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| Boilerpipe Text | The US CDC's COVID-19 laboratory test kit
COVID-19 testing
involves analyzing samples to assess the current or past presence of
SARS-CoV-2
, the virus that causes
COVID-19
and is responsible for the
COVID-19 pandemic
. The two main types of tests detect either the presence of the virus or
antibodies
produced in response to infection.
[
1
]
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2
]
Molecular tests for viral presence through its molecular components are used to diagnose individual cases and to allow public health authorities to trace and contain outbreaks. Antibody tests (serology immunoassays) instead show whether someone once had the disease.
[
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They are less useful for diagnosing current infections because antibodies may not develop for weeks after infection.
[
4
]
It is used to assess disease prevalence, which aids the estimation of the
infection fatality rate
.
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]
Individual jurisdictions have adopted varied testing protocols, including whom to test, how often to test, analysis protocols, sample collection and the uses of test results.
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]
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This variation has likely significantly impacted reported statistics, including case and test numbers, case fatality rates and case demographics.
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Because SARS-CoV-2 transmission occurs days after exposure (and before onset of symptoms), there is an urgent need for frequent surveillance and rapid availability of results.
[
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]
Test analysis is often performed in
automated
,
high-throughput
,
medical laboratories
by
medical laboratory scientists
.
Rapid self-tests
and
point-of-care testing
are also available and can offer a faster and less expensive method to test for the virus although with a lower accuracy.
[
14
]
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]
Methods
Explanation of the underlying pathophysiology pertaining to diagnosis of COVID-19
[
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]
Positive viral tests indicate a current infection, while positive antibody tests indicate a prior infection.
[
1
]
Other techniques include a
CT scan
, checking for elevated body temperature, checking for low blood oxygen level, and
detection by trained dogs
.
[
17
]
[
18
]
[
19
]
Detection of the virus
Detection of the virus is usually done either by looking for the virus's inner
RNA
, or pieces of protein on the outside of the virus. Tests that look for the viral
antigens
(parts of the virus) are called
antigen tests
.
There are multiple types of tests that look for the virus by detecting the presence of the virus's RNA. These are called
nucleic acid
or
molecular
tests, after
molecular biology
. As of 2021
, the most common form of molecular test is the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test.
[
20
]
Other methods used in molecular tests include
CRISPR
,
isothermal nucleic acid amplification
,
digital polymerase chain reaction
,
microarray analysis
, and
next-generation sequencing
.
[
20
]
Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test
Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) is a process that
amplifies
(replicates) a small, well-defined segment of
DNA
many hundreds of thousands of times, creating enough of it for analysis. Test samples are treated with certain chemicals
[
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]
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]
that allow DNA to be extracted.
Reverse transcription
converts RNA into DNA.
Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) first uses reverse transcription to obtain DNA, followed by PCR to amplify that DNA, creating enough to be analyzed.
[
22
]
RT-PCR can thereby detect
SARS-CoV-2
, which contains only RNA. The RT-PCR process generally requires a few hours.
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These tests are also referred to as molecular or genetic assays.
[
3
]
Real-time PCR
(qPCR)
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]
provides advantages including automation, higher-throughput and more reliable instrumentation. It has become the preferred method.
[
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]
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]
The combined technique has been described as real-time RT-PCR
[
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]
or quantitative RT-PCR
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]
and is sometimes abbreviated
qRT-PCR
,
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]
rRT-PCR
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]
or RT-qPCR,
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]
although sometimes RT-PCR or PCR are used. The
Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments
(MIQE) guidelines propose the term
RT-qPCR
,
[
24
]
but not all authors adhere to this.
Average
sensitivity
for rapid molecular tests depend on the brand. For ID NOW, the average sensitivity was 73.0% with an average specificity of 99.7%; for Xpert Xpress the average sensitivity was 100% with an average specificity of 97.2%.
[
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]
[
needs update
]
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]
[
needs update
]
In a diagnostic test, sensitivity is a measure of how well a test can identify true positives and specificity is a measure of how well a test can identify true negatives. For all testing, both diagnostic and screening, there is usually a trade-off between sensitivity and specificity, such that higher sensitivities will mean lower specificities and vice versa.
Sensitivity and Specificity
A 90% specific test will correctly identify 90% of those who are uninfected, leaving 10% with a false positive result.
Samples can be obtained by various methods, including a
nasopharyngeal swab
,
sputum
(coughed up material),
[
34
]
throat swabs,
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]
deep airway material collected via
suction catheter
[
35
]
or
saliva
.
[
36
]
[
37
]
Drosten
et al. remarked that for 2003 SARS, "from a diagnostic point of view, it is important to note that nasal and throat swabs seem less suitable for diagnosis, since these materials contain considerably less viral RNA than sputum, and the virus may escape detection if only these materials are tested."
[
38
]
Sensitivity of clinical samples by RT-PCR is 63% for nasal swab, 32% for pharyngeal swab, 48% for feces, 72–75% for sputum, and 93–95% for bronchoalveolar
lavage
.
[
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]
The likelihood of detecting the virus depends on collection method and how much time has passed since infection. According to Drosten tests performed with throat swabs are reliable only in the first week. Thereafter the virus may abandon the throat and multiply in the lungs. In the second week, sputum or deep airways collection is preferred.
[
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]
Collecting saliva may be as effective as nasal and throat swabs,
[
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]
although this is not certain.
[
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]
[
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]
Sampling saliva may reduce the risk for health care professionals by eliminating close physical interaction.
[
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]
It is also more comfortable for the patient.
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]
Quarantined people can collect their own samples.
[
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]
A saliva test's diagnostic value depends on sample site (deep throat, oral cavity, or salivary glands).
[
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]
Some studies have found that saliva yielded greater sensitivity and consistency when compared with swab samples.
[
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]
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]
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On 15 August 2020, the US FDA granted an emergency use authorization for a saliva test developed at Yale University that gives results in hours.
[
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]
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]
On 4 January 2021, the US FDA issued an alert about the risk of false results, particularly false negative results, with the
Curative
SARS-Cov-2 Assay real-time RT-PCR test.
[
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]
Viral burden measured in
upper respiratory
specimens declines after symptom onset.
[
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]
Following recovery, many patients no longer have detectable viral RNA in upper respiratory specimens. Among those who do, RNA concentrations three days following recovery are generally below the range in which replication-competent virus has been reliably isolated.
[
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]
No clear correlation has been described between length of illness and duration of post-recovery shedding of viral RNA in upper respiratory specimens.
[
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]
Demonstration of a
nasopharyngeal swab
for COVID-19 testing
Demonstration of a
throat swab
for COVID-19 testing
A PCR machine
Video of a
nasopharyngeal swab
for COVID-19 testing
Other molecular tests
Isothermal nucleic acid amplification
tests also amplify the virus's genome. They are faster than PCR because they do not involve repeated heating and cooling cycles. These tests typically detect DNA using
fluorescent tags
, which are read out with specialized machines.
[
citation needed
]
CRISPR gene editing
technology was modified to perform the detection: if the CRISPR enzyme attaches to the sequence, it colors a paper strip. The researchers expect the resulting test to be cheap and easy to use in point-of-care settings.
[
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]
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]
The test amplifies RNA directly, without the RNA-to-DNA conversion step of RT-PCR.
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]
Antigen tests
COVID-19 Antigen Rapid Test Kit; the
timer
is provided by the user.
Mucus from nose or throat in a test liquid is placed onto a COVID-19 rapid antigen diagnostic test device.
COVID-19 rapid testing in Rwanda
An
antigen
is the part of a
pathogen
that elicits an
immune response
. Antigen tests look for antigen
proteins
from the viral surface. In the case of a
coronavirus
, these are usually proteins from the
surface spikes
.
[
55
]
SARS-CoV-2 antigens can be detected before onset of COVID-19 symptoms (as soon as sufficient SARS-CoV-2 virus particles are present) with more rapid test results, but with less sensitivity than PCR tests for the virus.
[
56
]
COVID-19 rapid antigen tests
are
lateral flow
immunoassays
that detect the presence of a specific viral
antigen
, which indicates current viral infection. Antigen tests produce results quickly (within approximately 15–30 minutes), and most can be used at the point-of-care or as self-tests. Self-tests are rapid tests that can be taken at home or anywhere, are easy to use, and produce rapid results.
[
1
]
Antigen tests can be performed on nasopharyngeal, nasal swab, or saliva specimens.
[
15
]
Antigen tests that can identify SARS-CoV-2 offer a faster and less expensive method to test for the virus.
[
14
]
Antigen tests are generally less sensitive than real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and other nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs).
[
15
]
Antigen tests may be one way to scale up testing to much greater levels.
[
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]
Isothermal nucleic acid amplification tests can process only one sample at a time per machine.
RT-PCR
tests are accurate but require too much time, energy and trained personnel to run the tests.
[
55
]
"There will never be the ability on a [PCR] test to do 300 million tests a day or to test everybody before they go to work or to school,"
Deborah Birx
, head of the
White House Coronavirus Task Force
, said on 17 April 2020. "But there might be with the antigen test."
[
57
]
Samples may be collected via nasopharyngeal swab, a swab of the
anterior nares
, or from saliva (obtained by various methods including
lollipop tests
for children).
[
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]
The sample is then exposed to paper strips containing artificial antibodies designed to bind to coronavirus antigens. Antigens bind to the strips and give a visual readout. The process takes less than 30 minutes, can deliver results at point of care, and does not require expensive equipment or extensive training.
[
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]
Swabs of respiratory viruses often lack enough antigen material to be detectable.
[
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]
This is especially true for
asymptomatic
patients who have little if any
nasal discharge
. Viral proteins are not amplified in an antigen test.
[
55
]
[
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]
A Cochrane review based on 64 studies investigating the efficacy of 16 different antigen tests determined that they correctly identified COVID-19 infection in an average of 72% of people with symptoms, compared to 58% of people without symptoms.
[
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]
[
33
]
Tests were most accurate (78%) when used in the first week after symptoms first developed, likely because people have the most virus in their system in the first days after they are infected.
[
32
]
While some scientists doubt whether an antigen test can be useful against COVID-19,
[
60
]
others have argued that antigen tests are highly sensitive when viral load is high and people are contagious, making them suitable for public health screening.
[
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]
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]
Routine antigen tests can quickly identify when asymptomatic people are contagious, while follow-up PCR can be used if confirmatory diagnosis is needed.
[
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]
Antibody tests
The body responds to a viral infection by producing
antibodies
that help neutralize the virus.
[
64
]
Blood tests (also called
serology tests
or serology immunoassays
[
3
]
) can detect the presence of such antibodies.
[
65
]
Antibody tests can be used to assess what fraction of a population has once been infected, which can then be used to calculate the disease's
mortality rate
.
[
5
]
They can also be used to determine how much antibody is contained in a unit of convalescent plasma, for COVID-19 treatment, or to verify if a given vaccine generates an adequate immune response.
[
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]
SARS-CoV-2 antibodies' potency and protective period have not been established.
[
5
]
[
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]
Therefore, a positive antibody test may not imply immunity to a future infection. Further, whether mild or asymptomatic infections produce sufficient antibodies for a test to detect has not been established.
[
68
]
Antibodies for some diseases persist in the bloodstream for many years, while others fade away.
[
55
]
The most notable antibodies are
IgM
and
IgG
. IgM antibodies are generally detectable several days after initial infection, although levels over the course of infection and beyond are not well characterized.
[
69
]
IgG antibodies generally become detectable 10–14 days after infection and normally peak around 28 days after infection.
[
70
]
[
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]
This pattern of antibody development seen with other infections, often does not apply to SARS-CoV-2, however, with IgM sometimes occurring after IgG, together with IgG or not occurring at all.
[
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]
Generally, however, median IgM detection occurs 5 days after symptom onset, whereas IgG is detected a median 14 days after symptom onset.
[
73
]
IgG levels significantly decline after two or three months.
[
74
]
Genetic tests verify infection earlier than antibody tests. Only 30% of those with a positive genetic test produced a positive antibody test on day 7 of their infection.
[
68
]
Antibody Test Types
Rapid diagnostic test (RDT)
RDTs
typically use a small, portable, positive/negative
lateral flow assay
that can be executed at point of care. RDTs may process blood samples, saliva samples, or nasal swab fluids. RDTs produce colored lines to indicate positive or negative results.
[
2
]
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
ELISAs
can be qualitative or quantitative and generally require a lab. These tests usually use
whole blood
,
plasma
, or
serum
samples. A plate is coated with a viral protein, such as a SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Samples are incubated with the protein, allowing any antibodies to bind to it. The antibody-protein complex can then be detected with another wash of antibodies that produce a color/fluorescent readout.
[
2
]
Neutralization assay
Neutralization assays assess whether sample antibodies prevent viral infection in test cells.
[
64
]
These tests sample blood, plasma or serum. The test cultures cells that allow viral reproduction (e.g.,
Vero E6
cells). By varying antibody concentrations, researchers can visualize and quantify how many test antibodies block virus replication.
[
2
]
Chemiluminescent immunoassay
Chemiluminescent
immunoassays
are quantitative lab tests. They sample blood, plasma, or serum. Samples are mixed with a known viral protein, buffer reagents and specific, enzyme-labeled antibodies. The result is luminescent. A chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay uses magnetic, protein-coated microparticles. Antibodies react to the viral protein, forming a complex. Secondary enzyme-labeled antibodies are added and bind to these complexes. The resulting chemical reaction produces light. The radiance is used to calculate the number of antibodies. This test can identify multiple types of antibodies, including IgG, IgM, and
IgA
.
[
2
]
Neutralizing vis-à-vis binding antibodies
Most if not all large scale COVID-19 antibody testing looks for binding antibodies only and does not measure the more important
neutralizing antibodies
(NAb).
[
75
]
[
76
]
[
77
]
A NAb is an antibody that neutralizes the infectivity of a virus particle by blocking its attachment to or entry into a susceptible cell; enveloped viruses, like e.g. SARS-CoV-2, are neutralized by the blocking of steps in the replicative cycle up to and including membrane fusion.
[
78
]
[
64
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A non-neutralizing antibody either does not bind to the crucial structures on the virus surface or binds but leaves the virus particle infectious; the antibody may still contribute to the destruction of virus particles or infected cells by the immune system.
[
79
]
[
64
]
It may even enhance infectivity by interacting with receptors on
macrophages
.
[
80
]
Since most COVID-19 antibody tests return a positive result if they find only binding antibodies, these tests cannot indicate that the subject has generated protective NAbs that protect against re-infection.
