines work. The video shows the process of vaccination, from injection with RNA or viral vector vaccines, to uptake and translation, and on to immune system stimulation and effect. A COVID‑19 vaccine is a vaccine designed to induce immunity against SARS-CoV-2 , the virus responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 ( COVID-19 ). [ 1 ] COVID-19 vaccines help reduce the risk of severe illness, hospitalisation and death from the virus. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] COVID‑19 vaccines were developed at an unprecedented pace to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic , with the first clinical trials beginning in March 2020. [ 4 ] Before approval, vaccines underwent the standard three phases of clinical trials , although phases were conducted in parallel to accelerate development. [ 5 ] Vaccines have been developed based both on classical technologies (using inactivated virus or protein subunit ), and novel platforms ( mRNA or viral vector -based). [ 6 ] Prior research on coronaviruses causing severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) and Middle East respiratory syndrome ( MERS ) accelerated the development of various vaccine platforms in early 2020. [ 7 ] The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Katalin KarikĂł and Drew Weissman for the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID‑19. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Major vaccines include the Pfizer–BioNTech mRNA vaccine , Moderna mRNA vaccine , and the Novavax protein subunit vaccine . [ 5 ] With the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants , the original vaccines—particularly Pfizer – BioNTech and Moderna vaccines—have been updated. These "variant-adapted" vaccines are offered as booster doses . [ 5 ] The immunity from the vaccines also wanes over time, requiring people to get boosters to maintain protection. [ 11 ] Common side effects of COVID‑19 vaccines include soreness, fatigue, headache, myalgia (muscle pain), and arthralgia (joint pain), which resolve without medical treatment within a few days. [ 12 ] COVID‑19 vaccination is safe for people who are pregnant or are breastfeeding. [ 13 ] The COVID‑19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing the spread of COVID‑19 and reducing the severity and death caused by COVID‑19. [ 11 ] [ 14 ] Many countries implemented phased distribution plans that prioritized those at highest risk of complications, such as the elderly, and those at high risk of exposure, such as healthcare workers . [ 15 ] [ 16 ] By December 2020, more than 10 billion vaccine doses had been preordered, [ 17 ] with about half of the doses purchased by high-income countries comprising 14% of the world's population. [ 18 ] As of August 2024 , over 13   billion doses of COVID‑19 vaccines have been administered worldwide. [ 19 ] Background Before COVID‑19, a vaccine for an infectious disease had never been produced in less than several years – and no vaccine existed for preventing a coronavirus infection in humans. [ 20 ] However, vaccines have been produced against several animal diseases caused by coronaviruses, including infectious bronchitis virus in birds, canine coronavirus , and feline coronavirus . [ 21 ] Previous projects to develop vaccines for viruses in the family Coronaviridae that affect humans have been aimed at severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). Vaccines against SARS [ 22 ] and MERS [ 23 ] have been tested in non-human animals . According to studies published in 2005 and 2006, the identification and development of novel vaccines and medicines to treat SARS were priorities for governments and public health agencies worldwide at the time. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] There is no cure or vaccine proven to be safe and effective against SARS in humans. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] There is also no proven vaccine against MERS. [ 29 ] When MERS became prevalent, it was believed that previous SARS research might provide a useful template for developing MERS vaccines. [ 27 ] [ 30 ] As of March 2020, there was one (DNA-based) MERS vaccine that completed Phase   I clinical trials in humans, [ 31 ] and three others in progress, all being viral-vectored vaccines: two based on adenoviruses and one on MVA . [ 32 ] Vaccines that use an inactive or weakened virus that has been grown in eggs typically take more than a decade to develop. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] In contrast, mRNA is a molecule that can be made quickly, and research on mRNA to fight diseases was begun decades before the COVID‑19 pandemic by scientists such as Drew Weissman and Katalin KarikĂł , who tested on mice. Moderna began human testing of an mRNA vaccine in 2015. [ 33 ] Viral vector vaccines were also developed for the COVID‑19 pandemic after the technology was previously cleared for Ebola. [ 33 ] Vaccine technologies A conceptual diagram showing three vaccine types for forming SARS‑CoV‑2 proteins to prompt an immune response: (1) RNA vaccine ; (2) subunit vaccine ; (3) viral vector vaccine Vaccine platforms that are being employed for SARS-CoV-2. Whole-virus vaccines include both attenuated and inactivated forms of the virus. Protein and peptide subunit vaccines are usually combined with an adjuvant to enhance immunogenicity. The main emphasis in SARS-CoV-2 vaccine development has been on using the whole spike protein in its trimeric form, or its components, such as the RBD region. Multiple non-replicating viral vector vaccines have been developed, particularly focused on adenovirus , while there has been less emphasis on the replicating viral vector constructs. [ 35 ] The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic, often severe, illness. [ 36 ] Most of the first COVID‑19 vaccines were two-dose vaccines. Exceptions were the single-dose vaccines Convidecia [ 37 ] and the Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine , [ 11 ] and vaccines with three-dose schedules, Razi Cov Pars [ 38 ] and Soberana . [ 39 ] In July 2021, at least nine different technology platforms were under research and development to create an effective vaccine against COVID‑19. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] The coronavirus spike protein (S protein), with the virus uses to enter the cell, induces a strong immune response and is therefore the primary target of vaccines. [ 42 ] [ 40 ] However, other coronavirus proteins were also being investigated for vaccine development, for example, the nucleocapsid proteins, because they also induce a robust T-cell response, while their genes are more conserved and recombine less frequently. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Future generations of COVID‑19 vaccines targeting more conserved genomic regions could be used to treat future variations of SARS-CoV-2, or any similar coronavirus epidemic/pandemic. [ 46 ] Platforms developed in 2020 involved nucleic acid technologies ( mRNA and DNA ), non-replicating viral vectors , peptides , recombinant proteins , live attenuated viruses , and inactivated viruses . [ 40 ] [ 4 ] [ 47 ] Many vaccine technologies developed for COVID‑19 use "next-generation" strategies for precise targeting of COVID‑19 infection mechanisms. [ 40 ] [ 4 ] [ 47 ] Several of the synthetic vaccines use a 2P mutation to lock the spike protein into its prefusion configuration, stimulating an adaptive immune response to the virus before it attaches to a human cell. [ 48 ] mRNA vaccines Diagram of the operation of an RNA vaccine . Messenger RNA contained in the vaccine enters cells and is translated into viral proteins, which trigger an immune response. Several COVID‑19 vaccines, such as the Pfizer–BioNTech and Moderna vaccines, use RNA to stimulate an immune response. When introduced into human tissue, the vaccine contains messenger RNA (mRNA), which causes cells to express the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein . This teaches the immune system to identify and destroy the corresponding pathogen. RNA vaccines often use nucleoside-modified messenger RNA . The delivery of mRNA is achieved by encapsulating the molecule in lipid nanoparticles , which protect the RNA strands and help their uptake into the cells. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] [ 52 ] mRNA vaccines were the first COVID‑19 vaccines authorised in the United Kingdom, the United States, and the European Union. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Authorized vaccines of this type include the Pfizer–BioNTech [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] and Moderna vaccines. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] The CVnCoV mRNA vaccine from CureVac failed in clinical trials. [ 60 ] Severe allergic reactions to the mRNA vaccines are rare. In December 2020, 1,893,360 first doses of Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine administration resulted in 175 cases of severe allergic reactions, of which 21 were anaphylaxis . [ 61 ] For 4,041,396 Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine dose administrations in December 2020 and January 2021, only ten cases of anaphylaxis were reported. [ 61 ] Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) were most likely responsible for the allergic reactions. [ 61 ] In May 2025, a different version of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, with the brand name Mnexspike (mRNA-1283), was approved for medical use in the United States. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] In June 2025, the European Medicines Agency announced that it was making data from the marketing authorization applications for COVID‑19 mRNA vaccines Comirnaty and Spikevax publicly available. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Viral vector vaccines Viral vector vaccines use a modified version of a virus to generate immunity. For COVID-19, these vaccines were based of a modified adenovirus , which normally causes the common cold . It is first made harmless, by removing the genes that cause illness and those responsible for replication. The virus is further modified so that it contains DNA that encodes a SARS‑CoV‑2 protein. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] As such, the virus in the vaccine does not make new adenovirus copies, but only produces the antigen that elicits a systemic immune response. [ 68 ] Unlike mRNA vaccines, which usually require freezer storage, DNA vaccines such as adenovirus vector vaccines can be kept in a fridge. [ 70 ] Authorized vaccines of this type include the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine , [ 71 ] [ 72 ] [ 73 ] the Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine , [ 74 ] Convidecia , and the Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine . [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Sputnik V uses Ad26 for its first dose, which is the same as Janssen's only dose, and Ad5 for the second dose, which is the same as Convidecia's only dose. [ 77 ] In August 2021, the developers of Sputnik V proposed, in view of the Delta case surge, that Pfizer test the Ad26 component (termed its 'Light' version) [ 78 ] as a booster shot. [ 79 ] Inactivated virus vaccines Inactivated vaccines consist of virus particles grown in culture and then inactivated by methods such as heat or formaldehyde , thereby losing their disease-producing capacity while still stimulating an immune response. [ 80 ] Inactivated virus COVID-19 vaccines are less efficient than mRNA vaccines, because the process of de-activating the virus causes the spike protein to change slightly, whereas mRNA vaccines show the spike protein in its normal state. This makes parts of the protein inaccessible to the immune system. The immunity does not last as long as with mRNA vaccines, so that additional boosters are required to maintain immunity. [ 81 ] Inactivated virus vaccines authorized in China include the Chinese CoronaVac [ 82 ] [ 83 ] [ 84 ] and the Sinopharm BIBP [ 85 ] and WIBP vaccines; there is also the Indian Covaxin , the Russian CoviVac , [ 86 ] the Kazakh vaccine QazVac , [ 87 ] and the Iranian COVIran Barekat . [ 88 ] Subunit vaccines Vial of Novavax vaccine from clinical trials at Thackray Museum of Medicine [ 89 ] Subunit vaccines present one or more antigens without introducing whole pathogen particles. The antigens involved are often protein subunits , but they can be any pathogen-derived molecule or its fragment. [ 90 ] The authorized vaccines of this type include the peptide vaccine ZF2001 , [ 41 ] MVC-COV1901 , [ 91 ] Corbevax , [ 92 ] [ 93 ] the Sanofi–GSK vaccine , [ 94 ] [ 95 ] and Soberana 02 (a conjugate vaccine ). [ 96 ] Bimervax (selvacovatein) was approved for use as a booster vaccine in the European Union in March 2023. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] [ 99 ] The Novavax COVID‑19 vaccine is another subunit vaccine. This vaccine is produced by infecting moth cells with a modified baculovirus vector, which contains a gene for a SARS-CoV-2 spike protein . [ 100 ] The clinical trials of V451 vaccine were terminated after it was found that the vaccine may potentially cause incorrect results for subsequent HIV testing. [ 101 ] [ 102 ] [ 103 ] Virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines are one type of subunit vaccines. They look similar to viruses, but do not contain any RNA or DNA, and are non-replicating. They can be stored in a fridge, rather than using extreme cold like mRNA vaccines. One such vaccine, Covifenz , was authorized for use in 2022 in Canada, but later withdrawn. [ 104 ] Other types Additional types of vaccines that are in clinical trials include multiple DNA plasmid vaccines , [ 105 ] [ 106 ] [ 107 ] [ 108 ] [ 109 ] [ 110 ] at least two lentivirus vector vaccines, [ 111 ] [ 112 ] a conjugate vaccine , and a vesicular stomatitis virus displaying the SARS‑CoV‑2 spike protein. [ 113 ] Scientists investigated whether existing vaccines for unrelated conditions could prime the immune system and lessen the severity of COVID‑19 infections. [ 114 ] There is experimental evidence that the BCG vaccine for tuberculosis has non-specific effects on the immune system, but clinical trials showed this vaccine is not effective against COVID‑19. [ 115 ] Formulation An immunological adjuvant is a substance formulated with a vaccine to elevate the immune response to an antigen , such as the COVID‑19 virus or influenza virus. [ 116 ] Adjuvants used in COVID‑19 vaccine formulations may be particularly effective for technologies using the inactivated COVID‑19 virus and recombinant protein-based or vector-based vaccines. [ 117 ] Authorized vaccines Map of countries by approval status of COVID‑19 vaccines (2021)    Approved for general use, mass vaccination underway     EUA (or equivalent) granted, mass vaccination underway    EUA granted, mass vaccination planned    No data available By the end of 2022, 50 COVID-19 vaccines had received authorization in one or more countries—meaning they were approved, licensed, or granted emergency use authorization by national regulatory agencies around the world. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] The World Health Organization (WHO) monitors circulating strains and the effectiveness of different updated vaccines against them. As of May 2025, the WHO recommends that vaccines targetting JN.1 or KP.2 remain appropriate and that LP.8.1 is a suitable alternative vaccine antigen. [ 120 ] The European Medicines Agency recommends updating COVID-19 vaccines to target LP.8.1 for the 2025/2026 vaccination campaign. [ 121 ] At the same time, the FDA in the US advised manufacturers that the COVID-19 vaccines beginning in fall 2025 should be JN.1-lineage-based COVID-19 vaccines, preferentially using the LP.8.1 strain. [ 122 ] Combination vaccines A combined messenger RNA vaccine for protection against influenza and COVID‑19 was introduced in 2026. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] Delivery methods A US airman receiving a COVID‑19 vaccine, December 2020 Most coronavirus vaccines are administered by intramuscular injection , with further vaccine delivery methods being studied for future coronavirus vaccines. Intranasal Intranasal vaccines target mucosal immunity in the nasal mucosa , which is a portal for viral entry into the body. [ 125 ] [ 126 ] These vaccines are designed to stimulate nasal immune factors , such as IgA . [ 125 ] In addition to inhibiting the virus, nasal vaccines provide ease of administration because no needles (or needle phobia ) are involved. [ 126 ] [ 127 ] A variety of intranasal COVID‑19 vaccines are undergoing clinical trials. The first authorised intranasal vaccine was Razi Cov Pars in Iran at the end of October 2021. [ 128 ] The first viral component of Sputnik V vaccine was authorised in Russia as Sputnik Nasal in April 2022. [ 129 ] In September 2022, India and China approved two nasal COVID‑19 vaccines ( iNCOVACC and Convidecia ), which may (as boosters) [ 130 ] also reduce transmission [ 131 ] [ 132 ] (potentially via sterilizing immunity). [ 131 ] In December 2022, China approved a second intranasal vaccine as a booster, brand name Pneucolin . [ 133 ] Universal vaccine A universal coronavirus vaccine would be effective against all coronaviruses and possibly other viruses. [ 134 ] [ 135 ] The concept was publicly endorsed by NIAID director Anthony Fauci , virologist Jeffery K. Taubenberger , and David M. Morens. [ 136 ] In March 2022, the White House released the "National COVID‑19 Preparedness Plan", which recommended accelerating the development of a universal coronavirus vaccine. [ 137 ] One attempt at such a vaccine is being developed at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research . It uses a spike ferritin-based nanoparticle (SpFN). This vaccine began a Phase I clinical trial in April 2022. [ 138 ] Results of this trial were published in May 2024. [ 139 ] Other universal vaccines that have entered clinical trial include OVX033 (France), [ 140 ] PanCov (France), [ 141 ] pEVAC-PS (UK), [ 142 ] and VBI-2902 (Canada). [ 143 ] Another strategy is to attach vaccine fragments from multiple strains to a nanoparticle scaffold. One theory is that a broader range of strains can be vaccinated against by targeting the receptor-binding domain, rather than the whole spike protein . [ 144 ] Development COVID‑19 vaccine research samples in a NIAID lab freezer (30 January 2020) SARS-CoV-2 , the virus that causes COVID-19 , was isolated in late 2019. [ 145 ] Its genetic sequence was published on 11 January 2020, setting off an intense research effort to develop a COVID-19 vaccine. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] [ 148 ] Vaccine development was expedited via unprecedented collaboration between academia , the pharmaceutical industry and governments. [ 149 ] By June 2020, tens of billions of dollars were being invested to develop dozens of vaccine candidates and prepare for global vaccination programs. [ 147 ] [ 150 ] [ 151 ] [ 152 ] According to the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), the geographic distribution of COVID‑19 vaccine development shows North American entities to have about 40% of the activity, compared to 30% in Asia and Australia, 26% in Europe, and a few projects in South America and Africa. [ 146 ] [ 149 ] In February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) said it did not expect a vaccine against SARS‑CoV‑2 to become available in less than 18 months. [ 153 ] Virologist Paul Offit commented that, in hindsight, the development of a safe and effective vaccine within 11 months was a remarkable feat. [ 154 ] The rapidly growing infection rate of COVID‑19 worldwide during 2020 stimulated international alliances and government efforts to urgently organize resources to make multiple vaccines on shortened timelines; [ 155 ] Four vaccine candidates entered human evaluation in March. [ 146 ] [ 156 ] On 24 June 2020, China approved the CanSino vaccine for limited use in the military and two inactivated virus vaccines for emergency use in high-risk occupations. [ 157 ] On 11 August 2020, Russia announced the approval of its Sputnik V vaccine for emergency use, though one month later only small amounts of the vaccine had been distributed for use outside of the phase 3 trial. [ 158 ] The Pfizer–BioNTech partnership submitted an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) request to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for their mRNA vaccine on 20 November 2020. [ 159 ] [ 160 ] On 2 December 2020, the United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) gave temporary regulatory approval for the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine , [ 161 ] [ 162 ] becoming the first country to approve the vaccine and the first country in the Western world to approve the use of any COVID‑19 vaccine. [ 163 ] [ 164 ] [ 165 ] The US and the EU followed later that month. [ 166 ] [ 167 ] The US also granted an EUA for the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine in December. [ 168 ] [ 169 ] Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates granted emergency marketing authorization for the Sinopharm BIBP vaccine . [ 170 ] [ 171 ] On 31 March 2021, the Russian government announced that they had registered the first COVID‑19 vaccine for animals. [ 172 ] Named Carnivac-Cov , it is an inactivated vaccine for carnivorous animals, including pets, aimed at preventing mutations that occur during the interspecies transmission of SARS-CoV-2. [ 173 ] In October 2022, China began administering an oral vaccine developed by CanSino Biologics using its adenovirus model. [ 174 ] Despite the availability of mRNA and viral vector vaccines , worldwide vaccine equity has not been achieved. The ongoing development and use of whole inactivated virus (WIV) and protein-based vaccines has been recommended, especially for use in developing countries , to dampen further waves of the pandemic. [ 175 ] [ 176 ] In June 2025, the European Medicines Agency announced that it was making data from the marketing authorization applications for COVID‑19 mRNA vaccines Comirnaty and Spikevax publicly available. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Multiple steps along the entire development path are evaluated, including: [ 20 ] [ 177 ] the level of acceptable toxicity of the vaccine (its safety), targeting vulnerable populations, the need for vaccine efficacy breakthroughs, the duration of vaccination protection, special delivery systems (such as oral or nasal, rather than by injection), dose regimen, stability and storage characteristics, emergency use authorization before formal licensing, optimal manufacturing for scaling to billions of doses, and dissemination of the licensed vaccine. Challenges There have been several unique challenges with COVID‑19 vaccine development. Timelines for conducting clinical research usually a sequential process requiring years – were being compressed into safety, efficacy, and dosing trials running simultaneously over months. [ 178 ] [ 179 ] Under normal circumstances, large-scale trials involving thousands of participants only proceed after smaller studies confirm there are no significant safety concerns. [ 180 ] For example, Chinese vaccine developers and the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention began their efforts in January 2020, [ 181 ] and by March they were pursuing numerous candidates on short timelines. [ 178 ] [ 182 ] The rapid development and urgency of producing a vaccine for the COVID‑19 pandemic were expected to increase the risks and failure rate of delivering a safe, effective vaccine. [ 4 ] [ 47 ] [ 183 ] Additionally, research at universities is obstructed by physical distancing and the closing of laboratories. [ 184 ] [ 185 ] Vaccines must progress through several phases of clinical trials to test for safety, immunogenicity , effectiveness, dose levels, and adverse effects of the candidate vaccine. [ 186 ] [ 187 ] Vaccine developers have to invest resources internationally to find enough participants for Phase   II–III clinical trials when the virus has proved to be a " moving target " of changing transmission rates across and within countries, forcing companies to compete for trial participants. [ 188 ] As new vaccines are developed during the COVID‑19 pandemic, licensure of COVID‑19 vaccine candidates requires submission of a full dossier of information on development and manufacturing quality. [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] Organizations involved in COVID-19 vaccine development Internationally, the Access to COVID‑19 Tools Accelerator is a G20 and World Health Organization (WHO) initiative announced in April 2020. [ 192 ] [ 193 ] It is a cross-discipline support structure to enable partners to share resources and knowledge. It comprises four pillars, each managed by two to three collaborating partners: Vaccines (also called " COVAX "), Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Health Systems Connector. [ 194 ] The WHO's April 2020 "R&D Blueprint (for the) novel Coronavirus" documented a "large, international, multi-site, individually randomized controlled clinical trial" to allow "the concurrent evaluation of the benefits and risks of each promising candidate vaccine within 3–6 months of it being made available for the trial." The WHO vaccine coalition will prioritize which vaccines should go into Phase   II and   III clinical trials and determine harmonized Phase   III protocols for all vaccines achieving the pivotal trial stage. [ 195 ] National governments have also been involved in vaccine development. Canada announced funding for 96 projects for the development and production of vaccines at Canadian companies and universities, with plans to establish a "vaccine bank" that could be used if another coronavirus outbreak occurs, [ 196 ] support clinical trials, and develop manufacturing and supply chains for vaccines. [ 197 ] China provided low-rate loans to one vaccine developer through its central bank and "quickly made land available for the company" to build production plants. [ 179 ] Three Chinese vaccine companies and research institutes are supported by the government for financing research, conducting clinical trials, and manufacturing. [ 198 ] The United Kingdom government formed a COVID‑19 vaccine task force in April 2020 to stimulate local efforts for accelerated development of a vaccine through collaborations between industries, universities, and government agencies. The UK's Vaccine Taskforce contributed to every phase of development, from research to manufacturing. [ 199 ] In the United States, the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), a federal agency funding disease-fighting technology, announced investments to support American COVID‑19 vaccine development and the manufacturing of the most promising candidates. [ 179 ] [ 200 ] In May 2020, the government announced funding for a fast-track program called Operation Warp Speed . [ 201 ] [ 202 ] By March 2021, BARDA had funded an estimated $19.3 billion in COVID‑19 vaccine development. [ 203 ] Large pharmaceutical companies with experience in making vaccines at scale, including Johnson & Johnson , AstraZeneca , and GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), formed alliances with biotechnology companies, governments, and universities to accelerate progress toward effective vaccines. [ 179 ] [ 178 ] Effectiveness Death rates from COVID-19 for unvaccinated Americans substantially exceeded those who were vaccinated, with bivalent boosters further reducing the death rate. [ 204 ] Researchers have estimated that COVID-19 vaccines saved around 20 million lives globally in the first year of vaccine availability. [ 205 ] Evidence from vaccine use during the pandemic shows vaccination can reduce infection and is most effective at preventing severe COVID-19 symptoms and death, but is less good at preventing mild COVID-19. Efficacy wanes over time but can be maintained with boosters. [ 206 ] In 2021, the CDC reported that unvaccinated people were 10 times more likely to be hospitalized and 11 times more likely to die than fully vaccinated people. [ 207 ] [ 208 ] The CDC reported that vaccine effectiveness fell from 91% against Alpha to 66% against Delta. [ 209 ] One expert stated that "those who are infected following vaccination are still not getting sick and not dying like was happening before vaccination." [ 210 ] By late August 2021, the Delta variant accounted for 99 percent of U.S. cases and was found to double the risk of severe illness and hospitalization for those not yet vaccinated. [ 211 ] On 10 December 2021, the UK Health Security Agency reported that early data indicated a 20- to 40-fold reduction in neutralizing activity for Omicron by sera from Pfizer 2-dose vaccinees relative to earlier strains. After a booster dose (usually with an mRNA vaccine), [ 212 ] vaccine effectiveness against symptomatic disease was at 70%–75% , and the effectiveness against severe disease was expected to be higher. [ 213 ] A meta-analysis looking into COVID-19 vaccine differences in immunosuppressed individuals found that people with a weakened immune system are less able to produce neutralizing antibodies. For example, organ transplant recipients need three vaccines to achieve seroconversion . [ 214 ] A study on the serologic response to mRNA vaccines among patients with lymphoma, leukemia, and myeloma found that one-quarter of patients did not produce measurable antibodies, varying by cancer type. [ 215 ] In February 2023, a systematic review in The Lancet said that the protection afforded by infection was comparable to that from vaccination, albeit with an increased risk of severe illness and death from the disease of an initial infection. [ 216 ] A January 2024 study by the CDC found that staying up to date on the vaccines could reduce the risk of strokes, blood clots and heart attacks related to COVID-19 in people aged 65 years or older or with a condition that makes them more vulnerable to said conditions. [ 217 ] [ 218 ] Against infection and transmission Transmission is mostly due to mild infections. Vaccines show lower effectiveness against mild infections than severe infections, and the effectivenss decreases within six months of vaccination. [ 219 ] Vaccine efficacy against infections was around 77% for pre-Omicron variants in the first months after vaccination, and 26% against Omicron variants. The efficacy against infections waned more rapidly than against severe illness. Boosters restored the protection against infections. [ 220 ] Duration of immunity As of 2021, available evidence shows that fully vaccinated individuals and those previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 have a low risk of subsequent infection for at least six months. [ 221 ] [ 222 ] [ 223 ] There is insufficient data to determine an antibody titer threshold that indicates when an individual is protected from infection. [ 221 ] Multiple studies show that antibody titers are associated with protection at the population level, but individual protection titers remain unknown. [ 221 ] For some populations, such as the elderly and the immunocompromised , protection levels may be reduced after both vaccination and infection. [ 221 ] Available evidence indicates that the level of protection may not be the same for all variants of the virus . [ 221 ] As of December 2021, there are no FDA-authorized or approved tests that providers or the public can use to determine if a person is protected from infection reliably. [ 221 ] As of March 2022, elderly residents' protection against severe illness, hospitalization, and death in English care homes was high immediately after vaccination, but protection declined significantly in the months following vaccination. [ 224 ] Protection among care home staff, who were younger, declined much more slowly. [ 224 ] Regular boosters are recommended for older people, and boosters for care home residents every six months appear reasonable. [ 224 ] The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends a fourth dose of the Pfizer mRNA vaccine as of March 2022 for "certain immunocompromised individuals and people over the age of 50". [ 225 ] [ 226 ] Against severe illness and death Overall, vaccines had a 87%–90% protection against severe outcomes, such as hospitalisation. [ 227 ] [ 228 ] Six months after vaccination, the protection was still 76%. Like with infections, the protection was stronger against pre-Omicron variants than Omicron. [ 227 ] Protection against dying from COVID was similar: around 86%. [ 228 ] According to a June 2022 study, COVID‑19 vaccines prevented an additional 14.4 to 19.8 million deaths in 185 countries and territories from 8 December 2020 to 8 December 2021. [ 229 ] A 2024 study estimated around 1.6 million lives saves in the wider European region . [ 230 ] A study published in 2025 estimated that COVID-19 vaccinations globally averted approximately 2.5 million deaths between 2020 and 2024, with the majority of the benefit concentrated among older adults. These estimates were more conservative than those reported in previous studies, using different estimates of vaccine effectiveness and mortality rates. [ 231 ] Immune evasion by variants In contrast to other investigated prior variants, the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant [ 232 ] [ 233 ] and its BA.4/5 subvariants [ 234 ] have evaded immunity induced by vaccines, which may lead to breakthrough infections despite recent vaccination. Nevertheless, vaccines are thought to provide protection against severe illness, hospitalizations, and deaths due to Omicron. [ 235 ] Vaccine adjustments In June 2022, Pfizer and Moderna developed bivalent vaccines to protect against the SARS-CoV-2 wild-type and the Omicron variant. The bivalent vaccines are well-tolerated and offer immunity to Omicron superior to previous mRNA vaccines. [ 236 ] In September 2022, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authorized the bivalent vaccines. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] [ 239 ] In June 2023, the FDA advised manufacturers that the 2023–2024 formulation of the COVID‑19 vaccines for use in the US be updated to be a monovalent COVID‑19 vaccine using the XBB.1.5 lineage of the Omicron variant. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] In June 2024, the FDA advised manufacturers that the 2024–2025 formulation of the COVID‑19 vaccines for use in the US be updated to be a monovalent COVID‑19 vaccine using the JN.1 lineage. [ 242 ] In October 2024, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) gave a positive opinion to update the composition of Bimervax, a vaccine targeting the Omicron XBB.1.16 subvariant. [ 243 ] As of May 2025, the World Health Organization recommends that monovalent JN.1 or KP.2 vaccines remain appropriate vaccine antigens and that monovalent LP.8.1 is a suitable alternative vaccine antigen. [ 244 ] The EMA recommends updating COVID-19 vaccines to target LP.8.1 for the 2025/2026 vaccination campaign. [ 245 ] Against long COVID COVID-19 vaccination seems to reduce risk of long COVID . Three doses of a COVID-19 may reduce the risk by 70%, while two doses give 43% protection and one dose gives 19% protection. The evidence is based on observational studies, rather than on randomised clinical trials. [ 246 ] The large randomised control trials on COVID-19 vaccines did not include long COVID as an outcome measure . [ 247 ] An analysis involving more than 20 million adults found that vaccinated people had a lower risk of long COVID compared with those who had not received a COVID‑19 vaccine; they were also protected against blood clots and heart failure after the COVID infection. [ 248 ] [ 249 ] [ 250 ] Mix and match According to studies, the combination of two different COVID‑19 vaccines, also called heterologous vaccination , cross-vaccination, or the mix-and-match method, provides protection equivalent to that of mRNA vaccines, including protection against the Delta variant . Individuals who receive the combination of two different vaccines produce strong immune responses, with side effects no worse than those caused by standard regimens. [ 251 ] [ 252 ] Adverse effects The risks of serious illness from COVID-19 are far higher than the risk posed by the vaccines. [ 253 ] [ 254 ] [ 255 ] For most people, the side effects, also called adverse effects , from COVID‑19 vaccines are mild and can be managed at home. The adverse effects of the COVID‑19 vaccination are similar to those of other vaccines, and severe adverse effects are rare. [ 256 ] [ 257 ] Adverse effects from the vaccine are higher than placebo, but placebo arms of vaccine trials still reported adverse effects that can be attributed to the nocebo effect . [ 258 ] A February 2022 study, which examined a potential causal link between COVID-19 vaccines and excess deaths, found that out of more than 250 million Americans vaccinated , only 55 cases of death after COVID-19 vaccination were reported and in 17 of these, a causal relationship had been excluded. [ 259 ] The Paul Ehrlich Institute has recorded 31 cerebral venous sinus thromboses (CVST) and nine deaths out of 2.7 million vaccinated in Germany with the AZD1222 . [ 260 ] The UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) recorded 73 deaths out of nearly 50 million doses of AstraZeneca given in UK. [ 261 ] [ 262 ] All vaccines administered via intramuscular injection , including COVID‑19 vaccines, have side effects related to the mild trauma associated with the procedure and the introduction of a foreign substance into the body. [ 263 ] These include soreness, redness, rash, and inflammation at the injection site. Other common side effects include fatigue, headache, myalgia (muscle pain), and arthralgia (joint pain), all of which generally resolve without medical treatment within a few days. [ 12 ] These common side effects result from the body responding to the vaccine to build up protection from the virus. [ 264 ] [ 265 ] Like any other vaccine, some people are allergic to one or more ingredients in COVID‑19 vaccines. Typical side effects are stronger and more common in younger people and in subsequent doses, and up to 20% of people report a disruptive level of side effects after the second dose of an mRNA vaccine. [ 266 ] These side effects are less common or weaker in inactivated vaccines . [ 266 ] COVID‑19 vaccination-related enlargement of lymph nodes happens in 11.6% of those who received one dose of the vaccine and in 16% of those who received two doses. [ 267 ] COVID‑19 vaccination is safe for breastfeeding people. [ 13 ] Temporary changes to the menstrual cycle in young women have been reported. However, these changes are "small compared with natural variation and quickly reverse." [ 268 ] In one study, women who received both doses of a two-dose vaccine during the same menstrual cycle (an atypical situation) may see their next period begin a couple of days late. They have about twice the usual risk of a clinically significant delay (about 10% of these women, compared to about 4% of unvaccinated women). [ 268 ] Cycle lengths return to normal after two menstrual cycles post-vaccination. [ 268 ] Women who received doses in separate cycles had approximately the same natural variation in cycle lengths as unvaccinated women. [ 268 ] Other temporary menstrual effects have been reported, such as heavier than normal menstrual bleeding after vaccination. [ 268 ] Serious adverse events Serious adverse events associated COVID‑19 vaccines are generally rare but of high interest to the public. [ 269 ] The official databases of reported adverse events include: the World Health Organization 's VigiBase ; the United States Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS); the United Kingdom's Yellow Card Scheme ; the European Medicines Agency 's EudraVigilance system, which operates a regular transfer of data on suspected adverse drug reactions occurring in the EU to WHO's Uppsala Monitoring Centre . [ 270 ] Increased public awareness of these reporting systems and the extra reporting requirements under US FDA Emergency Use Authorization rules have increased reported adverse events. [ 271 ] Serious side effects are an ongoing area of study, and resources have been allocated to try to better understand them. [ 272 ] [ 273 ] [ 274 ] Research currently indicates that the rate and type of side effects are lower-risk than infection. For example, although vaccination may trigger some side effects, the effects experienced from an infection could be worse. Neurological side effects from getting COVID‑19 are hundreds of times more likely than from vaccination. [ 275 ] Evidence suggests that vaccination confers no significantly increased risk of serious adverse effects, including various cardiovascular, metabolic, and endocrine events, based on a cohort study involving 1 million adults in Denmark who have received an mRNA COVID-19 booster shot targeting the Omicron JN.1 variant. [ 276 ] Documented rare serious effects include: anaphylaxis , a severe type of allergic reaction . [ 277 ] Anaphylaxis affects one person per 250,000 to 400,000 doses administered. [ 266 ] [ 278 ] The rate is in line with the expected rate of anaphylaxis to non-COVID vaccines. [ 279 ] [ 280 ] [ 281 ] [ 282 ] According to a 2022 systematic review, the mortality rate of people with anaphylaxis following COVID‐19 vaccination was 0.5%. The review concluded the consensus of the studies was that "the risk of anaphylaxis is not significant when compared to the risks posed by COVID‐19 infection". [ 283 ] blood clots ( thrombosis ). [ 277 ] These vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis are associated with vaccines using an adenovirus system (Janssen and Oxford-AstraZeneca). [ 277 ] These affect about one person per 100,000. [ 266 ] There is a far higher risk of developing blood clots as a result of COVID-19 infection than from the vaccines. [ 284 ] myocarditis and pericarditis , or inflammation of the heart. [ 277 ] There is a rare risk of myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) or pericarditis (inflammation of the membrane covering the heart) after the mRNA COVID‑19 vaccines (Moderna or Pfizer-BioNTech). The risk of myocarditis after COVID‑19 vaccination is estimated to be 0.3 to 5 cases per 100,000 persons, with the highest risk in young males. [ 285 ] COVID‑19 vaccines may protect against myocarditis due to subsequent COVID‑19 infection. [ 286 ] [ 287 ] The risk of myocarditis and pericarditis is significantly higher (up to 11 times higher with respect to myocarditis) after COVID‑19 infection as compared to COVID‑19 vaccination, with the possible exception of men under 40 who may have a higher risk of myocarditis after the second Moderna mRNA vaccine (an additional 97 cases of myocarditis per 1 million persons vaccinated). [ 286 ] The mortality rate from myocarditis post-vaccination is extremely low. According to a 2022 study, of patients diagnosed with myocarditis (in both vaccination and COVID-19 cohorts), 1.07% were hospitalized and 0.015% died. [ 288 ] As of June 2025, the US FDA requires a prescription label warning regarding myocarditis and pericarditis. [ 289 ] thrombotic thrombocytopenia and other autoimmune diseases, which have been reported as adverse events after the COVID‑19 vaccine. [ 290 ] new onset tinnitus after the first dose of certain vaccines; however, there is a higher risk of the same symptom developing after influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations than after the COVID-19 vaccine. [ 291 ] [ 292 ] Distribution and access Distribution Note about the table in this section: number and percentage of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID‑19 vaccine (unless noted otherwise). May include vaccination of non-citizens, which can push totals beyond 100% of the local population. The table is updated daily by a bot. [ note 1 ] Updated March 12, 2026. As of 12 August 2024 , 13.53   billion COVID-19 vaccine doses have been administered worldwide, with 70.6 percent of the global population having received at least one dose. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] While 4.19   million vaccines were then being administered daily, only 22.3 percent of people in low-income countries had received at least a first vaccine by September 2022, according to official reports from national health agencies, which are collated by Our World in Data . [ 296 ] During a pandemic on the rapid timeline and scale of COVID-19 cases in 2020, international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), vaccine developers, governments, and industry evaluated the distribution of the eventual vaccine(s). [ 297 ] Individual countries producing a vaccine may be persuaded to favor the highest bidder for manufacturing or provide first-class service to their own country. [ 298 ] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Experts emphasize that licensed vaccines should be available and affordable for people at the frontlines of healthcare and in most need. [ 298 ] [ 300 ] In April 2020, it was reported that the UK agreed to work with 20 other countries and global organizations, including France, Germany, and Italy, to find a vaccine and share the results, and that UK citizens would not get preferential access to any new COVID‑19 vaccines developed by taxpayer-funded UK universities. [ 301 ] Several companies planned to initially manufacture a vaccine at artificially low prices , then increase prices for profitability later if annual vaccinations are needed and as countries build stock for future needs. [ 300 ] The WHO had set out the target to vaccinate 40% of the population of all countries by the end of 2021 and 70% by mid-2022, [ 302 ] but many countries missed the 40% target at the end of 2021. [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. The date is on the map. Commons source . COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. The date is on the map. Commons source . Access during the pandemic Countries have extremely unequal access to the COVID‑19 vaccine. Vaccine equity has not been achieved or even approximated. The inequity has harmed both countries with poor access and countries with good access. [ 100 ] [ 305 ] [ 306 ] Nations pledged to buy doses of the COVID‑19 vaccines before the doses were available. Though high-income nations represent only 14% of the global population, as of 15 November 2020, they had contracted to buy 51% of all pre-sold doses. Some high-income nations bought more doses than would be necessary to vaccinate their entire populations. [ 18 ] Production of the Sputnik V vaccine in Brazil, January 2021 In January 2021, WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus warned of problems with equitable distribution: "More than 39 million doses of vaccine have now been administered in at least 49 higher-income countries. Just 25 doses have been given in one lowest-income country. Not 25 million; not 25 thousand; just 25." [ 307 ] Inside of a vaccination center in Brussels , Belgium, February 2021 In March 2021, it was revealed that the US attempted to convince Brazil not to purchase the Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine, fearing "Russian influence" in Latin America. [ 308 ] Some nations involved in long-standing territorial disputes have reportedly had their access to vaccines blocked by competing nations; Palestine has accused Israel of blocking vaccine delivery to Gaza , while Taiwan has suggested that China has hampered its efforts to procure vaccine doses. [ 309 ] [ 310 ] [ 311 ] A single dose of the COVID‑19 vaccines by AstraZeneca would cost 47 Egyptian pounds (EGP), and the authorities are selling them for between 100 and 200 EGP. A report by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace cited the poverty rate in Egypt as around 29.7 percent, which constitutes approximately 30.5 million people, and claimed that about 15 million Egyptians would be unable to gain access to the luxury of vaccination. A human rights lawyer, Khaled Ali, launched a lawsuit against the government, forcing them to provide vaccinations free of charge to all members of the public. [ 312 ] COVID‑19 vaccination for children aged 12–14 in Bhopal , India According to immunologist Anthony Fauci , mutant strains of the virus and limited vaccine distribution pose continuing risks, and he said, "we have to get the entire world vaccinated, not just our own country." [ 313 ] Edward Bergmark and Arick Wierson are calling for a global vaccination effort and wrote that the wealthier nations' "me-first" mentality could ultimately backfire because the spread of the virus in poorer countries would lead to more variants, against which the vaccines could be less effective. [ 314 ] In March 2021, the United States, Britain, European Union member states, and some other members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) blocked a push by more than eighty developing countries to waive COVID‑19 vaccine patent rights in an effort to boost production of vaccines for poor nations. [ 315 ] On 5 May 2021, the US government under President Joe Biden announced that it supports waiving intellectual property protections for COVID‑19 vaccines. [ 316 ] The Members of the European Parliament have backed a motion demanding the temporary lifting of intellectual property rights for COVID‑19 vaccines. [ 317 ] An elderly man receiving a second dose of the CoronaVac vaccine in Brazil in April 2021 In a meeting in April 2021, the World Health Organization's emergency committee addressed concerns of persistent inequity in global vaccine distribution. [ 318 ] Although 9 percent of the world's population lives in the 29 poorest countries, these countries had received only 0.3% of all vaccines administered as of May 2021. [ 319 ] In March 2021, Brazilian journalism agency AgĂȘncia PĂșblica reported that the country vaccinated about twice as many people who declare themselves white than black and noted that mortality from COVID‑19 is higher in the black population. [ 320 ] In May 2021, UNICEF made an urgent appeal to industrialized nations to pool their excess COVID‑19 vaccine capacity to make up for a 125-million-dose gap in the COVAX program. The program mostly relied on the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine produced by the Serum Institute of India , which faced serious supply problems due to increased domestic vaccine needs in India from March to June 2021. Only a limited amount of vaccines can be distributed efficiently, and the shortfall of vaccines in South America and parts of Asia is due to a lack of expedient donations by richer nations. International aid organizations have pointed at Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, as well as Argentina, Brazil, and some parts of the Caribbean, as problem areas where vaccines are in short supply. In mid-May 2021, UNICEF was also critical of the fact that most proposed donations of Moderna and Pfizer vaccines were not slated for delivery until the second half of 2021 or early in 2022. [ 321 ] COVID‑19 mass vaccination queue in Finland, June 2021 In July 2021, the heads of the World Bank Group, the International Monetary Fund, the World Health Organization, and the World Trade Organization said in a joint statement: "As many countries are struggling with new variants and a third wave of COVID‑19 infections, accelerating access to vaccines becomes even more critical to ending the pandemic everywhere and achieving broad-based growth. We are deeply concerned about the limited vaccines, therapeutics, diagnostics, and support for deliveries available to developing countries." [ 322 ] [ 323 ] In July 2021, The BMJ reported that countries had thrown out over 250,000 vaccine doses as supply exceeded demand and strict laws prevented the sharing of vaccines. [ 324 ] A survey by The New York Times found that over a million doses of vaccine had been thrown away in ten U.S. states because federal regulations prohibit recalling them, preventing their redistribution abroad. [ 325 ] Furthermore, doses donated close to expiration often cannot be administered quickly enough by recipient countries and end up having to be discarded. [ 326 ] To help overcome this problem, the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi , announced that they would make their digital vaccination management platform, CoWIN , open to the global community. He also announced that India would also release the source code for the contact tracing app Aarogya Setu for developers around the world. Around 142 countries, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, the Maldives, Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, and Zambia, expressed their interest in the application for COVID management. [ 327 ] [ 328 ] Amnesty International and Oxfam International have criticized the support of vaccine monopolies by the governments of producing countries, noting that this is dramatically increasing the dose price by five times and often much more, creating an economic barrier to access for poor countries. [ 329 ] [ 330 ] MĂ©decins Sans FrontiĂšres (Doctors without Borders) has also criticized vaccine monopolies and repeatedly called for their suspension, supporting the TRIPS waiver . The waiver was first proposed in October 2020 and has support from most countries, but was delayed by opposition from the EU (especially Germany; major EU countries such as France, Italy, and Spain support the exemption), [ 331 ] the UK, Norway, and Switzerland, among others. MSF called for a Day of Action in September 2021 to put pressure on the WTO Minister's meeting in November, which was expected to discuss the TRIPS IP waiver. [ 332 ] [ 333 ] [ 334 ] A drive-through COVID‑19 vaccination center in Iran, August 2021 In August 2021, to reduce unequal distribution between rich and poor countries, the WHO called for a moratorium on booster doses at least until the end of September. However, in August, the United States government announced plans to offer booster doses eight months after the initial course to the general population, starting with priority groups. Before the announcement, the WHO harshly criticized this type of decision, citing the lack of evidence for the need for boosters, except for patients with specific conditions. At this time, vaccine coverage of at least one dose was 58% in high-income countries and only 1.3% in low-income countries, and 1.14 million Americans had already received an unauthorized booster dose. US officials argued that waning efficacy against mild and moderate disease might indicate reduced protection against severe disease in the coming months. Israel, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom have also started planning boosters for specific groups. [ 335 ] [ 336 ] [ 337 ] In September 2021, more than 140 former world leaders and Nobel laureates, including former President of France François Hollande , former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Gordon Brown , former Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark , and Professor Joseph Stiglitz , called on the candidates to be the next German chancellor to declare themselves in favor of waiving intellectual property rules for COVID‑19 vaccines and transferring vaccine technologies. [ 338 ] In November 2021, nursing unions in 28 countries filed a formal appeal with the United Nations over the refusal of the UK, EU, Norway, Switzerland, and Singapore to temporarily waive patents for COVID‑19 vaccines. [ 339 ] During his first international trip, the President of Peru , Pedro Castillo , spoke at the seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly on 21 September 2021, proposing the creation of an international treaty signed by world leaders and pharmaceutical companies to guarantee universal vaccine access, arguing that "The battle against the pandemic has shown us the failure of the international community to cooperate under the principle of solidarity." [ 340 ] [ 341 ] Optimizing the societal benefit of vaccination may benefit from a strategy that is tailored to the state of the pandemic, the demographics of a country, the age of the recipients, the availability of vaccines, and the individual risk for severe disease. [ 16 ] In the UK, the interval between prime and booster doses was extended to vaccinate as many people as early as possible. [ 342 ] Many countries are starting to give an additional booster shot to the immunosuppressed [ 343 ] [ 344 ] and the elderly, [ 345 ] and research predicts an additional benefit of personalizing vaccine doses in the setting of limited vaccine availability when a wave of virus Variants of Concern hits a country. [ 346 ] Despite the extremely rapid development of effective mRNA and viral vector vaccines , vaccine equity has not been achieved. [ 100 ] The World Health Organization called for 70 percent of the global population to be vaccinated by mid-2022, but as of March 2022, it was estimated that only one percent of the 10 billion doses given worldwide had been administered in low-income countries. [ 347 ] An additional 6 billion vaccinations may be needed to fill vaccine access gaps, particularly in developing countries. Given the projected availability of newer vaccines, the development and use of whole inactivated virus (WIV) and protein-based vaccines are also recommended. Organizations such as the Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network could help to support the production of such vaccines in developing countries, with lower production costs and greater ease of deployment. [ 100 ] [ 348 ] While vaccines substantially reduce the probability and severity of infection, it is still possible for fully vaccinated people to contract and spread COVID‑19. [ 349 ] Public health agencies have recommended that vaccinated people continue using preventive measures (wear face masks, social distance, wash hands) to avoid infecting others, especially vulnerable people, particularly in areas with high community spread. Governments have indicated that such recommendations will be reduced as vaccination rates increase and community spread declines. [ 350 ] Economics Moreover, an unequal distribution of vaccines will deepen inequality and exaggerate the gap between rich and poor and will reverse decades of hard-won progress on human development. — United Nations, COVID vaccines: Widening inequality and millions vulnerable [ 351 ] Vaccine inequity damages the global economy, disrupting the global supply chain . [ 306 ] Most vaccines were reserved for wealthy countries; as of September 2021 , [ 351 ] some countries have more vaccines than are needed to fully vaccinate their populations. [ 18 ] When people are under-vaccinated, needlessly die, experience disability, and live under lockdown restrictions, they cannot supply the same goods and services. This harms the economies of under-vaccinated and over-vaccinated countries alike. Since rich countries have larger economies, rich countries may lose more money to vaccine inequity than poor ones, [ 306 ] though the poor ones will lose a higher percentage of GDP and experience longer-term effects. [ 352 ] High-income countries would profit an estimated US$4.80 for every $1 spent on giving vaccines to lower-income countries. [ 306 ] The International Monetary Fund sees the vaccine divide between rich and poor nations as a serious obstacle to a global economic recovery. [ 353 ] Vaccine inequity disproportionately affects refuge-providing states, as they tend to be poorer, and refugees and displaced people are economically more vulnerable even within those low-income states, so they have suffered more economically from vaccine inequity. [ 354 ] [ 100 ] Technology-assisted vaccine hunting Background During the initial phase of COVID-19 vaccine distribution in early 2021, demand for appointments in the United States significantly exceeded supply. Eligibility rules changed frequently, and vaccination providers—including pharmacies, hospitals, and state health departments—operated separate online scheduling systems. Appointment slots were often released unpredictably and filled within minutes. [ 355 ] In response, informal volunteer networks—commonly referred to as "vaccine hunters" or "vaccine angels"—emerged to help individuals locate available appointments. [ 356 ] These groups coordinated through Facebook, Slack, Telegram, Discord, and Twitter, sharing scheduling strategies and real-time updates. Regional automated tools In several metropolitan areas, technologists developed automated programs to monitor vaccine scheduling systems. In the San Francisco Bay Area, software engineer Mukesh Aggarwal created a program that reportedly scanned more than 100 vaccination provider websites and distributed alerts through a Telegram channel when appointments became available. [ 357 ] High school students in the Bay Area launched a Twitter bot known as @CovaxSF that scanned county and pharmacy websites and tweeted availability alerts. [ 358 ] Additional regional reporting described independently developed bots that monitored California's MyTurn platform and pharmacy portals, automatically posting updates when openings were detected. [ 359 ] Similar tools were reported in other states, including bots that tracked CVS, Walgreens, Rite Aid, and state health department portals and posted appointment alerts on Twitter. [ 355 ] Nationwide tracking projects Beyond regional efforts, several nationwide tools and volunteer-run data projects emerged to aggregate appointment information. Websites such as VaccinateCA compiled crowd-sourced reports of vaccine availability across California. [ 360 ] National media coverage also described developers who built multi-state tracking bots that scraped pharmacy APIs or scheduling endpoints and automatically posted updates to Twitter or Telegram channels. [ 355 ] [ 361 ] Some programmers published open-source scripts that allowed others to monitor appointment endpoints directly, contributing to a broader ecosystem of decentralized vaccine tracking tools. [ 356 ] Public response and policy concerns Media outlets characterized these automated systems as grassroots technological responses to fragmented vaccine distribution systems. [ 356 ] However, coverage also noted concerns that automated monitoring tools could advantage individuals with technical knowledge, fast internet access, or the ability to respond immediately to alerts. [ 355 ] Some pharmacy chains and state systems reportedly implemented countermeasures to limit automated scraping, including rate limits and CAPTCHA systems. [ 355 ] As vaccine supply increased and eligibility expanded nationwide in mid-2021, the need for intensive appointment monitoring declined, and many volunteer-run bots and tracking systems were discontinued. [ 362 ] Liability Several governments agreed to shield pharmaceutical companies like Pfizer and Moderna from negligence claims related to COVID‑19 vaccines (and treatments), as in previous pandemics , when governments also took on liability for such claims. In the US, these liability shields took effect in February 2020, when the US Secretary of Health and Human Services, Alex Azar , published a notice of declaration under the Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act (PREP Act) for medical countermeasures against COVID‑19, covering "any vaccine, used to treat, diagnose, cure, prevent, or mitigate COVID‑19, or the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 or a virus mutating therefrom". The declaration precludes "liability claims alleging negligence by a manufacturer in creating a vaccine, or negligence by a health care provider in prescribing the wrong dose, absent willful misconduct." In other words, absent "willful misconduct", these companies cannot be sued for money damages for any injuries that occur between 2020 and 2024 from the administration of vaccines and treatments related to COVID‑19. [ 363 ] The declaration is effective in the United States through 1   October 2024. [ 363 ] In December 2020, the UK government granted Pfizer legal indemnity for its COVID‑19 vaccine. [ 364 ] In the European Union, the COVID‑19 vaccines were granted a conditional marketing authorization, which does not exempt manufacturers from civil and administrative liability claims. [ 365 ] The EU conditional marketing authorizations were changed to standard authorizations in September 2022. [ 366 ] While the purchasing contracts with vaccine manufacturers remain secret, they do not contain liability exemptions, even for side effects not known at the time of licensure. [ 367 ] The Bureau of Investigative Journalism , a nonprofit news organization, reported in an investigation that unnamed officials in some countries, such as Argentina and Brazil, said that Pfizer demanded guarantees against costs of legal cases due to adverse effects in the form of liability waivers and sovereign assets such as federal bank reserves, embassy buildings, or military bases, going beyond what was expected from other countries, such as the US. [ 368 ] During the pandemic parliamentary inquiry in Brazil , Pfizer's representative said that its terms for Brazil are the same as for all other countries with which it has signed deals. [ 369 ] In December 2022, the governor of Florida, Ron DeSantis , said that he would petition the state supreme court to convene a grand jury to investigate possible violations in respect to COVID‑19 vaccines, [ 370 ] and declared that his government would be able to get "the data whether they [the companies] want to give it or not". [ 371 ] In November 2023, the US state of Texas sued Pfizer under section 17.47 of the Texas Deceptive Trade Practices Act , alleging that the company misled the public about its COVID-19 vaccine by hiding risks while making false claims about its effectiveness. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] In June 2024, the US state of Kansas similarly sued Pfizer under the Kansas Consumer Protection Act , making similar allegations. [ 374 ] Public acceptance and hesitancy After the December 2020 introduction of COVID vaccines, a partisan gap in death rates developed, indicating the effects of vaccine skepticism. [ 375 ] As of March 2024, more than 30 percent of Republicans had not received a Covid vaccine, compared with less than 10 percent of Democrats. [ 375 ] A variety of unfounded conspiracy theories and other misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines have spread based on misunderstood or misrepresented science, religion, and law. These have included exaggerated claims about side effects, misrepresentations about how the immune system works and when and how COVID-19 vaccines are made, a story about COVID-19 being spread by 5G , and other false or distorted information. This misinformation, some created by anti-vaccination activists, has proliferated and may have made many people averse to vaccination. [ 376 ] Vaccine hesitancy has led to governments and private organizations around the world introducing measures to incentivize or coerce vaccination, such as lotteries, [ 377 ] mandates, [ 378 ] and free entry to events, [ 379 ] which has in turn led to further misinformation about the legality and effect of these measures themselves. [ 380 ] Critics of vaccine mandates have argued that such requirements infringe on individual medical choice and personal autonomy . [ 381 ] [ 382 ] [ 383 ] In the US, some prominent biomedical scientists who publicly advocate vaccination have been attacked and threatened in emails and on social media by anti-vaccination activists. [ 384 ] The United States Department of Defense (DoD) undertook a disinformation campaign in the Philippines, later expanded to Central Asia and the Middle East, which sought to discredit China, in particular its Sinovac vaccine, disseminating hashtags of #ChinaIsTheVirus and posts claiming that the Sinovac vaccine contained gelatin from pork and therefore was haram or forbidden for purposes of Islamic law. [ 385 ] See also COVID‑19 drug development COVID‑19 drug repurposing research Notes ^ The table data is automatically updated daily by a bot; see Template:COVID-19 data for more information. Scroll down past the table to find the documentation and the main reference. See also: Category:Automatically updated COVID-19 pandemic table templates . References ^ "COVID-19 vaccine" . Encyclopaedia Britannica . Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc . Retrieved 13 January 2026 . ^ "COVID-19 vaccine" . nhs.uk . 11 September 2024. Archived from the original on 16 March 2026 . 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Archived from the original on 31 October 2021 . Retrieved 16 August 2021 . ^ Hunziker P (July 2021). "Personalized-dose Covid-19 vaccination in a wave of virus Variants of Concern: Trading individual efficacy for societal benefit" . Precision Nanomedicine . 4 (3): 805– 820. doi : 10.33218/001c.26101 . Archived from the original on 9 October 2021 . Retrieved 16 August 2021 . ^ "UN analysis shows a link between lack of vaccine equity and widening poverty gap" . UN News . 28 March 2022. Archived from the original on 12 April 2022 . Retrieved 14 April 2022 . ^ "DCVMN" . Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network . Archived from the original on 26 April 2022 . Retrieved 26 April 2022 . ^ Thompson MG, Burgess JL, Naleway AL, Tyner HL, Yoon SK, Meece J, et al. (April 2021). "Interim Estimates of Vaccine Effectiveness of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 COVID-19 Vaccines in Preventing SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Health Care Personnel, First Responders, and Other Essential and Frontline Workers - Eight U.S. Locations, December 2020-March 2021" (PDF) . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 70 (13): 495– 500. doi : 10.15585/mmwr.mm7013e3 . PMC   8022879 . PMID   33793460 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021 . Retrieved 9 June 2021 . ^ "When You've Been Fully Vaccinated" . U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . 11 February 2020. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021 . Retrieved 29 April 2021 . ^ a b "COVID vaccines: Widening inequality and millions vulnerable" . United Nations. 19 September 2021. Archived from the original on 31 December 2021 . Retrieved 30 October 2021 . ^ "Impact of vaccine inequity on economic recovery" . UNDP Data Futures Platform . UN Development program. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021 . 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VaccinateCA. 2021. ^ "COVID-19 vaccination appointment online resources" . PCWorld . 2021. ^ "COVID vaccine hunters say Bay Area slots are getting easier to find" . San Francisco Chronicle . 2021. ^ a b Azar A (4 February 2020). "Notice of Declaration under the Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act for medical countermeasures against COVID-19" . Archived from the original on 25 April 2020 . Retrieved 22 April 2020 . ^ Lintern S (2 December 2020). "Pfizer given protection from legal action over coronavirus vaccine by UK government" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 5 May 2021 . Retrieved 8 May 2021 . ^ "Questions and Answers: Conditional Marketing Authorisation of COVID-19 Vaccines in the EU" . European Commission . 11 December 2020. Question: What is the difference in liability between EU Conditional Marketing Authorisation vs Emergency Use Authorisations?. Archived from the original on 4 October 2021 . Retrieved 29 December 2020 . ^ "EMA recommends standard marketing authorizations for Comirnaty and Spikevax COVID-19 vaccines" . European Medicines Agency . 16 September 2022. Archived from the original on 16 September 2022 . Retrieved 7 October 2022 . ^ Haahr T (7 September 2020). "COVID-19: MEPs want safe vaccines, full transparency and liability for companies" . European Parliament . Ms. Gallina stressed negotiations with companies had been difficult but underlined that those companies developing and manufacturing COVID-19 vaccines would indeed be liable according to current laws, and if something goes wrong, they could be taken to court. This also goes for compensation for hidden defects. Archived from the original on 13 October 2021 . Retrieved 29 December 2020 . ^ "Investigation: Drugmaker 'bullied' Latin American nations" . Al Jazeera . 11 March 2021. Archived from the original on 31 October 2021 . Retrieved 15 June 2021 . ^ Barcellos R (13 May 2021). "Carlos Murillo diz que clĂĄusulas criticadas pelo Brasil valem em 110 paĂ­ses" [Carlos Murillo says critical clauses for Brazil are valid in 110 countries]. CNN Brasil (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 28 June 2021 . Retrieved 15 June 2021 . ^ "Governor Ron DeSantis Petitions Florida Supreme Court for Statewide Grand Jury on COVID-19 Vaccines and Announces Creation of the Public Health Integrity Committee" . www.flgov.com . Archived from the original on 14 December 2022 . Retrieved 14 December 2022 . ^ "Florida governor seeks grand jury investigation into Covid vaccines" . www.theguardian.com . 13 December 2022. Archived from the original on 13 December 2022 . Retrieved 14 December 2022 . ^ Jonathan S (30 November 2023). "Pfizer is sued by Texas over COVID vaccine claims" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 27 October 2024 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ Harper KB (30 November 2023). "Texas attorney general sues Pfizer, claiming vaccines didn't end pandemic quickly enough" . The Texas Tribune . Archived from the original on 21 September 2024 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ Pierson B (18 June 2024). "Kansas accuses Pfizer of misleading public about COVID vaccine in lawsuit" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 19 June 2024 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ a b Leonhardt D (11 March 2024). "The Fourth Anniversary of the Covid Pandemic" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 11 March 2024. "Data excludes Alaska. Sources: C.D.C. Wonder; Edison Research. (Chart) By The New York Times . Source credits chart to Ashley Wu. ^ Lynas M (20 April 2020). "COVID: Top 10 current conspiracy theories" . Alliance for Science. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020 . Retrieved 4 October 2021 . ^ Burakovsky A (28 August 2021). "Russia's COVID-19 response slowed by population reluctant to take domestic vaccine" . KRQE . Archived from the original on 21 September 2021 . Retrieved 20 September 2021 . ^ "A Covid pass takes France by storm" . WLFI News . Archived from the original on 20 September 2021 . Retrieved 20 September 2021 . ^ "MLB offers free tickets for COVID-19 vaccinations" . Kron4. 4 June 2021. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021 . Retrieved 4 October 2021 . ^ Gore D (10 May 2021). "Exploring the legality of COVID-19 vaccine mandates" . factcheck.org . Retrieved 4 October 2021 . ^ Olick RS, Shaw J, Yang YT (7 December 2024). "Ethical Issues in Mandating COVID-19 Vaccination for Health Care Personnel - PMC" . Mayo Clinic Proceedings . 96 (12): 2958– 2962. doi : 10.1016/j.mayocp.2021.10.020 . PMC   8633920 . PMID   34863393 . ^ Bluth R (4 July 2022). " 'My body, my choice': How vaccine foes co-opted the abortion rallying cry" . NPR . Retrieved 21 January 2025 . ^ Bardosh K, De Figueiredo A, Gur-Arie R, Jamrozik E, Doidge J, Lemmens T, et al. (14 January 2025). "The unintended consequences of COVID-19 vaccine policy: why mandates, passports and restrictions may cause more harm than good - PMC" . BMJ Global Health . 7 (5) e008684. doi : 10.1136/bmjgh-2022-008684 . PMC   9136690 . PMID   35618306 . ^ Hotez PJ (2023). The Deadly Rise of Anti-science: A Scientist's Warning . Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   978-1421447223 . ^ Bing C, Schechtman J (14 June 2024). "Pentagon Ran Secret Anti-Vax Campaign to Undermine China during Pandemic" . Reuters . Retrieved 18 June 2024 . Further reading Copaescu AM, Rosa Duque JS, Phillips EJ (July 2022). "What have we learned about the allergenicity and adverse reactions associated with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccines: One year later" . Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology . 129 (1): 40– 51. doi : 10.1016/j.anai.2022.03.030 . PMC   8979618 . PMID   35390476 . Krause PR, Fleming TR, Longini IM, Peto R, Briand S, Heymann DL, et al. (July 2021). "SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Vaccines" . N Engl J Med . 385 (2): 179– 186. doi : 10.1056/NEJMsr2105280 . PMC   8262623 . PMID   34161052 . Kyriakidis NC, LĂłpez-CortĂ©s A, GonzĂĄlez EV, Grimaldos AB, Prado EO (February 2021). "SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates" . npj Vaccines . 6 (1) 28. doi : 10.1038/s41541-021-00292-w . PMC   7900244 . PMID   33619260 . Ramsay M, ed. (2020). "COVID-19: the green book, chapter 14a" . Immunisation against infectious disease . London: Public Health England. Vaccine protocols "Protocol mRNA-1273-P301" (PDF) . Moderna . Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2020 . Retrieved 21 September 2020 . "Protocol C4591001 PF-07302048 (BNT162 RNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccines)" (PDF) . Pfizer . Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 December 2021 . Retrieved 6 August 2022 . "Protocol AZD1222 – D8110C00001" (PDF) . AstraZeneca . "Protocol VAC31518COV3001; Phase 3 (Ensemble)" (PDF) . Janssen Vaccines & Prevention . "Protocol VAC31518COV3009; Phase 3 (Ensemble 2)" (PDF) . Janssen Vaccines & Prevention . "Protocol VAT00008 – Study of Monovalent and Bivalent Recombinant Protein Vaccines against COVID-19 in Adults 18 Years of Age and Older Protocol" (PDF) . Sanofi Pasteur . Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2021 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 . "Protocol 2019nCoV-301" . Novavax . External links "COVID-19 vaccine tracker and landscape" . World Health Organization (WHO). M.I.T. Lecture 10: Kizzmekia Corbett, Vaccines on YouTube M.I.T. Lecture 12: Dan Barouch, Covid-19 Vaccine Development on YouTube "The 5 Stages of COVID-19 Vaccine Development: What You Need to Know About How a Clinical Trial Works" . Johnson & Johnson. September 2020. "Coronavirus vaccine – weekly summary of Yellow Card reporting" . UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). "COVID-19 vaccine safety report - 05-10-2023" . Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) . 4 October 2023. Kolata G, Mueller B (15 January 2022). "Halting Progress and Happy Accidents: How mRNA Vaccines Were Made" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. "COVID-19 Vaccine Information Statement" . U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 3 June 2025.
Markdown
[Jump to content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#bodyContent) Main menu Main menu move to sidebar hide Navigation - [Main page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page "Visit the main page [z]") - [Contents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents "Guides to browsing Wikipedia") - [Current events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_events "Articles related to current events") - [Random article](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Random "Visit a randomly selected article [x]") - [About Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:About "Learn about Wikipedia and how it works") - [Contact us](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us "How to contact Wikipedia") Contribute - [Help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents "Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia") - [Learn to edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction "Learn how to edit Wikipedia") - [Community portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal "The hub for editors") - [Recent changes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges "A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]") - [Upload file](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard "Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia") - [Special pages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPages "A list of all special pages [q]") [![](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/enwiki-25.svg) ![Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en-25.svg) ![The Free Encyclopedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en-25.svg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page) [Search](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search "Search Wikipedia [f]") Appearance - [Donate](https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en) - [Create account](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=COVID-19+vaccine "You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory") - [Log in](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=COVID-19+vaccine "You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. 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[o]") ## Contents move to sidebar hide - [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine) - [1 Background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Background) - [2 Vaccine technologies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Vaccine_technologies) Toggle Vaccine technologies subsection - [2\.1 mRNA vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#mRNA_vaccines) - [2\.2 Viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Viral_vector_vaccines) - [2\.3 Inactivated virus vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Inactivated_virus_vaccines) - [2\.4 Subunit vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Subunit_vaccines) - [2\.5 Other types](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Other_types) - [2\.6 Formulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Formulation) - [3 Authorized vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Authorized_vaccines) Toggle Authorized vaccines subsection - [3\.1 Combination vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Combination_vaccines) - [4 Delivery methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Delivery_methods) Toggle Delivery methods subsection - [4\.1 Intranasal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Intranasal) - [5 Universal vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Universal_vaccine) - [6 Development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Development) Toggle Development subsection - [6\.1 Challenges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Challenges) - [6\.2 Organizations involved in COVID-19 vaccine development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Organizations_involved_in_COVID-19_vaccine_development) - [7 Effectiveness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Effectiveness) Toggle Effectiveness subsection - [7\.1 Against infection and transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Against_infection_and_transmission) - [7\.1.1 Duration of immunity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Duration_of_immunity) - [7\.2 Against severe illness and death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Against_severe_illness_and_death) - [7\.3 Immune evasion by variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Immune_evasion_by_variants) - [7\.3.1 Vaccine adjustments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Vaccine_adjustments) - [7\.4 Against long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Against_long_COVID) - [7\.5 Mix and match](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Mix_and_match) - [8 Adverse effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Adverse_effects) Toggle Adverse effects subsection - [8\.1 Serious adverse events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Serious_adverse_events) - [9 Distribution and access](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Distribution_and_access) Toggle Distribution and access subsection - [9\.1 Distribution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Distribution) - [9\.2 Access during the pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Access_during_the_pandemic) - [9\.2.1 Economics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Economics) - [10 Technology-assisted vaccine hunting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Technology-assisted_vaccine_hunting) Toggle Technology-assisted vaccine hunting subsection - [10\.1 Background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Background_2) - [10\.2 Regional automated tools](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Regional_automated_tools) - [10\.3 Nationwide tracking projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Nationwide_tracking_projects) - [10\.4 Public response and policy concerns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Public_response_and_policy_concerns) - [10\.5 Liability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Liability) - [11 Public acceptance and hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Public_acceptance_and_hesitancy) - [12 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#See_also) - [13 Notes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Notes) - [14 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#References) - [15 Further reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Further_reading) Toggle Further reading subsection - [15\.1 Vaccine protocols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#Vaccine_protocols) - [16 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#External_links) Toggle the table of contents # COVID-19 vaccine 76 languages - [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19-entstof "Covid-19-entstof – Afrikaans") - [AragonĂ©s](https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuna_contra_la_COVID-19 "Vacuna contra la COVID-19 – Aragonese") - [Ű§Ù„ŰčŰ±ŰšÙŠŰ©](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AF-19 "Ù„Ù‚Ű§Ű­ ÙƒÙˆÙÙŠŰŻ-19 – Arabic") - [Ù…Ű”Ű±Ù‰](https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%85_%D9%83%D9%88%DA%A4%D9%8A%D8%AF-19 "Ű·ÙˆŰčم ÙƒÙˆÚ€ÙŠŰŻ-19 – Egyptian Arabic") - [Azərbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaksini "COVID-19 vaksini – Azerbaijani") - [БългарсĐșĐž](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%89%D1%83_COVID-19 "ВаĐșŃĐžĐœĐ° ŃŃ€Đ”Ń‰Ńƒ COVID-19 – Bulgarian") - [Banjar](https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaksin_Covid-19 "Vaksin Covid-19 – Banjar") - [àŠŹàŠŸàŠ‚àŠČàŠŸ](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1-%E0%A7%A7%E0%A7%AF_%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE "àŠ•à§‹àŠ­àŠżàŠĄ-à§§à§Ż àŠŸàŠżàŠ•àŠŸ – Bangla") - [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakcina_protiv_COVID-a_19 "Vakcina protiv COVID-a 19 – Bosnian") - [CatalĂ ](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacc%C3%AD_contra_la_COVID-19 "VaccĂ­ contra la COVID-19 – Catalan") - [閩東èȘž / MĂŹng-dÄ•Ì€ng-ngáčłÌ„](https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_%C4%ADk-mi%C3%A8u "COVID-19 Ä­k-miĂšu – Mindong") - [Ú©ÙˆŰ±ŰŻÛŒ](https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A4%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%DA%A4%DB%8C%D8%AF-%D9%A1%D9%A9 "Ú€Ű§Ú©ŰłÛŒÙ†ÛŒ Ú©Û†Ú€ÛŒŰŻ-ÙĄÙ© – Central Kurdish") - [ČeĆĄtina](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakc%C3%ADna_proti_covidu-19 "VakcĂ­na proti covidu-19 – Czech") - [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19-vaccine "COVID-19-vaccine – Danish") - [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19-Impfstoff "COVID-19-Impfstoff – German") - [Ț‹ȚšȚˆȚŹȚ€ȚšȚ„ȚŠȚȚ°](https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%86%DE%AF%DE%88%DE%A8%DE%91%DE%B0-19_%DE%88%DE%AC%DE%86%DE%B0%DE%90%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%B0 "Ț†ȚŻȚˆȚšȚ‘Ț°-19 ȚˆȚŹȚ†Ț°ȚȚšȚ‚Ț° – Divehi") - [ΕλληΜÎčÎșÎŹ](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BC%CE%B2%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF_COVID-19 "ΕΌÎČόλÎčÎż COVID-19 – Greek") - [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakcino_kontra%C5%AD_la_kronvirusa_malsano_de_2019 "Vakcino kontraĆ­ la kronvirusa malsano de 2019 – Esperanto") - [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuna_contra_la_COVID-19 "Vacuna contra la COVID-19 – Spanish") - [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koroonavaktsiin "Koroonavaktsiin – Estonian") - [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19aren_aurkako_txertoak "COVID-19aren aurkako txertoak – Basque") - [ÙŰ§Ű±ŰłÛŒ](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF-%DB%B1%DB%B9 "ÙˆŰ§Ú©ŰłÙ† Ú©ÙˆÙˆÛŒŰŻ-Û±Ûč – Persian") - [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2-rokote "SARS-CoV-2-rokote – Finnish") - [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccin_contre_la_Covid-19 "Vaccin contre la Covid-19 – French") - [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacina_da_COVID-19 "Vacina da COVID-19 – Galician") - [Hausa](https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigakafin_Covid-19 "Rigakafin Covid-19 – Hausa") - [ŚąŚ‘ŚšŚ™ŚȘ](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%93_COVID-19 "Ś—Ś™ŚĄŚ•ŚŸ Ś Ś’Ś“ COVID-19 – Hebrew") - [à€čà€żà€šà„à€Šà„€](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1-19_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE "à€•à„‹à€”à€żà€Ą-19 à€•à€Ÿ à€Ÿà„€à€•à€Ÿ – Hindi") - [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cjepivo_protiv_COVID-19 "Cjepivo protiv COVID-19 – Croatian") - [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid19-vakcina "Covid19-vakcina – Hungarian") - [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaksin_Covid-19 "Vaksin Covid-19 – Indonesian") - [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccino_anti-COVID-19 "Vaccino anti-COVID-19 – Italian") - [æ—„æœŹèȘž](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19%E3%83%AF%E3%82%AF%E3%83%81%E3%83%B3 "COVID-19ワクチン – Japanese") - [áƒ„áƒáƒ áƒ—áƒŁáƒšáƒ˜](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19-%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90 "COVID-19-იქ ვაჄáƒȘინა – Georgian") - [Taqbaylit](https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigezt_mgal_Covid-19 "Tigezt mgal Covid-19 – Kabyle") - [àȕàČšàłàČšàČĄ](https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D-%E0%B3%A7%E0%B3%AF_%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86 "àČ•àł‹àČ”àČżàČĄàł-àł§àłŻ àČČàČžàČżàČ•àł† – Kannada") - [한ꔭ얎](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%EB%A1%9C%EB%82%9819_%EB%B0%B1%EC%8B%A0 "ìœ”ëĄœë‚˜19 백신 – Korean") - [Lombard](https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacin_contra_el_SARS-CoV-2 "Vacin contra el SARS-CoV-2 – Lombard") - [LingĂĄla](https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1ngb%C9%9Bl%C9%9B%CC%81_ma_Covid-19 "MĂĄngbɛlɛ́ ma Covid-19 – Lingala") - [LietuviĆł](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vakcina "COVID-19 vakcina – Lithuanian") - [LatvieĆĄu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vakc%C4%ABna "COVID-19 vakcÄ«na – Latvian") - [àŽźàŽČàŽŻàŽŸàŽłàŽ‚](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB "àŽ•à”ŠàŽ±à”‹àŽŁàŽ”à”ˆàŽ±àŽžà” àŽ”àŽŸàŽ•à”àŽžàŽżà”» – Malayalam") - [ဘာသာမနá€ș](https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9D%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%80%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AD%E1%80%92%E1%80%BA-%E1%81%81%E1%81%89 "ဝကá€șသိနá€ș ကဝá€șဝိဒá€ș-၁၉ – Mon") - [à€źà€°à€Ÿà€ à„€](https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1-%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B8 "à€•à„‹à€”à€żà€Ą-à„§à„Ż à€Čà€ž – Marathi") - [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaksin_COVID-19 "Vaksin COVID-19 – Malay") - [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19-vaccin "COVID-19-vaccin – Dutch") - [Norsk bokmĂ„l](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19-vaksiner "Covid-19-vaksiner – Norwegian BokmĂ„l") - [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szczepionka_przeciw_COVID-19 "Szczepionka przeciw COVID-19 – Polish") - [ÙŸÙ†ŰŹŰ§ŰšÛŒ](https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%DA%88-%D9%A1%D9%A9_%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86 "کووڈ-ÙĄÙ© ÙˆÛŒÚ©ŰłÛŒÙ† – Western Punjabi") - [ÙŸÚšŰȘو](https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%DA%89-%DB%B1%DB%B9_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86 "ŰŻ کوويډ-Û±Ûč ÙˆŰ§Ú©ŰłÙŠÙ† – Pashto") - [PortuguĂȘs](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacina_contra_a_COVID-19 "Vacina contra a COVID-19 – Portuguese") - [RomĂąnă](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccin_anti-COVID-19 "Vaccin anti-COVID-19 – Romanian") - [РуссĐșĐžĐč](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2_COVID-19 "ВаĐșŃ†ĐžĐœĐ° ĐżŃ€ĐŸŃ‚ĐžĐČ COVID-19 – Russian") - [᱄ᱟᱱᱛᱟá±Čá±€](https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%B0-%E1%B1%91%E1%B1%99_%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9 "ᱠᱳ᱔ᱷ᱀ᱰ-᱑᱙ ᱎ᱀ᱠᱟá±č – Santali") - [ŰłÙ†ÚŒÙŠ](https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%88%D9%88%DA%8A-%D9%A1%D9%A9_%D9%88%D9%8A%DA%AA%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86 "ÚȘووڊ-ÙĄÙ© ويÚȘŰłÙŠÙ† – Sindhi") - [සිංහග](https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%9C%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%8A-19_%E0%B6%91%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%AD "කොවිඩ්-19 එන්නත – Sinhala") - [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine "COVID-19 vaccine – Simple English") - [Slovenčina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakc%C3%ADna_proti_chorobe_COVID-19 "VakcĂ­na proti chorobe COVID-19 – Slovak") - [Slovenơčina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepivo_proti_covidu-19 "Cepivo proti covidu-19 – Slovenian") - [Soomaaliga](https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talal_Covid_19 "Talal Covid 19 – Somali") - [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaksina_p%C3%ABr_COVID-19 "Vaksina pĂ«r COVID-19 – Albanian") - [СрпсĐșĐž / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0_19 "ВаĐșŃ†ĐžĐœĐ° ĐżŃ€ĐŸŃ‚ĐžĐČ ĐșĐŸĐČОЎа 19 – Serbian") - [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19-vaccin "Covid-19-vaccin – Swedish") - [àź€àźźàźżàźŽàŻ](https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81_2019_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81 "àź•àŻŠàź°àŻ‹àź©àźŸàź”àŻˆàź°àźšàŻàź€àŻ àź€àŻŠàź±àŻàź±àŻ 2019 àź€àźŸàŻàźȘàŻàźȘàŻ‚àźšàźż àź†àźŻàŻàź”àŻ – Tamil") - [ఀెà°Čుగు](https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%8D-19_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D "à°•à±‹à°”à°żà°Ąà±-19 à°”à°Ÿà°•à±à°žà°żà°šà± – Telugu") - [àč„àž—àžą](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94-19 "àž§àž±àž„àž‹àž”àž™àč‚àž„àž§àžŽàž”-19 – Thai") - [TĂŒrkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_a%C5%9F%C4%B1s%C4%B1 "COVID-19 aĆŸÄ±sı – Turkish") - [Xitsonga](https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nthlavelo_wa_COVID-19 "Nthlavelo wa COVID-19 – Tsonga") - [ŰŠÛ‡ÙŠŰșÛ‡Ű±Ú†Û• / Uyghurche](https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%DB%90%DA%AD%D9%89_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%BE%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%83%D9%89_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%DB%8B%D9%89%D8%B1%DB%87%D8%B3_%D9%83%DB%90%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89_%DB%8B%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89\(%D9%83%D9%88%DB%8B%D9%89%D8%AF-19_%D9%83%DB%90%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89_%DB%8B%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89\) "يېڭى ŰȘىٟŰȘىكى ŰȘŰ§ŰŹŰłÙ‰Ù…Ű§Ù† Û‹Ù‰Ű±Û‡Űł ÙƒÛŰłÙ‰Ù„Ù‰ Û‹Ű§ÙƒŰłÙ‰Ù†Ù‰ŰłÙ‰(ÙƒÙˆÛ‹Ù‰ŰŻ-19 ÙƒÛŰłÙ‰Ù„Ù‰ Û‹Ű§ÙƒŰłÙ‰Ù†Ù‰ŰłÙ‰) – Uyghur") - [ĐŁĐșŃ€Đ°Ń—ĐœŃŃŒĐșĐ°](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8_COVID-19 "ВаĐșŃ†ĐžĐœĐ° ĐżŃ€ĐŸŃ‚Đž COVID-19 – Ukrainian") - [Ű§Ű±ŰŻÙˆ](https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%DA%88-19_%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86 "کووڈ-19 ÙˆÛŒÚ©ŰłÛŒÙ† – Urdu") - [Tiáșżng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%E1%BA%AFc-xin_COVID-19 "VáșŻc-xin COVID-19 – Vietnamese") - [ćŽèŻ­](https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E5%86%A0%E7%8A%B6%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92%E7%97%85%E7%96%AB%E8%8B%97 "2019ć† çŠ¶ç—…æŻ’ç—…ç–«è‹— – Wu") - [é–©ć—èȘž / BĂąn-lĂąm-gĂ­](https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_e%CC%8Dk-chu "COVID-19 e̍k-chu – Minnan") - [çČ”èȘž](https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E6%BC%A2%E8%82%BA%E7%82%8E%E7%96%AB%E8%8B%97 "æ­ŠæŒąè‚ș炎疫苗 – Cantonese") - [äž­æ–‡](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E5%86%A0%E7%8A%B6%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92%E7%97%85%E7%96%AB%E8%8B%97 "2019ć† çŠ¶ç—…æŻ’ç—…ç–«è‹— – Chinese") [Edit links](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q87719492#sitelinks-wikipedia "Edit interlanguage links") - [Article](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine "View the content page [c]") - [Talk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:COVID-19_vaccine "Discuss improvements to the content page [t]") English - [Read](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine) - [View source](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_vaccine&action=edit "This page is protected. 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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 Pharmaceutical compound | [Vaccine description](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine "Vaccine") | | |---|---| | Target | [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") | | [Vaccine type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine#Types "Vaccine") | mRNA, viral, inactivated, protein | | Clinical data | | | [License data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_therapeutic_goods "Regulation of therapeutic goods") | US [DailyMed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DailyMed "DailyMed"): [COVID-19 vaccine](https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/search.cfm?labeltype=all&query=COVID-19+vaccine) | | [Routes of administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Route_of_administration "Route of administration") | Mostly [Intramuscular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection"), also via [nasal spray](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_vaccine "Nasal vaccine") | | [ATC code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System "Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System") | [J07BN01](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN01)) [J07BN02](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN02)), [J07BN03](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN03)), [J07BN04](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN04)), [J07BN05](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN05)) | | Identifiers | | | [CAS Number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number "CAS Registry Number") | None | *How COVID‑19 vaccines work.* The video shows the process of vaccination, from injection with RNA or viral vector vaccines, to uptake and translation, and on to immune system stimulation and effect. | | |---| | Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:COVID-19_pandemic "Category:COVID-19 pandemic") on the | | [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") | | [![Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/250px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png "Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each \"ball\" is an atom.") Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom. | | [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") (disease) [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") (virus) [Cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_cases "COVID-19 pandemic cases") [Deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_deaths "COVID-19 pandemic deaths") | | [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic") [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") 2020 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") 2021 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") 2022 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2022") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2022") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2023 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2023") | | [Locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") [By country and territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in Africa") [Antarctica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antarctica "COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica") [Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Asia") [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe "COVID-19 pandemic in Europe") [North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_America "COVID-19 pandemic in North America") [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oceania "COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania") [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_America "COVID-19 pandemic in South America") By conveyance [Cruise ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_cruise_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships") [Naval ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_naval_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on naval ships") | | International response [Endemic phase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_phase_of_COVID-19 "Endemic phase of COVID-19") [Evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic") [International aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Origin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Origin of SARS-CoV-2") [Lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns "COVID-19 lockdowns") [by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns_by_country "COVID-19 lockdowns by country") [Misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation "COVID-19 misinformation") [by governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments "COVID-19 misinformation by governments") [Fake treatments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19 "List of unproven methods against COVID-19") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing_measures_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Software](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_and_development_of_software_for_COVID-19_pandemic_mitigation "Use and development of software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation") [Travel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic") [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Nations response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization%27s_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "World Health Organization's response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [WTO IP waiver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement_waiver "TRIPS Agreement waiver") [Undercounting of deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercounting_of_COVID-19_pandemic_deaths_by_country "Undercounting of COVID-19 pandemic deaths by country") [COVID-19 apps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_apps "COVID-19 apps") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") [National responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_government_response_to_COVID-19 "Chinese government response to COVID-19") [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "German government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ghanaian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Irish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Dutch government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New Zealand government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Nigerian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Russian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Swedish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Kingdom responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United States responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [federal government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._federal_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vietnamese government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | | Medical response [Disease testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing "COVID-19 testing") [Breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer") [Development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_COVID-19_tests "Development of COVID-19 tests") [Drug development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_development "COVID-19 drug development") [Drug repurposing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_repurposing_research "COVID-19 drug repurposing research") [Public health mitigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19 "Public health mitigation of COVID-19") [Vaccines]() [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development "History of COVID-19 vaccine development") [Research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research "COVID-19 vaccine clinical research") [VITT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolic_and_thrombotic_events_after_COVID-19_vaccination "Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination") [Deployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") [Authorizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_vaccine_authorizations "List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations") [Operation Warp Speed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Warp_Speed "Operation Warp Speed") [Misinformation and hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy "COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_hesitancy_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the United States") [Vaccine card](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_card "COVID-19 vaccine card") [Vaccine passports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_passports_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic") Current vaccines [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac") [Covaxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covaxin "Covaxin") [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia") [Janssen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID-19_vaccine "Janssen COVID-19 vaccine") [Medigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVC_COVID-19_vaccine "MVC COVID-19 vaccine") [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") [Novavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine") [Oxford–AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine") [Pfizer–BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine") [Sinopharm BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine") | | [Variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2") [Variants of concern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_variant_of_concern "SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern") [Alpha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant") [Beta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") [Gamma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") [Delta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant") [Omicron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") Other variants [Epsilon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Epsilon_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Epsilon variant") [Zeta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Zeta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Zeta variant") [Eta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Eta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Eta variant") [Theta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Theta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Theta variant") [Iota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Iota_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Iota variant") [Kappa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Kappa_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Kappa variant") [Lambda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Lambda_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Lambda variant") [Mu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Mu_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Mu variant") [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Lineage B.1.617](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_lineage_B.1.617 "SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.617") | | [Economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") and [recession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_recession "COVID-19 recession") [Arts and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_arts_and_cultural_heritage "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage") [Aviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_aviation "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation") [Cannabis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_cannabis_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cannabis industry") [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cinema "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema") [films](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Disney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Walt_Disney_Company "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Walt Disney Company") [Fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_fashion_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the fashion industry") [Financial markets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Food industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_food_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food industry") [Food security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Food security during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_journalism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism") [Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_music_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the music industry") [Performing arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_performing_arts "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performing arts") [Retail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_retail "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on retail") [Shipping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_global_supply_chain_crisis#Shipping "2021–2022 global supply chain crisis") [Television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television in the United States") [sportscasting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_American_sports_broadcasting "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on American sports broadcasting") [programs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_television_series_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of American television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Tourism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_tourism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism") [Video games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_video_game_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry") By country [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [By sport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports") [Association football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_association_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on association football") [Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_baseball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on baseball") [Basketball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_basketball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on basketball") [Combat sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_combat_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on combat sports") [Cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cricket "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cricket") [Disc golf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_disc_golf "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on disc golf") [Gaelic games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Gaelic_games "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Gaelic games") [Gridiron football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_gridiron_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gridiron football") [Ice hockey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ice_hockey "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ice hockey") [Motorsport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_motorsport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on motorsport") [Rugby league](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_rugby_league "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rugby league") | | [Impacts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Neurological and psychological symptoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes "Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes") [Post-exertional malaise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-exertional_malaise "Post-exertional malaise") [Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [African diaspora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Indian_migrant_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Indian migrant workers") [Animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_and_animals "COVID-19 pandemic and animals") [Alzheimer's disease patients](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease_and_COVID-19 "Alzheimer's disease and COVID-19") [Crime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_crime "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on crime") [Death rates by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_death_rates_by_country "COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country") [Disability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_people_with_disabilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on people with disabilities") [Domestic violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_domestic_violence "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence") [Emergency evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_evacuation_procedures_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Emergency evacuation procedures during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education") [Female](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_female_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on female education") [Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_environment "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment") [Hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_hospitals "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitals") [Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Glossary of the COVID-19 pandemic") [LGBTQ community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_LGBTQ_community "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBTQ community") [Long-term care](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_long-term_care_facilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on long-term care facilities") [Media coverage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Mental health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Migration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_migration "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on migration") [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_military "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the military") [Notable deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaths_due_to_COVID-19 "List of deaths due to COVID-19") [Other health issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_other_health_issues "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues") [Popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_popular_culture "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture") [Protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_against_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Protests against responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Pregnancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy "COVID-19 in pregnancy") [Prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_prisons "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prisons") [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_religion "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion") [Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church") [Hajj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Hajj "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Hajj") [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology") [Social media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_social_media "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media") [Strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikes_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Strikes during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Suicides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_suicide_rates "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on suicide rates") [Telehealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_telehealth_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the telehealth industry") [Xenophobia and racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_international_relations "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations") [Infected leaders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_officials_who_have_tested_positive_for_COVID-19 "List of political officials who have tested positive for COVID-19") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") | | [![virus icon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/SARS-CoV-2_%28Wikimedia_colors%29.svg/20px-SARS-CoV-2_%28Wikimedia_colors%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SARS-CoV-2_\(Wikimedia_colors\).svg) [COVID-19 portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:COVID-19 "Portal:COVID-19") | | [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Template:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Template talk:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") | A **COVID‑19 vaccine** is a [vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine "Vaccine") designed to induce immunity against [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2"), the virus responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 ([COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19")).[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-BritannicaCOVID-1) COVID-19 vaccines help reduce the risk of severe illness, hospitalisation and death from the virus.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-2)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-3) COVID‑19 vaccines were developed at an unprecedented pace to tackle the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), with the first [clinical trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial "Clinical trial") beginning in March 2020.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh-4) Before approval, vaccines underwent the standard three [phases of clinical trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research "Phases of clinical research"), although phases were conducted in parallel to accelerate development.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VaccineKnowledgeCOVID-5) Vaccines have been developed based both on classical technologies (using [inactivated virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") or [protein subunit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine")), and novel platforms ([mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") or [viral vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine")\-based).[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-6) Prior research on [coronaviruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus "Coronavirus") causing severe acute respiratory syndrome ([SARS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS")) and Middle East respiratory syndrome ([MERS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS "MERS")) accelerated the development of various [vaccine platforms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_platform "Vaccine platform") in early 2020.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33341119-7) The 2023 [Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine") was awarded to [Katalin KarikĂł](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3 "Katalin KarikĂł") and [Drew Weissman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Weissman "Drew Weissman") for the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID‑19.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-10) Major vaccines include the [Pfizer–BioNTech mRNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine"), [Moderna mRNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine"), and the [Novavax protein subunit vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VaccineKnowledgeCOVID-5) With the emergence of new [SARS-CoV-2 variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2"), the original vaccines—particularly [Pfizer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer "Pfizer")–[BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioNTech "BioNTech") and [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna") vaccines—have been updated. These "variant-adapted" vaccines are offered as [booster doses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_dose "Booster dose").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VaccineKnowledgeCOVID-5) The immunity from the vaccines also wanes over time, requiring people to get boosters to maintain protection.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Rogers_2022-11) Common side effects of COVID‑19 vaccines include soreness, fatigue, headache, [myalgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myalgia "Myalgia") (muscle pain), and [arthralgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthralgia "Arthralgia") (joint pain), which resolve without medical treatment within a few days.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_WHO-12) COVID‑19 vaccination is safe for people who are pregnant or are breastfeeding.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-breastf-13) The COVID‑19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing the spread of COVID‑19 and reducing the severity and death caused by COVID‑19.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Rogers_2022-11)[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-14) Many countries implemented phased distribution plans that prioritized those at highest risk of complications, such as the elderly, and those at high risk of exposure, such as [healthcare workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_professional "Health professional").[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Beaumont-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Wang1-16) By December 2020, more than 10 billion vaccine doses had been preordered,[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-mullard-17) with about half of the doses purchased by [high-income countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank_high-income_economy "World Bank high-income economy") comprising 14% of the world's population.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-So-18) As of August 2024[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_vaccine&action=edit), over 13 billion doses of COVID‑19 vaccines have been administered worldwide.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Richie_2021-19) ## Background Before COVID‑19, a vaccine for an infectious disease had never been produced in less than several years – and no vaccine existed for preventing a [coronavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus "Coronavirus") infection in humans.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-gates2-20) However, vaccines have been produced against several animal diseases caused by coronaviruses, including [infectious bronchitis virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_bronchitis_virus "Infectious bronchitis virus") in birds, [canine coronavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine_coronavirus "Canine coronavirus"), and [feline coronavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feline_coronavirus "Feline coronavirus").[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-21) Previous projects to develop vaccines for viruses in the family *[Coronaviridae](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronaviridae "Coronaviridae")* that affect humans have been aimed at [severe acute respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome "Severe acute respiratory syndrome") (SARS) and [Middle East respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome "Middle East respiratory syndrome") (MERS). Vaccines against SARS[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-22) and MERS[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-23) have been tested in non-human [animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism "Model organism"). According to studies published in 2005 and 2006, the identification and development of novel vaccines and medicines to treat SARS were priorities for governments and [public health agencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies "List of national public health agencies") worldwide at the time.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PMID_15655773-24)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PMID_15885812-25)[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PMID_16453264-26) There is no cure or vaccine proven to be safe and effective against SARS in humans.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-JiangFutureVirology-27)[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-28) There is also no proven vaccine against MERS.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-29) When MERS became prevalent, it was believed that previous SARS research might provide a useful template for developing MERS vaccines.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-JiangFutureVirology-27)[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Butler3oct2013-30) As of March 2020, there was one (DNA-based) MERS vaccine that completed Phase I clinical trials in humans,[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-31) and three others in progress, all being viral-vectored vaccines: two based on [adenoviruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenoviridae "Adenoviridae") and one on [MVA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_vaccinia_Ankara "Modified vaccinia Ankara").[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-32) Vaccines that use an inactive or weakened virus that has been grown in eggs typically take more than a decade to develop.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Moderna_and_Pfizer_Are_Reinventing_Vaccines-33)[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-34) In contrast, mRNA is a molecule that can be made quickly, and research on mRNA to fight diseases was begun decades before the COVID‑19 pandemic by scientists such as [Drew Weissman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Weissman "Drew Weissman") and [Katalin KarikĂł](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3 "Katalin KarikĂł"), who tested on mice. [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna") began human testing of an [mRNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") in 2015.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Moderna_and_Pfizer_Are_Reinventing_Vaccines-33) [Viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine") were also developed for the COVID‑19 pandemic after the technology was previously cleared for Ebola.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Moderna_and_Pfizer_Are_Reinventing_Vaccines-33) ## Vaccine technologies [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Vaccine_candidate_mechanisms_for_SARS-CoV-2_%2849948301838%29.jpg/330px-Vaccine_candidate_mechanisms_for_SARS-CoV-2_%2849948301838%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vaccine_candidate_mechanisms_for_SARS-CoV-2_\(49948301838\).jpg) A conceptual diagram showing three vaccine types for forming SARS‑CoV‑2 proteins to prompt an immune response: (1) [RNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_vaccine "RNA vaccine"); (2) [subunit vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine"); (3) [viral vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector "Viral vector") vaccine [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Fimmu-11-579250-g004.jpg/330px-Fimmu-11-579250-g004.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fimmu-11-579250-g004.jpg) Vaccine platforms that are being employed for SARS-CoV-2. Whole-virus vaccines include both [attenuated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine "Attenuated vaccine") and [inactivated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") forms of the virus. Protein and [peptide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_vaccine "Peptide vaccine") [subunit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") vaccines are usually combined with an [adjuvant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunologic_adjuvant "Immunologic adjuvant") to enhance immunogenicity. The main emphasis in SARS-CoV-2 vaccine development has been on using the whole [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein") in its trimeric form, or its components, such as the [RBD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_domain "Binding domain") region. Multiple non-replicating [viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine") have been developed, particularly focused on [adenovirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenoviridae "Adenoviridae"), while there has been less emphasis on the replicating viral vector constructs.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-35) The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic, often severe, illness.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-36) Most of the first COVID‑19 vaccines were two-dose vaccines. Exceptions were the single-dose vaccines [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia")[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-WHO_-_Convidecia-37) and the [Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Rogers_2022-11) and vaccines with three-dose schedules, [Razi Cov Pars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi_Cov_Pars "Razi Cov Pars")[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Razi_Cov_Pars_phase_1_trial-38) and [Soberana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_Plus "Soberana Plus").[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Soberana_phase_1/2_trial-39) In July 2021, at least nine different technology platforms were under research and development to create an effective vaccine against COVID‑19.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh22-40)[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-london-41) The [coronavirus spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein") (S protein), with the virus uses to enter the cell, induces a strong immune response and is therefore the primary target of vaccines.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-42)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh22-40) However, other coronavirus proteins were also being investigated for vaccine development, for example, the [nucleocapsid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleocapsid "Nucleocapsid") proteins, because they also induce a robust T-cell response, while their genes are more conserved and recombine less frequently.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Grifoni_2020-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-44)[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-45) Future generations of COVID‑19 vaccines targeting more conserved genomic regions could be used to treat future variations of SARS-CoV-2, or any similar coronavirus epidemic/pandemic.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-46) Platforms developed in 2020 involved [nucleic acid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid "Nucleic acid") technologies ([mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA "MRNA") and [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA "DNA")), non-replicating [viral vectors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector "Viral vector"), [peptides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide "Peptide"), [recombinant proteins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_protein "Recombinant protein"), live [attenuated viruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_virus "Attenuated virus"), and [inactivated viruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_processing#Viral_inactivation "Virus processing").[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh22-40)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh-4)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-diamond-47) Many vaccine technologies developed for COVID‑19 use "next-generation" strategies for precise targeting of COVID‑19 infection mechanisms.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh22-40)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh-4)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-diamond-47) Several of the synthetic vaccines use a 2P mutation to lock the [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein") into its prefusion configuration, stimulating an [adaptive immune response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_immune_response "Adaptive immune response") to the virus before it attaches to a human cell.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-48) ### mRNA vaccines Further information: [mRNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/RNA_vaccine_illustration_%28en%29.jpg/250px-RNA_vaccine_illustration_%28en%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RNA_vaccine_illustration_\(en\).jpg) Diagram of the operation of an [RNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_vaccine "RNA vaccine"). [Messenger RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA "Messenger RNA") contained in the vaccine enters cells and is [translated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_\(biology\) "Translation (biology)") into viral proteins, which trigger an immune response. Several COVID‑19 vaccines, such as the [Pfizer–BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine") and [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine") vaccines, use [RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA "RNA") to stimulate an immune response. When introduced into human tissue, the vaccine contains [messenger RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA "Messenger RNA") (mRNA), which causes cells to express the SARS-CoV-2 [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_protein "Spike protein"). This teaches the [immune system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system "Immune system") to identify and destroy the corresponding pathogen. RNA vaccines often use [nucleoside-modified messenger RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoside-modified_messenger_RNA "Nucleoside-modified messenger RNA"). The [delivery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_delivery "Drug delivery") of mRNA is achieved by encapsulating the molecule in [lipid nanoparticles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid_nanoparticle "Lipid nanoparticle"), which protect the RNA strands and help their uptake into the cells.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-49)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33340620-50)[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Kowalski-51)[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Verbeke_2019-52) mRNA vaccines were the first COVID‑19 vaccines authorised in the United Kingdom, the United States, and the European Union.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-53)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-54) Authorized vaccines of this type include the Pfizer–BioNTech[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-hcreg-55)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04368728-56)[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EudraCT-2020-001038-36-57) and Moderna vaccines.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04470427-58)[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-palca-59) The [CVnCoV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CVnCoV "CVnCoV") mRNA vaccine from [CureVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CureVac "CureVac") failed in clinical trials.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-60) Severe allergic reactions to the mRNA vaccines are rare. In December 2020, 1,893,360 first doses of Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine administration resulted in 175 cases of severe allergic reactions, of which 21 were [anaphylaxis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxis "Anaphylaxis").[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33571463-61) For 4,041,396 Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine dose administrations in December 2020 and January 2021, only ten cases of anaphylaxis were reported.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33571463-61) [Lipid nanoparticles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_lipid_nanoparticle "Solid lipid nanoparticle") (LNPs) were most likely responsible for the allergic reactions.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33571463-61) In May 2025, a different version of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, with the brand name Mnexspike (mRNA-1283), was approved for medical use in the United States.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-62)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-63)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-64) In June 2025, the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") announced that it was making data from the marketing authorization applications for COVID‑19 mRNA vaccines [Comirnaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comirnaty "Comirnaty") and [Spikevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spikevax "Spikevax") publicly available.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EMA_Transparency-65)[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Comirnaty_EPAR-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Spikevax_EPAR-67) ### Viral vector vaccines Viral vector vaccines use a modified version of a virus to generate immunity. For COVID-19, these vaccines were based of a modified [adenovirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenoviridae "Adenoviridae"), which normally causes the [common cold](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold "Common cold"). It is first made harmless, by removing the genes that cause illness and those responsible for replication. The virus is further modified so that it contains DNA that encodes a SARS‑CoV‑2 protein.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-vv-gavi-68)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-69) As such, the virus in the vaccine does not make new adenovirus copies, but only produces the antigen that elicits a systemic immune response.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-vv-gavi-68) Unlike mRNA vaccines, which usually require freezer storage, DNA vaccines such as adenovirus vector vaccines can be kept in a fridge.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Pardi2018mRNAvsDNA-70) Authorized [vaccines of this type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector#Vaccines "Viral vector") include the [Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04400838-71)[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EudraCT-2020-001228-32-72)[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-ISRCTN89951424-73) the [Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-sputnik-74) [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia"), and the [Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine").[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04436276-75)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04505722-76) [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine") uses Ad26 for its first dose, which is the same as Janssen's only dose, and Ad5 for the second dose, which is the same as Convidecia's only dose.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-77) In August 2021, the [developers of Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Direct_Investment_Fund "Russian Direct Investment Fund") proposed, in view of the Delta case surge, that Pfizer test the Ad26 component (termed its 'Light' version)[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-78) as a booster shot.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-79) ### Inactivated virus vaccines [Inactivated vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") consist of virus particles grown in [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiological_culture "Microbiological culture") and then inactivated by methods such as heat or [formaldehyde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde "Formaldehyde"), thereby losing their disease-producing capacity while still stimulating an immune response.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PetrovskyAguilar2004-80) Inactivated virus COVID-19 vaccines are less efficient than mRNA vaccines, because the process of de-activating the virus causes the spike protein to change slightly, whereas mRNA vaccines show the spike protein in its normal state. This makes parts of the protein inaccessible to the immune system. The immunity does not last as long as with mRNA vaccines, so that additional boosters are required to maintain immunity.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-81) Inactivated virus vaccines authorized in China include the Chinese [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac")[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04383574-82)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCname=_nct04456595=-83)[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PT_Bio_Farma-84) and the Sinopharm [BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID‑19 vaccine")[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-ChiCTR2000034780-85) and [WIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_WIBP_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sinopharm WIBP COVID‑19 vaccine") vaccines; there is also the Indian [Covaxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBV152 "BBV152"), the Russian [CoviVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoviVac_\(Russia_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine\) "CoviVac (Russia COVID‑19 vaccine)"),[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-86) the [Kazakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") vaccine [QazVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QazVac "QazVac"),[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-87) and the Iranian [COVIran Barekat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVIran_Barekat "COVIran Barekat").[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-88) ### Subunit vaccines [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Novavax_vaccine_for_COVID-19.jpg/250px-Novavax_vaccine_for_COVID-19.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Novavax_vaccine_for_COVID-19.jpg) Vial of Novavax vaccine from clinical trials at [Thackray Museum of Medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thackray_Museum_of_Medicine "Thackray Museum of Medicine")[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-89) [Subunit vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") present one or more [antigens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen") without introducing whole pathogen particles. The antigens involved are often [protein subunits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_subunit "Protein subunit"), but they can be any pathogen-derived molecule or its fragment.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-90) The authorized vaccines of this type include the [peptide vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_vaccine "Peptide vaccine") [ZF2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF2001 "ZF2001"),[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-london-41) [MVC-COV1901](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVC_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "MVC COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-91) [Corbevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbevax "Corbevax"),[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-92)[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-93) the [Sanofi–GSK vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93GSK_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sanofi–GSK COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VidPrevtyn_Beta_EPAR-94)[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EMA_PR_20221110-95) and [Soberana 02](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_02 "Soberana 02") (a [conjugate vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_vaccine "Conjugate vaccine")).[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-96) [Bimervax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bimervax "Bimervax") (selvacovatein) was approved for use as a booster vaccine in the European Union in March 2023.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-97)[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-98)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-99) The [Novavax COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Novavax COVID‑19 vaccine") is another subunit vaccine. This vaccine is produced by infecting moth cells with a modified [baculovirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baculoviridae "Baculoviridae") vector, which contains a gene for a [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2 "Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2") [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein").[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100) The clinical trials of [V451 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V451_vaccine "V451 vaccine") were terminated after it was found that the vaccine may potentially cause incorrect results for subsequent HIV testing.[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04495933-101)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-dwuq-102)[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-103) [Virus-like particle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") (VLP) vaccines are one type of subunit vaccines. They look similar to viruses, but do not contain any RNA or DNA, and are non-replicating. They can be stored in a fridge, rather than using extreme cold like mRNA vaccines. One such vaccine, [Covifenz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covifenz "Covifenz"), was authorized for use in 2022 in Canada, but later withdrawn.[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-104) ### Other types Additional types of vaccines that are in clinical trials include multiple [DNA plasmid vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_vaccine "DNA vaccine"),[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-105)[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04336410-106)[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-107)[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04463472-108)[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04445389-109)[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-gen-reut-110) at least two [lentivirus vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentiviral_vector_in_gene_therapy "Lentiviral vector in gene therapy") vaccines,[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04299724-111)[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04276896-112) a [conjugate vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_vaccine "Conjugate vaccine"), and a [vesicular stomatitis virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicular_stomatitis_virus "Vesicular stomatitis virus") displaying the SARS‑CoV‑2 spike protein.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04608305-113) Scientists investigated whether existing vaccines for unrelated conditions could prime the immune system and lessen the severity of COVID‑19 infections.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-114) There is experimental evidence that the [BCG vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCG_vaccine "BCG vaccine") for tuberculosis has non-specific effects on the immune system, but clinical trials showed this vaccine is not effective against COVID‑19.