[
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]
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]
It is expected that binding antibodies imply the presence of NAbs
[
77
]
and for many viral diseases total antibody responses correlate somewhat with NAb responses
[
81
]
but this is not established for COVID-19. A study of 175 recovered patients in China who experienced mild symptoms reported that 10 individuals had no detectable NAbs at discharge, or thereafter. How these patients recovered without the help of NAbs and whether they were at risk of re-infection was not addressed.
[
76
]
An additional source of uncertainty is that even if NAbs are present, viruses such as HIV can evade NAb responses.
[
75
]
Studies have indicated that NAbs to the original
SARS
virus (the predecessor to the current SARS-CoV-2) can remain active for two years
[
82
]
and are gone after six years.
[
83
]
Nevertheless, memory cells including
memory B cells
and
memory T cells
[
84
]
can last much longer and may have the ability to reduce reinfection severity.
[
83
]
A point of care test in Peru. A blood droplet is collected by a
pipette
.
Blood from pipette is then placed onto a COVID-19
rapid diagnostic test
device.
The rapid diagnostic test shows reactions of
IgG
and
IgM
antibodies. The left tray shows a negative result, and the right positive
Home test with a positive result. The "C" is the control; the "T" is the test
Other tests
Sniff tests
Sudden loss of smell can be used to screen people on a daily basis for COVID-19. A study by the National Institutes of Health showed that those infected with SARS-CoV-2 could not smell a 25% mixture of ethanol and water.
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85
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Because various conditions can lead to the loss of the sense of smell, a sniff test would not be definitive but indicate the need for a PCR test. Because the loss of the sense of smell shows up before other symptoms, there has been a call for widespread sniff testing.
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]
Health care bureaucracies have generally ignored sniff tests even though they are quick, easy and capable of being self-administered daily. This has led some medical journals to write editorials supporting the adoption of sniff testing.
[
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Imaging
Typical visible features on CT initially include bilateral multilobar
ground-glass opacities
with a peripheral or posterior distribution.
[
88
]
COVID-19 can be identified with higher precision using CT than with RT-PCR.
[
89
]
Subpleural dominance
,
crazy paving
, and
consolidation
may develop as the disease evolves.
[
88
]
[
90
]
Chest
CT scans
and
chest x-rays
are not recommended for diagnosing COVID-19. Radiologic findings in COVID-19 lack specificity.
[
88
]
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]
Chest X-rays, computed tomography scans and ultrasounds are all ways the coronavirus disease can be detected.
A chest x-ray is a portable lightweight machine. This machine is typically more available than polymerase chain reaction and computerized tomography scans. it only takes approximately 15 seconds per patient.
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]
This makes chest-x ray readily accessible and inexpensive. It also has quick turnaround time and can be crucial to the clinical equipment in the detection of coronavirus disease.
[
93
]
Computerized tomography scans involve looking at 3D images from various angles. This is not as available as chest x-ray, but still only takes about 15 minutes per patient.
[
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]
Computerized tomography has been a known routine scanning for pneumonia diagnosis, therefore can also be used to diagnose coronavirus disease. Computerized tomography scans may help with ongoing illness monitoring throughout treatment. Patients who had low-grade symptoms and high body temperatures revealed significant lung indications on their chest computed tomography scans. They emphasized how important chest computerized tomography scans are for determining how serious the coronavirus disease infection is.
[
94
]
Ultrasound can be another tool to detect coronavirus disease. An ultrasound is a type of imaging exam that produces images using sound waves. Unlike computerized tomography scans and x-rays, ultrasound does not use radiation. Moreover, it is inexpensive, simple to use, repeatable, and has several additional advantages. Using a hand-held mobile machine, ultrasound examinations can be performed in a variety of healthcare settings.
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There are some downsides to using imaging, however. The equipment needed for computed tomography scans is not available in most hospitals, making it not as effective as some other tools used for detection of the coronavirus disease.
[
92
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One of the difficult tasks in a pandemic is manually inspecting each report, which takes numerous radiology professionals and time.
[
96
]
There were several problems with early studies of using chest computerized tomography scans for diagnosing coronavirus. Some of these problems included the disease severity characters being different in severe and hospitalized cases. The criteria for doing a chest computerized tomography scan were not defined. There was also no characterization of positive chest computerized tomography scans results. The computerized tomography scans findings were not the same as positive computerized tomography scans findings of coronavirus.
[
95
]
In a typical clinical setting, chest imaging is not advised for routine screening of COVID-19. Patients with asymptomatic to mild symptoms are not recommended to be tested via chest computerized tomography scans. However, it is still crucial to use, particularly when determining complications or disease progression. Chest imaging also is not always the first route to take with patients who have high risk factors for COVID. High risk patients that had mild symptoms, chest imaging findings were limited. Although a computerized tomography scan is a strong tool in the diagnosis of COVID-19, it is insufficient to identify COVID-19 alone due to the poor specificity and the difficulties that radiologists may experience in distinguishing COVID-19 from other viral pneumonia on chest computerized tomography scans.
[
94
]
Serology (CoLab score) tests
The standard blood test (quick scan) taken at the emergency room measures different values. By use of the blood quick scan the CoLab score is calculated with a developed algorithm based on how the coronavirus causes changes in the blood. The software is intended for use in emergency rooms to quickly rule out the presence of the disease in incoming patients. A not negative result is followed by a PCR (
polymerase chain reaction
) or LAMP (
loop-mediated isothermal amplification
) test.
[
97
]
Breath tests
The breath test by a
Coronavirus breathalyzer
is a pre-screening test for people who have no or mild symptoms of COVID-19. A not negative result is followed by a PCR or LAMP test.
[
citation needed
]
Animals
In May 2021, Reuters reported that Dutch researchers at
Wageningen University
had shown that trained bees could detect the virus in infected samples in seconds and this could benefit countries where test facilities are in short supply.
[
98
]
A two-month study by the Necker-Cochin hospital Paris in conjunction with the French national veterinary school reported in May 2021 that dogs were more reliable than current lateral flow tests.
[
99
]
Researchers in Paris in March 2022 reported in a preprint not yet peer-reviewed that trained dogs were very effective for rapidly detecting the presence of SARS-Cov2 in people, whether displaying symptoms or not. The dogs were presented with sweat samples to smell from 335 people, of whom 78 with symptoms and 31 without tested positive by PCR. The dogs detected 97% of the symptomatic and 100% of the asymptomatic infections. They were 91% accurate at identifying volunteers who were not infected, and 94% accurate at ruling out the infection in people without symptoms. The authors said "Canine testing is non-invasive and provides immediate and reliable results. Further studies will be focused on direct sniffing by dogs to evaluate sniffer dogs for mass pre-test in airports, harbors, railways stations, cultural activities or sporting events."
[
100
]
[
101
]
Functional assays
Tollotest is a molecular test that detects the activity of a SARS-CoV2 protease, which is a biomarker for active infection.
[
102
]
History
Timeline of total number of tests in different countries
[
103
]
In January 2020, scientists from China published the first
genetic sequences
of SARS-CoV-2 via
virological.org
,
[
104
]
a "hub for prepublication data designed to assist with public health activities and research".
[
105
]
Even once the first tests were created, the supply was limited. As a result, no countries had reliable data on the prevalence of the virus early in the pandemic.
[
106
]
The WHO and other experts called for ramping up testing as the best way to slow the spread of the virus.
[
107
]
[
108
]
Shortages
of
reagent
and other testing supplies became a
bottleneck
for mass testing in the EU, the UK and the US.
[
109
]
[
110
]
[
111
]
Early tests also encountered problems with reliability.
[
112
]
[
113
]
Testing protocols
Drive-through testing
In
drive-through
testing, the person undergoing testing remains in a vehicle while a healthcare professional approaches the vehicle and obtains a sample, all while taking appropriate precautions such as wearing
personal protective equipment
(PPE).
[
114
]
[
115
]
Drive-through centers helped South Korea accelerate its testing program.
[
116
]
Home collection
A
Randox
PCR home test kit in the UK, showing the swab, and multi-layer packaging to deliver it to the lab
A USPS package containing COVID-19 tests from the fifth round of free US distributions in the fall of 2023, with instructions regarding FDA extensions of test expiration dates.
In Hong Kong test subjects can stay home and receive a specimen tube. They spit into it, return it and later get the result.
[
117
]
Additionally, by the fall of 2023, the United States had conducted six rounds of mailing free at-home COVID-19 tests to households nationwide. The
COVID-19 rapid antigen tests
, while less accurate than PCR tests, did not require mailing the tests back to labs for analysis.
[
118
]
[
119
]
Pooled testing
Pooled testing
can improve turnaround time, by combining a number of samples to be tested together. If the pool result is negative, all samples are negative. If the test result is positive, samples will need to be individually tested.
[
66
]
In Israel, researchers at
Technion
and
Rambam Hospital
developed a method for testing samples from 64 patients simultaneously, by pooling the samples and only testing further if the combined sample was positive.
[
120
]
[
121
]
[
122
]
Pool testing was then adopted in Israel, Germany, Ghana
[
123
]
[
124
]
[
125
]
South Korea,
[
126
]
Nebraska
,
[
127
]
China
[
128
]
and the Indian states of
Uttar Pradesh
,
[
129
]
West Bengal
,
[
130
]
Punjab
,
[
131
]
Chhattisgarh
[
132
]
and
Maharashtra
.
[
133
]
Open source, multiplexed designs released by Origami Assays can test as many as 1122 patient samples using only 93 assays.
[
134
]
These balanced designs can be run in small laboratories without robotic liquid handlers.
Multi-tiered testing
One study proposed a rapid immune response assay as a screening test, with a confirmatory nucleic acid test for diagnosis, followed by a rapid antibody test to determine course of action and assess population exposure/herd immunity.
[
135
]
Required volume
Required testing levels are a function of disease spread. The more the cases, the more tests are needed to manage the outbreak. COVID-19 tends to grow exponentially at the beginning of an outbreak, meaning that the number of required tests initially also grows exponentially. If properly targeted testing grows more rapidly than cases, it can be contained.
[
citation needed
]
WHO recommends increasing testing until fewer than 10% are positive in any given jurisdiction.
[
136
]
United States
Number of tests done per day in the US, as of April 2020
.
Blue: CDC lab
Orange: Public health lab
Gray: Data incomplete due to reporting lag
Not shown: Testing at private labs; total exceeded 100,000 per day by 27 March.
[
137
]
Economist
Paul Romer
reported that the US has the technical capacity to scale up to 20 million tests per day, which is his estimate of the scale needed to fully remobilize the economy.
[
138
]
The
Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics
estimated on 4 April 2020 that this capacity could be available by late July 2020.
[
139
]
Romer pointed to
single-molecule real-time sequencing
equipment from
Pacific Biosciences
[
138
]
[
140
]
and to the
Ion Torrent Next-Generation Sequencing
equipment from
ThermoFisher Scientific
.
[
138
]
[
141
]
According to Romer, "Recent research papers suggest that any one of these has the potential to scale up to millions of tests per day." This plan requires removing regulatory hurdles. Romer estimated that $100 billion would cover the costs.
[
138
]
Romer also claimed that high test accuracy is not required if tests are administered frequently enough. He ran model simulations in which 7% of the population is tested every day using a test with a 20%
false negative
rate and a 1%
false positive
rate. The average person would be tested roughly every two weeks. Those who tested positive would go into quarantine. Romer's simulation indicated that the fraction of the population that is infected at any given time (known as the
attack rate
) peaks reaches roughly 8% in about thirty days before gradually declining, in most runs reaching zero at 500 days, with cumulative prevalence remaining below 20%.
[
142
]
Snapshot mass-testing
A study found that, despite possibly suboptimal implementation, the snapshot mass-testing approach conducted by
Slovakia
by which ~80% of its population was tested for COVID-19 within a weekend at the end of October 2020 was thought highly efficacious, decreasing observed prevalence by 58% within one week and by 70% compared to a hypothetical scenario of no snapshot mass-testing.
[
143
]
[
144
]
The significant reduction resulted from a set of complementary lockdown and quarantine measures whereby citizens who tested positive were quarantined synchronously the weeks afterwards.
[
145
]
The country increased other countermeasures at the same time so the inference was questionable. In the following months Slovakia's COVID-19 death rate per population increased to among the highest in the world. Research on mass testing suggests that people who test negative think it is safe to travel and come in contact with infected people. In the U.S. the tracing system was overwhelmed. On 70 percent of days there were more cases than tracers had time to contact and people contacted were often uncooperative.
[
146
]
Surveillance and screening of populations
As of August 2020, the WHO recognizes wastewater surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 as a potentially useful source of information on the prevalence and temporal trends of COVID-19 in communities, while highlighting that gaps in research such as viral shedding characteristics should be addressed.
[
147
]
Such aggregative testing may have detected early cases.
[
148
]
Studies show that
wastewater-based epidemiology
has the potential for an early warning system and monitoring for COVID-19 infections.
[
149
]
[
150
]
[
151
]
[
152
]
[
153
]
This may prove particularly useful once large shares of regional populations are vaccinated or recovered and do not need to conduct rapid tests while in some cases being infectious nevertheless.
[
154
]
Available tests
A temporary drive-in testing site for COVID-19 set up with tents in a parking lot
Countries around the world developed tests independently and in partnership with others.
Nucleic acid tests
Tests are available that look for viral RNA using either
polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) or
loop-mediated isothermal amplification
(LAMP) technology.
Tests developed in China, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the US targeted different parts of the viral genome. WHO adopted the German system for manufacturing kits sent to low-income countries without the resources to develop their own.
[
citation needed
]
PowerChek Coronavirus looks for the "E" gene shared by all
beta coronaviruses
, and the RdRp gene specific to SARS-CoV-2.
[
155
]
US President
Donald Trump
displays a COVID-19 testing kit from
Abbott Laboratories
in March 2020.
Nucleic acid testing conducted using an Abbott Laboratories ID Now device
Abbott Laboratories
' ID Now nucleic acid test uses
isothermal amplification
technology.
[
156
]
The assay amplifies a unique region of the virus's
RdRp
gene; the resulting copies are then detected with "
fluorescently-labeled
molecular beacons
".
[
157
]
The test kit uses the company's "toaster-size" ID Now device, which is widely deployed in the US.
[
158
]
The device can be used in laboratories or in point of care settings, and provides results in 13 minutes or less.
[
157
]
Primerdesign
offers its Genesig Real-Time PCR test system.
Roche Molecular Systems
offers the Cobas 6800/8800 systems; they are offered among others by the United Nations.
[
citation needed
]
Antigen tests
Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Lateral Flow Test kit showing a negative result. This device has been subject to accuracy concerns and a recall in the United States.