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-115) ### Formulation An [immunological adjuvant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunological_adjuvant "Immunological adjuvant") is a substance formulated with a vaccine to elevate the immune response to an [antigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen"), such as the COVID‑19 virus or influenza virus.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-tregoning-116) Adjuvants used in COVID‑19 vaccine formulations may be particularly effective for technologies using the inactivated COVID‑19 virus and recombinant protein-based or vector-based vaccines.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-wang-117) ## Authorized vaccines Main article: [List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_vaccine_authorizations "List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/COVID-19_vaccine_map.svg/330px-COVID-19_vaccine_map.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_vaccine_map.svg) Map of countries by approval status of COVID‑19 vaccines (2021) Approved for general use, mass vaccination underway [EUA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Use_Authorization "Emergency Use Authorization") (or equivalent) granted, mass vaccination underway EUA granted, mass vaccination planned No data available By the end of 2022, 50 COVID-19 vaccines had received authorization in one or more countries—meaning they were approved, licensed, or granted emergency use authorization by national regulatory agencies around the world.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-TrackVaccinesApproved-118)[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Pormohammad2021-119) The [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) monitors circulating strains and the effectiveness of different updated vaccines against them. As of May 2025, the WHO recommends that vaccines targetting [JN.1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BA.2.86 "BA.2.86") or KP.2 remain appropriate and that LP.8.1 is a suitable alternative vaccine antigen.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-120) The [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") recommends updating COVID-19 vaccines to target LP.8.1 for the 2025/2026 vaccination campaign.[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-121) At the same time, the FDA in the US advised manufacturers that the COVID-19 vaccines beginning in fall 2025 should be JN.1-lineage-based COVID-19 vaccines, preferentially using the LP.8.1 strain.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-122) ### Combination vaccines A [combined messenger RNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_and_COVID-19_vaccine "Influenza and COVID-19 vaccine") for protection against [influenza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza "Influenza") and COVID‑19 was introduced in 2026.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Mcombriax_EPAR-123)[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EMA_PR_2026027-124) ## Delivery methods [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/COVID_Vaccine_%2850745583447%29.jpg/250px-COVID_Vaccine_%2850745583447%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID_Vaccine_\(50745583447\).jpg) A US [airman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airman "Airman") receiving a COVID‑19 vaccine, December 2020 Most coronavirus vaccines are administered by [intramuscular injection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection"), with further vaccine delivery methods being studied for future coronavirus vaccines. ### Intranasal Intranasal vaccines target [mucosal immunity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucosal_immunology "Mucosal immunology") in the [nasal mucosa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_mucosa "Nasal mucosa"), which is a portal for viral entry into the body.[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-mudgal-125)[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-rhee-126) These vaccines are designed to stimulate nasal [immune factors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_factor "Immune factor"), such as [IgA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A "Immunoglobulin A").[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-mudgal-125) In addition to inhibiting the virus, nasal vaccines provide ease of administration because no needles (or [needle phobia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_of_needles "Fear of needles")) are involved.[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-rhee-126)[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-cdc-127) A variety of intranasal COVID‑19 vaccines are undergoing clinical trials. The first authorised intranasal vaccine was [Razi Cov Pars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi_Cov_Pars "Razi Cov Pars") in Iran at the end of October 2021.[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Tehran_Times-128) The first viral component of [Sputnik V vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine") was authorised in Russia as Sputnik Nasal in April 2022.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Sibmeda-129) In September 2022, India and China approved two [nasal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_vaccine "Nasal vaccine") COVID‑19 vaccines ([iNCOVACC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCOVACC "INCOVACC") and [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia")), which may (as boosters)[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-130) also reduce transmission[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-naturenasalvac-131)[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-132) (potentially via sterilizing immunity).[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-naturenasalvac-131) In December 2022, China approved a second intranasal vaccine as a booster, brand name [Pneucolin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT "DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT").[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Pneucolin-133) ## Universal vaccine Main article: [Universal coronavirus vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_coronavirus_vaccine "Universal coronavirus vaccine") A universal coronavirus vaccine would be effective against all coronaviruses and possibly other viruses.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-134)[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Joi_2021-135) The concept was publicly endorsed by [NIAID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIAID "NIAID") director [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci"), [virologist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virology "Virology") [Jeffery K. Taubenberger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffery_Taubenberger "Jeffery Taubenberger"), and David M. Morens.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Bush_2021-136) In March 2022, the [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House "White House") released the "National COVID‑19 Preparedness Plan", which recommended accelerating the development of a universal coronavirus vaccine.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-137) One attempt at such a vaccine is being developed at the [Walter Reed Army Institute of Research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reed_Army_Institute_of_Research "Walter Reed Army Institute of Research"). It uses a spike ferritin-based nanoparticle (SpFN). This vaccine began a Phase I clinical trial in April 2022.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-138) Results of this trial were published in May 2024.[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-WRAIR_phase_1_trial-139) Other universal vaccines that have entered clinical trial include OVX033 (France),[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-OVX033_phase_1_trial-140) PanCov (France),[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PanCov_phase_1/2_trial-141) pEVAC-PS (UK),[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Diosynvax_phase_1-142) and [VBI-2902](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VBI-2902 "VBI-2902") (Canada).[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VBI_phase_1_trial-143) Another strategy is to attach vaccine fragments from multiple strains to a [nanoparticle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoparticle "Nanoparticle") scaffold. One theory is that a broader range of strains can be vaccinated against by targeting the receptor-binding domain, rather than the whole [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_protein "Spike protein").[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-144) ## Development This section is an excerpt from [History of COVID-19 vaccine development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development "History of COVID-19 vaccine development").\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development&action=edit)\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/COVID-19_vaccine_in_NIAID_lab_freezer.jpg/250px-COVID-19_vaccine_in_NIAID_lab_freezer.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_vaccine_in_NIAID_lab_freezer.jpg) COVID‑19 vaccine research samples in a [NIAID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIAID "NIAID") lab freezer (30 January 2020) [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2 "Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2"), the virus that causes [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19"), was isolated in late 2019.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_who-time-145) Its [genetic sequence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_sequence "Nucleic acid sequence") was published on 11 January 2020, setting off an intense research effort to develop a COVID-19 vaccine.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh-146)[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_gates1-147)[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_Fauci-148) Vaccine development was expedited via unprecedented collaboration between [academia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_institution "Academic institution"), the [pharmaceutical industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry "Pharmaceutical industry") and governments.[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh2-149) By June 2020, tens of billions of dollars were being invested to develop dozens of vaccine candidates and prepare for global vaccination programs.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_gates1-147)[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_hbr-150)[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_cbcr-151)[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_ahmed-152) According to the [Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_for_Epidemic_Preparedness_Innovations "Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations") (CEPI), the geographic distribution of COVID‑19 vaccine development shows North American entities to have about 40% of the activity, compared to 30% in Asia and Australia, 26% in Europe, and a few projects in South America and Africa.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh-146)[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh2-149) In February 2020, the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) said it did not expect a vaccine against SARS‑CoV‑2 to become available in less than 18 months.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:0-153) Virologist Paul Offit commented that, in hindsight, the development of a safe and effective vaccine within 11 months was a remarkable feat.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-154) The rapidly growing infection rate of COVID‑19 worldwide during 2020 stimulated international alliances and government efforts to urgently organize resources to make multiple vaccines on shortened timelines;[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_who-accel-155) Four vaccine candidates entered human evaluation in March.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh-146)[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_yamey-156) On 24 June 2020, China approved the CanSino vaccine for limited use in the military and two inactivated virus vaccines for emergency use in high-risk occupations.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:1-157) On 11 August 2020, Russia announced the approval of its Sputnik V vaccine for emergency use, though one month later only small amounts of the vaccine had been distributed for use outside of the phase 3 trial.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:2-158) The Pfizer–BioNTech partnership submitted an [Emergency Use Authorization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Use_Authorization "Emergency Use Authorization") (EUA) request to the U.S. [Food and Drug Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration "Food and Drug Administration") (FDA) for their mRNA vaccine on 20 November 2020.[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:3-159)[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:4-160) On 2 December 2020, the United Kingdom's [Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicines_and_Healthcare_products_Regulatory_Agency "Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency") (MHRA) gave temporary regulatory approval for the [Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_MHRA_2020-12-08-161)[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:5-162) becoming the first country to approve the vaccine and the first country in the [Western world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world "Western world") to approve the use of any COVID‑19 vaccine.[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_ukgov12-2-163)[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_mueller-164)[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:6-165) The US and the EU followed later that month.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_eu_vac-166)[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thomas-167) The US also granted an EUA for the [Moderna COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") in December.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_CDC_ACIP_Moderna_COVID-19_Vaccine-168)[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_CNBC_20201219-169) [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain "Bahrain") and the [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") granted emergency marketing authorization for the [Sinopharm BIBP vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine").[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_bna-170)[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_uae-171) On 31 March 2021, the Russian government announced that they had registered the first COVID‑19 vaccine for animals.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-172) Named [Carnivac-Cov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivac-Cov "Carnivac-Cov"), it is an inactivated vaccine for carnivorous animals, including pets, aimed at preventing mutations that occur during the interspecies transmission of SARS-CoV-2.[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-173) In October 2022, China began administering an oral vaccine developed by [CanSino Biologics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CanSino_Biologics "CanSino Biologics") using its adenovirus model.[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-174) Despite the availability of [mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") and [viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine"), worldwide [vaccine equity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_equity "Vaccine equity") has not been achieved. The ongoing development and use of [whole inactivated virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_inactivated_virus "Whole inactivated virus") (WIV) and [protein-based](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") vaccines has been recommended, especially for use in [developing countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_countries "Developing countries"), to dampen further waves of the pandemic.[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_Hotez-175)[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_Ye-176) In June 2025, the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") announced that it was making data from the marketing authorization applications for COVID‑19 mRNA vaccines [Comirnaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comirnaty "Comirnaty") and [Spikevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spikevax "Spikevax") publicly available.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EMA_Transparency-65)[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Comirnaty_EPAR-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Spikevax_EPAR-67) Multiple steps along the entire development path are evaluated, including:[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-gates2-20)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-simpson-177) - the level of acceptable toxicity of the vaccine (its safety), - targeting vulnerable populations, - the need for vaccine efficacy breakthroughs, - the duration of vaccination protection, - special delivery systems (such as oral or nasal, rather than by injection), - dose regimen, - stability and storage characteristics, - emergency use authorization before formal licensing, - optimal manufacturing for scaling to billions of doses, and - dissemination of the licensed vaccine. ### Challenges There have been several unique challenges with COVID‑19 vaccine development. Timelines for conducting clinical research usually a sequential process requiring years – were being compressed into safety, efficacy, and dosing trials running simultaneously over months.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-sanger-178)[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-reuters-179) Under normal circumstances, large-scale trials involving thousands of participants only proceed after smaller studies confirm there are no significant safety concerns.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-180) For example, Chinese vaccine developers and the [Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention") began their efforts in January 2020,[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-181) and by March they were pursuing numerous candidates on short timelines.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-sanger-178)[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-wee-182) The rapid development and urgency of producing a vaccine for the COVID‑19 pandemic were expected to increase the risks and failure rate of delivering a safe, effective vaccine.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh-4)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-diamond-47)[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Thorp-183) Additionally, research at universities is obstructed by [physical distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") and the closing of laboratories.[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-184)[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-185) Vaccines must progress through several phases of [clinical trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial "Clinical trial") to test for safety, [immunogenicity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunogenicity "Immunogenicity"), effectiveness, dose levels, and [adverse effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_adverse_event "Vaccine adverse event") of the candidate vaccine.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Vaccines.gov-186)[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-fda-ddp-187) Vaccine developers have to invest resources internationally to find enough participants for Phase II–III clinical trials when the virus has proved to be a "[moving target](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_target_indication "Moving target indication")" of changing transmission rates across and within countries, forcing companies to compete for trial participants.[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-cohen6-19-188) As new vaccines are developed during the COVID‑19 pandemic, licensure of COVID‑19 vaccine candidates requires submission of a full dossier of information on development and manufacturing quality.[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-ema-eau-189)[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-byrne10-19-190)[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-dangerfield-191) ### Organizations involved in COVID-19 vaccine development Internationally, the [Access to COVID‑19 Tools Accelerator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_to_COVID%E2%80%9119_Tools_Accelerator "Access to COVID‑19 Tools Accelerator") is a [G20](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20 "G20") and [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) initiative announced in April 2020.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-g20gm-192)[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-whopress-193) It is a cross-discipline support structure to enable partners to share resources and knowledge. It comprises four pillars, each managed by two to three collaborating partners: Vaccines (also called "[COVAX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVAX "COVAX")"), Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Health Systems Connector.[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-act-faq-194) The WHO's April 2020 "R\&D Blueprint (for the) novel Coronavirus" documented a "large, international, multi-site, individually randomized controlled clinical trial" to allow "the concurrent evaluation of the benefits and risks of each promising candidate vaccine within 3–6 months of it being made available for the trial." The WHO vaccine coalition will prioritize which vaccines should go into Phase II and III clinical trials and determine harmonized Phase III protocols for all vaccines achieving the [pivotal trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivotal_trial "Pivotal trial") stage.[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-who-accel-195) National governments have also been involved in vaccine development. Canada announced funding for 96 projects for the development and production of vaccines at Canadian companies and universities, with plans to establish a "vaccine bank" that could be used if another coronavirus outbreak occurs,[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-abedi-196) support clinical trials, and develop manufacturing and supply chains for vaccines.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-can-research-197) [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_China "Government of China") provided low-rate loans to one vaccine developer through its [central bank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China "People's Bank of China") and "quickly made land available for the company" to build production plants.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-reuters-179) Three Chinese vaccine companies and research institutes are supported by the government for financing research, conducting clinical trials, and manufacturing.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-takada-198) The United Kingdom government formed a COVID‑19 vaccine [task force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_force "Task force") in April 2020 to stimulate local efforts for accelerated development of a vaccine through collaborations between industries, universities, and government agencies. The UK's [Vaccine Taskforce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Taskforce "Vaccine Taskforce") contributed to every phase of development, from research to manufacturing.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-morriss-199) In the United States, the [Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_Advanced_Research_and_Development_Authority "Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority") (BARDA), a federal agency funding disease-fighting technology, announced investments to support American COVID‑19 vaccine development and the manufacturing of the most promising candidates.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-reuters-179)[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-kuznia-200) In May 2020, the government announced funding for a fast-track program called [Operation Warp Speed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Warp_Speed "Operation Warp Speed").[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-201)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-202) By March 2021, BARDA had funded an estimated \$19.3 billion in COVID‑19 vaccine development.[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-203) Large pharmaceutical companies with experience in making vaccines at scale, including [Johnson & Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_%26_Johnson "Johnson & Johnson"), [AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstraZeneca "AstraZeneca"), and [GlaxoSmithKline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GlaxoSmithKline "GlaxoSmithKline") (GSK), formed alliances with [biotechnology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology "Biotechnology") companies, governments, and universities to accelerate progress toward effective vaccines.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-reuters-179)[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-sanger-178) ## Effectiveness [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/2021-_COVID-19_death_rates_by_vaccination_status_-_US.svg/500px-2021-_COVID-19_death_rates_by_vaccination_status_-_US.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2021-_COVID-19_death_rates_by_vaccination_status_-_US.svg) Death rates from COVID-19 for unvaccinated Americans substantially exceeded those who were vaccinated, with bivalent boosters further reducing the death rate.[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVIDmortality_2021_2023-204) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/COVID-19_vaccines_lives_saved.png/500px-COVID-19_vaccines_lives_saved.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_vaccines_lives_saved.png) Researchers have estimated that COVID-19 vaccines saved around 20 million lives globally in the first year of vaccine availability.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-205) This section is an excerpt from [COVID-19 vaccine clinical research § Effectiveness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research#Effectiveness "COVID-19 vaccine clinical research").\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research&action=edit)\] Evidence from vaccine use during the pandemic shows vaccination can reduce infection and is most effective at preventing severe COVID-19 symptoms and death, but is less good at preventing mild COVID-19. Efficacy wanes over time but can be maintained with boosters.[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_YangJiangLi2023-206) In 2021, the CDC reported that unvaccinated people were 10 times more likely to be hospitalized and 11 times more likely to die than fully vaccinated people.[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-207)[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-208) The CDC reported that vaccine effectiveness fell from 91% against [Alpha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant") to 66% against Delta.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-209) One expert stated that "those who are infected following vaccination are still not getting sick and not dying like was happening before vaccination."[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_TNR-210) By late August 2021, the Delta variant accounted for 99 percent of U.S. cases and was found to double the risk of severe illness and hospitalization for those not yet vaccinated.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_LATimes-delta-211) On 10 December 2021, the [UK Health Security Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Health_Security_Agency "UK Health Security Agency") reported that early data indicated a 20- to 40-fold reduction in neutralizing activity for Omicron by sera from Pfizer 2-dose vaccinees relative to earlier strains. After a booster dose (usually with an mRNA vaccine),[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-212) vaccine effectiveness against symptomatic disease was at 70%–75%, and the effectiveness against severe disease was expected to be higher.[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_briefing31-213) A meta-analysis looking into COVID-19 vaccine differences in immunosuppressed individuals found that people with a weakened immune system are less able to produce neutralizing antibodies. For example, organ transplant recipients need three vaccines to achieve [seroconversion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seroconversion "Seroconversion").[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-214) A study on the serologic response to mRNA vaccines among patients with lymphoma, leukemia, and myeloma found that one-quarter of patients did not produce measurable antibodies, varying by cancer type.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-215) In February 2023, a systematic review in *[The Lancet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet "The Lancet")* said that the protection afforded by infection was comparable to that from vaccination, albeit with an increased risk of severe illness and death from the disease of an initial infection.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_SteinNassereldineSorensen2023-216) A January 2024 study by the CDC found that staying up to date on the vaccines could reduce the risk of strokes, blood clots and heart attacks related to COVID-19 in people aged 65 years or older or with a condition that makes them more vulnerable to said conditions.[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-217)[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-218) ### Against infection and transmission Transmission is mostly due to mild infections. Vaccines show lower effectiveness against mild infections than severe infections, and the effectivenss decreases within six months of vaccination.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-219) [Vaccine efficacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_efficacy "Vaccine efficacy") against infections was around 77% for pre-Omicron variants in the first months after vaccination, and 26% against Omicron variants. The efficacy against infections waned more rapidly than against severe illness. Boosters restored the protection against infections.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-220) #### Duration of immunity As of 2021, available evidence shows that fully vaccinated individuals and those previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 have a low risk of subsequent infection for at least six months.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221)[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-222)[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-223) There is insufficient data to determine an antibody titer threshold that indicates when an individual is protected from infection.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) Multiple studies show that antibody titers are associated with protection at the population level, but individual protection titers remain unknown.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) For some populations, such as the elderly and the [immunocompromised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunocompromised "Immunocompromised"), protection levels may be reduced after both vaccination and infection.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) Available evidence indicates that the level of protection may not be the same for all [variants of the virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2").[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) As of December 2021, there are no FDA-authorized or approved tests that providers or the public can use to determine if a person is protected from infection reliably.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) As of March 2022, elderly residents' protection against severe illness, hospitalization, and death in English care homes was high immediately after vaccination, but protection declined significantly in the months following vaccination.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Guardian_20220318-224) Protection among care home staff, who were younger, declined much more slowly.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Guardian_20220318-224) Regular boosters are recommended for older people, and boosters for care home residents every six months appear reasonable.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Guardian_20220318-224) The US [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC) recommends a fourth dose of the Pfizer mRNA vaccine as of March 2022[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_vaccine&action=edit) for "certain immunocompromised individuals and people over the age of 50".[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-225)[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-226) ### Against severe illness and death This section is an excerpt from [COVID-19 vaccine clinical research § Against severe illness and death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research#Against_severe_illness_and_death "COVID-19 vaccine clinical research").\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research&action=edit)\] Overall, vaccines had a 87%–90% protection against severe outcomes, such as hospitalisation.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_:0-227)[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_:1-228) Six months after vaccination, the protection was still 76%. Like with infections, the protection was stronger against pre-Omicron variants than Omicron.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_:0-227) Protection against dying from COVID was similar: around 86%.[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_:1-228) According to a June 2022 study, COVID‑19 vaccines prevented an additional 14.4 to 19.8 million deaths in 185 countries and territories from 8 December 2020 to 8 December 2021.[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-229) A 2024 study estimated around 1.6 million lives saves in the [wider European region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_WHO_regions "List of WHO regions").[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-230) A study published in 2025 estimated that COVID-19 vaccinations globally averted approximately 2.5 million deaths between 2020 and 2024, with the majority of the benefit concentrated among older adults. These estimates were more conservative than those reported in previous studies, using different estimates of vaccine effectiveness and mortality rates.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-231) ### Immune evasion by variants In contrast to other investigated prior variants, the [SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant")[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-232)[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-233) and its BA.4/5 subvariants[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-234) have [evaded immunity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigenic_escape "Antigenic escape") induced by vaccines, which may lead to [breakthrough infections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_infection "Breakthrough infection") despite recent vaccination. Nevertheless, vaccines are thought to provide protection against severe illness, hospitalizations, and deaths due to Omicron.[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-235) #### Vaccine adjustments This section is an excerpt from [SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant § Vaccine adjustments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant#Vaccine_adjustments "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant").\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant&action=edit)\] In June 2022, [Pfizer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer "Pfizer") and [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna") developed [bivalent vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalent_vaccine "Bivalent vaccine") to protect against the [SARS-CoV-2 wild-type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") and the Omicron variant. The bivalent vaccines are well-tolerated and offer immunity to Omicron superior to previous mRNA vaccines.[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant_pmid36303305-236) In September 2022, the United States [Food and Drug Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration "Food and Drug Administration") (FDA) authorized the bivalent vaccines.[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-237)[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-238)[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-239) In June 2023, the FDA advised manufacturers that the 2023–2024 formulation of the COVID‑19 vaccines for use in the US be updated to be a monovalent COVID‑19 vaccine using the XBB.1.5 lineage of the Omicron variant.[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-240)[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-241) In June 2024, the FDA advised manufacturers that the 2024–2025 formulation of the COVID‑19 vaccines for use in the US be updated to be a monovalent COVID‑19 vaccine using the JN.1 lineage.[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-242) In October 2024, the [Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Medicinal_Products_for_Human_Use "Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use") of the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") (EMA) gave a positive opinion to update the composition of Bimervax, a vaccine targeting the Omicron XBB.1.16 subvariant.[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-243) As of May 2025, the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") recommends that monovalent JN.1 or KP.2 vaccines remain appropriate vaccine antigens and that monovalent LP.8.1 is a suitable alternative vaccine antigen.[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-244) The EMA recommends updating COVID-19 vaccines to target LP.8.1 for the 2025/2026 vaccination campaign.[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-245) ### Against long COVID COVID-19 vaccination seems to reduce risk of [long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID"). Three doses of a COVID-19 may reduce the risk by 70%, while two doses give 43% protection and one dose gives 19% protection. The evidence is based on observational studies, rather than on randomised clinical trials.[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-246) The large randomised control trials on COVID-19 vaccines did not include long COVID as an [outcome measure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome_measure "Outcome measure").[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-247) An analysis involving more than 20 million adults found that vaccinated people had a lower risk of long COVID compared with those who had not received a COVID‑19 vaccine; they were also protected against blood clots and heart failure after the COVID infection.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-248)[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-249)[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-250) ### Mix and match According to studies, the combination of two different COVID‑19 vaccines, also called [heterologous vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterologous_vaccine "Heterologous vaccine"), cross-vaccination, or the mix-and-match method, provides protection equivalent to that of mRNA vaccines, including protection against the [Delta variant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_variant "Delta variant"). Individuals who receive the combination of two different vaccines produce strong immune responses, with side effects no worse than those caused by standard regimens.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-251)[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-252) ## Adverse effects The risks of serious illness from COVID-19 are far higher than the risk posed by the vaccines.[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-253)[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-254)[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-255) For most people, the side effects, also called *[adverse effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effects "Adverse effects")*, from COVID‑19 vaccines are mild and can be managed at home. The adverse effects of the COVID‑19 vaccination are similar to those of other vaccines, and severe adverse effects are rare.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-256)[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-257) Adverse effects from the vaccine are higher than placebo, but placebo arms of vaccine trials still reported adverse effects that can be attributed to the [nocebo effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo_effect "Nocebo effect").[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-258) A February 2022 study, which examined a potential causal link between COVID-19 vaccines and excess deaths, found that out of more than 250 million [Americans vaccinated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccination in the United States"), only 55 cases of death after COVID-19 vaccination were reported and in 17 of these, a causal relationship had been excluded.[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-259) The [Paul Ehrlich Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich_Institute "Paul Ehrlich Institute") has recorded 31 [cerebral venous sinus thromboses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_venous_sinus_thrombosis "Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis") (CVST) and nine deaths out of 2.7 million vaccinated in Germany with the [AZD1222](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZD1222 "AZD1222").[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Gallagher_2021-260) The UK [Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicines_and_Healthcare_products_Regulatory_Agency "Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency") (MHRA) recorded 73 deaths out of nearly 50 million doses of AstraZeneca given in UK.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-261)[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-262) All vaccines administered via [intramuscular injection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection"), including COVID‑19 vaccines, have side effects related to the mild trauma associated with the procedure and the introduction of a foreign substance into the body.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Polania-263) These include soreness, redness, rash, and inflammation at the injection site. Other common side effects include fatigue, headache, [myalgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myalgia "Myalgia") (muscle pain), and [arthralgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthralgia "Arthralgia") (joint pain), all of which generally resolve without medical treatment within a few days.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_WHO-12) These common side effects result from the body responding to the vaccine to build up protection from the virus.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-264)[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-265) Like any other vaccine, some people are [allergic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergic "Allergic") to one or more ingredients in COVID‑19 vaccines. Typical side effects are stronger and more common in younger people and in subsequent doses, and up to 20% of people report a disruptive level of side effects after the second dose of an mRNA vaccine.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Huang_2022-266) These side effects are less common or weaker in [inactivated vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine").[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Huang_2022-266) COVID‑19 vaccination-related [enlargement of lymph nodes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphadenopathy "Lymphadenopathy") happens in 11.6% of those who received one dose of the vaccine and in 16% of those who received two doses.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-267) COVID‑19 vaccination is safe for breastfeeding people.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-breastf-13) Temporary changes to the [menstrual cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstrual_cycle "Menstrual cycle") in young women have been reported. However, these changes are "small compared with natural variation and quickly reverse."[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) In one study, women who received both doses of a two-dose vaccine during the same menstrual cycle (an atypical situation) may see their next period begin a couple of days late. They have about twice the usual risk of a clinically significant delay (about 10% of these women, compared to about 4% of unvaccinated women).[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) Cycle lengths return to normal after two menstrual cycles post-vaccination.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) Women who received doses in separate cycles had approximately the same natural variation in cycle lengths as unvaccinated women.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) Other temporary menstrual effects have been reported, such as heavier than normal menstrual bleeding after vaccination.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) ### Serious adverse events Serious [adverse events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_adverse_event "Vaccine adverse event") associated COVID‑19 vaccines are generally rare but of high interest to the public.[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Montgomery_2021-269) The official databases of reported adverse events include: - the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization")'s [VigiBase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VigiBase "VigiBase"); - the United States [Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Adverse_Events_Reporting_System "Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System") (VAERS); - the United Kingdom's [Yellow Card Scheme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_Card_Scheme "Yellow Card Scheme"); - the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency")'s [EudraVigilance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EudraVigilance "EudraVigilance") system, which operates a regular transfer of data on suspected adverse drug reactions occurring in the EU to [WHO's Uppsala Monitoring Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_Monitoring_Centre "Uppsala Monitoring Centre").[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-270) Increased public awareness of these reporting systems and the extra reporting requirements under US FDA [Emergency Use Authorization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Use_Authorization "Emergency Use Authorization") rules have increased reported adverse events.[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-271) Serious side effects are an ongoing area of study, and resources have been allocated to try to better understand them.[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-272)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-273)[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-274) Research currently indicates that the rate and type of side effects are lower-risk than infection. For example, although vaccination may trigger some side effects, the effects experienced from an infection could be worse. Neurological side effects from getting COVID‑19 are hundreds of times more likely than from vaccination.[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-275) Evidence suggests that vaccination confers no significantly increased risk of serious adverse effects, including various cardiovascular, metabolic, and endocrine events, based on a cohort study involving 1 million adults in Denmark who have received an mRNA COVID-19 booster shot targeting the Omicron JN.1 variant.[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Denmark_neuro_study_boostershot-276) Documented rare serious effects include: - [anaphylaxis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxis "Anaphylaxis"), a severe type of [allergic reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergic_reaction "Allergic reaction").[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Altmann_2022-277) Anaphylaxis affects one person per 250,000 to 400,000 doses administered.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Huang_2022-266)[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccines_safety_update-278) The rate is in line with the expected rate of anaphylaxis to non-COVID vaccines.[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-279)[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-280)[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-281)[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-282) According to a 2022 systematic review, the mortality rate of people with anaphylaxis following COVID‐19 vaccination was 0.5%. The review concluded the consensus of the studies was that "the risk of anaphylaxis is not significant when compared to the risks posed by COVID‐19 infection".[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-283) - [blood clots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombus "Thrombus") (*thrombosis*).[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Altmann_2022-277) These [vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolic_and_thrombotic_events_after_COVID-19_vaccination "Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination") are associated with vaccines using an adenovirus system (Janssen and Oxford-AstraZeneca).[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Altmann_2022-277) These affect about one person per 100,000.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Huang_2022-266) There is a far higher risk of developing blood clots as a result of COVID-19 infection than from the vaccines.[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-284) - [myocarditis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocarditis "Myocarditis") and [pericarditis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericarditis "Pericarditis"), or inflammation of the heart.[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Altmann_2022-277) There is a rare risk of myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) or pericarditis (inflammation of the membrane covering the heart) after the mRNA COVID‑19 vaccines (Moderna or Pfizer-BioNTech). The risk of myocarditis after COVID‑19 vaccination is estimated to be 0.3 to 5 cases per 100,000 persons, with the highest risk in young males.[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NEJM_Basso-285) COVID‑19 vaccines may protect against myocarditis due to subsequent COVID‑19 infection.[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-AHA_8/2022-286)[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-287) The risk of myocarditis and pericarditis is significantly higher (up to 11 times higher with respect to myocarditis) after COVID‑19 infection as compared to COVID‑19 vaccination, with the possible exception of men under 40 who may have a higher risk of myocarditis after the second Moderna mRNA vaccine (an additional 97 cases of myocarditis per 1 million persons vaccinated).[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-AHA_8/2022-286) The mortality rate from myocarditis post-vaccination is extremely low. According to a 2022 study, of patients diagnosed with myocarditis (in both vaccination and COVID-19 cohorts), 1.07% were hospitalized and 0.015% died.[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-288) As of June 2025, the US FDA requires a prescription label warning regarding myocarditis and pericarditis.[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-289) - thrombotic thrombocytopenia and other autoimmune diseases, which have been reported as adverse events after the COVID‑19 vaccine.[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-290) - new onset [tinnitus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinnitus "Tinnitus") after the first dose of certain vaccines; however, there is a higher risk of the same symptom developing after influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations than after the COVID-19 vaccine.[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Slomski_2022-291)[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-292) ## Distribution and access ### Distribution Main article: [Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") ***Note** about the table in this section: number and percentage of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID‑19 vaccine (unless noted otherwise). May include vaccination of non-citizens, which can push totals beyond 100% of the local population. The table is updated daily by a bot.[\[note 1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-bot-note-293)* Updated March 12, 2026. | | Location | Vaccinated[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-295) | Percent[\[b\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-296) | |---|---|---|---| | ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/OOjs_UI_icon_globe.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_globe.svg.png) | [World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic")[\[c\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-297)[\[d\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-298) | 5,645,247,500 | 70\.70% | | [![China](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") | [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_China "COVID-19 pandemic in China")[\[e\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-299) | 1,318,026,800 | 92\.48% | | [![India](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/40px-Flag_of_India.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India "India") | [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India") | 1,027,438,900 | 72\.08% | | [![European Union](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/40px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") | [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_European_Union "COVID-19 pandemic in European Union")[\[f\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-300) | 338,481,060 | 75\.43% | | [![United States](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") | [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in United States")[\[g\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-301) | 270,227,170 | 79\.12% | | [![Indonesia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") | [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia") | 204,419,400 | 73\.31% | | [![Brazil](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/40px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") | [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") | 189,643,420 | 90\.17% | | [![Pakistan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") | [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pakistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan") | 165,567,890 | 67\.94% | | [![Bangladesh](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh") | [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") | 151,507,170 | 89\.45% | | [![Japan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan") | [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") | 104,740,060 | 83\.79% | | [![Mexico](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/40px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") | [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") | 97,179,496 | 75\.56% | | [![Nigeria](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/40px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") | [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria") | 93,829,430 | 42\.05% | | [![Vietnam](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/40px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") | [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") | 90,497,670 | 90\.79% | | [![Russia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") | [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") | 89,081,600 | 61\.19% | | [![Philippines](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") | [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Philippines "COVID-19 pandemic in Philippines") | 82,684,776 | 72\.55% | | [![Iran](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") | [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran "COVID-19 pandemic in Iran") | 65,199,830 | 72\.83% | | [![Germany](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/40px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany "Germany") | [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany "COVID-19 pandemic in Germany") | 64,876,300 | 77\.15% | | [![Turkey](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/40px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") | [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") | 57,941,052 | 66\.55% | | [![Thailand](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/40px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") | [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") | 57,005,496 | 79\.47% | | [![Egypt](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/40px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") | [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") | 56,907,320 | 50\.53% | | [![France](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France") | [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France "COVID-19 pandemic in France") | 54,677,680 | 82\.50% | | [![United Kingdom](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") | [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 pandemic in United Kingdom") | 53,806,964 | 78\.92% | | [![Ethiopia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia") | [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ethiopia "COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia") | 52,489,510 | 41\.86% | | [![Italy](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/40px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy "Italy") | [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "COVID-19 pandemic in Italy")[\[h\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-302) | 50,936,720 | 85\.44% | | [![South Korea](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/40px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") | [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea") | 44,764,956 | 86\.45% | | [![Colombia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia "Colombia") | [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") | 43,012,176 | 83\.13% | | [![Myanmar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/40px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar") | [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Myanmar "COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar") | 41,551,930 | 77\.30% | | [![Argentina](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/40px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") | 41,529,056 | 91\.46% | | [![Spain](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/40px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain "Spain") | [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") | 41,351,230 | 86\.46% | | [![Canada](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada") | [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") | 34,742,936 | 89\.49% | | [![Tanzania](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania") | [Tanzania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tanzania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tanzania") | 34,434,932 | 53\.21% | | [![Peru](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/40px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru "Peru") | [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") | 30,563,708 | 91\.30% | | [![Malaysia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") | [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") | 28,138,564 | 81\.10% | | [![Nepal](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/20px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") | [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nepal "COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal") | 27,883,196 | 93\.83% | | [![Saudi Arabia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") | [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia") | 27,041,364 | 84\.04% | | [![Morocco](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/40px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco "Morocco") | [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Morocco "COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco") | 25,020,168 | 67\.03% | | [![South Africa](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/40px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") | [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa") | 24,210,952 | 38\.81% | | [![Poland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland "Poland") | [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Poland "COVID-19 pandemic in Poland") | 22,984,544 | 59\.88% | | [![Mozambique](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg/40px-Flag_of_Mozambique.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique") | [Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mozambique "COVID-19 pandemic in Mozambique") | 22,869,646 | 70\.03% | | [![Australia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia") | [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Australia") | 22,231,734 | 84\.85% | | [![Venezuela](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/40px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") | [Venezuela](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Venezuela "COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela") | 22,157,232 | 78\.54% | | [![Uzbekistan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan") | [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uzbekistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Uzbekistan") | 22,094,470 | 63\.24% | | [![Taiwan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") | [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan") | 21,899,240 | 93\.51% | | [![Uganda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/40px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") | [Uganda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uganda "COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda") | 20,033,188 | 42\.34% | | [![Afghanistan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") | [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Afghanistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Afghanistan") | 19,151,368 | 47\.20% | | [![Chile](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/40px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile "Chile") | [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") | 18,088,516 | 92\.51% | | [![Sri Lanka](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg/40px-Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") | [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka") | 17,143,760 | 75\.08% | | [![Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "Democratic Republic of the Congo") | [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in Democratic Republic of the Congo") | 17,045,720 | 16\.65% | | [![Angola](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg/40px-Flag_of_Angola.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola "Angola") | [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Angola "COVID-19 pandemic in Angola") | 16,550,642 | 46\.44% | | [![Ukraine](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/40px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine") | [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine") | 16,267,198 | 39\.63% | | [![Ecuador](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg/40px-Flag_of_Ecuador.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador "Ecuador") | [Ecuador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ecuador "COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador") | 15,345,791 | 86\.10% | | [![Cambodia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cambodia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia") | [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cambodia "COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia") | 15,316,670 | 89\.04% | | [![Sudan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan "Sudan") | [Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sudan") | 15,207,452 | 30\.79% | | [![Kenya](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya "Kenya") | [Kenya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kenya "COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya") | 14,494,372 | 26\.72% | | [![Ghana](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/40px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") | [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana "COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana") | 13,864,186 | 41\.82% | | [![Ivory Coast](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.svg/40px-Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_Coast "Ivory Coast") | [Ivory Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ivory_Coast "COVID-19 pandemic in Ivory Coast") | 13,568,372 | 44\.64% | | [![Netherlands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") | [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in Netherlands") | 12,582,081 | 70\.27% | | [![Zambia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambia "Zambia") | [Zambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zambia "COVID-19 pandemic in Zambia") | 11,711,565 | 58\.11% | | [![Iraq](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") | [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iraq "COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq") | 11,332,925 | 25\.72% | | [![Rwanda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/40px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda "Rwanda") | [Rwanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rwanda "COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda") | 10,884,714 | 79\.74% | | [![Kazakhstan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") | [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") | 10,858,101 | 54\.20% | | [![Cuba](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") | [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cuba "COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba") | 10,805,570 | 97\.70% | | [![United Arab Emirates](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") | [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 pandemic in United Arab Emirates") | 9,991,089 | 97\.55% | | [![Portugal](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Flag_of_Portugal_%28official%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Portugal_%28official%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") | [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portugal "COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal") | 9,821,414 | 94\.28% | | [![Belgium](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium "Belgium") | [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belgium "COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium") | 9,261,641 | 79\.55% | | [![Somalia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia "Somalia") | [Somalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Somalia "COVID-19 pandemic in Somalia") | 8,972,167 | 50\.40% | | [![Guatemala](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg/40px-Flag_of_Guatemala.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemala "Guatemala") | [Guatemala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guatemala "COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala") | 8,937,923 | 50\.08% | | [![Tunisia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia") | [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tunisia "COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia") | 8,896,848 | 73\.41% | | [![Guinea](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Guinea.svg/40px-Flag_of_Guinea.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea "Guinea") | [Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea") | 8,715,641 | 62\.01% | | [![Greece](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/40px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece "Greece") | [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greece "COVID-19 pandemic in Greece") | 7,938,031 | 76\.24% | | [![Algeria](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/40px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria "Algeria") | [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Algeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria") | 7,840,131 | 17\.24% | | [![Sweden](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/40px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") | [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sweden "COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden") | 7,775,726 | 74\.14% | | [![Zimbabwe](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/40px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe "Zimbabwe") | [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe") | 7,525,882 | 46\.83% | | [![Dominican Republic](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic "Dominican Republic") | [Dominican Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dominican_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in Dominican Republic") | 7,367,193 | 65\.60% | | [![Bolivia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia") | [Bolivia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bolivia "COVID-19 pandemic in Bolivia") | 7,361,008 | 60\.95% | | [![Israel](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/40px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel") | [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Israel "COVID-19 pandemic in Israel") | 7,055,466 | 77\.51% | | [![Czech Republic](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic") | [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Czech_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in Czech Republic") | 6,982,006 | 65\.42% | | [![Hong Kong](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg/40px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") | [Hong Kong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hong_Kong "COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong") | 6,920,057 | 92\.69% | | [![Austria](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/40px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria "Austria") | [Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austria "COVID-19 pandemic in Austria") | 6,899,873 | 76\.12% | | [![Honduras](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Honduras_%281949%E2%80%932022%2C_2026%E2%80%93present%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Honduras_%281949%E2%80%932022%2C_2026%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honduras "Honduras") | [Honduras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Honduras "COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras") | 6,596,213 | 63\.04% | | [![Belarus](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/40px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus "Belarus") | [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus "COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus") | 6,536,392 | 71\.25% | | [![Hungary](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/40px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary "Hungary") | [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hungary "COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary") | 6,420,354 | 66\.30% | | [![Nicaragua](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/40px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua") | [Nicaragua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nicaragua "COVID-19 pandemic in Nicaragua") | 6,404,524 | 95\.15% | | [![Niger](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg/20px-Flag_of_Niger.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger "Niger") | [Niger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niger "COVID-19 pandemic in Niger") | 6,248,483 | 24\.69% | | [![Switzerland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") | [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland") | 6,096,911 | 69\.34% | | [![Burkina Faso](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg/40px-Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso "Burkina Faso") | [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 pandemic in Burkina Faso") | 6,089,089 | 27\.05% | | [![Laos](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/40px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos "Laos") | [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Laos "COVID-19 pandemic in Laos") | 5,888,649 | 77\.90% | | [![Sierra Leone](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/40px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone") | [Sierra Leone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sierra_Leone "COVID-19 pandemic in Sierra Leone") | 5,676,123 | 68\.58% | | [![Romania](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/40px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania "Romania") | [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") | 5,474,507 | 28\.56% | | [![Malawi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg/40px-Flag_of_Malawi.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawi "Malawi") | [Malawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malawi "COVID-19 pandemic in Malawi") | 5,433,538 | 26\.42% | | [![Azerbaijan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan") | [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Azerbaijan "COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan") | 5,373,253 | 52\.19% | | [![Tajikistan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan "Tajikistan") | [Tajikistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tajikistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Tajikistan") | 5,328,277 | 52\.33% | | [![Singapore](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/40px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") | [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") | 5,287,005 | 93\.58% | | [![Chad](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg/40px-Flag_of_Chad.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad "Chad") | [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chad "COVID-19 pandemic in Chad") | 5,147,667 | 27\.89% | | [![Jordan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan "Jordan") | [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jordan "COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan") | 4,821,579 | 42\.83% | | [![Denmark](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") | [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Denmark "COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark") | 4,746,522 | 80\.41% | | [![El Salvador](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/40px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Salvador "El Salvador") | [El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_El_Salvador "COVID-19 pandemic in El Salvador") | 4,659,970 | 74\.20% | | [![Costa Rica](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/40px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Rica "Costa Rica") | [Costa Rica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Costa_Rica "COVID-19 pandemic in Costa Rica") | 4,650,636 | 91\.52% | | [![Turkmenistan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan "Turkmenistan") | [Turkmenistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkmenistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkmenistan") | 4,614,869 | 63\.83% | | [![Finland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland "Finland") | [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Finland "COVID-19 pandemic in Finland") | 4,524,288 | 81\.24% | | [![Mali](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Mali.svg/40px-Flag_of_Mali.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali "Mali") | [Mali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mali "COVID-19 pandemic in Mali") | 4,354,292 | 18\.87% | | [![Norway](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/40px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway "Norway") | [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norway "COVID-19 pandemic in Norway") | 4,346,995 | 79\.66% | | [![South Sudan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_South_Sudan.svg/40px-Flag_of_South_Sudan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sudan "South Sudan") | [South Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in South Sudan") | 4,315,127 | 39\.15% | | [![New Zealand](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/40px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") | [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") | 4,302,330 | 83\.84% | | [![Republic of Ireland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") | [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in Republic of Ireland") | 4,112,237 | 80\.47% | | [![Paraguay](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg/40px-Flag_of_Paraguay.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraguay "Paraguay") | [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Paraguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Paraguay") | 3,995,915 | 59\.11% | | [![Liberia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Liberia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Liberia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia "Liberia") | [Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liberia "COVID-19 pandemic in Liberia") | 3,903,802 | 72\.65% | | [![Cameroon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cameroon.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon "Cameroon") | [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 pandemic in Cameroon") | 3,753,733 | 13\.58% | | [![Panama](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/40px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama "Panama") | [Panama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Panama "COVID-19 pandemic in Panama") | 3,746,041 | 85\.12% | | [![Benin](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Benin.svg/40px-Flag_of_Benin.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin "Benin") | [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Benin "COVID-19 pandemic in Benin") | 3,697,190 | 26\.87% | | [![Kuwait](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") | [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuwait "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait") | 3,457,498 | 75\.33% | | [![Serbia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia "Serbia") | [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") | 3,354,075 | 49\.39% | | [![Syria](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Flag_of_Syria_%282025-%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Syria_%282025-%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria "Syria") | [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Syria "COVID-19 pandemic in Syria") | 3,295,630 | 14\.67% | | [![Oman](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg/40px-Flag_of_Oman.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman "Oman") | [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oman "COVID-19 pandemic in Oman") | 3,279,632 | 69\.33% | | [![Uruguay](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/40px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay") | [Uruguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uruguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Uruguay") | 3,010,464 | 88\.78% | | [![Qatar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg/40px-Flag_of_Qatar.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar "Qatar") | [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Qatar "COVID-19 pandemic in Qatar") | 2,852,178 | 98\.61% | | [![Slovakia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia") | [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") | 2,840,017 | 51\.89% | | [![Lebanon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/40px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon") | [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lebanon "COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon") | 2,740,227 | 47\.70% | | [![Madagascar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/40px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") | [Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madagascar "COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar") | 2,710,365 | 8\.90% | | [![Senegal](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/40px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal "Senegal") | [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Senegal "COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal") | 2,684,696 | 15\.21% | | [![Central African Republic](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Republic "Central African Republic") | [Central African Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Central_African_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in Central African Republic") | 2,600,389 | 51\.01% | | [![Croatia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia "Croatia") | [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") | 2,323,025 | 59\.46% | | [![Libya](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Libya.svg/40px-Flag_of_Libya.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya "Libya") | [Libya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Libya "COVID-19 pandemic in Libya") | 2,316,327 | 32\.07% | | [![Mongolia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Mongolia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia") | [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia") | 2,284,018 | 67\.45% | | [![Togo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_Togo_%283-2%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Togo_%283-2%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togo "Togo") | [Togo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Togo "COVID-19 pandemic in Togo") | 2,255,579 | 24\.81% | | [![Bulgaria](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria") | [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 pandemic in Bulgaria") | 2,155,863 | 31\.58% | | [![Mauritania](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_Mauritania.svg/40px-Flag_of_Mauritania.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania "Mauritania") | [Mauritania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritania "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritania") | 2,103,754 | 43\.15% | | [![Palestine](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flag_of_Palestine.svg/40px-Flag_of_Palestine.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine "Palestine") | [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Palestine "COVID-19 pandemic in Palestine") | 2,012,767 | 37\.94% | | [![Lithuania](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/40px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania") | [Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lithuania "COVID-19 pandemic in Lithuania") | 1,958,299 | 69\.52% | | [![Botswana](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_Botswana.svg/40px-Flag_of_Botswana.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botswana "Botswana") | [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Botswana "COVID-19 pandemic in Botswana") | 1,951,054 | 79\.96% | | [![Kyrgyzstan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan") | [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kyrgyzstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kyrgyzstan") | 1,736,541 | 24\.97% | | [![Georgia (country)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_\(country\) "Georgia (country)") | [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(country\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (country)") | 1,654,504 | 43\.60% | | [![Albania](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/40px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania "Albania") | [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Albania "COVID-19 pandemic in Albania") | 1,349,255 | 47\.72% | | [![Latvia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia "Latvia") | [Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Latvia "COVID-19 pandemic in Latvia") | 1,346,184 | 71\.57% | | [![Slovenia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia") | [Slovenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovenia") | 1,265,802 | 59\.84% | | [![Bahrain](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bahrain.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain "Bahrain") | [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bahrain "COVID-19 pandemic in Bahrain") | 1,241,174 | 80\.94% | | [![Armenia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia "Armenia") | [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Armenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia") | 1,150,915 | 39\.95% | | [![Mauritius](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg/40px-Flag_of_Mauritius.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius "Mauritius") | [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritius "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritius") | 1,123,773 | 88\.06% | | [![Moldova](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/40px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova "Moldova") | [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Moldova "COVID-19 pandemic in Moldova") | 1,109,524 | 36\.50% | | [![Yemen](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg/40px-Flag_of_Yemen.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen "Yemen") | [Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Yemen "COVID-19 pandemic in Yemen") | 1,050,202 | 2\.75% | | [![Lesotho](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Flag_of_Lesotho.svg/40px-Flag_of_Lesotho.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesotho "Lesotho") | [Lesotho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lesotho "COVID-19 pandemic in Lesotho") | 1,014,073 | 44\.36% | | [![Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina") | [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 pandemic in Bosnia and Herzegovina") | 943,394 | 29\.44% | | [![Kosovo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Kosovo.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kosovo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo "Kosovo") | [Kosovo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kosovo "COVID-19 pandemic in Kosovo") | 906,858 | 52\.79% | | [![Timor-Leste](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_East_Timor.svg/40px-Flag_of_East_Timor.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timor-Leste "Timor-Leste") | [Timor-Leste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Timor-Leste "COVID-19 pandemic in Timor-Leste") | 886,838 | 64\.77% | | [![Estonia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia "Estonia") | [Estonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Estonia "COVID-19 pandemic in Estonia") | 870,202 | 64\.45% | | [![Jamaica](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg/40px-Flag_of_Jamaica.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica "Jamaica") | [Jamaica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jamaica "COVID-19 pandemic in Jamaica") | 859,773 | 30\.28% | | [![North Macedonia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/40px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Macedonia "North Macedonia") | [North Macedonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Macedonia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Macedonia") | 854,570 | 46\.44% | | [![Trinidad and Tobago](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg/40px-Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago "Trinidad and Tobago") | [Trinidad and Tobago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") | 754,399 | 50\.43% | | [![Guinea-Bissau](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg/40px-Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea-Bissau "Guinea-Bissau") | [Guinea-Bissau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea-Bissau "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea-Bissau") | 747,057 | 35\.48% | | [![Fiji](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Fiji.svg/40px-Flag_of_Fiji.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiji "Fiji") | [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Fiji "COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji") | 712,025 | 77\.44% | | [![Bhutan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bhutan.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan") | [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 pandemic in Bhutan") | 699,116 | 89\.52% | | [![Republic of the Congo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo "Republic of the Congo") | [Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in Republic of the Congo") | 695,760 | 11\.53% | | [![Macau](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Flag_of_Macau.svg/40px-Flag_of_Macau.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau "Macau") | [Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Macau "COVID-19 pandemic in Macau") | 679,703 | 96\.50% | | [![The Gambia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg/40px-Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gambia "The Gambia") | [Gambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gambia "COVID-19 pandemic in Gambia") | 674,314 | 25\.58% | | [![Cyprus](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus") | [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus") | 671,193 | 71\.37% | | [![Namibia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flag_of_Namibia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Namibia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia "Namibia") | [Namibia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Namibia "COVID-19 pandemic in Namibia") | 629,767 | 21\.79% | | [![Eswatini](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Flag_of_Eswatini.svg/40px-Flag_of_Eswatini.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini "Eswatini") | [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 pandemic in Eswatini") | 526,050 | 43\.16% | | [![Haiti](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Haiti.svg/40px-Flag_of_Haiti.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti "Haiti") | [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haiti "COVID-19 pandemic in Haiti") | 521,396 | 4\.53% | | [![Guyana](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.svg/40px-Flag_of_Guyana.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyana "Guyana") | [Guyana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guyana "COVID-19 pandemic in Guyana") | 497,550 | 60\.56% | | [![Luxembourg](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg "Luxembourg") | [Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Luxembourg "COVID-19 pandemic in Luxembourg") | 481,957 | 73\.77% | | [![Malta](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/40px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta "Malta") | [Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malta "COVID-19 pandemic in Malta") | 478,953 | 90\.68% | | [![Brunei](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg/40px-Flag_of_Brunei.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei "Brunei") | [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brunei "COVID-19 pandemic in Brunei") | 451,149 | 99\.07% | | [![Comoros](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Comoros.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Comoros.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoros "Comoros") | [Comoros](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Comoros "COVID-19 pandemic in Comoros") | 438,825 | 52\.60% | | [![Djibouti](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_Djibouti.svg/40px-Flag_of_Djibouti.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti "Djibouti") | [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 pandemic in Djibouti") | 421,573 | 37\.07% | | [![Maldives](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg/40px-Flag_of_Maldives.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives "Maldives") | [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maldives "COVID-19 pandemic in Maldives") | 399,308 | 76\.19% | | [![Papua New Guinea](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg/20px-Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea") | [Papua New Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Papua_New_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Papua New Guinea") | 382,020 | 3\.74% | | [![Cape Verde](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Cape_Verde.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cape_Verde.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Verde "Cape Verde") | [Cabo Verde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cabo_Verde "COVID-19 pandemic in Cabo Verde") | 356,734 | 68\.64% | | [![Solomon Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_the_Solomon_Islands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Solomon_Islands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands "Solomon Islands") | [Solomon Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Solomon_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in Solomon Islands") | 343,821 | 44\.02% | | [![Gabon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg/20px-Flag_of_Gabon.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon "Gabon") | [Gabon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gabon "COVID-19 pandemic in Gabon") | 311,244 | 12\.80% | | [![Iceland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland "Iceland") | [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iceland "COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland") | 309,770 | 81\.44% | | [![Northern Cyprus](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flag_of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cyprus "Northern Cyprus") | [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus") | 301,673 | 78\.80% | | [![Montenegro](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/40px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegro "Montenegro") | [Montenegro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montenegro "COVID-19 pandemic in Montenegro") | 292,783 | 47\.63% | | [![Equatorial Guinea](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg/40px-Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea "Equatorial Guinea") | [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Equatorial Guinea") | 270,109 | 14\.98% | | [![Suriname](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg/40px-Flag_of_Suriname.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriname "Suriname") | [Suriname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Suriname "COVID-19 pandemic in Suriname") | 267,820 | 42\.98% | | [![Belize](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_Belize.svg/40px-Flag_of_Belize.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belize "Belize") | [Belize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belize "COVID-19 pandemic in Belize") | 258,473 | 64\.18% | | [![New Caledonia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/New_Caledonia_flags_merged_%282017%29.svg/40px-New_Caledonia_flags_merged_%282017%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonia "New Caledonia") | [New Caledonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Caledonia "COVID-19 pandemic in New Caledonia") | 192,375 | 67\.00% | | [![Samoa](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Samoa.svg/40px-Flag_of_Samoa.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoa "Samoa") | [Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in Samoa") | 191,403 | 88\.91% | | [![French Polynesia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svg/40px-Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Polynesia "French Polynesia") | [French Polynesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Polynesia "COVID-19 pandemic in French Polynesia") | 190,908 | 68\.09% | | [![Vanuatu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg/40px-Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatu "Vanuatu") | [Vanuatu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vanuatu "COVID-19 pandemic in Vanuatu") | 176,624 | 56\.42% | | [![The Bahamas](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_the_Bahamas.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Bahamas.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bahamas "The Bahamas") | [Bahamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bahamas "COVID-19 pandemic in Bahamas") | 174,810 | 43\.97% | | [![Barbados](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_Barbados.svg/40px-Flag_of_Barbados.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados "Barbados") | [Barbados](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Barbados "COVID-19 pandemic in Barbados") | 163,853 | 58\.04% | | [![SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂ­ncipe](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe.svg/40px-Flag_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe "SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂ­ncipe") | [Sao Tome and Principe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sao_Tome_and_Principe "COVID-19 pandemic in Sao Tome and Principe") | 140,256 | 61\.97% | | [![Curaçao](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Cura%C3%A7ao.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cura%C3%A7ao.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao "Curaçao") | [Curaçao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cura%C3%A7ao "COVID-19 pandemic in Curaçao") | 108,601 | 58\.59% | | [![Kiribati](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kiribati.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kiribati.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiribati "Kiribati") | [Kiribati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kiribati "COVID-19 pandemic in Kiribati") | 100,900 | 77\.33% | | [![Aruba](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Aruba.svg/40px-Flag_of_Aruba.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruba "Aruba") | [Aruba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Aruba "COVID-19 pandemic in Aruba") | 90,546 | 84\.00% | | [![Seychelles](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Seychelles.svg/40px-Flag_of_Seychelles.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles "Seychelles") | [Seychelles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Seychelles "COVID-19 pandemic in Seychelles") | 88,520 | 70\.52% | | [![Tonga](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Tonga.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tonga.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonga "Tonga") | [Tonga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tonga "COVID-19 pandemic in Tonga") | 87,375 | 83\.17% | | [![Jersey](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Flag_of_Jersey.svg/40px-Flag_of_Jersey.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey "Jersey") | [Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jersey "COVID-19 pandemic in Jersey") | 84,365 | 81\.52% | | [![Isle of Man](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_the_Isle_of_Man.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Isle_of_Man.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man") | [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Isle_of_Man "COVID-19 pandemic in the Isle of Man") | 69,560 | 82\.66% | | [![Antigua and Barbuda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda.svg/40px-Flag_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda "Antigua and Barbuda") | [Antigua and Barbuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Antigua and Barbuda") | 64,290 | 69\.24% | | [![Cayman Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_the_Cayman_Islands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Cayman_Islands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayman_Islands "Cayman Islands") | [Cayman Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cayman_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in Cayman Islands") | 62,113 | 86\.74% | | [![Saint Lucia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Lucia "Saint Lucia") | [Saint Lucia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Lucia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Lucia") | 60,140 | 33\.64% | | [![Andorra](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Andorra.svg/40px-Flag_of_Andorra.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorra "Andorra") | [Andorra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andorra "COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra") | 57,913 | 72\.64% | | [![Guernsey](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_Guernsey.svg/40px-Flag_of_Guernsey.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernsey "Guernsey") | [Guernsey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guernsey "COVID-19 pandemic in Guernsey") | 54,223 | 85\.06% | | [![Bermuda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Bermuda.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bermuda.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda") | [Bermuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bermuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Bermuda") | 48,554 | 74\.96% | | [![Grenada](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Grenada.svg/40px-Flag_of_Grenada.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenada "Grenada") | [Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Grenada "COVID-19 pandemic in Grenada") | 44,241 | 37\.84% | | [![Gibraltar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg/40px-Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") | [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gibraltar "COVID-19 pandemic in Gibraltar") | 42,175 | 112\.08% | | [![Faroe Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islands "Faroe Islands") | [Faroe Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Faroe_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in Faroe Islands") | 41,715 | 77\.19% | | [![Greenland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_Greenland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Greenland.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland "Greenland") | [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greenland "COVID-19 pandemic in Greenland") | 41,227 | 73\.60% | | [![Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.svg/40px-Flag_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines") | [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines") | 37,532 | 36\.77% | | [![Burundi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Burundi.svg/40px-Flag_of_Burundi.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burundi "Burundi") | [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burundi "COVID-19 pandemic in Burundi") | 36,909 | 0\.28% | | [![Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis.svg/40px-Flag_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "Saint Kitts and Nevis") | [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Kitts and Nevis") | 33,794 | 72\.31% | | [![Dominica](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Flag_of_Dominica.svg/40px-Flag_of_Dominica.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominica "Dominica") | [Dominica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dominica "COVID-19 pandemic in Dominica") | 32,995 | 49\.36% | | [![Turks and Caicos Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands "Turks and Caicos Islands") | [Turks and Caicos Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in Turks and Caicos Islands") | 32,815 | 71\.54% | | [![Sint Maarten](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Sint_Maarten.svg/40px-Flag_of_Sint_Maarten.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint_Maarten "Sint Maarten") | [Sint Maarten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sint_Maarten "COVID-19 pandemic in Sint Maarten") | 29,788 | 70\.65% | | [![Monaco](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg/20px-Flag_of_Monaco.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monaco "Monaco") | [Monaco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Monaco "COVID-19 pandemic in Monaco") | 28,875 | 74\.13% | | [![Liechtenstein](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg/40px-Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liechtenstein "Liechtenstein") | [Liechtenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liechtenstein "COVID-19 pandemic in Liechtenstein") | 26,771 | 68\.05% | | [![San Marino](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg/20px-Flag_of_San_Marino.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marino "San Marino") | [San Marino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_San_Marino "COVID-19 pandemic in San Marino") | 26,357 | 77\.26% | | [![British Virgin Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands "British Virgin Islands") | [British Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_British_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in British Virgin Islands") | 19,466 | 50\.76% | | [![Caribbean Netherlands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_Netherlands "Caribbean Netherlands") | [Caribbean Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Caribbean_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in Caribbean Netherlands") | 19,109 | 66\.69% | | [![Cook Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Cook_Islands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Cook_Islands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Islands "Cook Islands") | [Cook Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cook_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in Cook Islands") | 15,112 | 102\.48% | | [![Nauru](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Nauru.svg/40px-Flag_of_Nauru.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauru "Nauru") | [Nauru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nauru "COVID-19 pandemic in Nauru") | 13,106 | 110\.86% | | [![Anguilla](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Anguilla.svg/40px-Flag_of_Anguilla.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguilla "Anguilla") | [Anguilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Anguilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Anguilla") | 10,858 | 76\.45% | | [![Tuvalu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tuvalu.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tuvalu.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvalu "Tuvalu") | [Tuvalu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tuvalu "COVID-19 pandemic in Tuvalu") | 9,763 | 97\.51% | | [![Wallis and Futuna](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna "Wallis and Futuna") | [Wallis and Futuna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wallis_and_Futuna "COVID-19 pandemic in Wallis and Futuna") | 7,150 | 62\.17% | | [![Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha "Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha") | [Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha") | 4,361 | 81\.23% | | [![Falkland Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Falkland_Islands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Falkland_Islands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falkland_Islands "Falkland Islands") | [Falkland Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Falkland_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in Falkland Islands") | 2,632 | 74\.88% | | [![Tokelau](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_Tokelau.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tokelau.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokelau "Tokelau") | [Tokelau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tokelau "COVID-19 pandemic in Tokelau") | 2,203 | 95\.29% | | [![Montserrat](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Montserrat.svg/40px-Flag_of_Montserrat.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montserrat "Montserrat") | [Montserrat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montserrat "COVID-19 pandemic in Montserrat") | 2,104 | 47\.01% | | [![Niue](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Niue.svg/40px-Flag_of_Niue.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niue "Niue") | [Niue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niue "COVID-19 pandemic in Niue") | 1,638 | 88\.83% | | [![Pitcairn Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands "Pitcairn Islands") | [Pitcairn Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pitcairn_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in Pitcairn Islands") | 47 | 100\.00% | | [![North Korea](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/40px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea "North Korea") | [North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in North Korea") | 0 | 0\.00% | | **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-295)** Number of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine (unless noted otherwise). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-296)** Percentage of population that has received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine. May include vaccination of non-citizens, which can push totals beyond 100% of the local population. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-297)** Countries which do not report data for a column are not included in that column's world total. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-298)** Vaccination note: Countries which do not report the number of people who have received at least one dose are not included in the world total. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-299)** Does not include [special administrative regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China "Special administrative regions of China") ([Hong Kong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") and [Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau "Macau")) or [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-300)** Data on [member states of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_European_Union "Member states of the European Union") are individually listed, but are also summed here for convenience. They are not double-counted in world totals. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-301)** Vaccination note: Includes [Freely Associated States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freely_Associated_States "Freely Associated States") **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-302)** Vaccination note: Includes [Vatican City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_City "Vatican City") | | | | As of 12 August 2024[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_vaccine&action=edit), 13.53 billion COVID-19 vaccine doses have been administered worldwide, with 70.6 percent of the global population having received at least one dose.[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-303)[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-304) While 4.19 million vaccines were then being administered daily, only 22.3 percent of people in low-income countries had received at least a first vaccine by September 2022, according to official reports from national health agencies, which are collated by [Our World in Data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_World_in_Data "Our World in Data").[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_ourworldindata.org-305) During [a pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") on the rapid timeline and scale of [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") cases in 2020, international organizations like the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) and [Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_for_Epidemic_Preparedness_Innovations "Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations") (CEPI), vaccine developers, governments, and industry evaluated the distribution of the eventual vaccine(s).[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_who-accel-306) Individual countries producing a vaccine may be persuaded to favor the highest bidder for manufacturing or provide first-class service to their own country.[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_gates1-307)[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_hbr-308)[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_reuters-309) Experts emphasize that licensed vaccines should be available and affordable for people at the frontlines of healthcare and in most need.[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_gates1-307)[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_reuters-309) In April 2020, it was reported that the UK agreed to work with 20 other countries and global organizations, including France, Germany, and Italy, to find a vaccine and share the results, and that UK citizens would not get preferential access to any new COVID‑19 vaccines developed by taxpayer-funded UK universities.[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_gartner-310) Several companies planned to initially manufacture a vaccine at [artificially low prices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_leader "Loss leader"), then increase prices for [profitability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_\(economics\) "Profit (economics)") later if annual vaccinations are needed and as countries build stock for future needs.[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_reuters-309) The WHO had set out the target to vaccinate 40% of the population of all countries by the end of 2021 and 70% by mid-2022,[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-311) but many countries missed the 40% target at the end of 2021.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-312)[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-313) - [![Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. The date is on the map. Commons source.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png/960px-World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png "Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. The date is on the map. Commons source.") Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. The date is on the map. [Commons source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png "commons:File:World map of share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine by country.png"). - [![COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. The date is on the map. Commons source.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/World_map_of_COVID-19_vaccination_doses_administered_per_100_people_by_country_or_territory.png/960px-World_map_of_COVID-19_vaccination_doses_administered_per_100_people_by_country_or_territory.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_COVID-19_vaccination_doses_administered_per_100_people_by_country_or_territory.png "COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. The date is on the map. Commons source.") COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. The date is on the map. [Commons source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png "commons:File:World map of share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine by country.png"). ### Access during the pandemic Further information: [Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines § Equitable access](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines#Equitable_access "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines"), [TRIPS Agreement waiver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement_waiver "TRIPS Agreement waiver"), and [COVAX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVAX "COVAX") Countries have extremely unequal access to the COVID‑19 vaccine. [Vaccine equity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_equity "Vaccine equity") has not been achieved or even approximated. The inequity has harmed both countries with poor access and countries with good access.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100)[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Ye-314)[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-lanceted-315) Nations pledged to buy doses of the COVID‑19 vaccines before the doses were available. Though high-income nations represent only 14% of the global population, as of 15 November 2020, they had contracted to buy 51% of all pre-sold doses. Some high-income nations bought more doses than would be necessary to vaccinate their entire populations.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-So-18) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/F%C3%A1brica_do_DF_produz_vacina_Sputnik_V_%2850874839072%29.jpg/250px-F%C3%A1brica_do_DF_produz_vacina_Sputnik_V_%2850874839072%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%A1brica_do_DF_produz_vacina_Sputnik_V_\(50874839072\).jpg) Production of the Sputnik V vaccine in Brazil, January 2021 In January 2021, WHO Director-General [Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedros_Adhanom_Ghebreyesus "Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus") warned of problems with equitable distribution: "More than 39 million doses of vaccine have now been administered in at least 49 higher-income countries. Just 25 doses have been given in one lowest-income country. Not 25 million; not 25 thousand; just 25."[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-316) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Inside_view_of_the_vaccination_centre_2.jpg/250px-Inside_view_of_the_vaccination_centre_2.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inside_view_of_the_vaccination_centre_2.jpg) Inside of a vaccination center in [Brussels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"), Belgium, February 2021 In March 2021, it was revealed that the US attempted to convince Brazil not to purchase the [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine") COVID‑19 vaccine, fearing "Russian influence" in Latin America.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-317) Some nations involved in long-standing territorial disputes have reportedly had their access to vaccines blocked by competing nations; [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine "Palestine") has accused Israel of blocking vaccine delivery to [Gaza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_Strip "Gaza Strip"), while [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") has suggested that China has hampered its efforts to procure vaccine doses.[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-318)[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-319)[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-320) A single dose of the COVID‑19 vaccines by [AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstraZeneca "AstraZeneca") would cost 47 [Egyptian pounds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_pound "Egyptian pound") (EGP), and the authorities are selling them for between 100 and 200 EGP. A report by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace cited the poverty rate in Egypt as around 29.7 percent, which constitutes approximately 30.5 million people, and claimed that about 15 million Egyptians would be unable to gain access to the luxury of vaccination. A human rights lawyer, Khaled Ali, launched a lawsuit against the government, forcing them to provide vaccinations free of charge to all members of the public.[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-321) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Covid_vaccination_for_children_aged_12-14_in_India_03cropped.jpg/250px-Covid_vaccination_for_children_aged_12-14_in_India_03cropped.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Covid_vaccination_for_children_aged_12-14_in_India_03cropped.jpg) COVID‑19 vaccination for children aged 12–14 in [Bhopal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal "Bhopal"), India According to [immunologist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology "Immunology") [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci"), mutant strains of the virus and limited vaccine distribution pose continuing risks, and he said, "we have to get the entire world vaccinated, not just our own country."[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-322) Edward Bergmark and [Arick Wierson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arick_Wierson "Arick Wierson") are calling for a global vaccination effort and wrote that the wealthier nations' "me-first" mentality could ultimately backfire because the spread of the virus in poorer countries would lead to more variants, against which the vaccines could be less effective.[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-323) In March 2021, the United States, Britain, European Union member states, and some other members of the [World Trade Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization") (WTO) blocked a push by more than eighty developing countries to [waive COVID‑19 vaccine patent rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement_waiver "TRIPS Agreement waiver") in an effort to boost production of vaccines for poor nations.[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-324) On 5 May 2021, the [US government under President Joe Biden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden "Presidency of Joe Biden") announced that it supports waiving intellectual property protections for COVID‑19 vaccines.[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-325) The Members of the European Parliament have backed a motion demanding the temporary lifting of intellectual property rights for COVID‑19 vaccines.[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-326) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Brasileiro_tomando_vacina_contra_o_COVID-19.jpg/250px-Brasileiro_tomando_vacina_contra_o_COVID-19.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brasileiro_tomando_vacina_contra_o_COVID-19.jpg) An elderly man receiving a second dose of the [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac") vaccine in Brazil in April 2021 In a meeting in April 2021, the World Health Organization's emergency committee addressed concerns of persistent inequity in global vaccine distribution.[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-327) Although 9 percent of the world's population lives in the 29 poorest countries, these countries had received only 0.3% of all vaccines administered as of May 2021.[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-328) In March 2021, Brazilian journalism agency [AgĂȘncia PĂșblica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ag%C3%AAncia_P%C3%BAblica "AgĂȘncia PĂșblica") reported that the country vaccinated about twice as many people who declare themselves white than black and noted that mortality from COVID‑19 is higher in the black population.[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-329) In May 2021, [UNICEF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNICEF "UNICEF") made an urgent appeal to industrialized nations to pool their excess COVID‑19 vaccine capacity to make up for a 125-million-dose gap in the [COVAX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVAX "COVAX") program. The program mostly relied on the [Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine") produced by the [Serum Institute of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum_Institute_of_India "Serum Institute of India"), which faced serious supply problems due to increased domestic vaccine needs in India from March to June 2021. Only a limited amount of vaccines can be distributed efficiently, and the shortfall of vaccines in South America and parts of Asia is due to a lack of expedient donations by richer nations. International aid organizations have pointed at Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, as well as Argentina, Brazil, and some parts of the Caribbean, as problem areas where vaccines are in short supply. In mid-May 2021, UNICEF was also critical of the fact that most proposed donations of Moderna and Pfizer vaccines were not slated for delivery until the second half of 2021 or early in 2022.[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-330) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/COVID-19_mass_vaccination_in_Ratina%2C_Tampere%2C_Finland.jpg/250px-COVID-19_mass_vaccination_in_Ratina%2C_Tampere%2C_Finland.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_mass_vaccination_in_Ratina,_Tampere,_Finland.jpg) COVID‑19 mass vaccination queue in Finland, June 2021 In July 2021, the heads of the World Bank Group, the International Monetary Fund, the World Health Organization, and the World Trade Organization said in a joint statement: "As many countries are struggling with new variants and a third wave of COVID‑19 infections, accelerating access to vaccines becomes even more critical to ending the pandemic everywhere and achieving broad-based growth. We are deeply concerned about the limited vaccines, therapeutics, diagnostics, and support for deliveries available to developing countries."[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-331)[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-332) In July 2021, *[The BMJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_BMJ "The BMJ")* reported that countries had thrown out over 250,000 vaccine doses as supply exceeded demand and strict laws prevented the sharing of vaccines.[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-333) A survey by *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* found that over a million doses of vaccine had been thrown away in ten U.S. states because federal regulations prohibit recalling them, preventing their redistribution abroad.[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-334) Furthermore, doses donated close to expiration often cannot be administered quickly enough by recipient countries and end up having to be discarded.[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-335) To help overcome this problem, the Prime Minister of India, [Narendra Modi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modi "Narendra Modi"), announced that they would make their digital vaccination management platform, [CoWIN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoWIN "CoWIN"), open to the global community. He also announced that India would also release the source code for the contact tracing app [Aarogya Setu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarogya_Setu "Aarogya Setu") for developers around the world. Around 142 countries, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, the Maldives, Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, and Zambia, expressed their interest in the application for COVID management.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-336)[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-337) [Amnesty International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") and [Oxfam International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfam#Oxfam_International "Oxfam") have criticized the support of vaccine monopolies by the governments of producing countries, noting that this is dramatically increasing the dose price by five times and often much more, creating an economic barrier to access for poor countries.[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-338)[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-339) [MĂ©decins Sans FrontiĂšres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res "MĂ©decins Sans FrontiĂšres") (Doctors without Borders) has also criticized vaccine monopolies and repeatedly called for their suspension, supporting the [TRIPS waiver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement_waiver "TRIPS Agreement waiver"). The waiver was first proposed in October 2020 and has support from most countries, but was delayed by opposition from the EU (especially Germany; major EU countries such as France, Italy, and Spain support the exemption),[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-340) the UK, Norway, and Switzerland, among others. MSF called for a Day of Action in September 2021 to put pressure on the [WTO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTO "WTO") Minister's meeting in November, which was expected to discuss the TRIPS [IP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property "Intellectual property") waiver.[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-TRIPS-341)[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-no_patents-342)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-profiteering-343) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Iran_COVID19-Vaccination_center.jpg/250px-Iran_COVID19-Vaccination_center.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iran_COVID19-Vaccination_center.jpg) A drive-through COVID‑19 vaccination center in Iran, August 2021 In August 2021, to reduce unequal distribution between rich and poor countries, the WHO called for a [moratorium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moratorium_\(law\) "Moratorium (law)") on [booster doses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_dose "Booster dose") at least until the end of September. However, in August, the United States government announced plans to offer booster doses eight months after the initial course to the general population, starting with priority groups. Before the announcement, the WHO harshly criticized this type of decision, citing the lack of evidence for the need for boosters, except for patients with specific conditions. At this time, vaccine coverage of at least one dose was 58% in high-income countries and only 1.3% in low-income countries, and 1.14 million Americans had already received an unauthorized booster dose. US officials argued that waning efficacy against mild and moderate disease might indicate reduced protection against severe disease in the coming months. Israel, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom have also started planning boosters for specific groups.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-344)[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-345)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-346) In September 2021, more than 140 former world leaders and Nobel laureates, including former President of France [François Hollande](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hollande "François Hollande"), former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom [Gordon Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Brown "Gordon Brown"), former Prime Minister of New Zealand [Helen Clark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Clark "Helen Clark"), and Professor [Joseph Stiglitz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz "Joseph Stiglitz"), called on the candidates to be the next German chancellor to declare themselves in favor of waiving intellectual property rules for COVID‑19 vaccines and transferring vaccine technologies.[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-347) In November 2021, nursing unions in 28 countries filed a formal appeal with the United Nations over the refusal of the UK, EU, Norway, Switzerland, and Singapore to temporarily waive patents for COVID‑19 vaccines.[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-348) During his first international trip, the [President of Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Peru "President of Peru"), [Pedro Castillo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Castillo "Pedro Castillo"), spoke at the [seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventy-sixth_session_of_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly "Seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly") on 21 September 2021, proposing the creation of an international [treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty "Treaty") signed by world leaders and [pharmaceutical companies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry "Pharmaceutical industry") to guarantee universal vaccine access, arguing that "The battle against the pandemic has shown us the failure of the international community to cooperate under the principle of solidarity."[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Psaledakis_2021-349)[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-350) Optimizing the societal benefit of vaccination may benefit from a strategy that is tailored to the state of the pandemic, the demographics of a country, the age of the recipients, the availability of vaccines, and the individual risk for severe disease.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Wang1-16) In the UK, the interval between prime and booster doses was extended to vaccinate as many people as early as possible.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-351) Many countries are starting to give an additional booster shot to the immunosuppressed[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-352)[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-353) and the elderly,[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-354) and research predicts an additional benefit of personalizing vaccine doses in the setting of limited vaccine availability when a wave of virus Variants of Concern hits a country.[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hunziker_805%E2%80%93820-355) Despite the extremely rapid development of effective [mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") and [viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine"), [vaccine equity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_equity "Vaccine equity") has not been achieved.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100) The World Health Organization called for 70 percent of the global population to be vaccinated by mid-2022, but as of March 2022, it was estimated that only one percent of the 10 billion doses given worldwide had been administered in low-income countries.[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-356) An additional 6 billion vaccinations may be needed to fill vaccine access gaps, particularly in developing countries. Given the projected availability of newer vaccines, the development and use of [whole inactivated virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_inactivated_virus "Whole inactivated virus") (WIV) and protein-based vaccines are also recommended. Organizations such as the [Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_Countries_Vaccine_Manufacturers_Network "Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network") could help to support the production of such vaccines in developing countries, with lower production costs and greater ease of deployment.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100)[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-DCVMN-357) While vaccines substantially reduce the probability and severity of infection, it is still possible for fully vaccinated people to contract and spread COVID‑19.[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-cdc-effectiveness-358) Public health agencies have recommended that vaccinated people continue using preventive measures (wear face masks, social distance, wash hands) to avoid infecting others, especially vulnerable people, particularly in areas with high community spread. Governments have indicated that such recommendations will be reduced as vaccination rates increase and community spread declines.[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-359) #### Economics > Moreover, an unequal distribution of vaccines will deepen inequality and exaggerate the gap between rich and poor and will reverse decades of hard-won progress on human development. > > — United Nations, *COVID vaccines: Widening inequality and millions vulnerable*[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-UNnews-360) Vaccine inequity damages the global economy, disrupting the global [supply chain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain "Supply chain").[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-lanceted-315) Most vaccines were reserved for wealthy countries; as of September 2021[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_vaccine&action=edit),[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-UNnews-360) some countries have more vaccines than are needed to fully vaccinate their populations.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-So-18) When people are under-vaccinated, needlessly die, experience disability, and live under lockdown restrictions, they cannot supply the same goods and services. This harms the economies of under-vaccinated and over-vaccinated countries alike. Since rich countries have larger economies, rich countries may lose more money to vaccine inequity than poor ones,[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-lanceted-315) though the poor ones will lose a higher percentage of [GDP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDP "GDP") and experience longer-term effects.[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-UNDP_ec-361) High-income countries would profit an estimated US\$4.80 for every \$1 spent on giving vaccines to lower-income countries.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-lanceted-315) The [International Monetary Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund") sees the vaccine divide between rich and poor nations as a serious obstacle to a global economic recovery.[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-362) Vaccine inequity disproportionately affects refuge-providing states, as they tend to be poorer, and refugees and displaced people are economically more vulnerable even within those low-income states, so they have suffered more economically from vaccine inequity.[\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-UN_refugees-363)[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100) ## Technology-assisted vaccine hunting #### Background During the initial phase of COVID-19 vaccine distribution in early 2021, demand for appointments in the United States significantly exceeded supply. Eligibility rules changed frequently, and vaccination providers—including pharmacies, hospitals, and state health departments—operated separate online scheduling systems. Appointment slots were often released unpredictably and filled within minutes.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364) In response, informal volunteer networks—commonly referred to as "vaccine hunters" or "vaccine angels"—emerged to help individuals locate available appointments.[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Salon-365) These groups coordinated through Facebook, Slack, Telegram, Discord, and Twitter, sharing scheduling strategies and real-time updates. #### Regional automated tools In several metropolitan areas, technologists developed automated programs to monitor vaccine scheduling systems. In the San Francisco Bay Area, software engineer Mukesh Aggarwal created a program that reportedly scanned more than 100 vaccination provider websites and distributed alerts through a Telegram channel when appointments became available.[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CBS-366) High school students in the Bay Area launched a Twitter bot known as @CovaxSF that scanned county and pharmacy websites and tweeted availability alerts.[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-SecretSF-367) Additional regional reporting described independently developed bots that monitored California's MyTurn platform and pharmacy portals, automatically posting updates when openings were detected.[\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-SFGate-368) Similar tools were reported in other states, including bots that tracked CVS, Walgreens, Rite Aid, and state health department portals and posted appointment alerts on Twitter.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364) #### Nationwide tracking projects Beyond regional efforts, several nationwide tools and volunteer-run data projects emerged to aggregate appointment information. Websites such as VaccinateCA compiled crowd-sourced reports of vaccine availability across California.[\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-369) National media coverage also described developers who built multi-state tracking bots that scraped pharmacy APIs or scheduling endpoints and automatically posted updates to Twitter or Telegram channels.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364)[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PCWorld-370) Some programmers published open-source scripts that allowed others to monitor appointment endpoints directly, contributing to a broader ecosystem of decentralized vaccine tracking tools.[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Salon-365) #### Public response and policy concerns Media outlets characterized these automated systems as grassroots technological responses to fragmented vaccine distribution systems.[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Salon-365) However, coverage also noted concerns that automated monitoring tools could advantage individuals with technical knowledge, fast internet access, or the ability to respond immediately to alerts.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364) Some pharmacy chains and state systems reportedly implemented countermeasures to limit automated scraping, including rate limits and CAPTCHA systems.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364) As vaccine supply increased and eligibility expanded nationwide in mid-2021, the need for intensive appointment monitoring declined, and many volunteer-run bots and tracking systems were discontinued.[\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-371) ### Liability Several governments agreed to shield pharmaceutical companies like [Pfizer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer "Pfizer") and [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna") from [negligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negligence "Negligence") claims related to COVID‑19 vaccines (and treatments), [as in previous pandemics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_vaccines "Economics of vaccines"), when governments also took on liability for such claims. In the US, these liability shields took effect in February 2020, when the US Secretary of Health and Human Services, [Alex Azar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Azar "Alex Azar"), published a notice of declaration under the [Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Readiness_and_Emergency_Preparedness_Act "Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act") (PREP Act) for medical countermeasures against COVID‑19, covering "any vaccine, used to treat, diagnose, cure, prevent, or mitigate COVID‑19, or the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 or a virus mutating therefrom". The declaration precludes "liability claims alleging negligence by a manufacturer in creating a vaccine, or negligence by a health care provider in prescribing the wrong dose, absent willful misconduct." In other words, absent "willful misconduct", these companies cannot be sued for [money damages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_damages "Money damages") for any injuries that occur between 2020 and 2024 from the administration of vaccines and treatments related to COVID‑19.[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Preparedness_Act-372) The declaration is effective in the United States through 1 October 2024.[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Preparedness_Act-372) In December 2020, the UK government granted Pfizer legal [indemnity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indemnity "Indemnity") for its COVID‑19 vaccine.[\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-373) In the European Union, the COVID‑19 vaccines were granted a conditional marketing authorization, which does not exempt manufacturers from civil and administrative liability claims.[\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-374) The EU conditional marketing authorizations were changed to standard authorizations in September 2022.[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-375) While the purchasing contracts with vaccine manufacturers remain secret, they do not contain liability exemptions, even for side effects not known at the time of licensure.[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-376) The [Bureau of Investigative Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Investigative_Journalism "Bureau of Investigative Journalism"), a nonprofit news organization, reported in an investigation that unnamed officials in some countries, such as Argentina and Brazil, said that Pfizer demanded guarantees against costs of legal cases due to adverse effects in the form of liability waivers and sovereign assets such as federal bank reserves, embassy buildings, or military bases, going beyond what was expected from other countries, such as the US.[\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-377) During the [pandemic parliamentary inquiry in Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID%E2%80%9119_CPI "COVID‑19 CPI"), Pfizer's representative said that its terms for Brazil are the same as for all other countries with which it has signed deals.[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-378) In December 2022, the governor of Florida, [Ron DeSantis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_DeSantis "Ron DeSantis"), said that he would petition the state supreme court to convene a grand jury to investigate possible violations in respect to COVID‑19 vaccines,[\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-379) and declared that his government would be able to get "the data whether they \[the companies\] want to give it or not".[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-380) In November 2023, the US state of Texas sued Pfizer under section 17.47 of the [Texas Deceptive Trade Practices Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_protection#United_States "Consumer protection"), alleging that the company misled the public about its COVID-19 vaccine by hiding risks while making false claims about its effectiveness.[\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-381)[\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-382) In June 2024, the US state of Kansas similarly sued Pfizer under the [Kansas Consumer Protection Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_protection#United_States "Consumer protection"), making similar allegations.[\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-383) ## Public acceptance and hesitancy [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/202003-_Cumulative_county_COVID-19_death_rates_-_by_share_of_votes_for_Donald_Trump.svg/250px-202003-_Cumulative_county_COVID-19_death_rates_-_by_share_of_votes_for_Donald_Trump.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:202003-_Cumulative_county_COVID-19_death_rates_-_by_share_of_votes_for_Donald_Trump.svg) After the December 2020 introduction of COVID vaccines, a partisan gap in death rates developed, indicating the effects of vaccine skepticism.[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NYTimes_20240311-384) As of March 2024, more than 30 percent of Republicans had not received a Covid vaccine, compared with less than 10 percent of Democrats.[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NYTimes_20240311-384) This section is an excerpt from [COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy "COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy").\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy&action=edit)\] A variety of unfounded [conspiracy theories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_theory "Conspiracy theory") and other [misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation "Misinformation") about COVID-19 vaccines have spread based on misunderstood or misrepresented science, religion, and law. These have included exaggerated claims about side effects, misrepresentations about how the immune system works and when and how COVID-19 vaccines are made, a story about COVID-19 being spread by [5G](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation#5G_mobile-phone_networks "COVID-19 misinformation"), and other false or distorted information. This misinformation, some created by [anti-vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-vaccination "Anti-vaccination") activists, has proliferated and may have made many people averse to vaccination.[\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-385) [Vaccine hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_hesitancy "Vaccine hesitancy") has led to governments and private organizations around the world introducing measures to incentivize or coerce vaccination, such as lotteries,[\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-386) mandates,[\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-387) and free entry to events,[\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-388) which has in turn led to further misinformation about the legality and effect of these measures themselves.[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-389) Critics of vaccine mandates have argued that such requirements infringe on [individual medical choice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_freedom_movement "Health freedom movement") and [personal autonomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_personal_autonomy "Libertarian personal autonomy").[\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-390)[\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-391)[\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-392) In the US, some prominent biomedical scientists who publicly advocate vaccination have been attacked and threatened in emails and on social media by anti-vaccination activists.[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy_Hotez_2023-393) The [United States Department of Defense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") (DoD) undertook a [disinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation "Disinformation") campaign in the Philippines, later expanded to Central Asia and the Middle East, which sought to discredit China, in particular its [Sinovac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinovac_Biotech "Sinovac Biotech") vaccine, disseminating hashtags of \#ChinaIsTheVirus and posts claiming that the Sinovac vaccine contained gelatin from pork and therefore was *[haram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haram "Haram")* or forbidden for purposes of Islamic law.[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Bing_2024-394) ## See also - [COVID‑19 drug development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID%E2%80%9119_drug_development "COVID‑19 drug development") - [COVID‑19 drug repurposing research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID%E2%80%9119_drug_repurposing_research "COVID‑19 drug repurposing research") ## Notes 1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-bot-note_293-0)** The table data is automatically updated daily by a bot; see [Template:COVID-19 data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_data "Template:COVID-19 data") for more information. Scroll down past the table to find the documentation and the main reference. See also: [Category:Automatically updated COVID-19 pandemic table templates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Automatically_updated_COVID-19_pandemic_table_templates "Category:Automatically updated COVID-19 pandemic table templates"). ## References 1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-BritannicaCOVID_1-0)** ["COVID-19 vaccine"](https://www.britannica.com/science/COVID-19-vaccine). *Encyclopaedia Britannica*. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 13 January 2026. 2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-2)** ["COVID-19 vaccine"](https://web.archive.org/web/20260316043048/https://www.nhs.uk/vaccinations/covid-19-vaccine/). *nhs.uk*. 11 September 2024. Archived from [the original](https://www.nhs.uk/vaccinations/covid-19-vaccine/) on 16 March 2026. 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Archived from [the original](https://www.krqe.com/health/coronavirus/russias-covid-19-response-slowed-by-population-reluctant-to-take-domestic-vaccine/) on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021. 378. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-387)** ["A Covid pass takes France by storm"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210920212523/https://www.wlfi.com/content/national/575351212.html). *WLFI News*. Archived from [the original](https://www.wlfi.com/content/national/575351212.html) on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021. 379. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-388)** ["MLB offers free tickets for COVID-19 vaccinations"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211009195705/https://www.kron4.com/health/coronavirus/vaccinate-at-the-plate-mlb-offers-incentives-for-covid-vaccines/). Kron4. 4 June 2021. 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[PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8633920](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8633920). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34863393](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34863393). 382. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-391)** Bluth R (4 July 2022). ["'My body, my choice': How vaccine foes co-opted the abortion rallying cry"](https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2022/07/04/1109367458/my-body-my-choice-vaccines). *NPR*. Retrieved 21 January 2025. 383. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-392)** Bardosh K, De Figueiredo A, Gur-Arie R, Jamrozik E, Doidge J, Lemmens T, et al. (14 January 2025). ["The unintended consequences of COVID-19 vaccine policy: why mandates, passports and restrictions may cause more harm than good - PMC"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9136690). *BMJ Global Health*. **7** (5) e008684. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1136/bmjgh-2022-008684](https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjgh-2022-008684). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [9136690](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9136690). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [35618306](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35618306). 384. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy_Hotez_2023_393-0)** Hotez PJ (2023). *The Deadly Rise of Anti-science: A Scientist's Warning*. Johns Hopkins University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1421447223](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1421447223 "Special:BookSources/978-1421447223") . 385. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-Bing_2024_394-0)** Bing C, Schechtman J (14 June 2024). ["Pentagon Ran Secret Anti-Vax Campaign to Undermine China during Pandemic"](https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-covid-propaganda/). *[Reuters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters "Reuters")*. Retrieved 18 June 2024. ## Further reading - Copaescu AM, Rosa Duque JS, Phillips EJ (July 2022). ["What have we learned about the allergenicity and adverse reactions associated with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccines: One year later"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.anai.2022.03.030). *Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology*. **129** (1): 40–51\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/j.anai.2022.03.030](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.anai.2022.03.030). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8979618](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8979618). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [35390476](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35390476). - Krause PR, Fleming TR, Longini IM, Peto R, Briand S, Heymann DL, et al. (July 2021). ["SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Vaccines"](https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMsr2105280). *N Engl J Med*. **385** (2): 179–186\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1056/NEJMsr2105280](https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMsr2105280). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8262623](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8262623). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34161052](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34161052). - Kyriakidis NC, LĂłpez-CortĂ©s A, GonzĂĄlez EV, Grimaldos AB, Prado EO (February 2021). ["SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates"](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41541-021-00292-w). *npj Vaccines*. **6** (1) 28. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/s41541-021-00292-w](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41541-021-00292-w). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [7900244](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7900244). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [33619260](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33619260). - Ramsay M, ed. (2020). ["COVID-19: the green book, chapter 14a"](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-the-green-book-chapter-14a). [*Immunisation against infectious disease*](https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/immunisation-against-infectious-disease-the-green-book). London: Public Health England. ### Vaccine protocols - ["Protocol mRNA-1273-P301"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044809/https://www.modernatx.com/sites/default/files/mRNA-1273-P301-Protocol.pdf) (PDF). [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna"). Archived from [the original](https://www.modernatx.com/sites/default/files/mRNA-1273-P301-Protocol.pdf) (PDF) on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020. - ["Protocol C4591001 PF-07302048 (BNT162 RNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccines)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211206133704/https://cdn.pfizer.com/pfizercom/2020-11/C4591001_Clinical_Protocol_Nov2020.pdf) (PDF). [Pfizer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer "Pfizer"). Archived from [the original](https://cdn.pfizer.com/pfizercom/2020-11/C4591001_Clinical_Protocol_Nov2020.pdf) (PDF) on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2022. - ["Protocol AZD1222 – D8110C00001"](https://s3.amazonaws.com/ctr-med-7111/D8110C00001/52bec400-80f6-4c1b-8791-0483923d0867/c8070a4e-6a9d-46f9-8c32-cece903592b9/D8110C00001_CSP-v2.pdf) (PDF). [AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstraZeneca "AstraZeneca"). - ["Protocol VAC31518COV3001; Phase 3 (Ensemble)"](https://www.jnj.com/coronavirus/covid-19-phase-3-study-clinical-protocol) (PDF). [Janssen Vaccines & Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_Pharmaceutica "Janssen Pharmaceutica"). - ["Protocol VAC31518COV3009; Phase 3 (Ensemble 2)"](https://www.jnj.com/coronavirus/ensemble-2-study-protocol) (PDF). [Janssen Vaccines & Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_Pharmaceutica "Janssen Pharmaceutica"). - ["Protocol VAT00008 – Study of Monovalent and Bivalent Recombinant Protein Vaccines against COVID-19 in Adults 18 Years of Age and Older Protocol"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210723062559/https://www.sanofi.com/-/media/Project/One-Sanofi-Web/Websites/Global/Sanofi-COM/Home/common/docs/clinical-study-results/rdctcovid19vat00008protocol-v30-dated-18MAY2021.pdf) (PDF). [Sanofi Pasteur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi_Pasteur "Sanofi Pasteur"). Archived from [the original](https://www.sanofi.com/-/media/Project/One-Sanofi-Web/Websites/Global/Sanofi-COM/Home/common/docs/clinical-study-results/rdctcovid19vat00008protocol-v30-dated-18MAY2021.pdf) (PDF) on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2021. - ["Protocol 2019nCoV-301"](https://novavax.widen.net/s/tt8xfddqvs/2019ncov_301_version_redacted). [Novavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax "Novavax"). ## External links [![logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/40px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg) Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/COVID-19_vaccine "q:Special:Search/COVID-19 vaccine")***. [![logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/40px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikinews-logo.svg) Wikinews has related news: - [New study analyzes the varying levels of protection offered by COVID-19 vaccines](https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/New_study_analyzes_the_varying_levels_of_protection_offered_by_COVID-19_vaccines "wikinews:New study analyzes the varying levels of protection offered by COVID-19 vaccines") - ["COVID-19 vaccine tracker and landscape"](https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines). [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO). - [M.I.T. Lecture 10: Kizzmekia Corbett, Vaccines](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpqfdr9FPWM&t=0s) on [YouTube](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_video_\(identifier\) "YouTube video (identifier)") - [M.I.T. Lecture 12: Dan Barouch, Covid-19 Vaccine Development](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAMFH3tHWks&t=0s) on [YouTube](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_video_\(identifier\) "YouTube video (identifier)") - ["The 5 Stages of COVID-19 Vaccine Development: What You Need to Know About How a Clinical Trial Works"](https://www.jnj.com/innovation/the-5-stages-of-covid-19-vaccine-development-what-you-need-to-know-about-how-a-clinical-trial-works). Johnson & Johnson. September 2020. - ["Coronavirus vaccine – weekly summary of Yellow Card reporting"](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/coronavirus-covid-19-vaccine-adverse-reactions/coronavirus-vaccine-summary-of-yellow-card-reporting). UK [Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicines_and_Healthcare_products_Regulatory_Agency "Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency") (MHRA). - ["COVID-19 vaccine safety report - 05-10-2023"](https://www.tga.gov.au/news/covid-19-vaccine-safety-reports/covid-19-vaccine-safety-report-05-10-2023). *[Therapeutic Goods Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_Goods_Administration "Therapeutic Goods Administration") (TGA)*. 4 October 2023. - Kolata G, Mueller B (15 January 2022). ["Halting Progress and Happy Accidents: How mRNA Vaccines Were Made"](https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/15/health/mrna-vaccine.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220115153605/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/15/health/mrna-vaccine.html) from the original on 15 January 2022. - ["COVID-19 Vaccine Information Statement"](https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/current-vis/covid-19.html). U.S. [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC). 3 June 2025. | [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic "Template:COVID-19 pandemic") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:COVID-19_pandemic "Template talk:COVID-19 pandemic") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19_pandemic "Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19 pandemic")[COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") | | |---|---| | **[COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19")** (disease) **[SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2")** (virus) | | | [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | | | | [Pre-pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic_predictions_and_preparations_prior_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Pandemic predictions and preparations prior to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Severe acute respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS") (SARS) [Middle East respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS "MERS") (MERS) [Crimson Contagion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimson_Contagion "Crimson Contagion") [Disease X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_X "Disease X") [Exercise Cygnus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_Cygnus "Exercise Cygnus") [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") | | 2020 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") | | 2021 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") | | 2022 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2022") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2022") | | 2023 | [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2023 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2023") | | [Locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") | | | | | | [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in Africa")([national responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa")) | | | | | | Northern | [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Algeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria") [Canary Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Canary_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Canary Islands") [Ceuta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ceuta "COVID-19 pandemic in Ceuta") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") [Libya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Libya "COVID-19 pandemic in Libya") [Mauritania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritania "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritania") [Melilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Melilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Melilla") [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Morocco "COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco") [Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sudan") [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tunisia "COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia") [Western Sahara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Sahara "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Sahara") [Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic") | | Eastern | [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burundi "COVID-19 pandemic in Burundi") [Comoros](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Comoros "COVID-19 pandemic in the Comoros") [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 pandemic in Djibouti") [Eritrea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eritrea "COVID-19 pandemic in Eritrea") [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ethiopia "COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia") [Kenya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kenya "COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya") [Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madagascar "COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar") [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritius "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritius") [Mayotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mayotte "COVID-19 pandemic in Mayotte") [RĂ©union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_R%C3%A9union "COVID-19 pandemic in RĂ©union") [Rwanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rwanda "COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda") [Seychelles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Seychelles "COVID-19 pandemic in Seychelles") [Somalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Somalia "COVID-19 pandemic in Somalia") [Puntland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puntland "COVID-19 pandemic in Puntland") [Somaliland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Somaliland "COVID-19 pandemic in Somaliland") [South Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in South Sudan") [Tanzania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tanzania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tanzania") [Uganda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uganda "COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda") | | Southern | [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Angola "COVID-19 pandemic in Angola") [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Botswana "COVID-19 pandemic in Botswana") [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 pandemic in Eswatini") [Lesotho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lesotho "COVID-19 pandemic in Lesotho") [Malawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malawi "COVID-19 pandemic in Malawi") [Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mozambique "COVID-19 pandemic in Mozambique") [Namibia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Namibia "COVID-19 pandemic in Namibia") [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa") [list of deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_deaths_in_South_Africa "List of COVID-19 deaths in South Africa") [Zambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zambia "COVID-19 pandemic in Zambia") [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe") | | Central | [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 pandemic in Cameroon") [Central African Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Central_African_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Central African Republic") [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chad "COVID-19 pandemic in Chad") [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo") [Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of the Congo") [Gabon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gabon "COVID-19 pandemic in Gabon") [SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂ­ncipe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe "COVID-19 pandemic in SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂ­ncipe") | | Western | [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Benin "COVID-19 pandemic in Benin") [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 pandemic in Burkina Faso") [Cape Verde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cape_Verde "COVID-19 pandemic in Cape Verde") [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Equatorial Guinea") [Gambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Gambia "COVID-19 pandemic in the Gambia") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana "COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana") timeline 2020 [March–July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(March%E2%80%93July_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (March–July 2020)") [August–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(August%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (August–December 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (2021)") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ghanaian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") impact [education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_Ghana "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in Ghana") [Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea") [Guinea-Bissau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea-Bissau "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea-Bissau") [Ivory Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ivory_Coast "COVID-19 pandemic in Ivory Coast") [Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liberia "COVID-19 pandemic in Liberia") [Mali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mali "COVID-19 pandemic in Mali") [Niger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niger "COVID-19 pandemic in Niger") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Nigerian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha") [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Senegal "COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal") [Sierra Leone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sierra_Leone "COVID-19 pandemic in Sierra Leone") [Togo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Togo "COVID-19 pandemic in Togo") | | [Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Asia") | | | | | | Central/North | [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kyrgyzstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kyrgyzstan") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") timeline [January–June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (January–June 2020)") [July–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (July–December 2020)") impact [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [political](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") [Tajikistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tajikistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Tajikistan") [Turkmenistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkmenistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkmenistan") [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uzbekistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Uzbekistan") | | East | | | | | | [Hong Kong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hong_Kong "COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong") [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") [Tokyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tokyo "COVID-19 pandemic in Tokyo") [2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_cases_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_and_2020_Summer_Paralympics "COVID-19 cases at the 2020 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics") [North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in North Korea") [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea") [Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Macau "COVID-19 pandemic in Macau") [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia") [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan") [respirator diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator_diplomacy_of_Taiwan "Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan") | | | [Mainland China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China") | [lockdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdown_in_China "COVID-19 lockdown in China") [detail](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:COVID-19_pandemic_lockdowns_in_mainland_China&action=edit&redlink=1 "Template:COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns in mainland China (page does not exist)") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 vaccination in mainland China") [Beijing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Beijing "COVID-19 pandemic in Beijing") [2022 Winter Olympics and Paralympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_cases_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_and_2022_Winter_Paralympics "COVID-19 cases at the 2022 Winter Olympics and 2022 Winter Paralympics") [Heilongjiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Heilongjiang "COVID-19 pandemic in Heilongjiang") [Henan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Henan "COVID-19 pandemic in Henan") [Hubei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hubei "COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei") [Inner Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Inner_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Inner Mongolia") [Liaoning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liaoning "COVID-19 pandemic in Liaoning") [Shanghai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Shanghai "COVID-19 pandemic in Shanghai") [2022 outbreak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Shanghai_COVID-19_outbreak "2022 Shanghai COVID-19 outbreak") [Sichuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sichuan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sichuan") [Tibet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tibet "COVID-19 pandemic in Tibet") [Xinjiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Xinjiang "COVID-19 pandemic in Xinjiang") | | [South](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Asia") | | | | | | [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Afghanistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Afghanistan") [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 pandemic in Bhutan") [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maldives "COVID-19 pandemic in Maldives") [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nepal "COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal") [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pakistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan") [Tablighi Jamaat hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Pakistan "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Pakistan") [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka") | | | [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India") | | | | | | [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [lockdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdown_in_India "COVID-19 lockdown in India") [migrant workers' crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_migrant_workers_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian migrant workers during the COVID-19 pandemic") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") timeline 2020 [January–May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(January%E2%80%93May_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (January–May 2020)") [June–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(June%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (June–December 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (2021)") [union government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [PM CARES Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PM_CARES_Fund "PM CARES Fund") [state government responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_state_government_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian state government responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_India "COVID-19 vaccination in India") [Vaccine Maitri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Maitri "Vaccine Maitri") | | | By location | [Andaman and Nicobar Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands") [Andhra Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andhra_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Andhra Pradesh") [Arunachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arunachal_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Arunachal Pradesh") [Assam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Assam "COVID-19 pandemic in Assam") [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bihar "COVID-19 pandemic in Bihar") [Chandigarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chandigarh "COVID-19 pandemic in Chandigarh") [Chhattisgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chhattisgarh "COVID-19 pandemic in Chhattisgarh") [Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli_and_Daman_and_Diu "COVID-19 pandemic in Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu") [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Delhi "COVID-19 pandemic in Delhi") [Tablighi Jamaat hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Delhi "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Delhi") [Goa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Goa "COVID-19 pandemic in Goa") [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gujarat "COVID-19 pandemic in Gujarat") [Haryana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haryana "COVID-19 pandemic in Haryana") [Himachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Himachal_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Himachal Pradesh") [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir "COVID-19 pandemic in Jammu and Kashmir") [Jharkhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jharkhand "COVID-19 pandemic in Jharkhand") [Karnataka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Karnataka "COVID-19 pandemic in Karnataka") [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kerala "COVID-19 pandemic in Kerala") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kerala "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Kerala") [Ladakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ladakh "COVID-19 pandemic in Ladakh") [Lakshadweep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lakshadweep "COVID-19 pandemic in Lakshadweep") [Madhya Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madhya_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Madhya Pradesh") [Maharashtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maharashtra "COVID-19 pandemic in Maharashtra") [Manipur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Manipur "COVID-19 pandemic in Manipur") [Meghalaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Meghalaya "COVID-19 pandemic in Meghalaya") [Mizoram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mizoram "COVID-19 pandemic in Mizoram") [Nagaland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nagaland "COVID-19 pandemic in Nagaland") [Odisha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Odisha "COVID-19 pandemic in Odisha") [Puducherry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puducherry "COVID-19 pandemic in Puducherry") [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Punjab,_India "COVID-19 pandemic in Punjab, India") [Rajasthan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rajasthan "COVID-19 pandemic in Rajasthan") [Sikkim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sikkim "COVID-19 pandemic in Sikkim") [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tamil_Nadu "COVID-19 pandemic in Tamil Nadu") [Telangana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Telangana "COVID-19 pandemic in Telangana") [Tripura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tripura "COVID-19 pandemic in Tripura") [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uttar_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Uttar Pradesh") [Uttarakhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uttarakhand "COVID-19 pandemic in Uttarakhand") [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_West_Bengal "COVID-19 pandemic in West Bengal") | | [Southeast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Southeast_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Southeast Asia") | | | | | | [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brunei "COVID-19 pandemic in Brunei") [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cambodia "COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia") [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia") timeline [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia (2021)") [social restrictions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia_large-scale_social_restrictions "Indonesia large-scale social restrictions") [Community Activities Restrictions Enforcement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_Activities_Restrictions_Enforcement "Community Activities Restrictions Enforcement") [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Laos "COVID-19 pandemic in Laos") [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Myanmar "COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar") [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2022)") [circuit breaker response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_Singapore_circuit_breaker_measures "2020–21 Singapore circuit breaker measures") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Singapore "COVID-19 vaccination in Singapore") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Thailand "COVID-19 vaccination in Thailand") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [Timor-Leste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Timor-Leste "COVID-19 pandemic in Timor-Leste") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vietnamese government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") | impact [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [political](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Malaysia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Malaysia") [Aid and relief efforts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_and_relief_efforts_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Aid and relief efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [movement control order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_movement_control_order "Malaysian movement control order") [Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Malaysia "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Malaysia") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2023)") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [Johor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Johor "COVID-19 pandemic in Johor") [Kuala Lumpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuala_Lumpur "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuala Lumpur") [Sabah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sabah "COVID-19 pandemic in Sabah") [Sarawak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sarawak "COVID-19 pandemic in Sarawak") [Selangor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Selangor "COVID-19 pandemic in Selangor") | | [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2022)") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [community quarantines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_community_quarantines_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 community quarantines in the Philippines") [Luzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_community_quarantine_in_Luzon "Enhanced community quarantine in Luzon") [evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_by_the_Philippines_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations by the Philippines related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 vaccination in the Philippines") [Bangsamoro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangsamoro "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangsamoro") [Bicol Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Bicol_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Bicol Region") [Cagayan Valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cagayan_Valley "COVID-19 pandemic in Cagayan Valley") [Calabarzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Calabarzon "COVID-19 pandemic in Calabarzon") [Caraga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Caraga "COVID-19 pandemic in Caraga") [Central Luzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Central_Luzon "COVID-19 pandemic in Central Luzon") [Central Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Central_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Central Visayas") [Cordillera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cordillera_Administrative_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cordillera Administrative Region") [Davao Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Davao_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Davao Region") [Eastern Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eastern_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Eastern Visayas") [Ilocos Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Ilocos_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Ilocos Region") [Metro Manila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Metro_Manila "COVID-19 pandemic in Metro Manila") [Mimaropa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mimaropa "COVID-19 pandemic in Mimaropa") [Northern Mindanao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Mindanao "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Mindanao") [Soccsksargen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Soccsksargen "COVID-19 pandemic in Soccsksargen") [Western Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Visayas") [Zamboanga Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zamboanga_Peninsula "COVID-19 pandemic in Zamboanga Peninsula") [Overseas Filipinos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Filipinos_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Overseas Filipinos during the COVID-19 pandemic") | | West | [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Armenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia") [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Azerbaijan "COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan") [Artsakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Artsakh "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Artsakh") [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bahrain "COVID-19 pandemic in Bahrain") [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus") [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(country\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (country)") [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Abkhazia "COVID-19 pandemic in Abkhazia") [South Ossetia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Ossetia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Ossetia") [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran "COVID-19 pandemic in Iran") [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iraq "COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq") [Kurdistan Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Kurdistan_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Kurdistan Region") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Israel "COVID-19 pandemic in Israel") [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jordan "COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan") [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuwait "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait") [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lebanon "COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon") [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oman "COVID-19 pandemic in Oman") [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_State_of_Palestine "COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine") [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Qatar "COVID-19 pandemic in Qatar") [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_programme_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 vaccination programme in Saudi Arabia") [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Syria "COVID-19 pandemic in Syria") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates") [Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Yemen "COVID-19 pandemic in Yemen") | | [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe "COVID-19 pandemic in Europe") | | | | | | [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") | | | | | | [history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "History of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") timeline [January–June 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (January–June 2020)") [July–December 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (July–December 2020)") [January–June 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (January–June 2021)") [July–December 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (July–December 2021)") [January–June 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (January–June 2022)") [July–December 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (July–December 2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (2023)") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Kingdom responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Broadshare "Operation Broadshare") [Operation Rescript](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Rescript "Operation Rescript") [contracts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversies_regarding_COVID-19_contracts_in_the_United_Kingdom "Controversies regarding COVID-19 contracts in the United Kingdom") impact [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_Kingdom "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom") | | | By location | [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_England "COVID-19 pandemic in England") timeline 2020 [January–June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (January–June 2020)") [July–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (July–December 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (2022)") [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_London "COVID-19 pandemic in London") [local lockdown regulations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_local_lockdown_regulations_in_England "COVID-19 local lockdown regulations in England") [first tier regulations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_COVID-19_tier_regulations_in_England "First COVID-19 tier regulations in England") [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2022)") [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland "COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2022)") [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales "COVID-19 pandemic in Wales") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2021)") [Crown Dependencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Crown_Dependencies "COVID-19 pandemic in the Crown Dependencies") [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Isle_of_Man "COVID-19 pandemic in the Isle of Man") [Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jersey "COVID-19 pandemic in Jersey") [Guernsey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guernsey "COVID-19 pandemic in Guernsey") [Overseas territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Overseas_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Overseas Territories") [Akrotiri and Dhekelia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia "COVID-19 pandemic in Akrotiri and Dhekelia") [British Indian Ocean Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Indian Ocean Territory") [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gibraltar "COVID-19 pandemic in Gibraltar") | | Eastern | [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus "COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2022)") [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Moldova "COVID-19 pandemic in Moldova") [Gagauzia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gagauzia "COVID-19 pandemic in Gagauzia") [Transnistria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Transnistria "COVID-19 pandemic in Transnistria") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") timeline [January–June 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (January–June 2020)") [July–December 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (July–December 2020)") [government responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Russian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [political impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine") [Crimea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Crimea "COVID-19 pandemic in Crimea") [Sevastopol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sevastopol "COVID-19 pandemic in Sevastopol") | | Western Balkans | [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Albania "COVID-19 pandemic in Albania") [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 pandemic in Bosnia and Herzegovina") [Kosovo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kosovo "COVID-19 pandemic in Kosovo") [Montenegro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montenegro "COVID-19 pandemic in Montenegro") [North Macedonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Macedonia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Macedonia") [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") | | [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austria "COVID-19 pandemic in Austria") [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belgium "COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 pandemic in Bulgaria") [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus") [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus") [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Czech_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic") [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Denmark "COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark") [Faroe Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Faroe_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Faroe Islands") [Estonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Estonia "COVID-19 pandemic in Estonia") [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Finland "COVID-19 pandemic in Finland") [Åland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_%C3%85land "COVID-19 pandemic in Åland") [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France "COVID-19 pandemic in France") [Guadeloupe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guadeloupe "COVID-19 pandemic in Guadeloupe") [French Guiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Guiana "COVID-19 pandemic in French Guiana") [RĂ©union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_R%C3%A9union "COVID-19 pandemic in RĂ©union") [Martinique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Martinique "COVID-19 pandemic in Martinique") [Mayotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mayotte "COVID-19 pandemic in Mayotte") [Normandy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Normandy "COVID-19 pandemic in Normandy") [Saint Martin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin "COVID-19 pandemic in the Collectivity of Saint Martin") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany "COVID-19 pandemic in Germany") [North Rhine-Westphalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Rhine-Westphalia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Rhine-Westphalia") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "German government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greece "COVID-19 pandemic in Greece") [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hungary "COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2022)") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 vaccination in the Republic of Ireland") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns_in_Italy "COVID-19 lockdowns in Italy") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Latvia "COVID-19 pandemic in Latvia") [Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lithuania "COVID-19 pandemic in Lithuania") [Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Luxembourg "COVID-19 pandemic in Luxembourg") [Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malta "COVID-19 pandemic in Malta") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Dutch government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Poland "COVID-19 pandemic in Poland") [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portugal "COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") [Slovenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovenia") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") [Asturias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asturias "COVID-19 pandemic in Asturias") [Canary Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Canary_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Canary Islands") [Ceuta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ceuta "COVID-19 pandemic in Ceuta") [Community of Madrid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Community_of_Madrid "COVID-19 pandemic in the Community of Madrid") [Melilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Melilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Melilla") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sweden "COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Swedish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Operation Gloria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Gloria "Operation Gloria") | | EFTA countries | [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iceland "COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland") [Liechtenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liechtenstein "COVID-19 pandemic in Liechtenstein") [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norway "COVID-19 pandemic in Norway") [Svalbard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Svalbard "COVID-19 pandemic in Svalbard") [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland") | | Microstates | [Andorra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andorra "COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra") [Monaco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Monaco "COVID-19 pandemic in Monaco") [San Marino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_San_Marino "COVID-19 pandemic in San Marino") [Vatican City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vatican_City "COVID-19 pandemic in Vatican City") | | [North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_America "COVID-19 pandemic in North America") | | | | | | Atlantic | [Bermuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bermuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Bermuda") [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greenland "COVID-19 pandemic in Greenland") [Saint Pierre and Miquelon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Pierre and Miquelon") | | Canada | [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [federal aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_aid_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Federal aid during the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Canada "COVID-19 vaccination in Canada") [military response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Laser "Operation Laser") [Atlantic Bubble](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Bubble "Atlantic Bubble") [Alberta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alberta "COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alberta "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta") [British Columbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_British_Columbia "COVID-19 pandemic in British Columbia") [Manitoba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Manitoba "COVID-19 pandemic in Manitoba") [New Brunswick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Brunswick "COVID-19 pandemic in New Brunswick") [Newfoundland and Labrador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Newfoundland_and_Labrador "COVID-19 pandemic in Newfoundland and Labrador") [Northwest Territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northwest_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northwest Territories") [Nova Scotia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nova_Scotia "COVID-19 pandemic in Nova Scotia") [Nunavut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nunavut "COVID-19 pandemic in Nunavut") [Ontario](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario "COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2022)") [Ottawa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ottawa "COVID-19 pandemic in Ottawa") [Peel Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Regional_Municipality_of_Peel "COVID-19 pandemic in the Regional Municipality of Peel") [Toronto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Toronto "COVID-19 pandemic in Toronto") [York Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Regional_Municipality_of_York "COVID-19 pandemic in the Regional Municipality of York") [Provincial government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincial_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario "Provincial government response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario") [Vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ontario "COVID-19 vaccination in Ontario") [Prince Edward Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Prince_Edward_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Prince Edward Island") [Quebec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Quebec "COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec") [Montreal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montreal "COVID-19 pandemic in Montreal") [boroughs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boroughs_of_Montreal_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Boroughs of Montreal during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Saskatchewan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saskatchewan "COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saskatchewan "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan") [Yukon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Yukon "COVID-19 pandemic in Yukon") | | Caribbean | | | | | | Countries | [Antigua and Barbuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Antigua and Barbuda") [Bahamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Bahamas "COVID-19 pandemic in the Bahamas") [Barbados](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Barbados "COVID-19 pandemic in Barbados") [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cuba "COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba") [Guantanamo Bay Naval Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base "COVID-19 pandemic in the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base") [Dominica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dominica "COVID-19 pandemic in Dominica") [Dominican Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Dominican_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Dominican Republic") [Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Grenada "COVID-19 pandemic in Grenada") [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haiti "COVID-19 pandemic in Haiti") [Jamaica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jamaica "COVID-19 pandemic in Jamaica") [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Kitts and Nevis") [Saint Lucia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Lucia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Lucia") [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines") [Trinidad and Tobago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") | | [British Overseas Territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Overseas_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Overseas Territories") | [Anguilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Anguilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Anguilla") [British Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Virgin Islands") [Cayman Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cayman_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cayman Islands") [Montserrat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montserrat "COVID-19 pandemic in Montserrat") [Turks and Caicos Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Turks and Caicos Islands") [response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Broadshare "Operation Broadshare") | | | | | [Aruba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Aruba "COVID-19 pandemic in Aruba") [Curaçao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cura%C3%A7ao "COVID-19 pandemic in Curaçao") [Sint Maarten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sint_Maarten "COVID-19 pandemic in Sint Maarten") | | | Caribbean Netherlands | [Bonaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bonaire "COVID-19 pandemic in Bonaire") [Saba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saba "COVID-19 pandemic in Saba") [Sint Eustatius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sint_Eustatius "COVID-19 pandemic in Sint Eustatius") | | French West Indies | [Guadeloupe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guadeloupe "COVID-19 pandemic in Guadeloupe") [Martinique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Martinique "COVID-19 pandemic in Martinique") [Saint BarthĂ©lemy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint BarthĂ©lemy") [Saint Martin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin "COVID-19 pandemic in the Collectivity of Saint Martin") | | US insular areas | [Puerto Rico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puerto_Rico "COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico") [U.S. Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Virgin Islands") | | Central America | [Belize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belize "COVID-19 pandemic in Belize") [Costa Rica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Costa_Rica "COVID-19 pandemic in Costa Rica") [El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_El_Salvador "COVID-19 pandemic in El Salvador") [Guatemala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guatemala "COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala") [Honduras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Honduras "COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras") [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Mexico "COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico") [Nicaragua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nicaragua "COVID-19 pandemic in Nicaragua") [Panama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Panama "COVID-19 pandemic in Panama") | | [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") | | | | | | [Trump administration communication](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_of_the_Trump_administration_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Communication of the Trump administration during the COVID-19 pandemic") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States (2021)") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [2021 hospital crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_hospital_crisis_in_the_U.S._from_COVID-19 "2021 hospital crisis in the U.S. from COVID-19") | | | [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United States responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [federal government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._federal_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [state and local governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state_and_local_government_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. state and local government responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [California government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "California government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [New York government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_state_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New York state government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Texas government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Texas government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Eastern States Multi-state Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_States_Multi-state_Council "Eastern States Multi-state Council") [Midwest Governors Regional Pact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwest_Governors_Regional_Pact "Midwest Governors Regional Pact") [Western States Pact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_States_Pact "Western States Pact") | | By location | [Alabama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alabama "COVID-19 pandemic in Alabama") [Alaska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alaska "COVID-19 pandemic in Alaska") [American Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_American_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in American Samoa") [Arizona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arizona "COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona") [Navajo Nation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Navajo_Nation "COVID-19 pandemic in the Navajo Nation") [Arkansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arkansas "COVID-19 pandemic in Arkansas") [California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_California "COVID-19 pandemic in California") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_California "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in California") [S.F. Bay Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area "COVID-19 pandemic in the San Francisco Bay Area") [Colorado](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colorado "COVID-19 pandemic in Colorado") [Connecticut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Connecticut "COVID-19 pandemic in Connecticut") [Delaware](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Delaware "COVID-19 pandemic in Delaware") [Florida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Florida "COVID-19 pandemic in Florida") [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(U.S._state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (U.S. state)") [Guam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guam "COVID-19 pandemic in Guam") [Hawaii](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hawaii "COVID-19 pandemic in Hawaii") [Idaho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Idaho "COVID-19 pandemic in Idaho") [Illinois](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Illinois "COVID-19 pandemic in Illinois") [Indiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indiana "COVID-19 pandemic in Indiana") [Iowa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iowa "COVID-19 pandemic in Iowa") [Kansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kansas "COVID-19 pandemic in Kansas") [Kentucky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kentucky "COVID-19 pandemic in Kentucky") [Louisiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Louisiana "COVID-19 pandemic in Louisiana") [Maine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maine "COVID-19 pandemic in Maine") [Maryland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maryland "COVID-19 pandemic in Maryland") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maryland "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Maryland") [Massachusetts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Massachusetts "COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Massachusetts "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts") [Boston](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Boston "COVID-19 pandemic in Boston") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Boston "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Boston") [Michigan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Michigan "COVID-19 pandemic in Michigan") [Minnesota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Minnesota "COVID-19 pandemic in Minnesota") [Mississippi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mississippi "COVID-19 pandemic in Mississippi") [Missouri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Missouri "COVID-19 pandemic in Missouri") [Montana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montana "COVID-19 pandemic in Montana") [Nebraska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nebraska "COVID-19 pandemic in Nebraska") [Nevada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nevada "COVID-19 pandemic in Nevada") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nevada "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Nevada") [New Hampshire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Hampshire "COVID-19 pandemic in New Hampshire") [New Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Jersey "COVID-19 pandemic in New Jersey") [New Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in New Mexico") [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in New York (state)") [New York City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_City "COVID-19 pandemic in New York City") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_City "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City") [North Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Carolina "COVID-19 pandemic in North Carolina") [North Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Dakota "COVID-19 pandemic in North Dakota") [Northern Mariana Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Mariana Islands") [Ohio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ohio "COVID-19 pandemic in Ohio") [Columbus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Columbus,_Ohio "COVID-19 pandemic in Columbus, Ohio") [Oklahoma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oklahoma "COVID-19 pandemic in Oklahoma") [Oregon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oregon "COVID-19 pandemic in Oregon") [Portland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portland,_Oregon "COVID-19 pandemic in Portland, Oregon") [Pennsylvania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pennsylvania "COVID-19 pandemic in Pennsylvania") [Philadelphia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Philadelphia "COVID-19 pandemic in Philadelphia") [Puerto Rico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puerto_Rico "COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico") [Rhode Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rhode_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Rhode Island") [South Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Carolina "COVID-19 pandemic in South Carolina") [South Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Dakota "COVID-19 pandemic in South Dakota") [Tennessee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tennessee "COVID-19 pandemic in Tennessee") [Texas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Texas "COVID-19 pandemic in Texas") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Texas "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Texas") [Austin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austin,_Texas "COVID-19 pandemic in Austin, Texas") [U.S. Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Virgin Islands") [Utah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Utah "COVID-19 pandemic in Utah") [Vermont](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vermont "COVID-19 pandemic in Vermont") [Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Virginia "COVID-19 pandemic in Virginia") [Washington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Washington_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Washington (state)") [Washington, D.