Antigen tests are readily available worldwide and have been approved by several health regulators.
Quidel's "Sofia
2 SARS Antigen FIA"
[
63
]
[
159
]
is a
lateral flow test
that uses
monoclonal antibodies
to detect the virus's
nucleocapsid
(N) protein.
[
160
]
The result is read out by the company's Sofia
2 device using
immunofluorescence
.
[
160
]
The test is simpler and cheaper but less accurate than nucleic acid tests. It can be deployed in laboratories or at point of care and gives results in 15 minutes.
[
159
]
A false negative result occurs if the sample's antigen level is positive but below the test's detection limit, requiring confirmation with a nucleic acid test.
[
160
]
The Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Test was never approved for use in the United States, but was being sold by the company anyway. The FDA inspected Innova facilities in California in March and April 2021, and found inadequate quality assurance of tests manufactured in China.
[
161
]
On 23 April 2021, the company issued a recall. The FDA warned consumers to return or destroy the devices because the rate of
false positives
and
false negatives
found in clinical trials were higher than the rate claimed by the packaging.
[
162
]
Over 1 billion tests from the company have been distributed in the UK, with £3 billion in funding as part of
Operation Moonshot
, and the
MHRK
has authorized exceptional use until at least 28 August 2021.
[
161
]
Concerned experts pointed out that accuracy dropped significantly when screening was conducted by the public instead of by a medical professional, and that the test was not designed to screen asymptomatic people.
[
161
]
A 2020 study found 79% of positive cases were found when used by laboratory scientists, but only 58% when used by the general public and 40% when used for city-wide screening in
Liverpool
.
[
163
]
Serology (antibody) tests
Antibodies are usually detectable 14 days after the onset of the infection. Multiple jurisdictions survey their populations using these tests.
[
164
]
[
70
]
Private US labs including
Quest Diagnostics
and LabCorp offer antibody testing upon request.
[
165
]
Certain antibody tests are available in several European countries and also in the US.
[
166
]
[
167
]
Roche offers a selective
ELISA
serology test.
[
168
]
A summary review has noted that while some "serological tests ... might be cheaper and easier to implement at the point of care [than RT-PCR]", and such testing can identify previously infected individuals, "caution is warranted ... using serological tests for ... epidemiological surveillance". The review called for higher quality studies assessing accuracy with reference to a standard of "RT-PCR performed on at least two consecutive specimens, and, when feasible, includ[ing] viral cultures."
[
169
]
[
170
]
CEBM researchers have called for in-hospital 'case definition' to record "CT lung findings and associated blood tests"
[
171
]
and for the WHO to produce a "protocol to standardise the use and interpretation of PCR" with continuous re-calibration.
[
172
]
Accuracy
The location of sample collection impact on sensitivity for COVID-19 in 205 Wuhan patients
[
173
]
Samples source
Positive rate
Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid specimens
93% (14/15)
Sputum
72% (75/104)
Nasal swabs
63% (5/8)
Fibrobronchoscope brush biopsy
46% (6/13)
Pharyngeal swabs
32% (126/398)
Feces
29% (44/153)
Blood
1% (3/307)
Accuracy is measured in terms of specificity and selectivity. Test errors can be false positives (the test is positive, but the virus is not present) or false negatives, (the test is negative, but the virus is present).
[
174
]
In a study of over 900,000 rapid antigen tests, false positives were found to occur at a rate of 0.05% or 1 in 2000.
[
175
]
Sensitivity and specificity
Sensitivity indicates whether the test accurately identifies whether the virus is present. Each test requires a minimum level of
viral load
in order to produce a positive result. A 90% sensitive test will correctly identify 90% of infections, missing the other 10% (a false negative). Even relatively high sensitivity rates can produce high rates of false negatives in populations with low incidence rates.
[
174
]
In a diagnostic test, sensitivity is a measure of how well a test can identify true positives and specificity is a measure of how well a test can identify true negatives. For all testing, both diagnostic and screening, there is usually a trade-off between sensitivity and specificity, such that higher sensitivities will mean lower specificities and vice versa.
Sensitivity and Specificity
A 90% specific test will correctly identify 90% of those who are uninfected, leaving 10% with a false positive result.
[
citation needed
]
Low-specificity tests have a low
positive predictive value
(PPV) when prevalence is low. For example, suppose incidence is 5%. Testing 100 people at random using a test that has a
specificity
of 95% would yield on average 5 people who are actually negative who would incorrectly test positive. Since 5% of the subjects actually are positive, another five would also test positive correctly, totaling 10 positive results. Thus, the PPV is 50%,
[
176
]
an outcome no different from a coin toss. In this situation, assuming that the result of a second test is
independent
of the first test, retesting those with a first positive result increases the PPV to 94.5%, meaning that only 4.5% of the second tests would return the incorrect result, on average less than 1 incorrect result.
[
177
]
Causes of test error
The time course of infection affects the accuracy of some tests. Samples may be collected before the virus has a chance to establish itself or after the body has begun to eliminate it. A May 2020 review of PCR-RT testing found that the median probability of a false-negative result decreased from 100% on day 1 to 67% on day 4. On the day of symptom onset, the probability was 38%, which decreased to 20% 3 days later.
[
178
]
[
needs update
]
PCR-based test
Detection of SARS-CoV-2 by nasal swab over six weeks in patients who experienced mild to moderate illness
RT-PCR is the most commonly used diagnostic test.
[
179
]
PCR tests by nasopharyngeal swab have a sensitivity of 73%, but systematic analysis of specificity has not been determined due to the lack of PCR studies with a control group.
[
180
]
In one study, the positivity rate was highest at week one (100%), followed by 89.3%, 66.1%, 32.1%, 5.4% and zero by week six since symptom onset.
[
181
]
Sensitivity is also a function of the number of PCR cycles, as well as time and temperature between sample collection and analysis.
[
182
]
A cycle threshold of 20 cycles would be adequate to detect SARS-Cov-2 in a highly infective person.
[
182
]
Cycle thresholds above 34 are increasingly likely to give false positives outside of high biosafety level facilities.
[
182
]
In July 2020,
Anthony Fauci
of the US NIH indicated that positive results obtained from RT-PCR tests run at more than 35 cycles were almost always "just dead nucleotides".
[
183
]
In August 2020, it was reported that, "In three sets of testing data that include cycle thresholds, compiled by officials in Massachusetts, New York and Nevada ... most tests set the limit at 40 [cycles], a few at 37" and that the CDC was examining the use of cycle threshold measures "for policy decisions,"
[
184
]
On 21 July 2021, the CDC, in their "Real-Time RT-PCR Diagnostic Pan: Instructions for Use", indicated tests results should be determined at 40 cycles.
[
185
]
A Dutch CDC-led laboratory investigation compared 7 PCR kits.
[
186
]
Test kits made by BGI, R-Biopharm AG, BGI, KH Medical and Seegene showed high sensitivity.
[
187
]
High sensitivity kits are recommended to assess people without symptoms, while lower sensitivity tests are adequate when diagnosing symptomatic patients.
[
186
]
The
University of Oxford
's
Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine
(CEBM) has pointed to mounting evidence
[
188
]
[
189
]
that "a good proportion of 'new' mild cases and people re-testing positives via RT-PCR after quarantine or discharge from hospital are not infectious, but are simply clearing harmless virus particles which their immune system has efficiently dealt with", and have called for "an international effort to standardize and periodically calibrate testing".
[
171
]
On 7 September, the UK government issued "guidance for procedures to be implemented in laboratories to provide assurance of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA results during periods of low prevalence, when there is a reduction in the predictive value of positive test results".
[
190
]
On 4 January 2021, the US FDA issued an alert about the risk of false results, particularly false negative results, with the Curative SARS-Cov-2 Assay real-time RT-PCR test.
[
48
]
Isothermal nucleic amplification test
One study reported that the ID Now COVID-19 test showed sensitivity of 85.2%. Abbott responded that the issue could have been caused by analysis delays.
[
191
]
Another study rejected the test in their clinical setting because of this low sensitivity.
[
192
]
Confirmatory testing
The WHO recommends countries that do not have testing capacity and national laboratories with limited experience on COVID-19 send their first five positives and the first ten negative COVID-19 samples to one of the 16 WHO reference laboratories for confirmatory testing.
[
193
]
[
194
]
Out of the sixteen reference laboratories, seven are in Asia, five in Europe, two in Africa, one in North America and one in Australia.
[
195
]
National or regional responses
Iceland
Iceland managed the pandemic with aggressive contact tracing, inbound travel restrictions, testing, and quarantining, but with less aggressive lock-downs.
[
8
]
India
Italy
Researchers tested the entire population of
Vo'
, the site of Italy's first COVID-19 death. They tested about 3,400 people twice, at an interval of ten days. About half the people testing positive had no symptoms. All discovered cases were quarantined. Along with restricting travel to the commune, new infections were eliminated.
[
196
]
Japan
Unlike other Asian countries, Japan did not experience a pandemic of
SARS
or
MERS
, so the country's PCR testing system was not well developed.
[
197
]
[
198
]
Japan preferentially tested patients with severe illness and their close contacts at the beginning. Japan's
Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting
chose cluster measures to identify infections clusters.
[
197
]
[
198
]
The Expert Meeting analyzed the outbreak from
Wuhan
and identified conditions leading to clusters (closed spaces, crowded spaces and close-contact), and asked people to avoid them.
[
198
]
[
199
]
In January, contact tracers took action shortly after the first infection was found. Only administrative tests were carried out at first, until insurance began covering PCR tests on 6 March. Private companies began to test, and the test system gradually expanded.
[
197
]
In April, those with positive tests were legally permitted to recuperate at home or in a hotel if they had asymptomatic or mild illness, ending the hospital bed shortage.
[
200
]
The first wave (from China) was contained,
[
201
]
but a second wave (caused by returnees from Europe and the US) in mid-March led to spreading infection in April.
[
198
]
On 7 April, Japan declared a state of emergency (less strict than a lockdown, because it did not block cities or restrict outings).
[
198
]
[
200
]
[
202
]
On 13 May, antigen test kits became covered by insurance, and were combined with a PCR test for diagnosis.
[
203
]
[
204
]
Japan's PCR test count per capita remained far smaller than in some other countries even though its positive test rate was lower.
[
199
]
[
202
]
[
197
]
The Expert Meeting stated, "The Japanese health care system originally carries out pneumonia surveillance, allowing it to detect most of the severely ill patients who develop pneumonia. There are a large number of CT scanners in Japan and they have spread to small hospitals all over the country, so pneumonia patients are rarely missed. In that sense, it meets the same standards as other countries that mainly carry out PCR tests."
[
199
]
[
197
]
The group recommended using
CT scans
data and doctor's findings for diagnosis.
[
205
]
[
206
]
On the Diamond Princess cruise ship, many people who initially tested negative later tested positive. Half of coronavirus-positives there who remained mild or asymptomatic had pneumonia findings on CT scans and their CT image showed a frosted glass shadow that is characteristic of infection.
[
205
]
[
207
]
As of 18 July, Japan's daily PCR testing capacity was about 32,000, more than three times the 10,000 cases as of April. When the antigen test is added to it, the number is about 58,000. The number of tests per 1,000 people in the United States is about 27 times that of Japan, the UK is 20 times, Italy is 8 times, and South Korea is twice (as of 26 July).
[
208
]
[
209
]
[
210
]
The number of those infected with coronavirus and inpatients has increased in July, but the number of serious cases has not increased. This is thought to be due to the proper testing of those infected in July compared to those in April. In April, the number of tests could not catch up with the increase in the number of infected people, and the test standards were strict, so the test positive rate exceeded 30% at the peak. It means that there were quite a few cases where those infected were not PCR tested. It is thought that the severe case was preferentially tested though there were a lot of mild cases and asymptomatic carriers mainly in the young during the first wave. In other words, it became possible to grasp the actual situation of infection much better than before by strengthening the testing system.
[
211
]
At the end of July, accommodation facilities for mild and asymptomatic carriers became full, and the authorities requested hospitals to prepare beds for the mild. However, it became difficult to treat patients with other illnesses and to maintain the ICU system including the staff due to the occupation of hospital beds by patients with mild symptoms.
[
212
]
[
213
]
[
214
]
Russia
In April 2020, Russia tested 3 million people and had 183,000 positive results.
[
215
]
On 28 April
Anna Popova
, head of
Federal Service for Surveillance in Healthcare
(Roszdravnadzor) stated that 506 laboratories were testing; that 45% of those who tested positive had no symptoms; that 5% of patients had a severe form; and 40% of infections were from family members. Illness improved from six days to one day after symptoms appeared. Antibody testing was carried out on 3,200 Moscow doctors, finding 20% immunity.
[
216
]
Singapore
With contact tracing, inbound travel restrictions, testing, and quarantining,
Singapore
arrested the initial spread without complete lockdown.
[
217
]
Slovakia
In October 2020 Slovakia tested 3.62 million people in a weekend, from a population of 5.4m, representing 67% of the total (or 82% of the adult population), 38,359 tested positive, representing 1.06% of those tested. The government considered the mass test would significantly assist in controlling the virus and avoid a lockdown and may repeat the exercise at a later date.
[
218
]
South Korea
South Korea's broad testing approach helped reduce spread. Testing capacity, largely in private sector labs, was built up over several years by the South Korean government in the early 2000s.
[
219
]
Centers were sited mainly at national facilities and corporate training centers. The failure of Korea's MERS quarantine in May 2015 left Korea more prepared for COVID-19 than countries that did not face that pandemic. Then President
Park Geun-hye
allowed Korean CDC-approved private sector testing for infectious diseases in 2016. Korea already had a system for isolating, testing and treating infectious disease patients separately from others. Patients with respiratory illness but no epidemiological relevance were treated at the National Hospital, and those with epidemiological relevance were treated at selected clinics.
[
220
]
[
221
]
[
222
]
[
223
]
[
224
]
[
225
]
[
226
]
[
227
]
[
228
]
Korea established a large scale drive-through/walk-through" test testing program. However, the most common method was "mobile examination". In Daegu City, 54% of samples were collected by 23 March in home or hospital. Collecting samples door-to-door of avoided the risk of travel by possibly infected patients, but required additional staff. Korea solved the problem by drafting more than 2,700 public insurance doctors.
[
220
]
[
224
]
[
223
]
The government disclosed personal information to the public via KCDC without patient consent. The authorities used digital surveillance to trace possible spread.
[
221
]
[
224
]
[
225
]
[
227
]
[
228
]
[
229
]
[
230
]
[
231
]
[
232
]
[
233
]
[
excessive citations
]
Taiwan
Health insurance IDs and
national identification card
numbers were used to trace contacts.