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Washington,_D.C. "COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C.") [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_COVID-19_outbreak "White House COVID-19 outbreak") [West Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_West_Virginia "COVID-19 pandemic in West Virginia") [Wisconsin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wisconsin "COVID-19 pandemic in Wisconsin") [Wyoming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wyoming "COVID-19 pandemic in Wyoming") | | [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oceania "COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania") | | | | | | [American Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_American_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in American Samoa") [Cook Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cook_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cook Islands") [Easter Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Easter_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Easter Island") [Federated States of Micronesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia "COVID-19 pandemic in the Federated States of Micronesia") [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Fiji "COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji") [French Polynesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Polynesia "COVID-19 pandemic in French Polynesia") [Guam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guam "COVID-19 pandemic in Guam") [Hawaii](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hawaii "COVID-19 pandemic in Hawaii") [Kiribati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kiribati "COVID-19 pandemic in Kiribati") [Marshall Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Marshall_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Marshall Islands") [Nauru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nauru "COVID-19 pandemic in Nauru") [New Caledonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Caledonia "COVID-19 pandemic in New Caledonia") [Niue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niue "COVID-19 pandemic in Niue") [Northern Mariana Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Mariana Islands") [Palau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Palau "COVID-19 pandemic in Palau") [Papua New Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Papua_New_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Papua New Guinea") [Bougainville](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Autonomous_Region_of_Bougainville "COVID-19 pandemic in the Autonomous Region of Bougainville") [Pitcairn Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Pitcairn Islands") [Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in Samoa") [Solomon Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Solomon_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Solomon Islands") [Tokelau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tokelau "COVID-19 pandemic in Tokelau") [Tonga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tonga "COVID-19 pandemic in Tonga") [Tuvalu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tuvalu "COVID-19 pandemic in Tuvalu") [Vanuatu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vanuatu "COVID-19 pandemic in Vanuatu") [Wallis and Futuna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wallis_and_Futuna "COVID-19 pandemic in Wallis and Futuna") | | | [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Australia") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (2020)") 2021 [January–June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (January–June 2021)") [July–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (July–December 2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (2022)") [Australian Capital Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Australian_Capital_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the Australian Capital Territory") [Christmas Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Christmas_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Christmas Island") [Cocos (Keeling) Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cocos_\(Keeling\)_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands") [New South Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_South_Wales "COVID-19 pandemic in New South Wales") [Norfolk Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norfolk_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Norfolk Island") [Northern Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Territory") [Queensland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Queensland "COVID-19 pandemic in Queensland") [South Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Australia") [Tasmania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tasmania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tasmania") [Victoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Victoria "COVID-19 pandemic in Victoria") [Western Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Australia") | | [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2023)") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New Zealand government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Alert levels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_alert_levels_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 alert levels in New Zealand") [Traffic light system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Protection_Framework "COVID-19 Protection Framework") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [managed isolation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_managed_isolation_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 managed isolation in New Zealand") | | [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_America "COVID-19 pandemic in South America") | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") [human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_human_rights_in_Argentina "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on human rights in Argentina") [Bolivia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bolivia "COVID-19 pandemic in Bolivia") [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") [SĂŁo Paulo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in SĂŁo Paulo (state)") [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") [Easter Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Easter_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Easter Island") [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") [Ecuador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ecuador "COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador") [Falkland Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Falkland_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Falkland Islands") [French Guiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Guiana "COVID-19 pandemic in French Guiana") [Guyana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guyana "COVID-19 pandemic in Guyana") [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Paraguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Paraguay") [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") [Cusco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cusco "COVID-19 pandemic in Cusco") [Suriname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Suriname "COVID-19 pandemic in Suriname") [Uruguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uruguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Uruguay") [Venezuela](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Venezuela "COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela") | | Others | [Antarctica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antarctica "COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica") [Cruise ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_cruise_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships") [*Diamond Princess*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Diamond_Princess "COVID-19 pandemic on Diamond Princess") [*Grand Princess*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Grand_Princess "COVID-19 pandemic on Grand Princess") [Naval ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_naval_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on naval ships") [*Charles de Gaulle*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Charles_de_Gaulle "COVID-19 pandemic on Charles de Gaulle") [USS *Theodore Roosevelt*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_USS_Theodore_Roosevelt "COVID-19 pandemic on USS Theodore Roosevelt") | | [Impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | | | | Culture and entertainment | | | | | | [Arts and cultural heritage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_arts_and_cultural_heritage "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage") | [References in popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_popular_culture "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture") [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cinema "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema") [films affected](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Corona-chan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona-chan "Corona-chan") [Disney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Walt_Disney_Company "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Walt Disney Company") [Fashion industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_fashion_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the fashion industry") [Music industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_music_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the music industry") [Performing arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_performing_arts "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performing arts") [Television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television") [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television in the United States") [U.S. sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_American_sports_broadcasting "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on American sports broadcasting") [programs affected](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_television_series_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of American television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Video games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_video_game_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry") | | [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education") | | | | | | [Female education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_female_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on female education") [Homeschooling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeschooling_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | By country | [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_Ghana "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in Ghana") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the Republic of Ireland") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_Kingdom "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom") [exam grading controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_Kingdom_school_exam_grading_controversy "2020 United Kingdom school exam grading controversy") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United States") | | [Sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports") | | | | | | [Bio-secure bubble](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-secure_bubble "Bio-secure bubble") | | | By country | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports in the Republic of Ireland") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Philippine_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Philippine sports") | | By sport | [Association football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_association_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on association football") [Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_baseball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on baseball") [Basketball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_basketball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on basketball") [NBA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_the_2019%E2%80%9320_NBA_season "Suspension of the 2019–20 NBA season") [Combat sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_combat_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on combat sports") [Cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cricket "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cricket") [Disc golf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_disc_golf "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on disc golf") [Gaelic games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Gaelic_games "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Gaelic games") [Gridirion football (NCAAF, NFL, and CFL)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_gridiron_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gridiron football") [Ice hockey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ice_hockey "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ice hockey") [Motorsport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_motorsport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on motorsport") [Rugby league](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_rugby_league "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rugby league") | | Society and rights | | | | | | [Social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Social media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_social_media "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media") [Stigma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stigma_associated_with_COVID-19 "Social stigma associated with COVID-19") [Children](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_children "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children") [foster care in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_foster_care_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on foster care in the United States") [Pandemic baking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic_baking "Pandemic baking") | | Labor | [Healthcare workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_healthcare_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_migrant_workers_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian migrant workers during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Great Resignation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Resignation "Great Resignation") [Strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikes_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Strikes during the COVID-19 pandemic") | | [Human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_issues_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Human rights issues related to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_human_rights_in_Argentina "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on human rights in Argentina") [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Myanmar_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "2021 Myanmar coup d'Ă©tat") | | Legal | [Abortion in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_abortion_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on abortion in the United States") [Crime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_crime "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on crime") [Domestic violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_domestic_violence "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence") [Prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_prisons "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prisons") [U.S. immigration detention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_U.S._immigration_detention "COVID-19 pandemic in U.S. immigration detention") | | Minority | [Gender](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendered_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Gendered impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [LGBT community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_LGBT_community "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBT community") [African communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Indian_migrant_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Indian migrant workers") [Disability community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_people_with_disabilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on people with disabilities") [Native American communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Native_American_tribes_and_tribal_communities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Native American tribes and tribal communities") [Xenophobia and racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic") | | [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_religion "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion") | [Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church") [Hajj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Hajj "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Hajj") | | [Economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | | | | [Charitable activity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charitable_activities_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Charitable activities related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [COVID-19 scams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_scams "COVID-19 scams") [Travel restrictions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | By country | [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Pandemic_Unemployment_Payment "COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [U.K.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") | | By industry | [Aviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_commercial_air_transport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on commercial air transport") [Airlines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airlines_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of airlines impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Cannabis industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_cannabis_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cannabis industry") [Food industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_food_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food industry") [meat industry in Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_meat_industry_in_Canada "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the meat industry in Canada") [meat industry in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_meat_industry_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the meat industry in the United States") [restaurant industry in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_restaurant_industry_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the restaurant industry in the United States") [Hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_hospitals "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitals") [ICU capacity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ICU_capacity "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ICU capacity") [Long-term care facilities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_long-term_care_facilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on long-term care facilities") [Mink farming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Public transport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_public_transport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public transport") [Retail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_retail "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on retail") [Tourism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_tourism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism") | | Supply and trade | [Shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Chip supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_global_chip_shortage "2020–2023 global chip shortage") [Energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_global_energy_crisis "2021–2023 global energy crisis") [Global supply chain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_global_supply_chain_crisis "2021–2023 global supply chain crisis") [Oil price war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war "2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war") [Food security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Food security during the COVID-19 pandemic") | | [Financial markets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Global stock market crash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_stock_market_crash "2020 stock market crash") [COVID-19 recession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_recession "COVID-19 recession") [Inflation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_inflation_surge "2021–2022 inflation surge") | | Information | | | | | | [Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_journalism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism") [Media coverage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Wikipedia's response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_and_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Wikipedia and the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | [Misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation "COVID-19 misinformation") | [Governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments "COVID-19 misinformation by governments") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China "COVID-19 misinformation by China") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States "COVID-19 misinformation by the United States") By country [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_Canada "COVID-19 misinformation in Canada") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines") [Ivermectin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic") *[Plandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plandemic "Plandemic")* | | [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | | | | [National responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_pandemic_legislation "List of COVID-19 pandemic legislation") [List of political officials who have tested positive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_officials_who_have_tested_positive_for_COVID-19 "List of political officials who have tested positive for COVID-19") [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | | | [Political impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Malaysia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Malaysia") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") | | [Protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_against_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Protests against responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Abkhazia_unrest "2021 Abkhazia unrest") [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17A "17A") [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Australia "COVID-19 protests in Australia") [Convoy to Canberra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy_to_Canberra "Convoy to Canberra") [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Azerbaijani_protests "2020 Azerbaijani protests") [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Belarusian_protests "2020–2021 Belarusian protests") [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Brussels_protests "2022 Brussels protests") [2020 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Brazilian_protests "2020 Brazilian protests") [2021 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Brazilian_protests "2021 Brazilian protests") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Bulgarian_protests "2020–2021 Bulgarian protests") [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Canada "COVID-19 protests in Canada") [convoy protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_convoy_protest "Canada convoy protest") [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%932022_Chilean_protests "2019–2022 Chilean protests") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_COVID-19_protests_in_China "2022 COVID-19 protests in China") [Beijing Sitong Bridge protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Beijing_Sitong_Bridge_protest "2022 Beijing Sitong Bridge protest") [healthcare reform protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Chinese_healthcare_reform_protests "2023 Chinese healthcare reform protests") [2021 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Colombian_protests "2021 Colombian protests") [2022 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Colombian_protests "2022 Colombian protests") [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Cuban_protests "2021 Cuban protests") [Yellow vests protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_vests_protests "Yellow vests protests") [labor protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_French_labor_protests "2021 French labor protests") [French West Indies social unrest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_social_unrest_in_the_French_West_Indies "2021–2022 social unrest in the French West Indies") [convoy protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_convoy_protest "France convoy protest") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Germany "COVID-19 protests in Germany") [Idar-Oberstein shooting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Idar-Oberstein_shooting "2021 Idar-Oberstein shooting") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Greek_protests "2021 Greek protests") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Israel "COVID-19 protests in Israel") [protests against Benjamin Netanyahu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_protests_against_Benjamin_Netanyahu "2020–2021 protests against Benjamin Netanyahu") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_over_COVID-19_policies_in_Italy "Protests over COVID-19 policies in Italy") [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Mongolian_protests "2021 Mongolian protests") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 protests in the Netherlands") [curfew riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Dutch_curfew_riots "2021 Dutch curfew riots") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 protests in New Zealand") [Wellington protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Wellington_protest "2022 Wellington protest") [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Paraguayan_protests "2021 Paraguayan protests") [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Serbian_protests "2020–2022 Serbian protests") [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Tunisian_protests "2021 Tunisian protests") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 protests in the United Kingdom") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 protests in the United States") [Open the States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_the_States "Open the States") | | [International relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_international_relations "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations") | [Aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "International reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [Moldovan–Romanian collaboration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan%E2%80%93Romanian_collaboration_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Moldovan–Romanian collaboration during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator_diplomacy_of_Taiwan "Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan") [Vaccine diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_diplomacy "Vaccine diplomacy") | | [Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Glossary of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Anthropause](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropause "Anthropause") [Doomscrolling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomscrolling "Doomscrolling") [Flattening the curve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flattening_the_curve "Flattening the curve") [Green recovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_recovery "Green recovery") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") [Superspreader](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superspreading_event "Superspreading event") [Twindemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twindemic "Twindemic") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") [Zoom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom_\(software\) "Zoom (software)") [Zoom towns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom_town "Zoom town") | | Others | [Animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_and_animals "COVID-19 pandemic and animals") [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_environment "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment") [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_military "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the military") [Pregnant women](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_pregnant_women "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on pregnant women") [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology") | | Health issues | | | | | | Medical topics | [Transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_of_COVID-19 "Transmission of COVID-19") [Symptoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptoms_of_COVID-19 "Symptoms of COVID-19") [Cancer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_and_cancer "COVID-19 and cancer") [Endemic COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_COVID-19 "Endemic COVID-19") [Skin manifestations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous_manifestations_of_COVID-19 "Cutaneous manifestations of COVID-19") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Mental health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic") [neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes") [Pregnancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy "COVID-19 in pregnancy") [Non-COVID-19–related health issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_other_health_issues "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues") [Shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Rehabilitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehabilitation_after_COVID-19 "Rehabilitation after COVID-19") [Unproven medical methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19 "List of unproven methods against COVID-19") | | Testing and epidemiology | | | | | | [Datasets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_datasets "COVID-19 datasets") [Death rates by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_death_rates_by_country "COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country") [Disease testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing "COVID-19 testing") [Breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer") [Operation Moonshot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonshot "Operation Moonshot") [Test to Release](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_to_Release "Test to Release") [UK Rapid Test Consortium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Rapid_Test_Consortium "UK Rapid Test Consortium") [AbC-19 rapid antibody test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AbC-19_rapid_antibody_test "AbC-19 rapid antibody test") [investigations into the origins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigations_into_the_origin_of_COVID-19 "Investigations into the origin of COVID-19") [lab leak theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lab_leak_theory "COVID-19 lab leak theory") [Rapid antigen test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test") [Software](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_for_COVID-19_pandemic_mitigation "Software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation") [Surveillance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance "COVID-19 surveillance") [Undercounting COVID-19 deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercounting_of_COVID-19_pandemic_deaths_by_country "Undercounting of COVID-19 pandemic deaths by country") | | | [Apps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_apps "COVID-19 apps") | [Aarogya Setu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarogya_Setu "Aarogya Setu") [BlueTrace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlueTrace "BlueTrace") [careFIJI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CareFIJI "CareFIJI") [Coronavirus Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_Australia "Coronavirus Australia") [Corona-Warn-App](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona-Warn-App "Corona-Warn-App") [COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Contact-Confirming_Application "COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application") [COVID Alert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Alert "COVID Alert") (Canada) [COVIDSafe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVIDSafe "COVIDSafe") [COVID Tracker Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Tracker_Ireland "COVID Tracker Ireland") [Covid Watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid_Watch "Covid Watch") [Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralized_Privacy-Preserving_Proximity_Tracing "Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing") [Exposure Notification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_Notification "Exposure Notification") [Health Code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Code "Health Code") [Healthy Together](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_Together "Healthy Together") [Immuni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuni "Immuni") [Koronavilkku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronavilkku "Koronavilkku") [LeaveHomeSafe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeaveHomeSafe "LeaveHomeSafe") [MySejahtera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySejahtera "MySejahtera") [NHS COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_COVID-19 "NHS COVID-19") [NZ COVID Tracer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZ_COVID_Tracer "NZ COVID Tracer") [NZ Pass Verifier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZ_Pass_Verifier "NZ Pass Verifier") [PathCheck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PathCheck "PathCheck") [PeduliLindungi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PeduliLindungi "PeduliLindungi") [SafeEntry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafeEntry "SafeEntry") [SafePass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafePass "SafePass") [StaySafe.ph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StaySafe.ph "StaySafe.ph") [SwissCovid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SwissCovid "SwissCovid") [TCN Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCN_Protocol "TCN Protocol") [Test, Trace, Protect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test,_Trace,_Protect "Test, Trace, Protect") [Thai Chana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_Chana "Thai Chana") [TousAntiCovid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TousAntiCovid "TousAntiCovid") [TraceTogether](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TraceTogether "TraceTogether") [Valtrace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valtrace "Valtrace") [Zoe Health Study](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_Health_Study "Zoe Health Study") | | Prevention | [Air purifier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier "Air purifier") ([Corsi–Rosenthal Box](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsi%E2%80%93Rosenthal_Box "Corsi–Rosenthal Box")) [Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroquine_and_hydroxychloroquine_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Anti-mask sentiment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-mask_sentiment "Anti-mask sentiment") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [Flattening the curve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flattening_the_curve "Flattening the curve") [Great Barrington Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrington_Declaration "Great Barrington Declaration") [International aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns "COVID-19 lockdowns") [Public health mitigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19 "Public health mitigation of COVID-19") [Safe Hands Challenge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Hands_Challenge "Safe Hands Challenge") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing_measures_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Workplace hazard controls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_hazard_controls_for_COVID-19 "Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") | | [Vaccines]() | | | | | | Topics | [Authorizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_vaccine_authorizations "List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations") [Clinical research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research "COVID-19 vaccine clinical research") [Deployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") [Development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development "History of COVID-19 vaccine development") [EU Certificate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Digital_COVID_Certificate "EU Digital COVID Certificate") [Misinformation and hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy "COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy") [Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaths_of_anti-vaccine_advocates_from_COVID-19 "Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates from COVID-19") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_hesitancy_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the United States") [Operation Warp Speed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Warp_Speed "Operation Warp Speed") (U.S.) [Post-vaccination complications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolic_and_thrombotic_events_after_COVID-19_vaccination "Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination") [Vaccine card](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_card "COVID-19 vaccine card") [Vaccine passports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_passports_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic") | | Authorized | | | | | | [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_vaccine "DNA vaccine") | [ZyCoV-D](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZyCoV-D "ZyCoV-D") | | [Inactivated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") | [Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences_COVID-19_vaccine "Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences COVID-19 vaccine") [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac") [Covaxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covaxin "Covaxin") [COVIran Barekat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVIran_Barekat "COVIran Barekat") [CoviVac (Russia)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoviVac_\(Russia_COVID-19_vaccine\) "CoviVac (Russia COVID-19 vaccine)") [FAKHRAVAC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAKHRAVAC "FAKHRAVAC") [Minhai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minhai_COVID-19_vaccine "Minhai COVID-19 vaccine") [QazCovid-in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QazCovid-in "QazCovid-in") [Sinopharm BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Sinopharm WIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_WIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm WIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Turkovac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkovac "Turkovac") [Valneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valneva_COVID-19_vaccine "Valneva COVID-19 vaccine") | | [mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") | [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") [Pfizer–BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine") | | [Subunit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") | [Abdala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdala_\(vaccine\) "Abdala (vaccine)") [Corbevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbevax "Corbevax") (Bio E COVID-19) [COVAX-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVAX-19 "COVAX-19") [EpiVacCorona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EpiVacCorona "EpiVacCorona") [IndoVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IndoVac "IndoVac") [MVC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVC_COVID-19_vaccine "MVC COVID-19 vaccine") [Noora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noora_\(vaccine\) "Noora (vaccine)") [Novavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine") [Razi Cov Pars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi_Cov_Pars "Razi Cov Pars") [Sinopharm CNBG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_CNBG_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm CNBG COVID-19 vaccine") [Soberana 02](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_02 "Soberana 02") [Soberana Plus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_Plus "Soberana Plus") [ZF2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF2001 "ZF2001") (Zifivax) | | [Viral vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine") | [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia") [Janssen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID-19_vaccine "Janssen COVID-19 vaccine") [Oxford–AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik Light](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_Light "Sputnik Light") | | [Virus-like particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") | [CoVLP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoVLP "CoVLP") | | In trials | | | | | | [Attenuated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine "Attenuated vaccine") | [COVI-VAC (United States)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVI-VAC_\(U.S._COVID-19_vaccine\) "COVI-VAC (U.S. COVID-19 vaccine)") | | DNA | [AG0302-COVID‑19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AG0302-COVID%E2%80%9119 "AG0302-COVID‑19") [GX-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GX-19 "GX-19") [Inovio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inovio_COVID-19_vaccine "Inovio COVID-19 vaccine") | | Inactivated | [KD-414](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KD-414 "KD-414") [NDV-HXP-S](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDV-HXP-S "NDV-HXP-S") | | RNA | [ARCT-021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCT-021 "ARCT-021") [ARCT-154](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCT-154 "ARCT-154") [Bangavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangavax "Bangavax") [CureVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CureVac_COVID-19_vaccine "CureVac COVID-19 vaccine") (terminated) [HGC019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HGC019 "HGC019") [mRNA-1283](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA-1283 "MRNA-1283") [PTX-COVID19-B](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PTX-COVID19-B "PTX-COVID19-B") [Sanofi–Translate Bio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93Translate_Bio_COVID-19_vaccine "Sanofi–Translate Bio COVID-19 vaccine") (terminated) [Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemirna_COVID-19_vaccine "Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine") [Walvax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walvax_COVID-19_vaccine "Walvax COVID-19 vaccine") | | Subunit | [202-CoV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/202-CoV "202-CoV") [AKS-452](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKS-452 "AKS-452") [EuCorVac-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuCorVac-19 "EuCorVac-19") [IVX-411](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IVX-411 "IVX-411") [Nanocovax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocovax "Nanocovax") [ReCOV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReCOV "ReCOV") [Sanofi–GSK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93GSK_COVID-19_vaccine "Sanofi–GSK COVID-19 vaccine") [S-268019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-268019 "S-268019") [SCB-2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCB-2019 "SCB-2019") [SCTV01C](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCTV01C "SCTV01C") [Skycovione](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skycovione "Skycovione") [UB-612](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UB-612 "UB-612") [V-01](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-01 "V-01") [V451](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V451_vaccine "V451 vaccine") (terminated) [Vabiotech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vabiotech_COVID-19_vaccine "Vabiotech COVID-19 vaccine") [West China Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_China_Hospital_COVID-19_vaccine "West China Hospital COVID-19 vaccine") [Zhongyianke Biotech–Liaoning Maokangyuan Biotech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF2001 "ZF2001") | | Viral vector | [AdCLD-CoV19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdCLD-CoV19 "AdCLD-CoV19") [BriLife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BriLife "BriLife") [COH04S1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COH04S1 "COH04S1") [DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT "DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT") [GRAd-COV2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAd-COV2 "GRAd-COV2") [ImmunityBio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ImmunityBio_COVID-19_vaccine "ImmunityBio COVID-19 vaccine") [iNCOVACC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCOVACC "INCOVACC") [INNA-051](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INNA-051 "INNA-051") [NDV-HXP-S](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDV-HXP-S "NDV-HXP-S") [Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaxart_COVID-19_vaccine "Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine") | | [Virus-like particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") | [ABNCoV2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABNCoV2 "ABNCoV2") [LYB001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LYB001 "LYB001") [MigVax-101](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MigVax-101 "MigVax-101") [VBI-2902](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VBI-2902 "VBI-2902") | | [Deployment by location](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") | | | | | | [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Africa "COVID-19 vaccination in Africa") | [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Algeria "COVID-19 vaccination in Algeria") [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Angola "COVID-19 vaccination in Angola") [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Botswana "COVID-19 vaccination in Botswana") [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 vaccination in Burkina Faso") [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Burundi "COVID-19 vaccination in Burundi") [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 vaccination in Cameroon") [Cape Verde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cape_Verde "COVID-19 vaccination in Cape Verde") [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 vaccination in Cameroon") [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Chad "COVID-19 vaccination in Chad") [Comoros](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Comoros "COVID-19 vaccination in the Comoros") [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 vaccination in the Democratic Republic of the Congo") [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 vaccination in Djibouti") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Egypt "COVID-19 vaccination in Egypt") [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 vaccination in Equatorial Guinea") [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 vaccination in Eswatini") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ghana "COVID-19 vaccination in Ghana") [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Morocco "COVID-19 vaccination in Morocco") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 vaccination in Nigeria") [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Senegal "COVID-19 vaccination in Senegal") [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 vaccination in South Africa") [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 vaccination in Zimbabwe") | | Asia | [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 vaccination in Bangladesh") [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 vaccination in Bhutan") [Mainland China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 vaccination in mainland China") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_India "COVID-19 vaccination in India") [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 vaccination in Indonesia") [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Iran "COVID-19 vaccination in Iran") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Israel "COVID-19 vaccination in Israel") [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Japan "COVID-19 vaccination in Japan") [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 vaccination in Kazakhstan") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 vaccination in Malaysia") [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Nepal "COVID-19 vaccination in Nepal") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 vaccination in the Philippines") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Russia "COVID-19 vaccination in Russia") [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Singapore "COVID-19 vaccination in Singapore") [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 vaccination in South Korea") [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 vaccination in Sri Lanka") [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 vaccination in Taiwan") [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Thailand "COVID-19 vaccination in Thailand") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Turkey "COVID-19 vaccination in Turkey") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 vaccination in the United Arab Emirates") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 vaccination in Vietnam") | | Europe | [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Albania "COVID-19 vaccination in Albania") [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 vaccination in Bosnia and Herzegovina") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 vaccination in Bulgaria") [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Croatia "COVID-19 vaccination in Croatia") [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Denmark "COVID-19 vaccination in Denmark") [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_France "COVID-19 vaccination in France") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Germany "COVID-19 vaccination in Germany") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Greece "COVID-19 vaccination in Greece") [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Hungary "COVID-19 vaccination in Hungary") [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Iceland "COVID-19 vaccination in Iceland") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 vaccination in the Republic of Ireland") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Italy "COVID-19 vaccination in Italy") [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Moldova "COVID-19 vaccination in Moldova") [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Norway "COVID-19 vaccination in Norway") [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Portugal "COVID-19 vaccination in Portugal") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Romania "COVID-19 vaccination in Romania") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Russia "COVID-19 vaccination in Russia") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Spain "COVID-19 vaccination in Spain") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Sweden "COVID-19 vaccination in Sweden") [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 vaccination in Switzerland") [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 vaccination in Ukraine") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 vaccination in the United Kingdom") | | North America | [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Canada "COVID-19 vaccination in Canada") [Ontario](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ontario "COVID-19 vaccination in Ontario") [Quebec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Quebec "COVID-19 vaccination in Quebec") [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Haiti "COVID-19 vaccination in Haiti") [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Mexico "COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccination in the United States") [mandates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_mandates_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccination mandates in the United States") | | Oceania | [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Australia "COVID-19 vaccination in Australia") [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Fiji "COVID-19 vaccination in Fiji") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 vaccination in New Zealand") | | South America | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Argentina "COVID-19 vaccination in Argentina") [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Brazil "COVID-19 vaccination in Brazil") [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Colombia "COVID-19 vaccination in Colombia") [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Peru "COVID-19 vaccination in Peru") | | Others | | | [Treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatment_and_management_of_COVID-19 "Treatment and management of COVID-19") | | | | | | [Drug development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_development "COVID-19 drug development") [Drug repurposing research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_repurposing_research "COVID-19 drug repurposing research") [Baricitinib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baricitinib "Baricitinib") [PANORAMIC trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PANORAMIC_trial "PANORAMIC trial") (UK) [RECOVERY Trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RECOVERY_Trial "RECOVERY Trial") (UK) [Solidarity trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidarity_trial "Solidarity trial") (WHO) | | | [Monoclonal antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody "Monoclonal antibody") | [Bamlanivimab/etesevimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamlanivimab/etesevimab "Bamlanivimab/etesevimab") [Bamlanivimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamlanivimab "Bamlanivimab") Etesevimab [Bebtelovimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebtelovimab "Bebtelovimab") [Casirivimab/imdevimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casirivimab/imdevimab "Casirivimab/imdevimab") [Regdanvimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regdanvimab "Regdanvimab") [Sarilumab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarilumab "Sarilumab") [Sotrovimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotrovimab "Sotrovimab") [Tixagevimab/cilgavimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tixagevimab/cilgavimab "Tixagevimab/cilgavimab") [Tocilizumab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocilizumab "Tocilizumab") | | [Small molecule antivirals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral_drug "Antiviral drug") | [Broad-spectrum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad-spectrum_antiviral_drug "Broad-spectrum antiviral drug") [Ensitrelvir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensitrelvir "Ensitrelvir") [Molnupiravir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molnupiravir "Molnupiravir") Co-packaged [Nirmatrelvir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirmatrelvir "Nirmatrelvir") [ritonavir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir "Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir") | | [Variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2") | | | | | | Specific | [Alpha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant") [Beta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") [Gamma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") [Delta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant") [Epsilon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Epsilon_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Epsilon variant") [Zeta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Zeta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Zeta variant") [Eta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Eta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Eta variant") [Theta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Theta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Theta variant") [Iota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Iota_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Iota variant") [Kappa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Kappa_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Kappa variant") [Lambda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Lambda_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Lambda variant") [Mu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Mu_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Mu variant") [Omicron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "Timeline of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") | | General | [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Lineage B.1.617](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_lineage_B.1.617 "SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.617") [Variant of concern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_variant_of_concern "SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern") | | Institutions | | | | | | Hospitals and medical clinics | | | | | | Mainland China | [Central Hospital of Wuhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Hospital_of_Wuhan "Central Hospital of Wuhan") [Dabie Mountain Regional Medical Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabie_Mountain_Regional_Medical_Centre "Dabie Mountain Regional Medical Centre") [Fangcang hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fangcang_hospital "Fangcang hospital") [Huoshenshan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huoshenshan_Hospital "Huoshenshan Hospital") [Leishenshan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishenshan_Hospital "Leishenshan Hospital") [Xinjia Express Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collapse_of_Xinjia_Express_Hotel "Collapse of Xinjia Express Hotel") [Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan_Jinyintan_Hospital "Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital") | | Others | [Hospital ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_ships_designated_for_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Hospital ships designated for the COVID-19 pandemic") [Garran Surge Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garran_Surge_Centre "Garran Surge Centre") (Australia) [Hospital El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_El_Salvador "Hospital El Salvador") [Kemayoran Athletes Village](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemayoran_Athletes_Village "Kemayoran Athletes Village") (Indonesia) [Pyongyang General Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyongyang_General_Hospital "Pyongyang General Hospital") (North Korea) [Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia_Agro_Exposition_Park_Serdang "Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang") (Malaysia) [Mega Ligtas COVID Centers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega_Ligtas_COVID_Centers "Mega Ligtas COVID Centers") (Philippines) [Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandakadu_Treatment_and_Rehabilitation_Centre "Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre") (Sri Lanka) [Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Öz Emergency Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancaktepe_Prof._Dr._Feriha_%C3%96z_Emergency_Hospital "Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Öz Emergency Hospital") (Turkey) [YeƟilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye%C5%9Filk%C3%B6y_Prof._Dr._Murat_Dilmener_Emergency_Hospital "YeƟilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital") (Turkey) [COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_hospitals_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom") [Birmingham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_Birmingham "NHS Nightingale Hospital Birmingham") [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_London "NHS Nightingale Hospital London") [North East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_North_East "NHS Nightingale Hospital North East") [North West](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_North_West "NHS Nightingale Hospital North West") [Yorkshire and the Humber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_Yorkshire_and_the_Humber "NHS Nightingale Hospital Yorkshire and the Humber") [NHS Louisa Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Louisa_Jordan "NHS Louisa Jordan") (Scotland) [Dragon's Heart Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon%27s_Heart_Hospital "Dragon's Heart Hospital") (Wales) | | Organizations | | | | | | [National Cabinet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cabinet_\(Australia\) "National Cabinet (Australia)") (Australia) [ScienceUpFirst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceUpFirst "ScienceUpFirst") (Canada) [Wuhan Institute of Virology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan_Institute_of_Virology "Wuhan Institute of Virology") (China) [Independent SAGE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_SAGE "Independent SAGE") (United Kingdom) | | | Health institutes | [Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_Centres_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention") (African Union) [Ghana Infectious Disease Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Infectious_Disease_Centre "Ghana Infectious Disease Centre") (Ghana) [Department of Health (Hong Kong)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Health_\(Hong_Kong\) "Department of Health (Hong Kong)") [Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_Disease_Control_and_Prevention_Agency "Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency") (South Korea) [National Institute for Communicable Diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Communicable_Diseases "National Institute for Communicable Diseases") (South Africa) [Taiwan Centers for Disease Control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Centers_for_Disease_Control "Taiwan Centers for Disease Control") (Taiwan) | | Pandemic institutes | [National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_COVID-19_Commission_Advisory_Board "National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board") (Australia) [COVID-19 Immunity Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Immunity_Task_Force "COVID-19 Immunity Task Force") (Canada) [COVID-19 Supply Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Supply_Council "COVID-19 Supply Council") (Canada) [PREPARE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PREPARE "PREPARE") (European Union) [National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Expert_Group_on_Vaccine_Administration_for_COVID-19 "National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19") (India) [COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Response_Acceleration_Task_Force "COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force") (Indonesia) [National Public Health Emergency Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Health_Emergency_Team_\(2020\) "National Public Health Emergency Team (2020)") (Ireland) [Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel_Coronavirus_Expert_Meeting "Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting") (Japan) [Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_Preparedness_and_Response_Centre "Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre") (Malaysia) [Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defeat_COVID-19_Ad_Hoc_Committee "Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee") (Philippines) [Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-Agency_Task_Force_for_the_Management_of_Emerging_Infectious_Diseases "Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases") (Philippines) [Central Epidemic Command Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Epidemic_Command_Center "Central Epidemic Command Center") (Taiwan) [Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_Scientific_Advisory_Board "Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board") (Turkey) [COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Genomics_UK_Consortium "COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium") (United Kingdom) [Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_College_COVID-19_Response_Team "Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team") (United Kingdom) [Joint Biosecurity Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Biosecurity_Centre "Joint Biosecurity Centre") (United Kingdom) [Vaccine Taskforce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Taskforce "Vaccine Taskforce") (United Kingdom) [COVID-19 Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Advisory_Board "COVID-19 Advisory Board") (United States) [Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_American_Economic_Revival_Industry_Groups "Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups") (United States) [White House Coronavirus Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Coronavirus_Task_Force "White House Coronavirus Task Force") (United States) [White House COVID-19 Response Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_COVID-19_Response_Team "White House COVID-19 Response Team") (United States) [GACH](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GACH "GACH") (Uruguay) | | Relief funds | [PM CARES Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PM_CARES_Fund "PM CARES Fund") (India) [Artist Relief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artist_Relief "Artist Relief") (United States) | | People | | | | | | Medical professionals | [Ai Fen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai_Fen "Ai Fen") [Corona Rintawan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_Rintawan "Corona Rintawan") [Li Wenliang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Wenliang "Li Wenliang") [Liu Wen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Wen_\(doctor\) "Liu Wen (doctor)") [Xie Linka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xie_Linka "Xie Linka") [Zhang Wenhong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Wenhong "Zhang Wenhong") | | [Researchers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Coronavirus_researchers "Category:Coronavirus researchers") | [Awang Bulgiba Awang Mahmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awang_Bulgiba_Awang_Mahmud "Awang Bulgiba Awang Mahmud") [Roberto Burioni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Burioni "Roberto Burioni") [Chen Wei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Wei_\(medical_scientist\) "Chen Wei (medical scientist)") [Kizzmekia Corbett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kizzmekia_Corbett "Kizzmekia Corbett") [Andrea Crisanti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Crisanti_\(scientist\) "Andrea Crisanti (scientist)") [Peter Daszak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Daszak "Peter Daszak") [Christian Drosten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Drosten "Christian Drosten") [Neil Ferguson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Ferguson_\(epidemiologist\) "Neil Ferguson (epidemiologist)") [Dale Fisher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Fisher "Dale Fisher") [George F. Gao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_F._Gao "George F. Gao") [Azra Ghani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azra_Ghani "Azra Ghani") [Sarah Gilbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Gilbert "Sarah Gilbert") [Guan Yi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan_Yi "Guan Yi") [Kentaro Iwata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentaro_Iwata "Kentaro Iwata") [Katalin KarikĂł](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3 "Katalin KarikĂł") [Matt Keeling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Keeling "Matt Keeling") [Trudie Lang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trudie_Lang "Trudie Lang") [Li Lanjuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Lanjuan "Li Lanjuan") [W. Ian Lipkin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Ian_Lipkin "W. Ian Lipkin") [Ma Xiaowei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Xiaowei "Ma Xiaowei") [Shabir Madhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabir_Madhi "Shabir Madhi") [Allison McGeer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_McGeer "Allison McGeer") [Camilla Rothe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camilla_Rothe "Camilla Rothe") [Shi Zhengli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi_Zhengli "Shi Zhengli") [Moncef Slaoui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moncef_Slaoui "Moncef Slaoui") [Mike Tildesley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tildesley "Mike Tildesley") [John Todd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Todd_\(British_biologist\) "John Todd (British biologist)") [Wang Chen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Chen_\(physician\) "Wang Chen (physician)") [Wang Guangfa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Guangfa "Wang Guangfa") [Drew Weissman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Weissman "Drew Weissman") [Yuen Kwok-yung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuen_Kwok-yung "Yuen Kwok-yung") [Zeng Guang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeng_Guang "Zeng Guang") [Zhang Jixian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Jixian "Zhang Jixian") [Zhang Yongzhen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Yongzhen "Zhang Yongzhen") [Zhong Nanshan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhong_Nanshan "Zhong Nanshan") | | Officials | | | | | | WHO | [Tedros Adhanom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedros_Adhanom_Ghebreyesus "Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus") (Director-General of the WHO) [Bruce Aylward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Aylward "Bruce Aylward") (Team lead of WHO-China COVID-19 mission) [Maria Van Kerkhove](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Van_Kerkhove "Maria Van Kerkhove") (Technical Lead for COVID-19 response) [Michael J. Ryan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Ryan_\(doctor\) "Michael J. Ryan (doctor)") (Executive Director of the WHO Health Emergencies Programme) | | By location | [Frank Atherton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Atherton "Frank Atherton") (Wales) [Ashley Bloomfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_Bloomfield "Ashley Bloomfield") (New Zealand) [Catherine Calderwood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Calderwood "Catherine Calderwood") (Scotland) [Chang Shan-chwen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang_Shan-chwen "Chang Shan-chwen") (Taiwan) [Anutin Charnvirakul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anutin_Charnvirakul "Anutin Charnvirakul") (Thailand) [Chen Shih-chung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Shih-chung "Chen Shih-chung") (Taiwan) [Kenneth Chuang Yin-ching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuang_Yin-ching "Chuang Yin-ching") (Taiwan) [Victor Costache](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Costache "Victor Costache") (Romania) [Fabrizio Curcio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrizio_Curcio "Fabrizio Curcio") (Italy) [Carmen Deseda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen_Deseda "Carmen Deseda") (Puerto Rico) [Jaap van Dissel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaap_van_Dissel "Jaap van Dissel") (the Netherlands) [Christian Drosten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Drosten "Christian Drosten") (Germany) [Francisco Duque III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Duque_III "Francisco Duque III") (Philippines) [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci") (United States) [Francesco Paolo Figliuolo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Paolo_Figliuolo "Francesco Paolo Figliuolo") (Italy) [Graça Freitas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gra%C3%A7a_Freitas "Graça Freitas") (Portugal) [Henrique Gouveia e Melo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrique_Gouveia_e_Melo "Henrique Gouveia e Melo") (Portugal) [Matt Hancock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Hancock "Matt Hancock") (United Kingdom) [Hamad Hasan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamad_Hasan "Hamad Hasan") (Lebanon) [Greg Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Hunt "Greg Hunt") (Australia) [Tony Holohan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Holohan "Tony Holohan") (Ireland) [Jeong Eun-kyeong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeong_Eun-kyeong "Jeong Eun-kyeong") (South Korea) [Fahrettin Koca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrettin_Koca "Fahrettin Koca") (Turkey) [Li Keqiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Keqiang "Li Keqiang") (China) [Hugo LĂłpez-Gatell RamĂ­rez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_L%C3%B3pez-Gatell_Ram%C3%ADrez "Hugo LĂłpez-Gatell RamĂ­rez") (Mexico) [Michael McBride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_McBride_\(doctor\) "Michael McBride (doctor)") (Northern Ireland) [Oriol MitjĂ ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriol_Mitj%C3%A0 "Oriol MitjĂ ") (Andorra) [Zweli Mkhize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweli_Mkhize "Zweli Mkhize") (South Africa) [Doni Monardo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doni_Monardo "Doni Monardo") (Indonesia) [Alma Möller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_M%C3%B6ller "Alma Möller") (Iceland) [Saeed Namaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saeed_Namaki "Saeed Namaki") (Iran) [Ala Nemerenco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ala_Nemerenco "Ala Nemerenco") (Moldova) [Nguyễn Thanh Long](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Thanh_Long "Nguyễn Thanh Long") (Vietnam) [Noor Hisham Abdullah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noor_Hisham_Abdullah "Noor Hisham Abdullah") (Malaysia) [Ali Pilli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Pilli "Ali Pilli") (Northern Cyprus) [Daniel Salinas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Salinas "Daniel Salinas") (Uruguay) [JĂ©rĂŽme Salomon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Salomon "JĂ©rĂŽme Salomon") (France) [Fernando SimĂłn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Sim%C3%B3n "Fernando SimĂłn") (Spain) [Gregor Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Smith "Gregor Smith") (Scotland) [Su Ih-jen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Ih-jen "Su Ih-jen") (Taiwan) [Ɓukasz Szumowski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81ukasz_Szumowski "Ɓukasz Szumowski") (Poland) [Theresa Tam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_Tam "Theresa Tam") (Canada) [Anders Tegnell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Tegnell "Anders Tegnell") (Sweden) [ÞórĂłlfur GuĂ°nason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B3lfur_Gu%C3%B0nason "ÞórĂłlfur GuĂ°nason") (Iceland) [Sotiris Tsiodras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotiris_Tsiodras "Sotiris Tsiodras") (Greece) [Harsh Vardhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsh_Vardhan_\(Delhi_politician\) "Harsh Vardhan (Delhi politician)") (India) [VĂ­Ă°ir Reynisson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%AD%C3%B0ir_Reynisson "VĂ­Ă°ir Reynisson") (Iceland) [Carla Vizzotti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Vizzotti "Carla Vizzotti") (Argentina) [Vlad Voiculescu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_Voiculescu "Vlad Voiculescu") (Romania) [Chris Whitty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Whitty "Chris Whitty") (United Kingdom) [Lawrence Wong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Wong "Lawrence Wong") (Singapore) [Jeff Zients](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Zients "Jeff Zients") (United States) | | Others | [Chen Qiushi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Qiushi "Chen Qiushi") [Brett Crozier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brett_Crozier "Brett Crozier") [Fang Bin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fang_Bin "Fang Bin") [Fang Fang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fang_Fang "Fang Fang") [Joseph Ashitey Hammond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Ashitey_Hammond "Joseph Ashitey Hammond") [Li Zehua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zehua "Li Zehua") [Captain Tom Moore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_Tom_Moore "Captain Tom Moore") [Qiu Menghuang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Menghuang "Qiu Menghuang") [Ren Zhiqiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren_Zhiqiang "Ren Zhiqiang") | | [List of deaths due to COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaths_due_to_COVID-19 "List of deaths due to COVID-19") | | | Data (templates) | | | | | | Global | WHO situation reports [cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_cases "COVID-19 pandemic cases") [deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_deaths "COVID-19 pandemic deaths") [World map by countries: confirmed per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") | | Asia | [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Armenia_medical_cases_chart "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Armenia medical cases chart") [Artsakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Republic_of_Artsakh_medical_cases_chart "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Republic of Artsakh medical cases chart") China [confirmed per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Mainland_China_medical_cases_map_\(dots\) "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Mainland China medical cases map (dots)") | | [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Vaccines "Template:Vaccines") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Vaccines "Template talk:Vaccines") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vaccines "Special:EditPage/Template:Vaccines")[Artificial induction of immunity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_induction_of_immunity "Artificial induction of immunity") / [Immunization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunization "Immunization"): [Vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine "Vaccine"), [Vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination"), [Infection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection "Infection"), [Inoculation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoculation "Inoculation") ([J07](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07")) | | |---|---| | Development | [Adjuvants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunologic_adjuvant "Immunologic adjuvant") [Vaccine ingredients](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_ingredients "Vaccine ingredients") [list](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vaccine_excipients "List of vaccine excipients") [Mathematical modelling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_diseases "Mathematical modelling of infectious diseases") [Storage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_storage "Vaccine storage") [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_human_vaccines "Timeline of human vaccines") [Trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_trial "Vaccine trial") | | Classes | [Conjugate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_vaccine "Conjugate vaccine") [Inactivated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") Live [Attenuated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine "Attenuated vaccine") [Heterologous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterologous_vaccine "Heterologous vaccine") [Subunit/component](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") / [Peptide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_vaccine "Peptide vaccine") / [Virus-like particle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") / [Synthetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_vaccine "Synthetic vaccine") [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_vaccine "DNA vaccine") / [mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") [Therapeutic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_vaccines "Therapeutic vaccines") [Toxoid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoid "Toxoid") | | Administration | Global: [GAVI Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GAVI "GAVI") [NITAG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Immunization_Technical_Advisory_Group "National Immunization Technical Advisory Group") [SAGE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Advisory_Group_of_Experts "Strategic Advisory Group of Experts") [Vaccine wastage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_wastage "Vaccine wastage") [Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_policy "Vaccination policy") [Schedule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_schedule "Vaccination schedule") [Vaccine injury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_adverse_event "Vaccine adverse event") US: [ACIP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advisory_Committee_on_Immunization_Practices "Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices") [Vaccine court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Vaccine_Injury_Compensation_Program "National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program") [Vaccines for Children Program](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_for_Children_Program "Vaccines for Children Program") [VAERS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Adverse_Event_Reporting_System "Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System") [VSD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Safety_Datalink "Vaccine Safety Datalink") | | Vaccines | | | | | | Bacterial | [Anthrax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_vaccine "Anthrax vaccine") [Brucellosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brucellosis_vaccine "Brucellosis vaccine") [Cholera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera_vaccine "Cholera vaccine")\# [Diphtheria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphtheria_vaccine "Diphtheria vaccine")\# [Hib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hib_vaccine "Hib vaccine")\# [Leptospirosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis#Prevention "Leptospirosis") [Lyme disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyme_disease#Vaccination "Lyme disease")‡ [Meningococcus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningococcal_vaccine "Meningococcal vaccine")\# [MeNZB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeNZB "MeNZB") [NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 "NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135") [Pertussis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertussis_vaccine "Pertussis vaccine")\# [Plague](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_vaccine "Plague vaccine") [Pneumococcal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumococcal_vaccine "Pneumococcal vaccine")\# [PCV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumococcal_conjugate_vaccine "Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine") [PPSV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumococcal_polysaccharide_vaccine "Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine") [Q fever](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_fever#Prevention "Q fever") [Tetanus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanus_vaccine "Tetanus vaccine")\# [Tuberculosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_vaccines "Tuberculosis vaccines") [BCG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCG_vaccine "BCG vaccine")\# [Typhoid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_vaccine "Typhoid vaccine")\# [Ty21a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ty21a "Ty21a") [ViCPS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi_capsular_polysaccharide_vaccine "Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine") [Typhus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhus_vaccine "Typhus vaccine") combination: [DPT/DTwP/DTaP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPT_vaccine "DPT vaccine") [Td/Tdap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetanus_vaccine "Tetanus vaccine") research: [Clostridioides difficile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_infection#Research "Clostridioides difficile infection") [Group B streptococcal disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_B_streptococcal_infection#Vaccine "Group B streptococcal infection") [Shigellosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigellosis#Vaccine "Shigellosis") | | Viral | [Adenovirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenovirus_vaccine "Adenovirus vaccine") [Chikungunya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chikungunya_vaccine "Chikungunya vaccine") [Ebola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola_vaccine "Ebola vaccine") [rVSV-ZEBOV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RVSV-ZEBOV_vaccine "RVSV-ZEBOV vaccine") [Flu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_vaccine "Influenza vaccine")\# [H1N1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic_vaccine "2009 swine flu pandemic vaccine") ([Pandemrix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemrix "Pandemrix")) [H5N1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H5N1_vaccine "H5N1 vaccine") [H5N8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H5N8_vaccine "H5N8 vaccine") [LAIV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_attenuated_influenza_vaccine "Live attenuated influenza vaccine") [Hantavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantavirus_vaccine "Hantavirus vaccine") [Hepatitis A](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_A_vaccine "Hepatitis A vaccine")\# [Hepatitis B](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B_vaccine "Hepatitis B vaccine")\# [Hepatitis E](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_E#Vaccines "Hepatitis E") [HPV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPV_vaccine "HPV vaccine")\# [Cervarix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervarix "Cervarix") [Gardasil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardasil "Gardasil") [Japanese encephalitis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis_vaccine "Japanese encephalitis vaccine")\# [Measles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles_vaccine "Measles vaccine")\# [Mpox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpox_vaccine "Mpox vaccine") [Mumps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumps_vaccine "Mumps vaccine")\# [Polio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polio_vaccine "Polio vaccine")\# [Sabin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polio_vaccine#Attenuated "Polio vaccine") [Salk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polio_vaccine#Inactivated "Polio vaccine") [Rabies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabies_vaccine "Rabies vaccine")\# [Rotavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotavirus_vaccine "Rotavirus vaccine")\# [Rubella](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubella_vaccine "Rubella vaccine")\# [SARS-CoV-2]() [Corbevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbevax "Corbevax")† [Bharat Biotech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covaxin "Covaxin")† [CanSino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia")† [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac")† [EpiVacCorona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EpiVacCorona "EpiVacCorona")† [Janssen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID-19_vaccine "Janssen COVID-19 vaccine") [Kostaive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapomeran "Zapomeran") [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") [Novavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine") [Oxford–AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine") [Pfizer–BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine") [Sanofi–GSK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93GSK_COVID-19_vaccine "Sanofi–GSK COVID-19 vaccine")† [Sinopharm BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine")† [Skycovione](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skycovione "Skycovione")† [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine")† [Valneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valneva_COVID-19_vaccine "Valneva COVID-19 vaccine")† [Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_syncytial_virus_vaccine "Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine") [Smallpox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine "Smallpox vaccine") [Tick-borne encephalitis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis_vaccine "Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine")\# Varicella zoster [Chicken pox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicella_vaccine "Varicella vaccine")\# [Shingles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoster_vaccine "Zoster vaccine") [Yellow fever](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine "Yellow fever vaccine")\# combination: [Hepatitis A and B](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_A_and_B_vaccine "Hepatitis A and B vaccine") [Influenza and COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_and_COVID-19_vaccine "Influenza and COVID-19 vaccine") [MMR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMR_vaccine "MMR vaccine") [MMRV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMRV_vaccine "MMRV vaccine") research: [Cytomegalovirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytomegalovirus_vaccine "Cytomegalovirus vaccine") [Dengue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengue_vaccine "Dengue vaccine")\# [Epstein–Barr virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus_vaccine "Epstein–Barr virus vaccine") [Hepatitis C](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_C_vaccine "Hepatitis C vaccine") [Herpes simplex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes_simplex_research "Herpes simplex research") [HIV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV_vaccine_development "HIV vaccine development") [Zika](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zika_virus_vaccine "Zika virus vaccine") | | Protozoan | [Malaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_vaccine "Malaria vaccine") [RTS,S](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTS,S "RTS,S") research: [Trypanosomiasis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trypanosomiasis_vaccine "Trypanosomiasis vaccine") | | [Helminthiasis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helminthiasis "Helminthiasis") | research: [Hookworm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hookworm_vaccine "Hookworm vaccine") [Schistosomiasis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasis_vaccine "Schistosomiasis vaccine") | | Other | [Androvax (androstenedione albumin)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androvax "Androvax") [Cancer vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer_vaccine "Cancer vaccine") [ALVAC-CEA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALVAC-CEA_vaccine "ALVAC-CEA vaccine") [BCG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCG_vaccine "BCG vaccine")\# [Hepatitis B](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B_vaccine "Hepatitis B vaccine")\# [HPV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPV_vaccine "HPV vaccine")\# [Cervarix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervarix "Cervarix") [Gardasil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardasil "Gardasil") [Prostvac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostvac "Prostvac") [NicVAX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NicVAX "NicVAX") [Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovandrotone_albumin "Ovandrotone albumin") [TA-CD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TA-CD "TA-CD") [TA-NIC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TA-NIC "TA-NIC") combination: [DTaP-IPV/Hib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTaP-IPV/Hib_vaccine "DTaP-IPV/Hib vaccine") [DTaP-IPV-HepB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTaP-IPV-HepB_vaccine "DTaP-IPV-HepB vaccine") [DTwP-HepB-Hib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTwP-HepB-Hib_vaccine "DTwP-HepB-Hib vaccine") [Hexavalent vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexavalent_vaccine "Hexavalent vaccine") | | Inventors/ researchers | [Edward Jenner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenner "Edward Jenner") [Louis Pasteur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur "Louis Pasteur") [Hilary Koprowski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Koprowski "Hilary Koprowski") [Jonas Salk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonas_Salk "Jonas Salk") [John Franklin Enders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders "John Franklin Enders") [Maurice Hilleman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman "Maurice Hilleman") [Stanley Plotkin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Plotkin "Stanley Plotkin") [H. Fred Clark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._Fred_Clark "H. Fred Clark") [Paul Offit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Offit "Paul Offit") [Katalin KarikĂł](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3 "Katalin KarikĂł") [Drew Weissman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Weissman "Drew Weissman") | | Controversy | [General](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_hesitancy "Vaccine hesitancy") [MMR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMR_vaccine_and_autism "MMR vaccine and autism") ([*Lancet* MMR autism fraud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud "Lancet MMR autism fraud")) [NCVIA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Childhood_Vaccine_Injury_Act "National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act") [Pox party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pox_party "Pox party") [Thiomersal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiomersal_and_vaccines "Thiomersal and vaccines") [Vaccines and SIDS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_SIDS "Vaccines and SIDS") *[Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedillo_v._Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services "Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services")* [Alternative vaccination schedule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_vaccination_schedule "Alternative vaccination schedule") [2000 Simpsonwood CDC conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Simpsonwood_CDC_conference "2000 Simpsonwood CDC conference") | | Related | [Epidemiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology "Epidemiology") [Eradication of infectious diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases "Eradication of infectious diseases") [Vaccinate Your Family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccinate_Your_Family "Vaccinate Your Family") [List of vaccine topics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vaccine_topics "List of vaccine topics") | | \#[WHO-EM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines") ‡[Withdrawn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs "List of withdrawn drugs") from market [Clinical trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial "Clinical trial"): †[Phase III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III "Phases of clinical research") §Never to phase III | | [Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals "Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"): - 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| [Vaccine description](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine "Vaccine") | | |---|---| | Target | [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") | | [Vaccine type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine#Types "Vaccine") | mRNA, viral, inactivated, protein | | Clinical data | | | [License data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_therapeutic_goods "Regulation of therapeutic goods") | US [DailyMed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DailyMed "DailyMed"): [COVID-19 vaccine](https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/search.cfm?labeltype=all&query=COVID-19+vaccine) | | [Routes of administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Route_of_administration "Route of administration") | Mostly [Intramuscular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection"), also via [nasal spray](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_vaccine "Nasal vaccine") | | [ATC code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System "Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System") | [J07BN01](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN01)) [J07BN02](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN02)), [J07BN03](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN03)), [J07BN04](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN04)), [J07BN05](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATC_code_J07 "ATC code J07") ([WHO](https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=J07BN05)) | | Identifiers | | | [CAS Number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number "CAS Registry Number") | None | *How COVID‑19 vaccines work.* The video shows the process of vaccination, from injection with RNA or viral vector vaccines, to uptake and translation, and on to immune system stimulation and effect. A **COVID‑19 vaccine** is a [vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine "Vaccine") designed to induce immunity against [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2"), the virus responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 ([COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19")).[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-BritannicaCOVID-1) COVID-19 vaccines help reduce the risk of severe illness, hospitalisation and death from the virus.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-2)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-3) COVID‑19 vaccines were developed at an unprecedented pace to tackle the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), with the first [clinical trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial "Clinical trial") beginning in March 2020.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh-4) Before approval, vaccines underwent the standard three [phases of clinical trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research "Phases of clinical research"), although phases were conducted in parallel to accelerate development.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VaccineKnowledgeCOVID-5) Vaccines have been developed based both on classical technologies (using [inactivated virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") or [protein subunit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine")), and novel platforms ([mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") or [viral vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine")\-based).[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-6) Prior research on [coronaviruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus "Coronavirus") causing severe acute respiratory syndrome ([SARS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS")) and Middle East respiratory syndrome ([MERS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS "MERS")) accelerated the development of various [vaccine platforms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_platform "Vaccine platform") in early 2020.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33341119-7) The 2023 [Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine") was awarded to [Katalin KarikĂł](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3 "Katalin KarikĂł") and [Drew Weissman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Weissman "Drew Weissman") for the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID‑19.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-10) Major vaccines include the [Pfizer–BioNTech mRNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine"), [Moderna mRNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine"), and the [Novavax protein subunit vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VaccineKnowledgeCOVID-5) With the emergence of new [SARS-CoV-2 variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2"), the original vaccines—particularly [Pfizer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer "Pfizer")–[BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioNTech "BioNTech") and [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna") vaccines—have been updated. These "variant-adapted" vaccines are offered as [booster doses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_dose "Booster dose").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VaccineKnowledgeCOVID-5) The immunity from the vaccines also wanes over time, requiring people to get boosters to maintain protection.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Rogers_2022-11) Common side effects of COVID‑19 vaccines include soreness, fatigue, headache, [myalgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myalgia "Myalgia") (muscle pain), and [arthralgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthralgia "Arthralgia") (joint pain), which resolve without medical treatment within a few days.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_WHO-12) COVID‑19 vaccination is safe for people who are pregnant or are breastfeeding.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-breastf-13) The COVID‑19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing the spread of COVID‑19 and reducing the severity and death caused by COVID‑19.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Rogers_2022-11)[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-14) Many countries implemented phased distribution plans that prioritized those at highest risk of complications, such as the elderly, and those at high risk of exposure, such as [healthcare workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_professional "Health professional").[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Beaumont-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Wang1-16) By December 2020, more than 10 billion vaccine doses had been preordered,[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-mullard-17) with about half of the doses purchased by [high-income countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank_high-income_economy "World Bank high-income economy") comprising 14% of the world's population.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-So-18) As of August 2024, over 13 billion doses of COVID‑19 vaccines have been administered worldwide.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Richie_2021-19) Background Before COVID‑19, a vaccine for an infectious disease had never been produced in less than several years – and no vaccine existed for preventing a [coronavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus "Coronavirus") infection in humans.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-gates2-20) However, vaccines have been produced against several animal diseases caused by coronaviruses, including [infectious bronchitis virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_bronchitis_virus "Infectious bronchitis virus") in birds, [canine coronavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine_coronavirus "Canine coronavirus"), and [feline coronavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feline_coronavirus "Feline coronavirus").[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-21) Previous projects to develop vaccines for viruses in the family *[Coronaviridae](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronaviridae "Coronaviridae")* that affect humans have been aimed at [severe acute respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome "Severe acute respiratory syndrome") (SARS) and [Middle East respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome "Middle East respiratory syndrome") (MERS). Vaccines against SARS[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-22) and MERS[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-23) have been tested in non-human [animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism "Model organism"). According to studies published in 2005 and 2006, the identification and development of novel vaccines and medicines to treat SARS were priorities for governments and [public health agencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies "List of national public health agencies") worldwide at the time.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PMID_15655773-24)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PMID_15885812-25)[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PMID_16453264-26) There is no cure or vaccine proven to be safe and effective against SARS in humans.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-JiangFutureVirology-27)[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-28) There is also no proven vaccine against MERS.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-29) When MERS became prevalent, it was believed that previous SARS research might provide a useful template for developing MERS vaccines.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-JiangFutureVirology-27)[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Butler3oct2013-30) As of March 2020, there was one (DNA-based) MERS vaccine that completed Phase I clinical trials in humans,[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-31) and three others in progress, all being viral-vectored vaccines: two based on [adenoviruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenoviridae "Adenoviridae") and one on [MVA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_vaccinia_Ankara "Modified vaccinia Ankara").[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-32) Vaccines that use an inactive or weakened virus that has been grown in eggs typically take more than a decade to develop.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Moderna_and_Pfizer_Are_Reinventing_Vaccines-33)[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-34) In contrast, mRNA is a molecule that can be made quickly, and research on mRNA to fight diseases was begun decades before the COVID‑19 pandemic by scientists such as [Drew Weissman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Weissman "Drew Weissman") and [Katalin KarikĂł](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3 "Katalin KarikĂł"), who tested on mice. [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna") began human testing of an [mRNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") in 2015.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Moderna_and_Pfizer_Are_Reinventing_Vaccines-33) [Viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine") were also developed for the COVID‑19 pandemic after the technology was previously cleared for Ebola.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Moderna_and_Pfizer_Are_Reinventing_Vaccines-33) Vaccine technologies [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Vaccine_candidate_mechanisms_for_SARS-CoV-2_%2849948301838%29.jpg/330px-Vaccine_candidate_mechanisms_for_SARS-CoV-2_%2849948301838%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vaccine_candidate_mechanisms_for_SARS-CoV-2_\(49948301838\).jpg) A conceptual diagram showing three vaccine types for forming SARS‑CoV‑2 proteins to prompt an immune response: (1) [RNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_vaccine "RNA vaccine"); (2) [subunit vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine"); (3) [viral vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector "Viral vector") vaccine [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Fimmu-11-579250-g004.jpg/330px-Fimmu-11-579250-g004.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fimmu-11-579250-g004.jpg) Vaccine platforms that are being employed for SARS-CoV-2. Whole-virus vaccines include both [attenuated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine "Attenuated vaccine") and [inactivated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") forms of the virus. Protein and [peptide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_vaccine "Peptide vaccine") [subunit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") vaccines are usually combined with an [adjuvant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunologic_adjuvant "Immunologic adjuvant") to enhance immunogenicity. The main emphasis in SARS-CoV-2 vaccine development has been on using the whole [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein") in its trimeric form, or its components, such as the [RBD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_domain "Binding domain") region. Multiple non-replicating [viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine") have been developed, particularly focused on [adenovirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenoviridae "Adenoviridae"), while there has been less emphasis on the replicating viral vector constructs.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-35) The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic, often severe, illness.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-36) Most of the first COVID‑19 vaccines were two-dose vaccines. Exceptions were the single-dose vaccines [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia")[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-WHO_-_Convidecia-37) and the [Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Rogers_2022-11) and vaccines with three-dose schedules, [Razi Cov Pars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi_Cov_Pars "Razi Cov Pars")[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Razi_Cov_Pars_phase_1_trial-38) and [Soberana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_Plus "Soberana Plus").[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Soberana_phase_1/2_trial-39) In July 2021, at least nine different technology platforms were under research and development to create an effective vaccine against COVID‑19.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh22-40)[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-london-41) The [coronavirus spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein") (S protein), with the virus uses to enter the cell, induces a strong immune response and is therefore the primary target of vaccines.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-42)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh22-40) However, other coronavirus proteins were also being investigated for vaccine development, for example, the [nucleocapsid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleocapsid "Nucleocapsid") proteins, because they also induce a robust T-cell response, while their genes are more conserved and recombine less frequently.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Grifoni_2020-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-44)[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-45) Future generations of COVID‑19 vaccines targeting more conserved genomic regions could be used to treat future variations of SARS-CoV-2, or any similar coronavirus epidemic/pandemic.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-46) Platforms developed in 2020 involved [nucleic acid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid "Nucleic acid") technologies ([mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA "MRNA") and [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA "DNA")), non-replicating [viral vectors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector "Viral vector"), [peptides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide "Peptide"), [recombinant proteins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_protein "Recombinant protein"), live [attenuated viruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_virus "Attenuated virus"), and [inactivated viruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_processing#Viral_inactivation "Virus processing").[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh22-40)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh-4)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-diamond-47) Many vaccine technologies developed for COVID‑19 use "next-generation" strategies for precise targeting of COVID‑19 infection mechanisms.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh22-40)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh-4)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-diamond-47) Several of the synthetic vaccines use a 2P mutation to lock the [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein") into its prefusion configuration, stimulating an [adaptive immune response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_immune_response "Adaptive immune response") to the virus before it attaches to a human cell.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-48) mRNA vaccines [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/RNA_vaccine_illustration_%28en%29.jpg/250px-RNA_vaccine_illustration_%28en%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RNA_vaccine_illustration_\(en\).jpg) Diagram of the operation of an [RNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_vaccine "RNA vaccine"). [Messenger RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA "Messenger RNA") contained in the vaccine enters cells and is [translated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_\(biology\) "Translation (biology)") into viral proteins, which trigger an immune response. Several COVID‑19 vaccines, such as the [Pfizer–BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine") and [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine") vaccines, use [RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA "RNA") to stimulate an immune response. When introduced into human tissue, the vaccine contains [messenger RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA "Messenger RNA") (mRNA), which causes cells to express the SARS-CoV-2 [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_protein "Spike protein"). This teaches the [immune system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system "Immune system") to identify and destroy the corresponding pathogen. RNA vaccines often use [nucleoside-modified messenger RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoside-modified_messenger_RNA "Nucleoside-modified messenger RNA"). The [delivery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_delivery "Drug delivery") of mRNA is achieved by encapsulating the molecule in [lipid nanoparticles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid_nanoparticle "Lipid nanoparticle"), which protect the RNA strands and help their uptake into the cells.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-49)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33340620-50)[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Kowalski-51)[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Verbeke_2019-52) mRNA vaccines were the first COVID‑19 vaccines authorised in the United Kingdom, the United States, and the European Union.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-53)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-54) Authorized vaccines of this type include the Pfizer–BioNTech[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-hcreg-55)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04368728-56)[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EudraCT-2020-001038-36-57) and Moderna vaccines.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04470427-58)[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-palca-59) The [CVnCoV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CVnCoV "CVnCoV") mRNA vaccine from [CureVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CureVac "CureVac") failed in clinical trials.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-60) Severe allergic reactions to the mRNA vaccines are rare. In December 2020, 1,893,360 first doses of Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine administration resulted in 175 cases of severe allergic reactions, of which 21 were [anaphylaxis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxis "Anaphylaxis").[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33571463-61) For 4,041,396 Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine dose administrations in December 2020 and January 2021, only ten cases of anaphylaxis were reported.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33571463-61) [Lipid nanoparticles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_lipid_nanoparticle "Solid lipid nanoparticle") (LNPs) were most likely responsible for the allergic reactions.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-pmid33571463-61) In May 2025, a different version of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, with the brand name Mnexspike (mRNA-1283), was approved for medical use in the United States.[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-62)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-63)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-64) In June 2025, the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") announced that it was making data from the marketing authorization applications for COVID‑19 mRNA vaccines [Comirnaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comirnaty "Comirnaty") and [Spikevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spikevax "Spikevax") publicly available.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EMA_Transparency-65)[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Comirnaty_EPAR-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Spikevax_EPAR-67) Viral vector vaccines Viral vector vaccines use a modified version of a virus to generate immunity. For COVID-19, these vaccines were based of a modified [adenovirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenoviridae "Adenoviridae"), which normally causes the [common cold](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold "Common cold"). It is first made harmless, by removing the genes that cause illness and those responsible for replication. The virus is further modified so that it contains DNA that encodes a SARS‑CoV‑2 protein.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-vv-gavi-68)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-69) As such, the virus in the vaccine does not make new adenovirus copies, but only produces the antigen that elicits a systemic immune response.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-vv-gavi-68) Unlike mRNA vaccines, which usually require freezer storage, DNA vaccines such as adenovirus vector vaccines can be kept in a fridge.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Pardi2018mRNAvsDNA-70) Authorized [vaccines of this type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector#Vaccines "Viral vector") include the [Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04400838-71)[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EudraCT-2020-001228-32-72)[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-ISRCTN89951424-73) the [Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-sputnik-74) [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia"), and the [Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine").[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04436276-75)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04505722-76) [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine") uses Ad26 for its first dose, which is the same as Janssen's only dose, and Ad5 for the second dose, which is the same as Convidecia's only dose.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-77) In August 2021, the [developers of Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Direct_Investment_Fund "Russian Direct Investment Fund") proposed, in view of the Delta case surge, that Pfizer test the Ad26 component (termed its 'Light' version)[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-78) as a booster shot.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-79) Inactivated virus vaccines [Inactivated vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") consist of virus particles grown in [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiological_culture "Microbiological culture") and then inactivated by methods such as heat or [formaldehyde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde "Formaldehyde"), thereby losing their disease-producing capacity while still stimulating an immune response.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PetrovskyAguilar2004-80) Inactivated virus COVID-19 vaccines are less efficient than mRNA vaccines, because the process of de-activating the virus causes the spike protein to change slightly, whereas mRNA vaccines show the spike protein in its normal state. This makes parts of the protein inaccessible to the immune system. The immunity does not last as long as with mRNA vaccines, so that additional boosters are required to maintain immunity.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-81) Inactivated virus vaccines authorized in China include the Chinese [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac")[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04383574-82)[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCname=_nct04456595=-83)[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PT_Bio_Farma-84) and the Sinopharm [BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID‑19 vaccine")[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-ChiCTR2000034780-85) and [WIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_WIBP_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sinopharm WIBP COVID‑19 vaccine") vaccines; there is also the Indian [Covaxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBV152 "BBV152"), the Russian [CoviVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoviVac_\(Russia_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine\) "CoviVac (Russia COVID‑19 vaccine)"),[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-86) the [Kazakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") vaccine [QazVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QazVac "QazVac"),[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-87) and the Iranian [COVIran Barekat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVIran_Barekat "COVIran Barekat").[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-88) Subunit vaccines [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Novavax_vaccine_for_COVID-19.jpg/250px-Novavax_vaccine_for_COVID-19.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Novavax_vaccine_for_COVID-19.jpg) Vial of Novavax vaccine from clinical trials at [Thackray Museum of Medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thackray_Museum_of_Medicine "Thackray Museum of Medicine")[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-89) [Subunit vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") present one or more [antigens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen") without introducing whole pathogen particles. The antigens involved are often [protein subunits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_subunit "Protein subunit"), but they can be any pathogen-derived molecule or its fragment.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-90) The authorized vaccines of this type include the [peptide vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_vaccine "Peptide vaccine") [ZF2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF2001 "ZF2001"),[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-london-41) [MVC-COV1901](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVC_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "MVC COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-91) [Corbevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbevax "Corbevax"),[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-92)[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-93) the [Sanofi–GSK vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93GSK_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sanofi–GSK COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VidPrevtyn_Beta_EPAR-94)[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EMA_PR_20221110-95) and [Soberana 02](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_02 "Soberana 02") (a [conjugate vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_vaccine "Conjugate vaccine")).[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-96) [Bimervax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bimervax "Bimervax") (selvacovatein) was approved for use as a booster vaccine in the European Union in March 2023.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-97)[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-98)[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-99) The [Novavax COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Novavax COVID‑19 vaccine") is another subunit vaccine. This vaccine is produced by infecting moth cells with a modified [baculovirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baculoviridae "Baculoviridae") vector, which contains a gene for a [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2 "Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2") [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein").[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100) The clinical trials of [V451 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V451_vaccine "V451 vaccine") were terminated after it was found that the vaccine may potentially cause incorrect results for subsequent HIV testing.[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04495933-101)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-dwuq-102)[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-103) [Virus-like particle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") (VLP) vaccines are one type of subunit vaccines. They look similar to viruses, but do not contain any RNA or DNA, and are non-replicating. They can be stored in a fridge, rather than using extreme cold like mRNA vaccines. One such vaccine, [Covifenz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covifenz "Covifenz"), was authorized for use in 2022 in Canada, but later withdrawn.[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-104) Other types Additional types of vaccines that are in clinical trials include multiple [DNA plasmid vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_vaccine "DNA vaccine"),[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-105)[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04336410-106)[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-107)[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04463472-108)[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04445389-109)[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-gen-reut-110) at least two [lentivirus vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentiviral_vector_in_gene_therapy "Lentiviral vector in gene therapy") vaccines,[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04299724-111)[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04276896-112) a [conjugate vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_vaccine "Conjugate vaccine"), and a [vesicular stomatitis virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicular_stomatitis_virus "Vesicular stomatitis virus") displaying the SARS‑CoV‑2 spike protein.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NCT04608305-113) Scientists investigated whether existing vaccines for unrelated conditions could prime the immune system and lessen the severity of COVID‑19 infections.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-114) There is experimental evidence that the [BCG vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCG_vaccine "BCG vaccine") for tuberculosis has non-specific effects on the immune system, but clinical trials showed this vaccine is not effective against COVID‑19.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-115) Formulation An [immunological adjuvant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunological_adjuvant "Immunological adjuvant") is a substance formulated with a vaccine to elevate the immune response to an [antigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen"), such as the COVID‑19 virus or influenza virus.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-tregoning-116) Adjuvants used in COVID‑19 vaccine formulations may be particularly effective for technologies using the inactivated COVID‑19 virus and recombinant protein-based or vector-based vaccines.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-wang-117) Authorized vaccines [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/COVID-19_vaccine_map.svg/330px-COVID-19_vaccine_map.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_vaccine_map.svg) Map of countries by approval status of COVID‑19 vaccines (2021) Approved for general use, mass vaccination underway [EUA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Use_Authorization "Emergency Use Authorization") (or equivalent) granted, mass vaccination underway EUA granted, mass vaccination planned No data available By the end of 2022, 50 COVID-19 vaccines had received authorization in one or more countries—meaning they were approved, licensed, or granted emergency use authorization by national regulatory agencies around the world.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-TrackVaccinesApproved-118)[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Pormohammad2021-119) The [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) monitors circulating strains and the effectiveness of different updated vaccines against them. As of May 2025, the WHO recommends that vaccines targetting [JN.1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BA.2.86 "BA.2.86") or KP.2 remain appropriate and that LP.8.1 is a suitable alternative vaccine antigen.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-120) The [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") recommends updating COVID-19 vaccines to target LP.8.1 for the 2025/2026 vaccination campaign.[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-121) At the same time, the FDA in the US advised manufacturers that the COVID-19 vaccines beginning in fall 2025 should be JN.1-lineage-based COVID-19 vaccines, preferentially using the LP.8.1 strain.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-122) Combination vaccines A [combined messenger RNA vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_and_COVID-19_vaccine "Influenza and COVID-19 vaccine") for protection against [influenza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza "Influenza") and COVID‑19 was introduced in 2026.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Mcombriax_EPAR-123)[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EMA_PR_2026027-124) Delivery methods [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/COVID_Vaccine_%2850745583447%29.jpg/250px-COVID_Vaccine_%2850745583447%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID_Vaccine_\(50745583447\).jpg) A US [airman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airman "Airman") receiving a COVID‑19 vaccine, December 2020 Most coronavirus vaccines are administered by [intramuscular injection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection"), with further vaccine delivery methods being studied for future coronavirus vaccines. Intranasal Intranasal vaccines target [mucosal immunity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucosal_immunology "Mucosal immunology") in the [nasal mucosa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_mucosa "Nasal mucosa"), which is a portal for viral entry into the body.[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-mudgal-125)[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-rhee-126) These vaccines are designed to stimulate nasal [immune factors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_factor "Immune factor"), such as [IgA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A "Immunoglobulin A").[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-mudgal-125) In addition to inhibiting the virus, nasal vaccines provide ease of administration because no needles (or [needle phobia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_of_needles "Fear of needles")) are involved.[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-rhee-126)[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-cdc-127) A variety of intranasal COVID‑19 vaccines are undergoing clinical trials. The first authorised intranasal vaccine was [Razi Cov Pars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi_Cov_Pars "Razi Cov Pars") in Iran at the end of October 2021.[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Tehran_Times-128) The first viral component of [Sputnik V vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine") was authorised in Russia as Sputnik Nasal in April 2022.[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Sibmeda-129) In September 2022, India and China approved two [nasal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_vaccine "Nasal vaccine") COVID‑19 vaccines ([iNCOVACC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCOVACC "INCOVACC") and [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia")), which may (as boosters)[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-130) also reduce transmission[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-naturenasalvac-131)[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-132) (potentially via sterilizing immunity).[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-naturenasalvac-131) In December 2022, China approved a second intranasal vaccine as a booster, brand name [Pneucolin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT "DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT").[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Pneucolin-133) Universal vaccine A universal coronavirus vaccine would be effective against all coronaviruses and possibly other viruses.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-134)[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Joi_2021-135) The concept was publicly endorsed by [NIAID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIAID "NIAID") director [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci"), [virologist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virology "Virology") [Jeffery K. Taubenberger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffery_Taubenberger "Jeffery Taubenberger"), and David M. Morens.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Bush_2021-136) In March 2022, the [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House "White House") released the "National COVID‑19 Preparedness Plan", which recommended accelerating the development of a universal coronavirus vaccine.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-137) One attempt at such a vaccine is being developed at the [Walter Reed Army Institute of Research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reed_Army_Institute_of_Research "Walter Reed Army Institute of Research"). It uses a spike ferritin-based nanoparticle (SpFN). This vaccine began a Phase I clinical trial in April 2022.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-138) Results of this trial were published in May 2024.[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-WRAIR_phase_1_trial-139) Other universal vaccines that have entered clinical trial include OVX033 (France),[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-OVX033_phase_1_trial-140) PanCov (France),[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PanCov_phase_1/2_trial-141) pEVAC-PS (UK),[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Diosynvax_phase_1-142) and [VBI-2902](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VBI-2902 "VBI-2902") (Canada).[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-VBI_phase_1_trial-143) Another strategy is to attach vaccine fragments from multiple strains to a [nanoparticle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoparticle "Nanoparticle") scaffold. One theory is that a broader range of strains can be vaccinated against by targeting the receptor-binding domain, rather than the whole [spike protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_protein "Spike protein").[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-144) Development [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/COVID-19_vaccine_in_NIAID_lab_freezer.jpg/250px-COVID-19_vaccine_in_NIAID_lab_freezer.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_vaccine_in_NIAID_lab_freezer.jpg) COVID‑19 vaccine research samples in a [NIAID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIAID "NIAID") lab freezer (30 January 2020) [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2 "Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2"), the virus that causes [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19"), was isolated in late 2019.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_who-time-145) Its [genetic sequence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_sequence "Nucleic acid sequence") was published on 11 January 2020, setting off an intense research effort to develop a COVID-19 vaccine.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh-146)[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_gates1-147)[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_Fauci-148) Vaccine development was expedited via unprecedented collaboration between [academia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_institution "Academic institution"), the [pharmaceutical industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry "Pharmaceutical industry") and governments.[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh2-149) By June 2020, tens of billions of dollars were being invested to develop dozens of vaccine candidates and prepare for global vaccination programs.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_gates1-147)[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_hbr-150)[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_cbcr-151)[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_ahmed-152) According to the [Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_for_Epidemic_Preparedness_Innovations "Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations") (CEPI), the geographic distribution of COVID‑19 vaccine development shows North American entities to have about 40% of the activity, compared to 30% in Asia and Australia, 26% in Europe, and a few projects in South America and Africa.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh-146)[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh2-149) In February 2020, the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) said it did not expect a vaccine against SARS‑CoV‑2 to become available in less than 18 months.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:0-153) Virologist Paul Offit commented that, in hindsight, the development of a safe and effective vaccine within 11 months was a remarkable feat.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-154) The rapidly growing infection rate of COVID‑19 worldwide during 2020 stimulated international alliances and government efforts to urgently organize resources to make multiple vaccines on shortened timelines;[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_who-accel-155) Four vaccine candidates entered human evaluation in March.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thanh-146)[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_yamey-156) On 24 June 2020, China approved the CanSino vaccine for limited use in the military and two inactivated virus vaccines for emergency use in high-risk occupations.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:1-157) On 11 August 2020, Russia announced the approval of its Sputnik V vaccine for emergency use, though one month later only small amounts of the vaccine had been distributed for use outside of the phase 3 trial.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:2-158) The Pfizer–BioNTech partnership submitted an [Emergency Use Authorization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Use_Authorization "Emergency Use Authorization") (EUA) request to the U.S. [Food and Drug Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration "Food and Drug Administration") (FDA) for their mRNA vaccine on 20 November 2020.[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:3-159)[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:4-160) On 2 December 2020, the United Kingdom's [Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicines_and_Healthcare_products_Regulatory_Agency "Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency") (MHRA) gave temporary regulatory approval for the [Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine"),[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_MHRA_2020-12-08-161)[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:5-162) becoming the first country to approve the vaccine and the first country in the [Western world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world "Western world") to approve the use of any COVID‑19 vaccine.[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_ukgov12-2-163)[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_mueller-164)[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_:6-165) The US and the EU followed later that month.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_eu_vac-166)[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_thomas-167) The US also granted an EUA for the [Moderna COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") in December.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_CDC_ACIP_Moderna_COVID-19_Vaccine-168)[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_CNBC_20201219-169) [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain "Bahrain") and the [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") granted emergency marketing authorization for the [Sinopharm BIBP vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine").[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_bna-170)[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_uae-171) On 31 March 2021, the Russian government announced that they had registered the first COVID‑19 vaccine for animals.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-172) Named [Carnivac-Cov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivac-Cov "Carnivac-Cov"), it is an inactivated vaccine for carnivorous animals, including pets, aimed at preventing mutations that occur during the interspecies transmission of SARS-CoV-2.[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-173) In October 2022, China began administering an oral vaccine developed by [CanSino Biologics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CanSino_Biologics "CanSino Biologics") using its adenovirus model.[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-174) Despite the availability of [mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") and [viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine"), worldwide [vaccine equity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_equity "Vaccine equity") has not been achieved. The ongoing development and use of [whole inactivated virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_inactivated_virus "Whole inactivated virus") (WIV) and [protein-based](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") vaccines has been recommended, especially for use in [developing countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_countries "Developing countries"), to dampen further waves of the pandemic.[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_Hotez-175)[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development_Ye-176) In June 2025, the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") announced that it was making data from the marketing authorization applications for COVID‑19 mRNA vaccines [Comirnaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comirnaty "Comirnaty") and [Spikevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spikevax "Spikevax") publicly available.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-EMA_Transparency-65)[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Comirnaty_EPAR-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Spikevax_EPAR-67) Multiple steps along the entire development path are evaluated, including:[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-gates2-20)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-simpson-177) - the level of acceptable toxicity of the vaccine (its safety), - targeting vulnerable populations, - the need for vaccine efficacy breakthroughs, - the duration of vaccination protection, - special delivery systems (such as oral or nasal, rather than by injection), - dose regimen, - stability and storage characteristics, - emergency use authorization before formal licensing, - optimal manufacturing for scaling to billions of doses, and - dissemination of the licensed vaccine. Challenges There have been several unique challenges with COVID‑19 vaccine development. Timelines for conducting clinical research usually a sequential process requiring years – were being compressed into safety, efficacy, and dosing trials running simultaneously over months.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-sanger-178)[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-reuters-179) Under normal circumstances, large-scale trials involving thousands of participants only proceed after smaller studies confirm there are no significant safety concerns.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-180) For example, Chinese vaccine developers and the [Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention") began their efforts in January 2020,[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-181) and by March they were pursuing numerous candidates on short timelines.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-sanger-178)[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-wee-182) The rapid development and urgency of producing a vaccine for the COVID‑19 pandemic were expected to increase the risks and failure rate of delivering a safe, effective vaccine.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-thanh-4)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-diamond-47)[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Thorp-183) Additionally, research at universities is obstructed by [physical distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") and the closing of laboratories.[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-184)[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-185) Vaccines must progress through several phases of [clinical trials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial "Clinical trial") to test for safety, [immunogenicity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunogenicity "Immunogenicity"), effectiveness, dose levels, and [adverse effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_adverse_event "Vaccine adverse event") of the candidate vaccine.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Vaccines.gov-186)[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-fda-ddp-187) Vaccine developers have to invest resources internationally to find enough participants for Phase II–III clinical trials when the virus has proved to be a "[moving target](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_target_indication "Moving target indication")" of changing transmission rates across and within countries, forcing companies to compete for trial participants.[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-cohen6-19-188) As new vaccines are developed during the COVID‑19 pandemic, licensure of COVID‑19 vaccine candidates requires submission of a full dossier of information on development and manufacturing quality.[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-ema-eau-189)[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-byrne10-19-190)[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-dangerfield-191) Organizations involved in COVID-19 vaccine development Internationally, the [Access to COVID‑19 Tools Accelerator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_to_COVID%E2%80%9119_Tools_Accelerator "Access to COVID‑19 Tools Accelerator") is a [G20](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20 "G20") and [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) initiative announced in April 2020.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-g20gm-192)[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-whopress-193) It is a cross-discipline support structure to enable partners to share resources and knowledge. It comprises four pillars, each managed by two to three collaborating partners: Vaccines (also called "[COVAX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVAX "COVAX")"), Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Health Systems Connector.[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-act-faq-194) The WHO's April 2020 "R\&D Blueprint (for the) novel Coronavirus" documented a "large, international, multi-site, individually randomized controlled clinical trial" to allow "the concurrent evaluation of the benefits and risks of each promising candidate vaccine within 3–6 months of it being made available for the trial." The WHO vaccine coalition will prioritize which vaccines should go into Phase II and III clinical trials and determine harmonized Phase III protocols for all vaccines achieving the [pivotal trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivotal_trial "Pivotal trial") stage.[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-who-accel-195) National governments have also been involved in vaccine development. Canada announced funding for 96 projects for the development and production of vaccines at Canadian companies and universities, with plans to establish a "vaccine bank" that could be used if another coronavirus outbreak occurs,[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-abedi-196) support clinical trials, and develop manufacturing and supply chains for vaccines.