[
234
]
[
235
]
[
236
]
[
237
]
United Arab Emirates
In January 2021, the COVID-19 testing results of the
UAE
came under scrutiny, as
Denmark
suspended the Emirati flights for five days. The European nation said that it barred the flights from the UAE due to growing suspicion of irregularities in the testing process being followed in the Gulf nation. Denmark's Minister of Transport,
Benny Engelbrecht
said that they were taking time to ensure that the negative tests of travelers from the Emirates were a real screening carried out appropriately.
[
238
]
United States
New York State
New York State's control measures consisted of PCR tests, stay-at-home measures and strengthening the healthcare system. On 29 February before its first case, the state allowed testing at the Wordsworth Center. They managed to convince the CDC to approve tests at state laboratories and the FDA to approve a test kit. As of 13 March the state was conducting more than 1,000 daily tests, growing to 10,000/day on 19 March. In April, the number exceeded 20,000. Many people queued at hospitals to get tested. On 21 March New York City health officials directed medical providers to test only those entering the hospital, for lack of PPE.
[
227
]
[
239
]
[
240
]
[
241
]
[
242
]
[
excessive citations
]
USS
Theodore Roosevelt
Following an outbreak, 94% of the 4,800 aircraft carrier crew were tested. Roughly 60 percent of the 600-plus sailors who tested positive were asymptomatic.
[
243
]
Five infected sailors who completed quarantine subsequently developed flu-like symptoms and again tested positive.
[
244
]
Nevada
In 2020, Nevada received a donation of 250,000 Covid testing kits, which were a product of China's leading genetics company,
BGI Group
. A UAE-based firm owned by
Tahnoun bin Zayed Al Nahyan
,
Group 42
partnered with the BGI Group to supply the testing kits to
Nevada
. However, the US
Department of Homeland Security
and the
State Department
raised a warning for Nevada hospitals to not use the Chinese-made testing kits, as there were concerns around the involvement of the Chinese government, test accuracy and privacy of the patients.
[
245
]
Testing statistics by country
Testing strategies vary by country and over time,
[
246
]
with some countries testing very widely,
[
8
]
while others have at times focused narrowly on only testing the seriously ill.
[
6
]
The country that tests only people showing symptoms will have a higher figure for "Confirmed"/"tested" than the country that also tests others.
[
247
]
If two countries are alike in every respect, including which people they test, the one that tests more people will have a higher "Confirmed / population". Studies have also found that countries that test more, relative to the number of deaths, have lower estimated case fatality rates
[
9
]
and younger age distributions of cases.
[
11
]
v
t
e
COVID-19 testing statistics by country
Country or region
Date
[
a
]
Tested
Units
[
b
]
Confirmed
(cases)
Confirmed /
tested,
%
Tested /
population,
%
Confirmed /
population,
%
Ref.
Afghanistan
17 Dec 2020
154,767
samples
49,621
32.1
0.40
0.13
[
248
]
Albania
18 Feb 2021
428,654
samples
96,838
22.6
15.0
3.4
[
249
]
Algeria
2 Nov 2020
230,553
samples
58,574
25.4
0.53
0.13
[
250
]
[
251
]
Andorra
23 Feb 2022
300,307
samples
37,958
12.6
387
49.0
[
252
]
Angola
2 Feb 2021
399,228
samples
20,981
5.3
1.3
0.067
[
253
]
Antigua and Barbuda
6 Mar 2021
15,268
samples
832
5.4
15.9
0.86
[
254
]
Argentina
16 Apr 2022
35,716,069
samples
9,060,495
25.4
78.3
20.0
[
255
]
Armenia
29 May 2022
3,099,602
samples
422,963
13.6
105
14.3
[
256
]
Australia
9 Sep 2022
78,548,492
samples
10,112,229
12.9
313
40.3
[
257
]
Austria
1 Feb 2023
205,817,752
samples
5,789,991
2.8
2,312
65.0
[
258
]
Azerbaijan
11 May 2022
6,838,458
samples
792,638
11.6
69.1
8.0
[
259
]
Bahamas
28 Nov 2022
259,366
samples
37,483
14.5
67.3
9.7
[
260
]
Bahrain
3 Dec 2022
10,578,766
samples
696,614
6.6
674
44.4
[
261
]
Bangladesh
24 Jul 2021
7,417,714
samples
1,151,644
15.5
4.5
0.70
[
262
]
Barbados
14 Oct 2022
770,100
samples
103,014
13.4
268
35.9
[
263
]
Belarus
9 May 2022
13,217,569
samples
982,809
7.4
139
10.4
[
264
]
Belgium
24 Jan 2023
36,548,544
samples
4,691,499
12.8
317
40.7
[
265
]
Belize
8 Jun 2022
572,900
samples
60,694
10.6
140
14.9
[
266
]
[
267
]
Benin
4 May 2021
595,112
samples
7,884
1.3
5.1
0.067
[
268
]
Bhutan
28 Feb 2022
1,736,168
samples
12,702
0.73
234
1.71
[
269
]
Bolivia
5 Jun 2022
4,358,669
cases
910,228
20.9
38.1
8.0
[
270
]
Bosnia and Herzegovina
27 Sep 2022
1,872,934
samples
399,887
21.4
54.7
11.7
[
271
]
Botswana
11 Jan 2022
2,026,898
232,432
11.5
89.9
10.3
[
272
]
[
273
]
Brazil
19 Feb 2021
23,561,497
samples
10,081,676
42.8
11.2
4.8
[
274
]
[
275
]
Brunei
2 Aug 2021
153,804
samples
338
0.22
33.5
0.074
[
276
]
Bulgaria
2 Feb 2023
10,993,239
samples
1,295,524
11.8
158
18.6
[
277
]
Burkina Faso
4 Mar 2021
158,777
samples
12,123
7.6
0.76
0.058
[
250
]
[
278
]
Burundi
5 Jan 2021
90,019
884
0.98
0.76
0.0074
[
279
]
Cambodia
1 Aug 2021
1,812,706
77,914
4.3
11.2
0.48
[
280
]
Cameroon
18 Feb 2021
942,685
samples
32,681
3.5
3.6
0.12
[
250
]
Canada
26 Nov 2022
66,343,123
samples
4,423,053
6.7
175
11.7
[
281
]
Chad
2 Mar 2021
99,027
samples
4,020
4.1
0.72
0.029
[
250
]
[
282
]
Chile
1 Feb 2023
48,154,268
samples
5,123,007
10.6
252
26.9
[
283
]
China
[
c
]
31 Jul 2020
160,000,000
cases
87,655
0.055
11.1
0.0061
[
284
]
[
285
]
Colombia
24 Nov 2022
36,875,818
samples
6,314,769
17.1
76.4
13.1
[
286
]
[
287
]
Costa Rica
2 Nov 2021
2,575,363
samples
561,054
21.8
51.5
11.2
[
288
]
Croatia
2 Feb 2023
5,481,285
cases
1,267,798
23.1
134
31.1
[
289
]
Cuba
2 Feb 2023
14,301,394
samples
1,112,470
7.8
126
9.8
[
290
]
[
291
]
Cyprus
[
d
]
29 Jan 2023
27,820,163
samples
644,160
2.3
3,223
74.4
[
292
]
Czechia
1 Feb 2023
22,544,928
samples
4,590,529
20.4
211
42.9
[
293
]
Denmark
[
e
]
31 Jan 2023
67,682,707
samples
3,399,947
5.0
1,162
58.4
[
294
]
[
295
]
Djibouti
28 Apr 2022
305,941
15,631
5.1
33.2
1.7
[
296
]
Dominica
20 Jun 2022
209,803
cases
14,821
7.1
293
20.7
[
297
]
Dominican Republic
22 Jul 2022
3,574,665
samples
626,030
17.5
32.9
5.8
[
298
]
DR Congo
28 Feb 2021
124,838
25,961
20.8
0.14
0.029
[
250
]
[
299
]
Ecuador
23 Jul 2021
1,627,189
samples
480,720
29.5
9.5
2.8
[
300
]
Egypt
23 Jul 2021
3,137,519
samples
283,947
9.1
3.1
0.28
[
250
]
[
301
]
El Salvador
18 Mar 2022
1,847,861
samples
161,052
8.7
28.5
2.5
[
302
]
Equatorial Guinea
30 Jan 2023
403,773
17,113
4.2
30.8
1.3
[
303
]
Estonia
31 Jan 2023
3,637,908
samples
613,954
16.9
274
46.2
[
304
]
Eswatini
8 Dec 2021
415,110
49,253
11.9
36.5
4.3
[
305
]
Ethiopia
24 Jun 2021
2,981,185
samples
278,446
9.3
2.6
0.24
[
306
]
Faroe Islands
27 Feb 2022
774,000
samples
34,237
4.4
1,493
65.7
[
307
]
Fiji
2 Jan 2023
667,953
samples
68,848
10.3
74.5
7.7
[
308
]
Finland
14 Jan 2022
9,042,453
samples
371,135
4.1
163
6.7
[
309
]
France
[
f
]
[
g
]
15 May 2022
272,417,258
samples
29,183,646
10.7
417
44.7
[
310
]
Gabon
23 Jul 2021
958,807
samples
25,325
2.6
3.1
0.082
[
311
]
Gambia
15 Feb 2021
43,217
samples
4,469
10.3
2.0
0.21
[
312
]
Georgia
[
h
]
3 Nov 2021
4,888,787
samples
732,965
15.0
132
19.7
[
313
]
Germany
7 Jul 2021
65,247,345
samples
3,733,519
5.7
77.8
4.5
[
314
]
[
315
]
Ghana
3 Jul 2021
1,305,749
samples
96,708
7.4
4.2
0.31
[
316
]
Greece
18 Dec 2022
101,576,831
samples
5,548,487
5.5
943
51.5
[
317
]
Greenland
30 Jan 2022
164,573
samples
10,662
6.5
293
19.0
[
318
]
Grenada
11 May 2021
28,684
161
0.56
25.7
0.14
[
319
]
Guatemala
6 Jan 2023
6,800,560
samples
1,230,098
18.1
39.4
7.1
[
320
]
Guinea
21 Jul 2021
494,898
samples
24,878
5.0
3.8
0.19
[
250
]
[
321
]
Guinea-Bissau
7 Jul 2022
145,231
8,400
5.8
7.7
0.45
[
322
]
Guyana
15 Jun 2022
648,569
cases
66,129
10.2
82.5
8.4
[
323
]
Haiti
26 Nov 2022
223,475
cases
33,874
15.2
2.0
0.30
[
324
]
Honduras
26 Nov 2021
1,133,782
samples
377,859
33.3
11.8
3.9
[
325
]
Hungary
10 May 2022
11,394,556
samples
1,909,948
16.8
118
19.8
[
326
]
Iceland
9 Aug 2022
1,988,652
samples
203,162
10.2
546
55.8
[
327
]
India
8 Jul 2022
866,177,937
samples
43,585,554
5.0
63
31.7
[
328
]
[
329
]
Indonesia
3 Jul 2023
76,062,770
cases
6,812,127
9.0
28.2
2.5
Iran
31 May 2022
52,269,202
samples
7,232,268
13.8
62.8
8.7
[
330
]
Iraq
3 Aug 2022
19,090,652
samples
2,448,484
12.8
47.5
6.1
[
331
]
Ireland
31 Jan 2023
12,990,476
samples
1,700,817
13.1
264
34.6
[
332
]
Israel
17 Jan 2022
41,373,364
samples
1,792,137
4.3
451
19.5
[
333
]
Italy
16 Mar 2023
269,127,054
samples
25,651,205
9.5
446
42.5
[
334
]
Ivory Coast
3 Mar 2021
429,177
samples
33,285
7.8
1.6
0.13
[
335
]
Jamaica
30 Sep 2022
1,184,973
samples
151,931
12.8
43.5
5.6
[
336
]
Japan
1 Mar 2021
8,487,288
432,773
5.1
6.7
0.34
[
337
]
Jordan
6 Jun 2021
7,407,053
samples
739,847
10.0
69.5
6.9
[
338
]
Kazakhstan
28 May 2021
11,575,012
samples
385,144
3.3
62.1
2.1
[
339
]
Kenya
5 Mar 2021
1,322,806
samples
107,729
8.1
2.8
0.23
[
340
]
Kosovo
31 May 2021
611,357
cases
107,410
17.6
33.8
5.9
[
341
]
Kuwait
9 Mar 2022
7,754,247
samples
624,573
8.1
181
14.6
[
342
]
Kyrgyzstan
10 Feb 2021
695,415
samples
85,253
12.3
10.7
1.3
[
343
]
Laos
1 Mar 2021
114,030
cases
45
0.039
1.6
0.00063
[
344
]
Latvia
5 Sep 2021
3,630,095
samples
144,518
4.0
189
7.5
[
345
]
Lebanon
14 Jun 2021
4,599,186
samples
542,649
11.8
67.4
8.0
[
346
]
Lesotho
30 Mar 2022
431,221
32,910
7.6
21.5
1.6
[
347
]
Liberia
17 Jul 2021
128,246
5,396
4.2
2.5
0.11
[
348
]
Libya
14 Apr 2022
2,578,215
samples
501,862
19.5
37.6
7.3
[
250
]
[
349
]
Lithuania
31 Jan 2023
9,046,584
samples
1,170,108
12.9
324
41.9
[
350
]
[
351
]
Luxembourg
[
i
]
12 May 2022
4,248,188
samples
244,182
5.7
679
39.0
[
352
]
Madagascar
19 Feb 2021
119,608
cases
19,831
16.6
0.46
0.076
[
353
]
Malawi
29 Nov 2022
624,784
samples
88,086
14.1
3.3
0.46
[
354
]
Malaysia
7 Sep 2021
23,705,425
cases
1,880,734
7.9
72.3
5.7
[
355
]
Maldives
13 Mar 2022
2,216,560
samples
174,658
7.9
398
31.3
[
356
]
[
357
]
Mali
7 Jul 2021
322,504
samples
14,449
4.5
1.6
0.071
[
250
]
[
358
]
Malta
8 Sep 2021
1,211,456
samples
36,606
3.0
245
7.4
[
359
]
Mauritania
16 Apr 2021
268,093
18,103
6.8
6.1
0.41
[
360
]
Mauritius
22 Nov 2020
289,552
samples
494
0.17
22.9
0.039
[
361
]
Mexico
15 Oct 2021
10,503,678
cases
3,749,860
35.7
8.2
2.9
[
362
]
Moldova
[
j
]
20 Apr 2022
3,213,594
samples
516,864
16.1
122
19.6
[
363
]
Mongolia
10 Jul 2021
3,354,200
cases
136,053
4.1
100
4.1
[
364
]
Montenegro
10 May 2021
394,388
samples
98,449
25.0
62.5
15.6
[
365
]
[
366
]
Morocco
6 Jan 2023
14,217,563
cases
1,272,299
8.9
38.5
3.4
[
367
]
Mozambique
22 Jul 2021
688,570
samples
105,866
15.4
2.2
0.34
[
368
]
Myanmar
16 Sep 2021
4,047,680
samples
440,741
10.9
7.4
0.81
[
369
]
Namibia
4 Jul 2022
1,062,663
samples
166,229
15.6
38.7
6.1
[
370
]
Nepal
26 Jul 2022
5,804,358
samples
984,475
17.0
20.7
3.5
[
371
]
Netherlands