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-can-research-197) [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_China "Government of China") provided low-rate loans to one vaccine developer through its [central bank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China "People's Bank of China") and "quickly made land available for the company" to build production plants.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-reuters-179) Three Chinese vaccine companies and research institutes are supported by the government for financing research, conducting clinical trials, and manufacturing.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-takada-198) The United Kingdom government formed a COVID‑19 vaccine [task force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_force "Task force") in April 2020 to stimulate local efforts for accelerated development of a vaccine through collaborations between industries, universities, and government agencies. The UK's [Vaccine Taskforce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Taskforce "Vaccine Taskforce") contributed to every phase of development, from research to manufacturing.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-morriss-199) In the United States, the [Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_Advanced_Research_and_Development_Authority "Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority") (BARDA), a federal agency funding disease-fighting technology, announced investments to support American COVID‑19 vaccine development and the manufacturing of the most promising candidates.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-reuters-179)[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-kuznia-200) In May 2020, the government announced funding for a fast-track program called [Operation Warp Speed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Warp_Speed "Operation Warp Speed").[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-201)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-202) By March 2021, BARDA had funded an estimated \$19.3 billion in COVID‑19 vaccine development.[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-203) Large pharmaceutical companies with experience in making vaccines at scale, including [Johnson & Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_%26_Johnson "Johnson & Johnson"), [AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstraZeneca "AstraZeneca"), and [GlaxoSmithKline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GlaxoSmithKline "GlaxoSmithKline") (GSK), formed alliances with [biotechnology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology "Biotechnology") companies, governments, and universities to accelerate progress toward effective vaccines.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-reuters-179)[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-sanger-178) Effectiveness [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/2021-_COVID-19_death_rates_by_vaccination_status_-_US.svg/500px-2021-_COVID-19_death_rates_by_vaccination_status_-_US.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2021-_COVID-19_death_rates_by_vaccination_status_-_US.svg) Death rates from COVID-19 for unvaccinated Americans substantially exceeded those who were vaccinated, with bivalent boosters further reducing the death rate.[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVIDmortality_2021_2023-204) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/COVID-19_vaccines_lives_saved.png/500px-COVID-19_vaccines_lives_saved.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_vaccines_lives_saved.png) Researchers have estimated that COVID-19 vaccines saved around 20 million lives globally in the first year of vaccine availability.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-205) Evidence from vaccine use during the pandemic shows vaccination can reduce infection and is most effective at preventing severe COVID-19 symptoms and death, but is less good at preventing mild COVID-19. Efficacy wanes over time but can be maintained with boosters.[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_YangJiangLi2023-206) In 2021, the CDC reported that unvaccinated people were 10 times more likely to be hospitalized and 11 times more likely to die than fully vaccinated people.[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-207)[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-208) The CDC reported that vaccine effectiveness fell from 91% against [Alpha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant") to 66% against Delta.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-209) One expert stated that "those who are infected following vaccination are still not getting sick and not dying like was happening before vaccination."[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_TNR-210) By late August 2021, the Delta variant accounted for 99 percent of U.S. cases and was found to double the risk of severe illness and hospitalization for those not yet vaccinated.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_LATimes-delta-211) On 10 December 2021, the [UK Health Security Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Health_Security_Agency "UK Health Security Agency") reported that early data indicated a 20- to 40-fold reduction in neutralizing activity for Omicron by sera from Pfizer 2-dose vaccinees relative to earlier strains. After a booster dose (usually with an mRNA vaccine),[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-212) vaccine effectiveness against symptomatic disease was at 70%–75%, and the effectiveness against severe disease was expected to be higher.[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_briefing31-213) A meta-analysis looking into COVID-19 vaccine differences in immunosuppressed individuals found that people with a weakened immune system are less able to produce neutralizing antibodies. For example, organ transplant recipients need three vaccines to achieve [seroconversion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seroconversion "Seroconversion").[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-214) A study on the serologic response to mRNA vaccines among patients with lymphoma, leukemia, and myeloma found that one-quarter of patients did not produce measurable antibodies, varying by cancer type.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-215) In February 2023, a systematic review in *[The Lancet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet "The Lancet")* said that the protection afforded by infection was comparable to that from vaccination, albeit with an increased risk of severe illness and death from the disease of an initial infection.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_SteinNassereldineSorensen2023-216) A January 2024 study by the CDC found that staying up to date on the vaccines could reduce the risk of strokes, blood clots and heart attacks related to COVID-19 in people aged 65 years or older or with a condition that makes them more vulnerable to said conditions.[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-217)[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-218) Against infection and transmission Transmission is mostly due to mild infections. Vaccines show lower effectiveness against mild infections than severe infections, and the effectivenss decreases within six months of vaccination.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-219) [Vaccine efficacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_efficacy "Vaccine efficacy") against infections was around 77% for pre-Omicron variants in the first months after vaccination, and 26% against Omicron variants. The efficacy against infections waned more rapidly than against severe illness. Boosters restored the protection against infections.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-220) Duration of immunity As of 2021, available evidence shows that fully vaccinated individuals and those previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 have a low risk of subsequent infection for at least six months.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221)[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-222)[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-223) There is insufficient data to determine an antibody titer threshold that indicates when an individual is protected from infection.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) Multiple studies show that antibody titers are associated with protection at the population level, but individual protection titers remain unknown.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) For some populations, such as the elderly and the [immunocompromised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunocompromised "Immunocompromised"), protection levels may be reduced after both vaccination and infection.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) Available evidence indicates that the level of protection may not be the same for all [variants of the virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2").[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) As of December 2021, there are no FDA-authorized or approved tests that providers or the public can use to determine if a person is protected from infection reliably.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CDC_Science_Brief-221) As of March 2022, elderly residents' protection against severe illness, hospitalization, and death in English care homes was high immediately after vaccination, but protection declined significantly in the months following vaccination.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Guardian_20220318-224) Protection among care home staff, who were younger, declined much more slowly.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Guardian_20220318-224) Regular boosters are recommended for older people, and boosters for care home residents every six months appear reasonable.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Guardian_20220318-224) The US [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC) recommends a fourth dose of the Pfizer mRNA vaccine as of March 2022 for "certain immunocompromised individuals and people over the age of 50".[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-225)[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-226) Against severe illness and death Overall, vaccines had a 87%–90% protection against severe outcomes, such as hospitalisation.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_:0-227)[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_:1-228) Six months after vaccination, the protection was still 76%. Like with infections, the protection was stronger against pre-Omicron variants than Omicron.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_:0-227) Protection against dying from COVID was similar: around 86%.[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research_:1-228) According to a June 2022 study, COVID‑19 vaccines prevented an additional 14.4 to 19.8 million deaths in 185 countries and territories from 8 December 2020 to 8 December 2021.[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-229) A 2024 study estimated around 1.6 million lives saves in the [wider European region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_WHO_regions "List of WHO regions").[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-230) A study published in 2025 estimated that COVID-19 vaccinations globally averted approximately 2.5 million deaths between 2020 and 2024, with the majority of the benefit concentrated among older adults. These estimates were more conservative than those reported in previous studies, using different estimates of vaccine effectiveness and mortality rates.[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-231) Immune evasion by variants In contrast to other investigated prior variants, the [SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant")[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-232)[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-233) and its BA.4/5 subvariants[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-234) have [evaded immunity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigenic_escape "Antigenic escape") induced by vaccines, which may lead to [breakthrough infections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_infection "Breakthrough infection") despite recent vaccination. Nevertheless, vaccines are thought to provide protection against severe illness, hospitalizations, and deaths due to Omicron.[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-235) Vaccine adjustments In June 2022, [Pfizer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer "Pfizer") and [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna") developed [bivalent vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalent_vaccine "Bivalent vaccine") to protect against the [SARS-CoV-2 wild-type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") and the Omicron variant. The bivalent vaccines are well-tolerated and offer immunity to Omicron superior to previous mRNA vaccines.[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant_pmid36303305-236) In September 2022, the United States [Food and Drug Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration "Food and Drug Administration") (FDA) authorized the bivalent vaccines.[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-237)[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-238)[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-239) In June 2023, the FDA advised manufacturers that the 2023–2024 formulation of the COVID‑19 vaccines for use in the US be updated to be a monovalent COVID‑19 vaccine using the XBB.1.5 lineage of the Omicron variant.[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-240)[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-241) In June 2024, the FDA advised manufacturers that the 2024–2025 formulation of the COVID‑19 vaccines for use in the US be updated to be a monovalent COVID‑19 vaccine using the JN.1 lineage.[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-242) In October 2024, the [Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_for_Medicinal_Products_for_Human_Use "Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use") of the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") (EMA) gave a positive opinion to update the composition of Bimervax, a vaccine targeting the Omicron XBB.1.16 subvariant.[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-243) As of May 2025, the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") recommends that monovalent JN.1 or KP.2 vaccines remain appropriate vaccine antigens and that monovalent LP.8.1 is a suitable alternative vaccine antigen.[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-244) The EMA recommends updating COVID-19 vaccines to target LP.8.1 for the 2025/2026 vaccination campaign.[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-245) Against long COVID COVID-19 vaccination seems to reduce risk of [long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID"). Three doses of a COVID-19 may reduce the risk by 70%, while two doses give 43% protection and one dose gives 19% protection. The evidence is based on observational studies, rather than on randomised clinical trials.[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-246) The large randomised control trials on COVID-19 vaccines did not include long COVID as an [outcome measure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome_measure "Outcome measure").[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-247) An analysis involving more than 20 million adults found that vaccinated people had a lower risk of long COVID compared with those who had not received a COVID‑19 vaccine; they were also protected against blood clots and heart failure after the COVID infection.[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-248)[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-249)[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-250) Mix and match According to studies, the combination of two different COVID‑19 vaccines, also called [heterologous vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterologous_vaccine "Heterologous vaccine"), cross-vaccination, or the mix-and-match method, provides protection equivalent to that of mRNA vaccines, including protection against the [Delta variant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_variant "Delta variant"). Individuals who receive the combination of two different vaccines produce strong immune responses, with side effects no worse than those caused by standard regimens.[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-251)[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-252) Adverse effects The risks of serious illness from COVID-19 are far higher than the risk posed by the vaccines.[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-253)[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-254)[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-255) For most people, the side effects, also called *[adverse effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effects "Adverse effects")*, from COVID‑19 vaccines are mild and can be managed at home. The adverse effects of the COVID‑19 vaccination are similar to those of other vaccines, and severe adverse effects are rare.[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-256)[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-257) Adverse effects from the vaccine are higher than placebo, but placebo arms of vaccine trials still reported adverse effects that can be attributed to the [nocebo effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo_effect "Nocebo effect").[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-258) A February 2022 study, which examined a potential causal link between COVID-19 vaccines and excess deaths, found that out of more than 250 million [Americans vaccinated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccination in the United States"), only 55 cases of death after COVID-19 vaccination were reported and in 17 of these, a causal relationship had been excluded.[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-259) The [Paul Ehrlich Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich_Institute "Paul Ehrlich Institute") has recorded 31 [cerebral venous sinus thromboses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_venous_sinus_thrombosis "Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis") (CVST) and nine deaths out of 2.7 million vaccinated in Germany with the [AZD1222](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZD1222 "AZD1222").[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Gallagher_2021-260) The UK [Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicines_and_Healthcare_products_Regulatory_Agency "Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency") (MHRA) recorded 73 deaths out of nearly 50 million doses of AstraZeneca given in UK.[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-261)[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-262) All vaccines administered via [intramuscular injection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramuscular_injection "Intramuscular injection"), including COVID‑19 vaccines, have side effects related to the mild trauma associated with the procedure and the introduction of a foreign substance into the body.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Polania-263) These include soreness, redness, rash, and inflammation at the injection site. Other common side effects include fatigue, headache, [myalgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myalgia "Myalgia") (muscle pain), and [arthralgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthralgia "Arthralgia") (joint pain), all of which generally resolve without medical treatment within a few days.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_WHO-12) These common side effects result from the body responding to the vaccine to build up protection from the virus.[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-264)[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-265) Like any other vaccine, some people are [allergic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergic "Allergic") to one or more ingredients in COVID‑19 vaccines. Typical side effects are stronger and more common in younger people and in subsequent doses, and up to 20% of people report a disruptive level of side effects after the second dose of an mRNA vaccine.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Huang_2022-266) These side effects are less common or weaker in [inactivated vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine").[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Huang_2022-266) COVID‑19 vaccination-related [enlargement of lymph nodes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphadenopathy "Lymphadenopathy") happens in 11.6% of those who received one dose of the vaccine and in 16% of those who received two doses.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-267) COVID‑19 vaccination is safe for breastfeeding people.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-breastf-13) Temporary changes to the [menstrual cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstrual_cycle "Menstrual cycle") in young women have been reported. However, these changes are "small compared with natural variation and quickly reverse."[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) In one study, women who received both doses of a two-dose vaccine during the same menstrual cycle (an atypical situation) may see their next period begin a couple of days late. They have about twice the usual risk of a clinically significant delay (about 10% of these women, compared to about 4% of unvaccinated women).[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) Cycle lengths return to normal after two menstrual cycles post-vaccination.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) Women who received doses in separate cycles had approximately the same natural variation in cycle lengths as unvaccinated women.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) Other temporary menstrual effects have been reported, such as heavier than normal menstrual bleeding after vaccination.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Menstruation-268) Serious adverse events Serious [adverse events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_adverse_event "Vaccine adverse event") associated COVID‑19 vaccines are generally rare but of high interest to the public.[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Montgomery_2021-269) The official databases of reported adverse events include: - the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization")'s [VigiBase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VigiBase "VigiBase"); - the United States [Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Adverse_Events_Reporting_System "Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System") (VAERS); - the United Kingdom's [Yellow Card Scheme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_Card_Scheme "Yellow Card Scheme"); - the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency")'s [EudraVigilance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EudraVigilance "EudraVigilance") system, which operates a regular transfer of data on suspected adverse drug reactions occurring in the EU to [WHO's Uppsala Monitoring Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_Monitoring_Centre "Uppsala Monitoring Centre").[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-270) Increased public awareness of these reporting systems and the extra reporting requirements under US FDA [Emergency Use Authorization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Use_Authorization "Emergency Use Authorization") rules have increased reported adverse events.[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-271) Serious side effects are an ongoing area of study, and resources have been allocated to try to better understand them.[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-272)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-273)[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-274) Research currently indicates that the rate and type of side effects are lower-risk than infection. For example, although vaccination may trigger some side effects, the effects experienced from an infection could be worse. Neurological side effects from getting COVID‑19 are hundreds of times more likely than from vaccination.[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-275) Evidence suggests that vaccination confers no significantly increased risk of serious adverse effects, including various cardiovascular, metabolic, and endocrine events, based on a cohort study involving 1 million adults in Denmark who have received an mRNA COVID-19 booster shot targeting the Omicron JN.1 variant.[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Denmark_neuro_study_boostershot-276) Documented rare serious effects include: - [anaphylaxis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxis "Anaphylaxis"), a severe type of [allergic reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergic_reaction "Allergic reaction").[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Altmann_2022-277) Anaphylaxis affects one person per 250,000 to 400,000 doses administered.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Huang_2022-266)[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccines_safety_update-278) The rate is in line with the expected rate of anaphylaxis to non-COVID vaccines.[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-279)[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-280)[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-281)[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-282) According to a 2022 systematic review, the mortality rate of people with anaphylaxis following COVID‐19 vaccination was 0.5%. The review concluded the consensus of the studies was that "the risk of anaphylaxis is not significant when compared to the risks posed by COVID‐19 infection".[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-283) - [blood clots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombus "Thrombus") (*thrombosis*).[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Altmann_2022-277) These [vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolic_and_thrombotic_events_after_COVID-19_vaccination "Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination") are associated with vaccines using an adenovirus system (Janssen and Oxford-AstraZeneca).[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Altmann_2022-277) These affect about one person per 100,000.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Huang_2022-266) There is a far higher risk of developing blood clots as a result of COVID-19 infection than from the vaccines.[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-284) - [myocarditis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocarditis "Myocarditis") and [pericarditis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericarditis "Pericarditis"), or inflammation of the heart.[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Altmann_2022-277) There is a rare risk of myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) or pericarditis (inflammation of the membrane covering the heart) after the mRNA COVID‑19 vaccines (Moderna or Pfizer-BioNTech). The risk of myocarditis after COVID‑19 vaccination is estimated to be 0.3 to 5 cases per 100,000 persons, with the highest risk in young males.[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NEJM_Basso-285) COVID‑19 vaccines may protect against myocarditis due to subsequent COVID‑19 infection.[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-AHA_8/2022-286)[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-287) The risk of myocarditis and pericarditis is significantly higher (up to 11 times higher with respect to myocarditis) after COVID‑19 infection as compared to COVID‑19 vaccination, with the possible exception of men under 40 who may have a higher risk of myocarditis after the second Moderna mRNA vaccine (an additional 97 cases of myocarditis per 1 million persons vaccinated).[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-AHA_8/2022-286) The mortality rate from myocarditis post-vaccination is extremely low. According to a 2022 study, of patients diagnosed with myocarditis (in both vaccination and COVID-19 cohorts), 1.07% were hospitalized and 0.015% died.[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-288) As of June 2025, the US FDA requires a prescription label warning regarding myocarditis and pericarditis.[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-289) - thrombotic thrombocytopenia and other autoimmune diseases, which have been reported as adverse events after the COVID‑19 vaccine.[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-290) - new onset [tinnitus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinnitus "Tinnitus") after the first dose of certain vaccines; however, there is a higher risk of the same symptom developing after influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations than after the COVID-19 vaccine.[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Slomski_2022-291)[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-292) Distribution and access Distribution ***Note** about the table in this section: number and percentage of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID‑19 vaccine (unless noted otherwise). May include vaccination of non-citizens, which can push totals beyond 100% of the local population. The table is updated daily by a bot.[\[note 1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-bot-note-293)* Updated March 12, 2026. As of 12 August 2024, 13.53 billion COVID-19 vaccine doses have been administered worldwide, with 70.6 percent of the global population having received at least one dose.[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-303)[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-304) While 4.19 million vaccines were then being administered daily, only 22.3 percent of people in low-income countries had received at least a first vaccine by September 2022, according to official reports from national health agencies, which are collated by [Our World in Data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_World_in_Data "Our World in Data").[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_ourworldindata.org-305) During [a pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") on the rapid timeline and scale of [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") cases in 2020, international organizations like the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) and [Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_for_Epidemic_Preparedness_Innovations "Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations") (CEPI), vaccine developers, governments, and industry evaluated the distribution of the eventual vaccine(s).[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_who-accel-306) Individual countries producing a vaccine may be persuaded to favor the highest bidder for manufacturing or provide first-class service to their own country.[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_gates1-307)[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_hbr-308)[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_reuters-309) Experts emphasize that licensed vaccines should be available and affordable for people at the frontlines of healthcare and in most need.[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_gates1-307)[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_reuters-309) In April 2020, it was reported that the UK agreed to work with 20 other countries and global organizations, including France, Germany, and Italy, to find a vaccine and share the results, and that UK citizens would not get preferential access to any new COVID‑19 vaccines developed by taxpayer-funded UK universities.[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_gartner-310) Several companies planned to initially manufacture a vaccine at [artificially low prices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_leader "Loss leader"), then increase prices for [profitability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_\(economics\) "Profit (economics)") later if annual vaccinations are needed and as countries build stock for future needs.[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines_reuters-309) The WHO had set out the target to vaccinate 40% of the population of all countries by the end of 2021 and 70% by mid-2022,[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-311) but many countries missed the 40% target at the end of 2021.[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-312)[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-313) - [![Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. The date is on the map. Commons source.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png/960px-World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png "Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. The date is on the map. Commons source.") Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. The date is on the map. [Commons source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png "commons:File:World map of share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine by country.png"). - [![COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. The date is on the map. Commons source.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/World_map_of_COVID-19_vaccination_doses_administered_per_100_people_by_country_or_territory.png/960px-World_map_of_COVID-19_vaccination_doses_administered_per_100_people_by_country_or_territory.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_COVID-19_vaccination_doses_administered_per_100_people_by_country_or_territory.png "COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. The date is on the map. Commons source.") COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. The date is on the map. [Commons source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_share_of_people_who_received_at_least_one_dose_of_COVID-19_vaccine_by_country.png "commons:File:World map of share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine by country.png"). Access during the pandemic Countries have extremely unequal access to the COVID‑19 vaccine. [Vaccine equity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_equity "Vaccine equity") has not been achieved or even approximated. The inequity has harmed both countries with poor access and countries with good access.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100)[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Ye-314)[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-lanceted-315) Nations pledged to buy doses of the COVID‑19 vaccines before the doses were available. Though high-income nations represent only 14% of the global population, as of 15 November 2020, they had contracted to buy 51% of all pre-sold doses. Some high-income nations bought more doses than would be necessary to vaccinate their entire populations.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-So-18) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/F%C3%A1brica_do_DF_produz_vacina_Sputnik_V_%2850874839072%29.jpg/250px-F%C3%A1brica_do_DF_produz_vacina_Sputnik_V_%2850874839072%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%A1brica_do_DF_produz_vacina_Sputnik_V_\(50874839072\).jpg) Production of the Sputnik V vaccine in Brazil, January 2021 In January 2021, WHO Director-General [Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedros_Adhanom_Ghebreyesus "Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus") warned of problems with equitable distribution: "More than 39 million doses of vaccine have now been administered in at least 49 higher-income countries. Just 25 doses have been given in one lowest-income country. Not 25 million; not 25 thousand; just 25."[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-316) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Inside_view_of_the_vaccination_centre_2.jpg/250px-Inside_view_of_the_vaccination_centre_2.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inside_view_of_the_vaccination_centre_2.jpg) Inside of a vaccination center in [Brussels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"), Belgium, February 2021 In March 2021, it was revealed that the US attempted to convince Brazil not to purchase the [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine") COVID‑19 vaccine, fearing "Russian influence" in Latin America.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-317) Some nations involved in long-standing territorial disputes have reportedly had their access to vaccines blocked by competing nations; [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine "Palestine") has accused Israel of blocking vaccine delivery to [Gaza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_Strip "Gaza Strip"), while [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") has suggested that China has hampered its efforts to procure vaccine doses.[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-318)[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-319)[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-320) A single dose of the COVID‑19 vaccines by [AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstraZeneca "AstraZeneca") would cost 47 [Egyptian pounds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_pound "Egyptian pound") (EGP), and the authorities are selling them for between 100 and 200 EGP. A report by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace cited the poverty rate in Egypt as around 29.7 percent, which constitutes approximately 30.5 million people, and claimed that about 15 million Egyptians would be unable to gain access to the luxury of vaccination. A human rights lawyer, Khaled Ali, launched a lawsuit against the government, forcing them to provide vaccinations free of charge to all members of the public.[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-321) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Covid_vaccination_for_children_aged_12-14_in_India_03cropped.jpg/250px-Covid_vaccination_for_children_aged_12-14_in_India_03cropped.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Covid_vaccination_for_children_aged_12-14_in_India_03cropped.jpg) COVID‑19 vaccination for children aged 12–14 in [Bhopal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal "Bhopal"), India According to [immunologist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology "Immunology") [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci"), mutant strains of the virus and limited vaccine distribution pose continuing risks, and he said, "we have to get the entire world vaccinated, not just our own country."[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-322) Edward Bergmark and [Arick Wierson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arick_Wierson "Arick Wierson") are calling for a global vaccination effort and wrote that the wealthier nations' "me-first" mentality could ultimately backfire because the spread of the virus in poorer countries would lead to more variants, against which the vaccines could be less effective.[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-323) In March 2021, the United States, Britain, European Union member states, and some other members of the [World Trade Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization") (WTO) blocked a push by more than eighty developing countries to [waive COVID‑19 vaccine patent rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement_waiver "TRIPS Agreement waiver") in an effort to boost production of vaccines for poor nations.[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-324) On 5 May 2021, the [US government under President Joe Biden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden "Presidency of Joe Biden") announced that it supports waiving intellectual property protections for COVID‑19 vaccines.[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-325) The Members of the European Parliament have backed a motion demanding the temporary lifting of intellectual property rights for COVID‑19 vaccines.[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-326) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Brasileiro_tomando_vacina_contra_o_COVID-19.jpg/250px-Brasileiro_tomando_vacina_contra_o_COVID-19.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brasileiro_tomando_vacina_contra_o_COVID-19.jpg) An elderly man receiving a second dose of the [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac") vaccine in Brazil in April 2021 In a meeting in April 2021, the World Health Organization's emergency committee addressed concerns of persistent inequity in global vaccine distribution.[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-327) Although 9 percent of the world's population lives in the 29 poorest countries, these countries had received only 0.3% of all vaccines administered as of May 2021.[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-328) In March 2021, Brazilian journalism agency [AgĂȘncia PĂșblica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ag%C3%AAncia_P%C3%BAblica "AgĂȘncia PĂșblica") reported that the country vaccinated about twice as many people who declare themselves white than black and noted that mortality from COVID‑19 is higher in the black population.[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-329) In May 2021, [UNICEF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNICEF "UNICEF") made an urgent appeal to industrialized nations to pool their excess COVID‑19 vaccine capacity to make up for a 125-million-dose gap in the [COVAX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVAX "COVAX") program. The program mostly relied on the [Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID%E2%80%9119_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine") produced by the [Serum Institute of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum_Institute_of_India "Serum Institute of India"), which faced serious supply problems due to increased domestic vaccine needs in India from March to June 2021. Only a limited amount of vaccines can be distributed efficiently, and the shortfall of vaccines in South America and parts of Asia is due to a lack of expedient donations by richer nations. International aid organizations have pointed at Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, as well as Argentina, Brazil, and some parts of the Caribbean, as problem areas where vaccines are in short supply. In mid-May 2021, UNICEF was also critical of the fact that most proposed donations of Moderna and Pfizer vaccines were not slated for delivery until the second half of 2021 or early in 2022.[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-330) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/COVID-19_mass_vaccination_in_Ratina%2C_Tampere%2C_Finland.jpg/250px-COVID-19_mass_vaccination_in_Ratina%2C_Tampere%2C_Finland.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_mass_vaccination_in_Ratina,_Tampere,_Finland.jpg) COVID‑19 mass vaccination queue in Finland, June 2021 In July 2021, the heads of the World Bank Group, the International Monetary Fund, the World Health Organization, and the World Trade Organization said in a joint statement: "As many countries are struggling with new variants and a third wave of COVID‑19 infections, accelerating access to vaccines becomes even more critical to ending the pandemic everywhere and achieving broad-based growth. We are deeply concerned about the limited vaccines, therapeutics, diagnostics, and support for deliveries available to developing countries."[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-331)[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-332) In July 2021, *[The BMJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_BMJ "The BMJ")* reported that countries had thrown out over 250,000 vaccine doses as supply exceeded demand and strict laws prevented the sharing of vaccines.[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-333) A survey by *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* found that over a million doses of vaccine had been thrown away in ten U.S. states because federal regulations prohibit recalling them, preventing their redistribution abroad.[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-334) Furthermore, doses donated close to expiration often cannot be administered quickly enough by recipient countries and end up having to be discarded.[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-335) To help overcome this problem, the Prime Minister of India, [Narendra Modi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modi "Narendra Modi"), announced that they would make their digital vaccination management platform, [CoWIN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoWIN "CoWIN"), open to the global community. He also announced that India would also release the source code for the contact tracing app [Aarogya Setu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarogya_Setu "Aarogya Setu") for developers around the world. Around 142 countries, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, the Maldives, Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, and Zambia, expressed their interest in the application for COVID management.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-336)[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-337) [Amnesty International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") and [Oxfam International](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfam#Oxfam_International "Oxfam") have criticized the support of vaccine monopolies by the governments of producing countries, noting that this is dramatically increasing the dose price by five times and often much more, creating an economic barrier to access for poor countries.[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-338)[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-339) [MĂ©decins Sans FrontiĂšres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res "MĂ©decins Sans FrontiĂšres") (Doctors without Borders) has also criticized vaccine monopolies and repeatedly called for their suspension, supporting the [TRIPS waiver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement_waiver "TRIPS Agreement waiver"). The waiver was first proposed in October 2020 and has support from most countries, but was delayed by opposition from the EU (especially Germany; major EU countries such as France, Italy, and Spain support the exemption),[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-340) the UK, Norway, and Switzerland, among others. MSF called for a Day of Action in September 2021 to put pressure on the [WTO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTO "WTO") Minister's meeting in November, which was expected to discuss the TRIPS [IP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property "Intellectual property") waiver.[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-TRIPS-341)[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-no_patents-342)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-profiteering-343) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Iran_COVID19-Vaccination_center.jpg/250px-Iran_COVID19-Vaccination_center.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iran_COVID19-Vaccination_center.jpg) A drive-through COVID‑19 vaccination center in Iran, August 2021 In August 2021, to reduce unequal distribution between rich and poor countries, the WHO called for a [moratorium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moratorium_\(law\) "Moratorium (law)") on [booster doses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_dose "Booster dose") at least until the end of September. However, in August, the United States government announced plans to offer booster doses eight months after the initial course to the general population, starting with priority groups. Before the announcement, the WHO harshly criticized this type of decision, citing the lack of evidence for the need for boosters, except for patients with specific conditions. At this time, vaccine coverage of at least one dose was 58% in high-income countries and only 1.3% in low-income countries, and 1.14 million Americans had already received an unauthorized booster dose. US officials argued that waning efficacy against mild and moderate disease might indicate reduced protection against severe disease in the coming months. Israel, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom have also started planning boosters for specific groups.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-344)[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-345)[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-346) In September 2021, more than 140 former world leaders and Nobel laureates, including former President of France [François Hollande](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hollande "François Hollande"), former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom [Gordon Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Brown "Gordon Brown"), former Prime Minister of New Zealand [Helen Clark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Clark "Helen Clark"), and Professor [Joseph Stiglitz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz "Joseph Stiglitz"), called on the candidates to be the next German chancellor to declare themselves in favor of waiving intellectual property rules for COVID‑19 vaccines and transferring vaccine technologies.[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-347) In November 2021, nursing unions in 28 countries filed a formal appeal with the United Nations over the refusal of the UK, EU, Norway, Switzerland, and Singapore to temporarily waive patents for COVID‑19 vaccines.[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-348) During his first international trip, the [President of Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Peru "President of Peru"), [Pedro Castillo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Castillo "Pedro Castillo"), spoke at the [seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventy-sixth_session_of_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly "Seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly") on 21 September 2021, proposing the creation of an international [treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty "Treaty") signed by world leaders and [pharmaceutical companies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry "Pharmaceutical industry") to guarantee universal vaccine access, arguing that "The battle against the pandemic has shown us the failure of the international community to cooperate under the principle of solidarity."[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Psaledakis_2021-349)[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-350) Optimizing the societal benefit of vaccination may benefit from a strategy that is tailored to the state of the pandemic, the demographics of a country, the age of the recipients, the availability of vaccines, and the individual risk for severe disease.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Wang1-16) In the UK, the interval between prime and booster doses was extended to vaccinate as many people as early as possible.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-351) Many countries are starting to give an additional booster shot to the immunosuppressed[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-352)[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-353) and the elderly,[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-354) and research predicts an additional benefit of personalizing vaccine doses in the setting of limited vaccine availability when a wave of virus Variants of Concern hits a country.[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hunziker_805%E2%80%93820-355) Despite the extremely rapid development of effective [mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") and [viral vector vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine"), [vaccine equity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_equity "Vaccine equity") has not been achieved.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100) The World Health Organization called for 70 percent of the global population to be vaccinated by mid-2022, but as of March 2022, it was estimated that only one percent of the 10 billion doses given worldwide had been administered in low-income countries.[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-356) An additional 6 billion vaccinations may be needed to fill vaccine access gaps, particularly in developing countries. Given the projected availability of newer vaccines, the development and use of [whole inactivated virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_inactivated_virus "Whole inactivated virus") (WIV) and protein-based vaccines are also recommended. Organizations such as the [Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_Countries_Vaccine_Manufacturers_Network "Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network") could help to support the production of such vaccines in developing countries, with lower production costs and greater ease of deployment.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100)[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-DCVMN-357) While vaccines substantially reduce the probability and severity of infection, it is still possible for fully vaccinated people to contract and spread COVID‑19.[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-cdc-effectiveness-358) Public health agencies have recommended that vaccinated people continue using preventive measures (wear face masks, social distance, wash hands) to avoid infecting others, especially vulnerable people, particularly in areas with high community spread. Governments have indicated that such recommendations will be reduced as vaccination rates increase and community spread declines.[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-359) Economics > Moreover, an unequal distribution of vaccines will deepen inequality and exaggerate the gap between rich and poor and will reverse decades of hard-won progress on human development.— United Nations, *COVID vaccines: Widening inequality and millions vulnerable*[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-UNnews-360) Vaccine inequity damages the global economy, disrupting the global [supply chain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain "Supply chain").[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-lanceted-315) Most vaccines were reserved for wealthy countries; as of September 2021,[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-UNnews-360) some countries have more vaccines than are needed to fully vaccinate their populations.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-So-18) When people are under-vaccinated, needlessly die, experience disability, and live under lockdown restrictions, they cannot supply the same goods and services. This harms the economies of under-vaccinated and over-vaccinated countries alike. Since rich countries have larger economies, rich countries may lose more money to vaccine inequity than poor ones,[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-lanceted-315) though the poor ones will lose a higher percentage of [GDP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDP "GDP") and experience longer-term effects.[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-UNDP_ec-361) High-income countries would profit an estimated US\$4.80 for every \$1 spent on giving vaccines to lower-income countries.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-lanceted-315) The [International Monetary Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund") sees the vaccine divide between rich and poor nations as a serious obstacle to a global economic recovery.[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-362) Vaccine inequity disproportionately affects refuge-providing states, as they tend to be poorer, and refugees and displaced people are economically more vulnerable even within those low-income states, so they have suffered more economically from vaccine inequity.[\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-UN_refugees-363)[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Hotez-100) Technology-assisted vaccine hunting Background During the initial phase of COVID-19 vaccine distribution in early 2021, demand for appointments in the United States significantly exceeded supply. Eligibility rules changed frequently, and vaccination providers—including pharmacies, hospitals, and state health departments—operated separate online scheduling systems. Appointment slots were often released unpredictably and filled within minutes.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364) In response, informal volunteer networks—commonly referred to as "vaccine hunters" or "vaccine angels"—emerged to help individuals locate available appointments.[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Salon-365) These groups coordinated through Facebook, Slack, Telegram, Discord, and Twitter, sharing scheduling strategies and real-time updates. Regional automated tools In several metropolitan areas, technologists developed automated programs to monitor vaccine scheduling systems. In the San Francisco Bay Area, software engineer Mukesh Aggarwal created a program that reportedly scanned more than 100 vaccination provider websites and distributed alerts through a Telegram channel when appointments became available.[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-CBS-366) High school students in the Bay Area launched a Twitter bot known as @CovaxSF that scanned county and pharmacy websites and tweeted availability alerts.[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-SecretSF-367) Additional regional reporting described independently developed bots that monitored California's MyTurn platform and pharmacy portals, automatically posting updates when openings were detected.[\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-SFGate-368) Similar tools were reported in other states, including bots that tracked CVS, Walgreens, Rite Aid, and state health department portals and posted appointment alerts on Twitter.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364) Nationwide tracking projects Beyond regional efforts, several nationwide tools and volunteer-run data projects emerged to aggregate appointment information. Websites such as VaccinateCA compiled crowd-sourced reports of vaccine availability across California.[\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-369) National media coverage also described developers who built multi-state tracking bots that scraped pharmacy APIs or scheduling endpoints and automatically posted updates to Twitter or Telegram channels.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364)[\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-PCWorld-370) Some programmers published open-source scripts that allowed others to monitor appointment endpoints directly, contributing to a broader ecosystem of decentralized vaccine tracking tools.[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Salon-365) Public response and policy concerns Media outlets characterized these automated systems as grassroots technological responses to fragmented vaccine distribution systems.[\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Salon-365) However, coverage also noted concerns that automated monitoring tools could advantage individuals with technical knowledge, fast internet access, or the ability to respond immediately to alerts.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364) Some pharmacy chains and state systems reportedly implemented countermeasures to limit automated scraping, including rate limits and CAPTCHA systems.[\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Fortune-364) As vaccine supply increased and eligibility expanded nationwide in mid-2021, the need for intensive appointment monitoring declined, and many volunteer-run bots and tracking systems were discontinued.[\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-371) Liability Several governments agreed to shield pharmaceutical companies like [Pfizer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer "Pfizer") and [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna") from [negligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negligence "Negligence") claims related to COVID‑19 vaccines (and treatments), [as in previous pandemics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_vaccines "Economics of vaccines"), when governments also took on liability for such claims. In the US, these liability shields took effect in February 2020, when the US Secretary of Health and Human Services, [Alex Azar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Azar "Alex Azar"), published a notice of declaration under the [Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Readiness_and_Emergency_Preparedness_Act "Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act") (PREP Act) for medical countermeasures against COVID‑19, covering "any vaccine, used to treat, diagnose, cure, prevent, or mitigate COVID‑19, or the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 or a virus mutating therefrom". The declaration precludes "liability claims alleging negligence by a manufacturer in creating a vaccine, or negligence by a health care provider in prescribing the wrong dose, absent willful misconduct." In other words, absent "willful misconduct", these companies cannot be sued for [money damages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_damages "Money damages") for any injuries that occur between 2020 and 2024 from the administration of vaccines and treatments related to COVID‑19.[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Preparedness_Act-372) The declaration is effective in the United States through 1 October 2024.[\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Preparedness_Act-372) In December 2020, the UK government granted Pfizer legal [indemnity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indemnity "Indemnity") for its COVID‑19 vaccine.[\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-373) In the European Union, the COVID‑19 vaccines were granted a conditional marketing authorization, which does not exempt manufacturers from civil and administrative liability claims.[\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-374) The EU conditional marketing authorizations were changed to standard authorizations in September 2022.[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-375) While the purchasing contracts with vaccine manufacturers remain secret, they do not contain liability exemptions, even for side effects not known at the time of licensure.[\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-376) The [Bureau of Investigative Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Investigative_Journalism "Bureau of Investigative Journalism"), a nonprofit news organization, reported in an investigation that unnamed officials in some countries, such as Argentina and Brazil, said that Pfizer demanded guarantees against costs of legal cases due to adverse effects in the form of liability waivers and sovereign assets such as federal bank reserves, embassy buildings, or military bases, going beyond what was expected from other countries, such as the US.[\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-377) During the [pandemic parliamentary inquiry in Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID%E2%80%9119_CPI "COVID‑19 CPI"), Pfizer's representative said that its terms for Brazil are the same as for all other countries with which it has signed deals.[\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-378) In December 2022, the governor of Florida, [Ron DeSantis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_DeSantis "Ron DeSantis"), said that he would petition the state supreme court to convene a grand jury to investigate possible violations in respect to COVID‑19 vaccines,[\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-379) and declared that his government would be able to get "the data whether they \[the companies\] want to give it or not".[\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-380) In November 2023, the US state of Texas sued Pfizer under section 17.47 of the [Texas Deceptive Trade Practices Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_protection#United_States "Consumer protection"), alleging that the company misled the public about its COVID-19 vaccine by hiding risks while making false claims about its effectiveness.[\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-381)[\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-382) In June 2024, the US state of Kansas similarly sued Pfizer under the [Kansas Consumer Protection Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_protection#United_States "Consumer protection"), making similar allegations.[\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-383) Public acceptance and hesitancy [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/202003-_Cumulative_county_COVID-19_death_rates_-_by_share_of_votes_for_Donald_Trump.svg/250px-202003-_Cumulative_county_COVID-19_death_rates_-_by_share_of_votes_for_Donald_Trump.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:202003-_Cumulative_county_COVID-19_death_rates_-_by_share_of_votes_for_Donald_Trump.svg) After the December 2020 introduction of COVID vaccines, a partisan gap in death rates developed, indicating the effects of vaccine skepticism.[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NYTimes_20240311-384) As of March 2024, more than 30 percent of Republicans had not received a Covid vaccine, compared with less than 10 percent of Democrats.[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-NYTimes_20240311-384) A variety of unfounded [conspiracy theories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_theory "Conspiracy theory") and other [misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation "Misinformation") about COVID-19 vaccines have spread based on misunderstood or misrepresented science, religion, and law. These have included exaggerated claims about side effects, misrepresentations about how the immune system works and when and how COVID-19 vaccines are made, a story about COVID-19 being spread by [5G](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation#5G_mobile-phone_networks "COVID-19 misinformation"), and other false or distorted information. This misinformation, some created by [anti-vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-vaccination "Anti-vaccination") activists, has proliferated and may have made many people averse to vaccination.[\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-385) [Vaccine hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_hesitancy "Vaccine hesitancy") has led to governments and private organizations around the world introducing measures to incentivize or coerce vaccination, such as lotteries,[\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-386) mandates,[\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-387) and free entry to events,[\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-388) which has in turn led to further misinformation about the legality and effect of these measures themselves.[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-389) Critics of vaccine mandates have argued that such requirements infringe on [individual medical choice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_freedom_movement "Health freedom movement") and [personal autonomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_personal_autonomy "Libertarian personal autonomy").[\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-390)[\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-391)[\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-392) In the US, some prominent biomedical scientists who publicly advocate vaccination have been attacked and threatened in emails and on social media by anti-vaccination activists.[\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy_Hotez_2023-393) The [United States Department of Defense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") (DoD) undertook a [disinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation "Disinformation") campaign in the Philippines, later expanded to Central Asia and the Middle East, which sought to discredit China, in particular its [Sinovac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinovac_Biotech "Sinovac Biotech") vaccine, disseminating hashtags of \#ChinaIsTheVirus and posts claiming that the Sinovac vaccine contained gelatin from pork and therefore was *[haram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haram "Haram")* or forbidden for purposes of Islamic law.[\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_note-Bing_2024-394) See also - [COVID‑19 drug development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID%E2%80%9119_drug_development "COVID‑19 drug development") - [COVID‑19 drug repurposing research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID%E2%80%9119_drug_repurposing_research "COVID‑19 drug repurposing research") Notes 1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-bot-note_293-0)** The table data is automatically updated daily by a bot; see [Template:COVID-19 data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_data "Template:COVID-19 data") for more information. Scroll down past the table to find the documentation and the main reference. See also: [Category:Automatically updated COVID-19 pandemic table templates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Automatically_updated_COVID-19_pandemic_table_templates "Category:Automatically updated COVID-19 pandemic table templates"). References 1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-BritannicaCOVID_1-0)** ["COVID-19 vaccine"](https://www.britannica.com/science/COVID-19-vaccine). *Encyclopaedia Britannica*. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 13 January 2026. 2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine#cite_ref-2)** ["COVID-19 vaccine"](https://web.archive.org/web/20260316043048/https://www.nhs.uk/vaccinations/covid-19-vaccine/). *nhs.uk*. 11 September 2024. Archived from [the original](https://www.nhs.uk/vaccinations/covid-19-vaccine/) on 16 March 2026. 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[PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [35390476](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35390476). - Krause PR, Fleming TR, Longini IM, Peto R, Briand S, Heymann DL, et al. (July 2021). ["SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Vaccines"](https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMsr2105280). *N Engl J Med*. **385** (2): 179–186\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1056/NEJMsr2105280](https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMsr2105280). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8262623](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8262623). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [34161052](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34161052). - Kyriakidis NC, LĂłpez-CortĂ©s A, GonzĂĄlez EV, Grimaldos AB, Prado EO (February 2021). ["SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates"](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41541-021-00292-w). *npj Vaccines*. **6** (1) 28. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/s41541-021-00292-w](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41541-021-00292-w). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [7900244](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7900244). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [33619260](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33619260). - Ramsay M, ed. (2020). ["COVID-19: the green book, chapter 14a"](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-the-green-book-chapter-14a). [*Immunisation against infectious disease*](https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/immunisation-against-infectious-disease-the-green-book). London: Public Health England. Vaccine protocols - ["Protocol mRNA-1273-P301"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044809/https://www.modernatx.com/sites/default/files/mRNA-1273-P301-Protocol.pdf) (PDF). [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna "Moderna"). Archived from [the original](https://www.modernatx.com/sites/default/files/mRNA-1273-P301-Protocol.pdf) (PDF) on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020. - ["Protocol C4591001 PF-07302048 (BNT162 RNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccines)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211206133704/https://cdn.pfizer.com/pfizercom/2020-11/C4591001_Clinical_Protocol_Nov2020.pdf) (PDF). [Pfizer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer "Pfizer"). Archived from [the original](https://cdn.pfizer.com/pfizercom/2020-11/C4591001_Clinical_Protocol_Nov2020.pdf) (PDF) on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2022. - ["Protocol AZD1222 – D8110C00001"](https://s3.amazonaws.com/ctr-med-7111/D8110C00001/52bec400-80f6-4c1b-8791-0483923d0867/c8070a4e-6a9d-46f9-8c32-cece903592b9/D8110C00001_CSP-v2.pdf) (PDF). [AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstraZeneca "AstraZeneca"). - ["Protocol VAC31518COV3001; Phase 3 (Ensemble)"](https://www.jnj.com/coronavirus/covid-19-phase-3-study-clinical-protocol) (PDF). [Janssen Vaccines & Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_Pharmaceutica "Janssen Pharmaceutica"). - ["Protocol VAC31518COV3009; Phase 3 (Ensemble 2)"](https://www.jnj.com/coronavirus/ensemble-2-study-protocol) (PDF). [Janssen Vaccines & Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_Pharmaceutica "Janssen Pharmaceutica"). - ["Protocol VAT00008 – Study of Monovalent and Bivalent Recombinant Protein Vaccines against COVID-19 in Adults 18 Years of Age and Older Protocol"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210723062559/https://www.sanofi.com/-/media/Project/One-Sanofi-Web/Websites/Global/Sanofi-COM/Home/common/docs/clinical-study-results/rdctcovid19vat00008protocol-v30-dated-18MAY2021.pdf) (PDF). [Sanofi Pasteur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi_Pasteur "Sanofi Pasteur"). 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