6 Jul 2021
14,526,293
cases
1,692,834
11.7
83.4
9.7
[
372
]
New Caledonia
3 Sep 2021
41,962
samples
136
0.32
15.7
0.050
[
373
]
New Zealand
29 Jan 2023
7,757,935
samples
2,136,662
27.5
156
42.9
[
374
]
[
375
]
Niger
22 Feb 2021
79,321
cases
4,740
6.0
0.35
0.021
[
376
]
Nigeria
28 Feb 2021
1,544,008
samples
155,657
10.1
0.75
0.076
[
377
]
North Korea
25 Nov 2020
16,914
cases
0
0
0.066
0
[
378
]
North Macedonia
1 Jul 2021
881,870
samples
155,689
17.7
42.5
7.5
[
379
]
[
380
]
Northern Cyprus
[
k
]
12 Jul 2022
7,096,998
samples
103,034
1.5
2,177
31.6
[
381
]
Norway
20 Jan 2022
9,811,888
samples
554,778
5.7
183
10.3
[
382
]
Oman
28 Oct 2020
509,959
samples
114,434
22.4
11.0
2.5
[
383
]
Pakistan
5 Mar 2021
9,173,593
samples
588,728
6.4
4.2
0.27
[
384
]
Palestine
5 Feb 2022
3,078,533
samples
574,105
18.6
60.9
11.4
[
385
]
Panama
28 Jan 2023
7,475,016
samples
1,029,701
13.8
179
24.7
[
386
]
Papua New Guinea
17 Feb 2021
47,490
cases
961
2.0
0.53
0.011
[
387
]
Paraguay
27 Mar 2022
2,609,819
samples
647,950
24.8
36.6
9.1
[
388
]
Peru
17 Nov 2022
36,073,768
samples
4,177,786
11.6
109.9
12.7
[
389
]
Philippines
7 Jan 2023
34,402,980
samples
4,073,980
11.8
34.1
4.0
[
390
]
[
391
]
Poland
27 Apr 2022
36,064,311
samples
5,993,861
16.6
94.0
15.6
[
392
]
Portugal
5 Jan 2022
27,515,490
samples
1,499,976
5.5
268
14.6
[
393
]
Qatar
11 Nov 2022
4,061,988
cases
473,440
11.7
141
16.4
[
394
]
Romania
29 Jan 2021
5,405,393
samples
724,250
13.4
27.9
3.7
[
395
]
Russia
6 Jun 2022
295,542,733
samples
18,358,459
6.2
201
12.5
[
396
]
[
397
]
Rwanda
6 Oct 2021
2,885,812
samples
98,209
3.4
22.3
0.76
[
398
]
Saint Kitts and Nevis
26 Aug 2021
30,231
cases
995
3.3
57.6
1.9
[
399
]
Saint Lucia
7 Oct 2022
212,132
samples
29,550
13.9
116.6
16.2
[
400
]
Saint Vincent
28 Jan 2023
113,504
cases
9,585
8.4
103.0
8.7
[
401
]
San Marino
29 Jan 2023
192,613
samples
23,427
12.2
563
68.4
[
402
]
Saudi Arabia
26 Apr 2022
41,849,069
samples
753,632
1.8
120
2.2
[
403
]
Senegal
12 Jul 2021
624,502
samples
46,509
7.4
3.9
0.29
[
404
]
Serbia
2 Feb 2023
12,185,475
cases
2,473,599
20.3
175
35.5
[
405
]
Singapore
3 Aug 2021
16,206,203
samples
65,315
0.40
284
1.1
[
406
]
[
407
]
Slovakia
2 Feb 2023
7,391,882
samples
1,861,034
25.2
135
34.1
[
408
]
Slovenia
2 Feb 2023
2,826,117
samples
1,322,282
46.8
135
63.1
[
409
]
South Africa
24 May 2021
11,378,282
cases
1,637,848
14.4
19.2
2.8
[
410
]
[
411
]
South Korea
1 Mar 2021
6,592,010
samples
90,029
1.4
12.7
0.17
[
412
]
South Sudan
26 May 2021
164,472
10,688
6.5
1.3
0.084
[
413
]
Spain
1 Jul 2021
54,128,524
samples
3,821,305
7.1
116
8.2
[
414
]
[
415
]
Sri Lanka
30 Mar 2021
2,384,745
samples
93,128
3.9
10.9
0.43
[
416
]
[
417
]
Sudan
7 Jan 2021
158,804
samples
23,316
14.7
0.36
0.053
[
250
]
Sweden
24 May 2021
9,996,795
samples
1,074,751
10.8
96.8
10.4
[
418
]
[
419
]
Switzerland
[
l
]
7 Nov 2022
23,283,909
samples
4,276,836
18.4
270
49.7
[
420
]
Taiwan
[
m
]
3 Feb 2023
30,275,725
samples
8,622,129
28.48
128.3
36.528
[
421
]
Tanzania
18 Nov 2020
3,880
509
13.1
0.0065
0.00085
[
250
]
Thailand
4 Mar 2021
1,579,597
cases
26,162
1.7
2.3
0.038
[
422
]
Togo
6 Jan 2023
807,269
39,358
4.9
9.4
0.46
[
423
]
Trinidad and Tobago
3 Jan 2022
512,730
cases
92,997
18.1
37.6
6.8
[
424
]
Tunisia
23 Aug 2021
2,893,625
samples
703,732
24.3
24.5
6.0
[
425
]
Turkey
2 Jul 2021
61,236,294
samples
5,435,831
8.9
73.6
6.5
[
426
]
Uganda
11 Feb 2021
852,444
samples
39,979
4.7
1.9
0.087
[
427
]
Ukraine
24 Nov 2021
15,648,456
samples
3,367,461
21.5
37.2
8.0
[
428
]
United Arab Emirates
1 Feb 2023
198,685,717
samples
1,049,537
0.53
2,070
10.9
[
429
]
United Kingdom
19 May 2022
522,526,476
samples
22,232,377
4.3
774
32.9
[
430
]
United States
29 Jul 2022
929,349,291
samples
90,749,469
9.8
281
27.4
[
431
]
[
432
]
Uruguay
16 Apr 2022
6,089,116
samples
895,592
14.7
175
25.8
[
433
]
Uzbekistan
7 Sep 2020
2,630,000
samples
43,975
1.7
7.7
0.13
[
434
]
Venezuela
30 Mar 2021
3,179,074
samples
159,149
5.0
11.0
0.55
[
435
]
Vietnam
28 Aug 2022
45,772,571
samples
11,403,302
24.9
46.4
11.6
[
436
]
Zambia
10 Mar 2022
3,301,860
samples
314,850
9.5
19.0
1.8
[
437
]
Zimbabwe
15 Oct 2022
2,529,087
samples
257,893
10.2
17.0
1.7
[
250
]
[
438
]
^
Local time.
^
For some countries it is unclear whether they report samples or cases. One person tested twice is recorded as one case and two samples.
^
Excluding
Taiwan
.
^
Excluding
Northern Cyprus
.
^
Excluding
Greenland
and the
Faroe Islands
.
^
Excluding
Overseas France
.
^
Testing data from 4 May to 12 May is missing because of the transition to the new reporting system SI-DEP.
^
Excluding
Abkhazia
and
South Ossetia
.
^
Data for residents only.
^
Excluding
Transnistria
.
^
Northern Cyprus
is not recognized as a
sovereign state
by any country except
Turkey
.
^
Includes data for
Liechtenstein
.
^
Not a
United Nations
member.
See also
2002–2004 SARS outbreak
Coronavirus breathalyzer
Coronavirus disease 2019
COVID-19 misinformation § PCR testing
COVID-19 pandemic
Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic § COVID-19 testing controversy
References
This article incorporates
public domain material
from
Symptom-Based Strategy to Discontinue Isolation for Persons with COVID-19
.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
. Retrieved
5 May
2020
.
^
a
b
c
"Testing for COVID-19"
.
U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC)
. 11 February 2020.
^
a
b
c
d
e
Kobokovich A, West R, Gronvall G.
"Serology and Other Adaptive Immune Response Testing for COVID-19"
(PDF)
.
Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security
.
^
a
b
c
Kubina R, Dziedzic A (June 2020).
"Molecular and Serological Tests for COVID-19 a Comparative Review of SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Laboratory and Point-of-Care Diagnostics"
.
Diagnostics
.
10
(6): 434.
doi
:
10.3390/diagnostics10060434
.
PMC
7345211
.
PMID
32604919
.
^
"Test for Past Infection"
.
U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC)
. 2020.
Archived
from the original on 16 May 2020
. Retrieved
19 May
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.
Statistical Institute of Belize
. 9 June 2022.
^
"Informations coronavirus (covid-19)"
.
Gouvernement de la République du Bénin
[
Government of the Republic of Benin
] (in French). 5 May 2021.
^
"National Situational Update on COVID-19"
.
Ministry of Health
. 28 February 2022.
^
"Reporte COVID-19 en Bolivia"
.
Ministerio de Salud
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Spanish). 5 June 2022.
^
"Službene informacije o koronavirusu u BiH"
.
Ministarstvo civilnih poslova Bosne i Hercegovine
[
Ministry of Civil Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina
] (in Bosnian). 28 September 2022.
^
"COVID-19 Botswana Dashboard"
.
Government of Botswana
. 11 January 2022.
^
"BW government on Facebook"
.
Government of Botswana
. 3 December 2020.
^
"COVID-19 Testes"
.
Ministério da Saúde
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Portuguese). 19 February 2021.
^
"Coronavírus Brasil"
.
Ministério da Saúde
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Portuguese). 19 February 2021.
^
"Press Release on the Current Situation of the COVID-19 Infection in Brunei Darussalam"
.
Ministry of Health Brunei Darussalam
. 2 August 2021.
^
COVID-19: Единен информационен портал
.
COVID-19: Единен информационен портал
[
COVID-19: United information portal
] (in Bulgarian). 3 February 2023.
^
"Communiqué Coronavirus (COVID-19) au Burkina Faso"
.
Facebook account of the Service d'Information du Gouvernement (SIG)
[
Government Information Service
] (in French). 5 March 2021.
^
"Update on COVID-19"
.
Facebook account of the Ministère de la Santé Publique Burundi
[
Ministry of Public Health Burundi
] (in French). 5 January 2021.
^
បច្ចុប្បន្នភាពនៃជំងឺកូរ៉ូណាថ្មី COVID-19 នៅប្រទេសកម្ពុជា
.
Communicable Disease Control Department, Ministry of Health (Cambodia)
(in Khmer). 1 August 2021.
^
"Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Outbreak update"
.
Government of Canada
. Retrieved
5 December
2022
.
^
"Communiqué N*320 de la Coordination Nationale de Riposte Sanitaire"
.
Official Facebook account of the Ministère de la Santé Publique du Tchad
[
Ministry of Public Health of Chad
] (in French). 2 March 2021.
^
"Cifras Oficiales: COVID-19"
.
Gobierno de Chile
[
Government of Chile
] (in Spanish). 2 February 2023.
^
我国核酸日检测能力达484万份
.
中华人民共和国中央人民政府
[
The Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China
] (in Chinese). 6 August 2020.
^
"Aug 1: Daily briefing on novel coronavirus cases in China"
.
National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China
. 1 August 2020.
^
"#COVID19 en Colombia 28-01-2021"
.
Instituto Nacional de Salud de Colombia
[
Colombia's National Institute of Health
] (in Spanish). 17 January 2021.
^
"#ReporteCOVID19"
.
Cuenta Oficial del Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social de Colombia
[
Official Account of Health and Social Protection Ministry of Columbia
] (in Spanish). 24 November 2022.
^
"Situación Nacional COVID-19"
.
Geovisión; Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica
[
Ministry of Health, Costa Rica
] (in Spanish). 2 November 2021.
^
"xxx novih slučajeva u protekla 24 sata"
.
Koronavirus.hr
(in Croatian). 3 February 2023.
^
"Covid19CubaData"
.
Covid19CubaData
(in Spanish). 21 July 2021.
^
"Coronavirus en Cuba"
.
Ministerio de Salud Pública
[
Ministry of Public Health
] (in Spanish). 3 February 2023.
^
Η εξάπλωση της COVID-19 στην Κύπρο
.
Πανεπιστήμιο Κύπρου
[
University of Cyprus
] (in Greek). 3 February 2023.
^
"Přehled situace v ČR: COVID-19"
.
Ministerstvo zdravotnictví České republiky
[
The Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic
] (in Czech). 2 February 2023.
^
"Tal og overvågning over coronavirus/COVID-19 – Sundhedsstyrelsen"
.
Sundhedsstyrelsen
[
The National Board of Health
] (in Danish). 1 February 2023.
^
"Statens Serum Institut COVID-19 – Danmark"
.
State20 Serum Institut
[
The National Board of Health
] (in Danish). 15 November 2022.
^
"Poit de Presse Sur La Situation COVID19 Par Le Secrétaire De La Santé Dr Meeke Mohamed Moussa"
.
Official Facebook account of the Ministere de la Santé de Djibouti
[
Djibouti Ministry of Health
] (in French). 28 April 2022.
^
"Commonwealth of Dominica Coronavirus [COVID-19] Report"
.
Facebook account of the Ministry of Health, Wellness and New Health Investment
. 21 June 2022.
^
"Boletin Especial 484 COVID 19"
.
Dirección General de Epidemiología
[
General Directorate of Epidemiology
] (in Spanish). 23 July 2022.
^
"Situation Épidémiologique en RDC"
.
Stop Coronavirus COVID-19 RDC
(in French). 28 February 2021.
^
"Situación Nacional Por COVID-19 Infografía N°400"
(PDF)
.
Ministerio de Salud Pública
[
Ministry of Public Health
] (in Spanish). 23 July 2021.
^
"facebook.com/EgyMohpSpokes"
.
Facebook page for the Egyptian Ministry of Health and Population (MOHP) spokesperson
(in Arabic). 23 July 2021.
^
"Situación nacional COVID-19"
.
Gobierno de El Salvador
[
Government of El Salvador
] (in Spanish). 19 March 2022.
^
"Estadísticas COVID-19"
[Ministry of Health and Social Welfare].
Ministerio de Sanidad y Bienestar Social
(in Spanish). Equatorial Guinea. 31 January 2023.
^
"Koroonakaart"
.
Koroonakaart
. 31 January 2023.
^
"COVID-19 Eswatini Dashboard"
. 8 December 2021.
^
የኢትዮጵያ የተቀናጀ የኮቪድ-19 መቆጣጠሪያ ስርዓት
.
covid19.et
(in Amharic). 24 July 2021.
^
"Corona í Føroyum"
.
Føroya Landsstýri
[
The Government of the Faroe Islands
]. 27 February 2022.
^
"COVID-19 Update"
.
Ministry o10 Health & Medical Services
. Fiji. 2 January 2023.
^
"Confirmed coronavirus cases (COVID-19) in Finland"
.
Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos (ArcGIS)
[
National Institute for Health and Welfare (ArcGIS)
]. 14 January 2022.
^
"info coronavirus covid-19-carte et donnes covid 19 en france"
.
Gouvernement.fr
(in French). 15 May 2022.
^
"Situation Épidémiologique au Gabon"
.
Info Covid19 Gabon
(in French). 23 July 2021.
^
"The Gambia COVID-19 Outbreak Situational Report"
(PDF)
.
Ministry of Health
. 15 February 2021.
^
COVID-19 სტატისტიკური მონაცემები
.
დაავადებათა კონტროლისა და საზოგადოებრივი ჯანმრთელობის ეროვნული ცენტრი
[
National Center for Disease Control and Public Health
] (in Georgian). 3 November 2021.
^
"Robert Koch-Institut: COVID-19-Dashboard"
.
Robert Koch-Institut
[
Robert Koch Institute
]. 7 July 2021.
^
"Tabellen zu Testzahlen, Testkapazitäten und Probenrückstau pro Woche"
(XLSX)
.
Robert Koch-Institut
[
Robert Koch Institute
]. 7 July 2021.
^
"Situation Update, COVID-19 Outbreak in Ghana"
.
Ghana Health Service
. 3 July 2021.
^
Ημερήσια έκθεση επιδημιολογικής επιτήρησης λοίμωξης από το νέο κορωνοϊό (COVID-19)
.
Εθνικός Οργανισμός Δημόσιας Υγείας
[
National Public Health Organization
] (in Greek). 20 December 2022.
^
"Coronavirus i Grønland"
.
Naalakkersuisut
[
Government of Greenland
] (in Danish). 30 January 2022.
^
"COVID-19 Update | Grenada Dashboard"
.
Ministry of Health Grenada (Facebook)
. 11 May 2021.
^
"Situación de COVID-19 en Guatemala"
.
Ministerio de Salud Pública y Asistencia Social
[
Ministry of Public Health and Social Assistance
] (in Spanish). 7 January 2023.
^
"Republique de Guinee COVID-19 Décompte des cas"
.
Official Twitter account of the Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire
[
National Agency for Health Security
] (in French). 23 July 2021.
^
"Situação Epidemiológica Da Covid-19 Na Guiné-Bissau"
.
Official Facebook page of the Alto Comissariado para o Covid-19
[
High Commissioner for Covid-19
] (in Portuguese). 8 July 2022.
^
"Guyana COVID-19 Dashboard"
.
Ministry of Health
. 16 June 2022.
^
"Surveillance de la COVID-19, Haiti, 2020-2021"
.
Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Population
[
Ministry of Public Health and Population
] (in French). 7 December 2022.
^
"Estadística Nacional de Coronavirus COVID-19"
.
Biblio3eca Virtual en Salud de Honduras
[
Virtual Health Library of Honduras
] (in Spanish). 26 November 2021.
^
"Tájékoztató oldal a koronavírusról"
.
Tájékoztató oldal a koronavírusról
[
Coronavirus Information Page
] (in Hungarian). Cabinet Office of the Prime Minister. 11 May 2022.
^
"COVID-19 in Iceland – Statistics"
.
Covid.is
. 9 August 2022.
^
"SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Testing: Status Update"
.
Indian Council of Medical Research
.
^
"Ministry of Health and Family Welfare"
.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
.
^
"Health Ministry's Updates on COVID-19"
.
Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran
. 1 June 2022.
^
"الموقف الوبائي اليومي لجائحة كورونا في العراق ليوم السبت الموافق ٥ كانون الاول ٢٠٢٠"
.
وزارة الصحة العراقية (Facebook)
[
Iraqi Ministry of Health (Facebook)
] (in Arabic). 3 August 2022.
^
"Ireland's COVID-19 Data Hub"
.
gov.ie
. 1 February 2023.
^
קורונה – לוח בקרה
.
נגיף הקורונה
[
Coronavirus
] (in Hebrew). Ministry of Health. 17 January 2022.
^
"17 marzo 2023 – Aggiornamento casi Covid-19"
(PDF)
.
Dipartimento della Protezione Civile (GitHub)
[
Civil Protection Department (GitHub)
] (in Italian). 16 March 2023.
^
"Point de la situation de la COVID-19 au 3/03/2021"
.
Official Facebook channel of Le Ministère de la Santé et de l’Hygiène Publique
[
Ministry of Health and Public Hygiene, Ivory Coast
] (in French). 3 March 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Clinical Management Summary"
.
Ministry of Health & Wellness
. 3 October 2022.
^
新型コロナウイルス感染症の現在の状況と厚生労働省の対応について（令和3年3月1日版）
.
厚生労働省
[
The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
] (in Japanese). 1 March 2021.
^
"corona.moh.gov.jo/en"
.
Jordan Ministry of Health
. 6 June 2021.
^
Данные по COVID-19 в Казахстане
.
Национальный центр общественного здравоохранения Министерства здравоохранения Республики Казахстан
[
National Center of Public Health of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Republic of Kazakhstan
] (in Russian). 29 May 2021.
^
"twitter.com/MOH_Kenya"
.
Official Twitter Account of the Ministry of Health Kenya
. 5 March 2021.
^
"facebook.com/IKSHPK"
.
Official Facebook account of the Instituti Kombëtar i Shëndetësisë Publike të Kosovës
[
National Institute of Public Health of Kosova
] (in Albanian). 31 May 2021.
^
"twitter.com/KUWAIT_MOH"
.
Kuwait Ministry of Health (Twitter)
. 9 March 2022.
^
"Instagram"
За сутки проведено 3436 ПЦР-исследований на коронавирус
.
Insta official
(in Kyrgyz). 10 February 2021.
^
"ຄະນະສະເພາະກິດ COVID-19"
.
COVID-19 Task Force
(in Lao). 1 March 2021.
^
"Covid-19 infekcijas izplatība Latvijā"
.
Slimību profilakses un kontroles centrs (ArcGIS)
[
Center for Disease Prevention and Control (ArcGIS)
] (in Latvian). 5 September 2021.
^
آخر اﻹحصاءات
.
فيروس كورونا: COVID-19
[
Coronavirus: COVID-19
] (in Arabic). Ministry of Information. 14 June 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Statistics"
.
Official Twitter account of the National COVID-19 Secretariat (NACOSEC)
. 31 March 2022.
^
"#LiBCOVID19 Case Update"
.
Official Facebook account of the National Public Health Institute of Liberia-NPHIL
. 19 July 2021.
^
اليومي للوضع الوبائي المحلي لفيروس كورونا المستجد ليوم الأحد 28 فبراير 2021
.
Official Facebook account of the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) - Libya
(in Arabic). 16 April 2022.
^
"Koronavirusas (COVID-19)"
.
Lietuvos Respublikos sveikatos apsaugos ministerija
[
Ministry of Health of the Republic of Lithuania
] (in Lithuanian). 1 February 2023.
^
"Korona Stop"
.
Korona Stop
. 16 May 2021.
^
"Coronavirus – Rapport Journalier"
(PDF)
.
La plate-forme de données luxembourgeoise
[
The luxembourgish data platform
] (in French). Government of Luxembourg. 13 May 2022.
^
"COVID-19: Fivoaran'ny antontan'isa teto Madagasikara ny 13 Febroary ka hatramin'ny 19 Febroary 2021"
.
Facebook account of the Ministère de la Santé Publique Madagascar
[
Ministry of Public Health Madagascar
] (in French and Malagasy). 22 February 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Daily info update"
.
Facebook page of the Ministry Of Health - Malawi
. 29 November 2022.
^
"Situasi Terkini"
.
Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia
[
Ministry of Health Malaysia
] (in Malay). 7 September 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Case Updates"
.
Health Protection Agency (Twitter)
. 13 March 2022.
^
"COVID-19 Local Updates"
.
Ministry of Health
. 29 January 2021.
^
"Communique N°364 du Ministere de la Sante et du Développement Social Sur Le Suivi des Actions de Prevention et de Riposte Face a la Maladie a Coronavirus"
.
Ministère de la Santé et du Développement Social du Mali
[
Ministry of Health and Social Development of Mali
] (in French). 7 July 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Malta"
.
Times of Malta (ArcGIS)
. 8 September 2021.
^
"المعطيات العامة للحالة الوبائية"
.
Official Facebook page of the Ministère de la santé /وزارة الصحة
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Arabic). Mauritania. 17 April 2021.
^
"Covid-19 : Communiqués"
.
Republic of Mauritius
. 23 October 2020.
^
"Covid-19 México"
.
Gobierno de México
[
Government of Mexico
] (in Spanish). 15 October 2021.
^
"Comunicate"
.
Ministerul Sănătății Muncii și Protecției Sociale
[
Ministry of Health, Labour and Social Protection
] (in Romanian). Moldova. 21 April 2022.
^
Нөхцөл байдлын мэдээ COVID-19
.
Эрүүл Мэндийн Яам
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Mongolian). 10 July 2021.
^
"Uživo: COVID-19"
.
Institut za javno zdravlje Crne Gore
[
Institute of Public Health of Montenegro
] (in Montenegrin). 28 July 2020.
^
"Novosti"
.
Institut za javno zdravlje Crne Gore
[
Institute of Public Health of Montenegro
] (in Montenegrin). 11 May 2021.
^
مرض فيروس كورونا المستجد: الرصد الصحي بالمغرب
.
البوابة الرسمية لفيروس كورونا بالمغرب
[
The official portal of coronavirus in Morocco
] (in Arabic). 7 January 2023.
^
"Boletim diário COVID-19 Nº379"
.
Ministério da Saúde
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Portuguese). 22 July 2021.
^
"Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Surveillance Dashboard (Myanmar)"
.
Ministry of Health and Sports
(in Burmese). 16 September 2021.
^
"COVID-19 update"
.
Official Facebook account of the Ministry of Health and Social Services-Namibia
. 5 July 2022.
^
"COVID-19 Dashboard"
.
Ministry of Health and Population (Nepal)
. Retrieved
26 July
2022
.
^
"Epidemiologische situatie van COVID-19 in Nederland"
(PDF)
.
Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu
[
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
] (in Dutch). 6 July 2021.
^
"Info coronavirus Covid-19"
.
Gouvernement de la Nouvelle-Calédonie
[
Government of New Caledonia
] (in French). 4 September 2021.
^
"COVID-19: Testing data"
.
Ministry of Health
. 30 January 2023.
^
"COVID-19: Current cases"
.
Ministry of Health
. 30 January 2023.
^
"#Covid19Niger Bilan du 22/02/2021"
.
Facebook account of the Ministère de la Santé Publique
[
Ministry of Public Health
] (in French). 22 February 2021.
^
"Coronavirus COVID-19 Microsite"
.
Nigeria Centre for Disease Control
. 28 February 2021.
^
КНДР ввела максимальный уровень карантина
.
KBS World Radio
(in Russian). 2 December 2020.
^
Регистрирани 237 Нови Случаи На Ковид 19 – Вкупно Дијагностицирани 84024, Оӡдравени 460 Пациенти – Починати 8 Лица
.
Министерство за здравство
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Macedonian). 1 July 2021.
^
Во последните 24 часа
.
Министерство за здравство
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Macedonian). 27 June 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Genel Durum"
.
Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti Sağlık Bakanlığı
[
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Ministry of Health
] (in Turkish). 13 July 2022.
^
"Dags- og ukerapporter om koronavirussykdom (covid-19)"
.
Folkehelseinstituttet
[
Norwegian Institute of Public Health
] (in Norwegian). 20 January 2022.
^
"Oman conducts over 500,000 COVID-19 tests since the start of pandemic"
.
The Arabian Stories
. 28 October 2020.
^
"Pakistan Cases Details"
.
COVID-19 Health Advisory Platform
. Ministry of National Health Services Regulations and Coordination. 5 March 2021.
^
فايروس كورونا (COVID-19) في فلسطين
.
فايروس كورونا (COVID-19) في فلسطين
[
Coronavirus (COVID-19) in Palestine
] (in Arabic). 5 February 2022.
^
"Compartimos la actualización de datos sobre #COVID19 en nuestro país. Parte 1"
.
Cuenta Oficial de Twitter del Ministerio de Salud de Panama
[
Official Twitter Account of the Ministry of Health Panama
] (in Spanish). 31 January 2023.
^
"Official COVID-19 Info Website"
.
Papua New Guinea Joint Agency Task Force, National Control Centre for COVID-19
. 20 February 2021.
^
"Reportes – COVID19"
(in Spanish). Ministe132 280rio de Salud Pública y Bienestar Social (Ministry of Public Health and Social Welfare). 28 March 2022.
^
"Sala Situacional"
.
Covid-19 en ″el Perú
[
Covid-19 in Peru
] (in Spanish). 19 November 2022.
^
"COVID-19 Tracker"
.
Department of Health (Philippines)
. 7 January 2023.
^
"COVID-19 Tracker"
.
Department of Health (Philippines)
. 16 April 2021.
^
"diagnostyka pod kątem koronawirusa"
.
Official Twitter account of the Ministerstwo Zdrowia
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Polish). 27 April 2022.
^
"Ponto de Situação Atual em Portugal"
.
COVID-19
(in Portuguese). Ministry of Health. 5 January 2022.
^
"COVID19 Home"
.
Ministry of Public Health
. 12 November 2022.
^
"Buletin informativ"
.
Ministerul Sănătăţii
[
Ministry of Health
] (in Romanian). 29 January 2021.
^
Информационный бюллетень о ситуации и принимаемых мерах по недопущению распространения заболеваний, вызванных новым коронавирусом
.
Федеральная служба по надзору в сфере защиты прав потребителей и благополучия человека (Роспотребнадзор)
[
Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing (Rospotrebnadzor)
] (in Russian). 7 June 2022.
^
стопкоронавирус
.
Оперативные данные
[
Stop Coronavirus
] (in Russian). 4 June 2022.
^
"Amakuru Mashya | Update"
.
Twitter account of the Ministry of Health-Rwanda
. 6 October 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Updates"
.
Government of St. Kitts and Nevis
. 27 August 2021.
^
"Saint Lucia's COVID-19 Dashboard"
.
Ministry of Health and Wellness
. 7 October 2022.
^
"COVID-19 Report"
.
Ministry of Health, Wellness and the Environment (St. Vincent and the Grenadines)
. 30 January 2023.
^
"Aggiornamento Epidemia COVID-19"
.
Istituto per la Sicurezza Sociale
[
Institute for Social Security
] (in Italian). 30 January 2023.
^
"COVID 19 Dashboard: Saudi Arabia"
.
Ministry of Health
. 26 April 2022.
^
"Riposte à l'épidémie du nouveau coronavirus COVID-19, Sénégal"
(PDF)
.
Ministère de la Santé et l'Action sociale
[
Ministry of Health and Social Action
] (in French). 12 July 2021.
^
"Coronavirus COVID-19"
.
Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia
. 3 February 2023.
^
"Updates on COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) Local Situation"
.
Ministry of Health
. 3 August 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Situation Report"
.
Ministry of Health
. 2 March 2020.
^
"Covid-19 in graphs"
.
korona.gov.sk
. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister of the Slovak Republic for Investments and Informatization. 3 February 2023.
^
"Dnevno spremljanje okužb s SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)"
.
Nacionalni inštitut za javno zdravje
[
National Institute of Public Health
] (in Slovenian). 2 February 2023.
^
"COVID-19 South African coronavirus news and information"
.
South African Government
. 24 May 2021.
^
"COVID-19 statistics in South Africa"
.
South Africa Health Twitter Account
. 24 May 2021.
^
코로나바이러스감염증-19(COVID-19)
.
코로나바이러스감염증-19(COVID-19)
[
Coronavirus infection-19 (COVID-19)
] (in Korean). Ministry of Health and Welfare. 1 March 2021.
^
"Update on COVID-19 Response"
.
Ministry of Health - South Sudan
. 26 May 2021.
^
"La pandemia del coronavirus, en datos, mapas y gráficos"
.
RTVE ( Radio y Televisión Española)
[
RTVE ( Spanish Radio and Television)
] (in Spanish). 1 July 2021.
^
"Resumen de la situación - Pruebas de laboratorio"
.
Ministerio de Sanidad, Consumo y Bienestar Social
[
Ministry of Health, Consumption and Social Welfare
] (in Spanish). 5 July 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Situation Report"
.
Health Promotion Bureau, Sri Lanka
. 31 March 2021.
^
"COVID-19 : Live Situational Analysis Dashboard of Sri Lanka"
.
Health Promotion Bureau, Sri Lanka
. 31 March 2021.
^
"Veckorapport om covid-19, vecka 20"
(PDF)
.
folkhalsomyndigheten.se
(in Swedish). Public Health Agency of Sweden. 28 May 2021. p. 18.
^
"Folkhalsomyndigheten Antal fall av Covid-19"
.
folkhalsomyndigheten.se
(in Swedish). Public Health Agency of Sweden. 1 February 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Switzerland"
.
Federal Office of Public Health FOPH
. 8 November 2022.
^
"Taiwan Centers for Disease Control"
.
Taiwan Centers for Disease Control
. 4 February 2023.
^
รายงานสถานการณ์โรคติดเชื้อไวรัสโคโรนา 2019 ฉบับที่ 426 วันที่ 4 มีนาคม 2564
(PDF)
.
Department of Disease Control
(in Thai). 4 March 2021.
^
"Coronavirus Au Togo"
.
Government of Togo
(in French). 7 January 2023.
^
"COVID-19 Update Trinidad and Tobago"
.
Ministry of Health
. 3 January 2022.
^
الأرقام الرئيسيّة المسجّلة بتاريخ 03 فيفري 2021 #كوفيد_19
.
Official Facebook account of the Ministére de la Santé وزارة الصحة
[
Ministry of Health, Tunisia
] (in Arabic and French). 24 August 2021.
^
"Türkıye COVID-19 Hasta Tablosu"
.
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Sağlık Bakanlığı
[
Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health
] (in Turkish). 2 July 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Daily Updates"
.
Facebook page of the Ministry of Health - Uganda
. 12 February 2021.
^
"COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine"
.
COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine
. Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. 24 November 2021.
^
"COVID-19 Updates – Ministry of Health and Prevention – UAE"
.
Ministry of Health & Prevention
. 2 February 2023.
^
"Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the UK"
.
GOV.UK
. 19 May 2022.
^
"COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University"
.
coronavirus.jhu.edu
. 9 August 2021.
^
"COVID Data Tracker Weekly Review"
.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
. 30 July 2022
. Retrieved
3 August
2022
.
^
"Visualizador de casos coronavirus COVID-19 en Uruguay"
.
Sistema Nacional de Emergencias
[
National Emergency System
] (in Spanish). 16 April 2022.
^
Дневной прирост случаев COVID-19 продолжает увеличиваться
.
Gazeta.uz
Газета.uz
(in Russian). 11 September 2020.
^
"Día 353 de la lucha contra la COVID-19"
.
COVID-19 Patria
(in Spanish). 30 March 2021.
^
"COVID-19 in Viet Nam Situation Report 32"
.
WHO
. 30 August 2022
. Retrieved
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.
^
"Daily #COVID19 update"
.
Official Twitter account of the Zambia National Public Health Institute
. 10 March 2022.
^
"COVID-19 update"
.
Official Twitter account of the Ministry of Health and Child Care (Zimbabwe)
. 16 October 2022.
Further reading
Guglielmi G (July 2020).
"The explosion of new coronavirus tests that could help to end the pandemic"
.
Nature
.
583
(7817):
506–
509.
Bibcode
:
2020Natur.583..506G
.
doi
:
10.1038/d41586-020-02140-8
.
PMID
32681157
.
Kevadiya BD, Machhi J, Herskovitz J, Oleynikov MD, Blomberg WR, Bajwa N, et al. (May 2021).
"Diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 infections"
.
Nature Materials
.
20
(5):
593–
605.
Bibcode
:
2021NatMa..20..593K
.
doi
:
10.1038/s41563-020-00906-z
.
PMC
8264308
.
PMID
33589798
.
S2CID
231930978
.
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## Contents
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- [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing)
- [1 Methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Methods)
Toggle Methods subsection
- [1\.1 Detection of the virus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Detection_of_the_virus)
- [1\.1.1 Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction_\(RT-PCR\)_test)
- [1\.1.2 Other molecular tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Other_molecular_tests)
- [1\.1.3 Antigen tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Antigen_tests)
- [1\.2 Antibody tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Antibody_tests)
- [1\.2.1 Antibody Test Types](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Antibody_Test_Types)
- [1\.2.1.1 Rapid diagnostic test (RDT)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Rapid_diagnostic_test_\(RDT\))
- [1\.2.1.2 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Enzyme-linked_immunosorbent_assay_\(ELISA\))
- [1\.2.1.3 Neutralization assay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Neutralization_assay)
- [1\.2.1.4 Chemiluminescent immunoassay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Chemiluminescent_immunoassay)
- [1\.2.2 Neutralizing vis-à-vis binding antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Neutralizing_vis-%C3%A0-vis_binding_antibodies)
- [1\.3 Other tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Other_tests)
- [1\.3.1 Sniff tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Sniff_tests)
- [1\.3.2 Imaging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Imaging)
- [1\.3.3 Serology (CoLab score) tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Serology_\(CoLab_score\)_tests)
- [1\.3.4 Breath tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Breath_tests)
- [1\.3.5 Animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Animals)
- [1\.3.6 Functional assays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Functional_assays)
- [2 History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#History)
- [3 Testing protocols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Testing_protocols)
Toggle Testing protocols subsection
- [3\.1 Drive-through testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Drive-through_testing)
- [3\.2 Home collection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Home_collection)
- [3\.3 Pooled testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Pooled_testing)
- [3\.4 Multi-tiered testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Multi-tiered_testing)
- [3\.5 Required volume](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Required_volume)
- [3\.5.1 United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#United_States)
- [3\.6 Snapshot mass-testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Snapshot_mass-testing)
- [3\.7 Surveillance and screening of populations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Surveillance_and_screening_of_populations)
- [4 Available tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Available_tests)
Toggle Available tests subsection
- [4\.1 Nucleic acid tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Nucleic_acid_tests)
- [4\.2 Antigen tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Antigen_tests_2)
- [4\.3 Serology (antibody) tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Serology_\(antibody\)_tests)
- [5 Accuracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Accuracy)
Toggle Accuracy subsection
- [5\.1 Sensitivity and specificity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Sensitivity_and_specificity)
- [5\.2 Causes of test error](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Causes_of_test_error)
- [5\.3 PCR-based test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#PCR-based_test)
- [5\.4 Isothermal nucleic amplification test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Isothermal_nucleic_amplification_test)
- [6 Confirmatory testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Confirmatory_testing)
- [7 National or regional responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#National_or_regional_responses)
Toggle National or regional responses subsection
- [7\.1 Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Iceland)
- [7\.2 India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#India)
- [7\.3 Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Italy)
- [7\.4 Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Japan)
- [7\.5 Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Russia)
- [7\.6 Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Singapore)
- [7\.7 Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Slovakia)
- [7\.8 South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#South_Korea)
- [7\.9 Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Taiwan)
- [7\.10 United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#United_Arab_Emirates)
- [7\.11 United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#United_States_2)
- [7\.11.1 New York State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#New_York_State)
- [7\.11.2 USS *Theodore Roosevelt*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#USS_Theodore_Roosevelt)
- [7\.11.3 Nevada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Nevada)
- [8 Testing statistics by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Testing_statistics_by_country)
- [9 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#See_also)
- [10 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#References)
- [11 Further reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#Further_reading)
- [12 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#External_links)
Toggle the table of contents
# COVID-19 testing
51 languages
- [العربية](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AF-19 "اختبار كوفيد-19 – Arabic")
- [Azərbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testi "COVID-19 testi – Azerbaijani")
- [Banjar](https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panaraian_panyakit_koronavirus_2019 "Panaraian panyakit koronavirus 2019 – Banjar")
- [বাংলা](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1-%E0%A7%A7%E0%A7%AF_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE "কোভিড-১৯ পরীক্ষা – Bangla")
- [Català](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prova_diagn%C3%B2stica_de_la_COVID-19 "Prova diagnòstica de la COVID-19 – Catalan")
- [Čeština](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_covidu-19 "Testování covidu-19 – Czech")
- [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19-testning "COVID-19-testning – Danish")
- [Dagbanli](https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binzahindigu "Binzahindigu – Dagbani")
- [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona-Test "Corona-Test – German")
- [Ελληνικά](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7_COVID-19 "Διάγνωση COVID-19 – Greek")
- [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruebas_de_COVID-19 "Pruebas de COVID-19 – Spanish")
- [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19aren_probak "COVID-19aren probak – Basque")
- [فارسی](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF-%DB%B1%DB%B9 "آزمایش کووید-۱۹ – Persian")
- [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19-n%C3%A4ytteenotto "COVID-19-näytteenotto – Finnish")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_diagnostique_du_SARS-CoV-2 "Test diagnostique du SARS-CoV-2 – French")
- [עברית](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94 "בדיקת קורונה – Hebrew")
- [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testiranje_na_COVID-19 "Testiranje na COVID-19 – Croatian")
- [Kreyòl ayisyen](https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A8s_dyagnostik_pou_SARS-CoV-2 "Tès dyagnostik pou SARS-CoV-2 – Haitian Creole")
- [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid19-tesztel%C3%A9s "Covid19-tesztelés – Hungarian")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tes_penyakit_koronavirus_2019 "Tes penyakit koronavirus 2019 – Indonesian")
- [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_diagnostici_per_la_COVID-19 "Test diagnostici per la COVID-19 – Italian")
- [日本語](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19%E3%81%AE%E6%A4%9C%E6%9F%BB "COVID-19の検査 – Japanese")
- [ქართული](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19-%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90 "COVID-19-ის დიაგნოსტიკა – Georgian")
- [ಕನ್ನಡ](https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D-%E0%B3%A7%E0%B3%AF_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86 "ಕೋವಿಡ್-೧೯ ಪರೀಕ್ಷೆ – Kannada")
- [한국어](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%EB%A1%9C%EB%82%9819_%EC%A7%84%EB%8B%A8 "코로나19 진단 – Korean")
- [Кыргызча](https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B3%D2%AF%D0%B7%D2%AF%D2%AF "Таажывирус инфекциясы боюнча тест жүргүзүү – Kyrgyz")
- [Latviešu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_diagnostic%C4%93%C5%A1ana "COVID-19 diagnosticēšana – Latvian")
- [മലയാളം](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D-19_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%A8 "കോവിഡ്-19 പരിശോധന – Malayalam")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujian_COVID-19 "Ujian COVID-19 – Malay")
- [မြန်မာဘာသာ](https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%94%E1%80%AC%E1%80%97%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB_%E1%81%82%E1%81%80%E1%81%81%E1%81%89_%E1%80%85%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8 "ကိုရိုနာဗိုင်းရပ်စ်ရောဂါ ၂၀၁၉ စမ်းသပ်စစ်ဆေးခြင်း – Burmese")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19-diagnostiek "COVID-19-diagnostiek – Dutch")
- [Norsk bokmål](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19-testing "Covid-19-testing – Norwegian Bokmål")
- [ਪੰਜਾਬੀ](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A1-19_%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97 "ਕੋਵਿਡ-19 ਟੈਸਟਿੰਗ – Punjabi")
- [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testy_na_SARS-CoV-2 "Testy na SARS-CoV-2 – Polish")
- [پنجابی](https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%88_%DB%9419_%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%B9%D9%86%DA%AF "کوویڈ ۔19 ٹیسٹنگ – Western Punjabi")
- [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagn%C3%B3stico_de_COVID-19 "Diagnóstico de COVID-19 – Portuguese")
- [Română](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosticare_COVID-19 "Diagnosticare COVID-19 – Romanian")
- [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_COVID-19 "Тестирование на COVID-19 – Russian")
- [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing "COVID-19 testing – Simple English")
- [Slovenščina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testiranje_na_covid-19 "Testiranje na covid-19 – Slovenian")
- [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimi_p%C3%ABr_COVID-19 "Testimi për COVID-19 – Albanian")
- [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testiranje_na_kovid_19 "Testiranje na kovid 19 – Serbian")
- [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19-provtagning "Covid-19-provtagning – Swedish")
- [తెలుగు](https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%8D-19_%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%97_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A3_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81 "కోవిడ్-19 రోగ నిర్ధారణ పరీక్షలు – Telugu")
- [ไทย](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%88%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2_2019 "การตรวจโรคติดเชื้อไวรัสโคโรนา 2019 – Thai")
- [Türkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testi "COVID-19 testi – Turkish")
- [Xitsonga](https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahlahluvele_ya_COVID-19 "Mahlahluvele ya COVID-19 – Tsonga")
- [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97_%D1%85%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8_2019 "Діагностика коронавірусної хвороби 2019 – Ukrainian")
- [Tiếng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C3%A9t_nghi%E1%BB%87m_COVID-19 "Xét nghiệm COVID-19 – Vietnamese")
- [閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí](https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_ki%C3%A1m-chhek "COVID-19 kiám-chhek – Minnan")
- [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E5%86%A0%E7%8A%B6%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92%E7%97%85%E6%A3%80%E6%B5%8B "2019冠状病毒病检测 – Chinese")
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diagnostic testing for SARS-CoV-2 virus infection
| |
|---|
| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:COVID-19_pandemic "Category:COVID-19 pandemic") on the |
| [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png "Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each \"ball\" is an atom.") Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom. |
| [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") (disease) [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2") (virus) [Cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_cases "COVID-19 pandemic cases") [Deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_deaths "COVID-19 pandemic deaths") |
| [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic") [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") 2020 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") 2021 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") 2022 [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2022") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2022") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2023 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2023") |
| [Locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") [By country and territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in Africa") [Antarctica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antarctica "COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica") [Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Asia") [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe "COVID-19 pandemic in Europe") [North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_America "COVID-19 pandemic in North America") [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oceania "COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania") [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_America "COVID-19 pandemic in South America") By conveyance [Cruise ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_cruise_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships") [Naval ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_naval_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on naval ships") |
| International response [Endemic phase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_phase_of_COVID-19 "Endemic phase of COVID-19") [Evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic") [International aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Origin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Origin of SARS-CoV-2") [Lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns "COVID-19 lockdowns") [by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns_by_country "COVID-19 lockdowns by country") [Misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation "COVID-19 misinformation") [by governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments "COVID-19 misinformation by governments") [Fake treatments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19 "List of unproven methods against COVID-19") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing_measures_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Software](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_and_development_of_software_for_COVID-19_pandemic_mitigation "Use and development of software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation") [Travel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic") [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Nations response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization%27s_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "World Health Organization's response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [WTO IP waiver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement_waiver "TRIPS Agreement waiver") [Undercounting of deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercounting_of_COVID-19_pandemic_deaths_by_country "Undercounting of COVID-19 pandemic deaths by country") [COVID-19 apps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_apps "COVID-19 apps") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") [National responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_government_response_to_COVID-19 "Chinese government response to COVID-19") [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "German government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ghanaian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Irish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Dutch government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New Zealand government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Nigerian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Russian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Swedish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Kingdom responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United States responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [federal government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._federal_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vietnamese government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| Medical response [Disease testing]() [Breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer") [Development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_COVID-19_tests "Development of COVID-19 tests") [Drug development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_development "COVID-19 drug development") [Drug repurposing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_repurposing_research "COVID-19 drug repurposing research") [Public health mitigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19 "Public health mitigation of COVID-19") [Vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine "COVID-19 vaccine") [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development "History of COVID-19 vaccine development") [Research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research "COVID-19 vaccine clinical research") [VITT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolic_and_thrombotic_events_after_COVID-19_vaccination "Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination") [Deployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") [Authorizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_vaccine_authorizations "List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations") [Operation Warp Speed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Warp_Speed "Operation Warp Speed") [Misinformation and hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy "COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_hesitancy_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the United States") [Vaccine card](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_card "COVID-19 vaccine card") [Vaccine passports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_passports_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic") Current vaccines [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac") [Covaxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covaxin "Covaxin") [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia") [Janssen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID-19_vaccine "Janssen COVID-19 vaccine") [Medigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVC_COVID-19_vaccine "MVC COVID-19 vaccine") [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") [Novavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine") [Oxford–AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine") [Pfizer–BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine") [Sinopharm BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine") |
| [Variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2") [Variants of concern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_variant_of_concern "SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern") [Alpha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant") [Beta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") [Gamma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") [Delta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant") [Omicron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") Other variants [Epsilon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Epsilon_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Epsilon variant") [Zeta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Zeta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Zeta variant") [Eta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Eta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Eta variant") [Theta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Theta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Theta variant") [Iota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Iota_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Iota variant") [Kappa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Kappa_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Kappa variant") [Lambda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Lambda_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Lambda variant") [Mu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Mu_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Mu variant") [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Lineage B.1.617](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_lineage_B.1.617 "SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.617") |
| [Economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") and [recession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_recession "COVID-19 recession") [Arts and culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_arts_and_cultural_heritage "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage") [Aviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_aviation "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation") [Cannabis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_cannabis_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cannabis industry") [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cinema "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema") [films](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Disney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Walt_Disney_Company "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Walt Disney Company") [Fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_fashion_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the fashion industry") [Financial markets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Food industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_food_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food industry") [Food security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Food security during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_journalism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism") [Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_music_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the music industry") [Performing arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_performing_arts "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performing arts") [Retail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_retail "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on retail") [Shipping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_global_supply_chain_crisis#Shipping "2021–2022 global supply chain crisis") [Television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television in the United States") [sportscasting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_American_sports_broadcasting "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on American sports broadcasting") [programs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_television_series_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of American television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Tourism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_tourism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism") [Video games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_video_game_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry") By country [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [By sport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports") [Association football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_association_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on association football") [Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_baseball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on baseball") [Basketball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_basketball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on basketball") [Combat sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_combat_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on combat sports") [Cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cricket "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cricket") [Disc golf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_disc_golf "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on disc golf") [Gaelic games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Gaelic_games "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Gaelic games") [Gridiron football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_gridiron_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gridiron football") [Ice hockey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ice_hockey "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ice hockey") [Motorsport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_motorsport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on motorsport") [Rugby league](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_rugby_league "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rugby league") |
| [Impacts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Neurological and psychological symptoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes "Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes") [Post-exertional malaise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-exertional_malaise "Post-exertional malaise") [Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [African diaspora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Indian_migrant_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Indian migrant workers") [Animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_and_animals "COVID-19 pandemic and animals") [Alzheimer's disease patients](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease_and_COVID-19 "Alzheimer's disease and COVID-19") [Crime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_crime "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on crime") [Death rates by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_death_rates_by_country "COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country") [Disability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_people_with_disabilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on people with disabilities") [Domestic violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_domestic_violence "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence") [Emergency evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_evacuation_procedures_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Emergency evacuation procedures during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education") [Female](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_female_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on female education") [Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_environment "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment") [Hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_hospitals "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitals") [Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Glossary of the COVID-19 pandemic") [LGBTQ community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_LGBTQ_community "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBTQ community") [Long-term care](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_long-term_care_facilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on long-term care facilities") [Media coverage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Mental health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Migration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_migration "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on migration") [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_military "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the military") [Notable deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaths_due_to_COVID-19 "List of deaths due to COVID-19") [Other health issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_other_health_issues "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues") [Popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_popular_culture "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture") [Protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_against_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Protests against responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Pregnancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy "COVID-19 in pregnancy") [Prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_prisons "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prisons") [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_religion "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion") [Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church") [Hajj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Hajj "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Hajj") [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology") [Social media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_social_media "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media") [Strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikes_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Strikes during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Suicides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_suicide_rates "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on suicide rates") [Telehealth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_telehealth_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the telehealth industry") [Xenophobia and racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_international_relations "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations") [Infected leaders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_officials_who_have_tested_positive_for_COVID-19 "List of political officials who have tested positive for COVID-19") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SARS-CoV-2_\(Wikimedia_colors\).svg) [COVID-19 portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:COVID-19 "Portal:COVID-19") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Template:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Template talk:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_sidebar "Special:EditPage/Template:COVID-19 pandemic sidebar") |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CDC_2019-nCoV_Laboratory_Test_Kit.jpg)
The US CDC's COVID-19 laboratory test kit
**COVID-19 testing** involves analyzing samples to assess the current or past presence of [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2"), the virus that causes [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") and is responsible for the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"). The two main types of tests detect either the presence of the virus or [antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodies "Antibodies") produced in response to infection.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CDC_testing-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2) Molecular tests for viral presence through its molecular components are used to diagnose individual cases and to allow public health authorities to trace and contain outbreaks. Antibody tests (serology immunoassays) instead show whether someone once had the disease.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:11-3) They are less useful for diagnosing current infections because antibodies may not develop for weeks after infection.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CDC-antibody-test-4) It is used to assess disease prevalence, which aids the estimation of the [infection fatality rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_fatality_rate "Case fatality rate").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JAMA_antibody-5)
Individual jurisdictions have adopted varied testing protocols, including whom to test, how often to test, analysis protocols, sample collection and the uses of test results.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Bund-6)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-7)[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Iceland_screening-8) This variation has likely significantly impacted reported statistics, including case and test numbers, case fatality rates and case demographics.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Ward_2020-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:7-11)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-12) Because SARS-CoV-2 transmission occurs days after exposure (and before onset of symptoms), there is an urgent need for frequent surveillance and rapid availability of results.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32997903-13)
Test analysis is often performed in [automated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_analyzer "Automated analyzer"), [high-throughput](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_automation "Laboratory automation"), [medical laboratories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory "Medical laboratory") by [medical laboratory scientists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist "Medical laboratory scientist"). [Rapid self-tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_antigen_test "Rapid antigen test") and [point-of-care testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing "Point-of-care testing") are also available and can offer a faster and less expensive method to test for the virus although with a lower accuracy.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:9-14)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:19-15)
## Methods
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Covid-19-Time-Course-05.gif)
Explanation of the underlying pathophysiology pertaining to diagnosis of COVID-19[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-16)
Positive viral tests indicate a current infection, while positive antibody tests indicate a prior infection.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CDC_testing-1) Other techniques include a [CT scan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scan "CT scan"), checking for elevated body temperature, checking for low blood oxygen level, and [detection by trained dogs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_dogs "Detection dogs").[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-ap-helsinki-vantaa-detection-dogs-17)[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-jtm-detection-dogs-18)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-bmc-detection-dogs-19)
### Detection of the virus
Detection of the virus is usually done either by looking for the virus's inner [RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA "RNA"), or pieces of protein on the outside of the virus. Tests that look for the viral [antigens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen") (parts of the virus) are called *antigen tests*.
There are multiple types of tests that look for the virus by detecting the presence of the virus's RNA. These are called *nucleic acid* or *molecular* tests, after [molecular biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology "Molecular biology"). As of 2021[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_testing&action=edit), the most common form of molecular test is the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:13-20) Other methods used in molecular tests include [CRISPR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing "CRISPR gene editing"), [isothermal nucleic acid amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_amplification_test "Nucleic acid amplification test"), [digital polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_polymerase_chain_reaction "Digital polymerase chain reaction"), [microarray analysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microarray_analysis_techniques "Microarray analysis techniques"), and [next-generation sequencing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_parallel_sequencing "Massive parallel sequencing").[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:13-20)
#### Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test
[Polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction "Polymerase chain reaction") (PCR) is a process that [amplifies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication "DNA replication") (replicates) a small, well-defined segment of [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA "DNA") many hundreds of thousands of times, creating enough of it for analysis. Test samples are treated with certain chemicals[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-21)[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-iaea_rt-pcr-22) that allow DNA to be extracted. [Reverse transcription](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase "Reverse transcriptase") converts RNA into DNA.
[Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction "Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction") (RT-PCR) first uses reverse transcription to obtain DNA, followed by PCR to amplify that DNA, creating enough to be analyzed.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-iaea_rt-pcr-22) RT-PCR can thereby detect [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2"), which contains only RNA. The RT-PCR process generally requires a few hours.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-globenewswire1977226-23) These tests are also referred to as molecular or genetic assays.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:11-3)
[Real-time PCR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_polymerase_chain_reaction "Real-time polymerase chain reaction") (qPCR)[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Bustin2009-24) provides advantages including automation, higher-throughput and more reliable instrumentation. It has become the preferred method.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-25)[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-26)
The combined technique has been described as real-time RT-PCR[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid20515509-27) or quantitative RT-PCR[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid12325527-28) and is sometimes abbreviated [qRT-PCR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction "Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction"),[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid20204872-29) rRT-PCR[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-30) or RT-qPCR,[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid20215014-31) although sometimes RT-PCR or PCR are used. The [Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_Information_for_Publication_of_Quantitative_Real-Time_PCR_Experiments "Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments") (MIQE) guidelines propose the term *RT-qPCR*,[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Bustin2009-24) but not all authors adhere to this.
Average [sensitivity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity "Sensitivity and specificity") for rapid molecular tests depend on the brand. For ID NOW, the average sensitivity was 73.0% with an average specificity of 99.7%; for Xpert Xpress the average sensitivity was 100% with an average specificity of 97.2%.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:2-32)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\][\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid35866452-33)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\]
In a diagnostic test, sensitivity is a measure of how well a test can identify true positives and specificity is a measure of how well a test can identify true negatives. For all testing, both diagnostic and screening, there is usually a trade-off between sensitivity and specificity, such that higher sensitivities will mean lower specificities and vice versa.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PPV,_NPV,_Sensitivity_and_Specificity.svg)
Sensitivity and Specificity
A 90% specific test will correctly identify 90% of those who are uninfected, leaving 10% with a false positive result.
Samples can be obtained by various methods, including a [nasopharyngeal swab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_swab "Nasopharyngeal swab"), [sputum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputum "Sputum") (coughed up material),[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-20200129cdc-34) throat swabs,[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-chrdrosten20200326-35) deep airway material collected via [suction catheter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankauer_suction_tip "Yankauer suction tip")[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-chrdrosten20200326-35) or [saliva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saliva "Saliva").[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-sciencenews_saliva-36)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_saliva-37) [Drosten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Drosten "Christian Drosten") et al. remarked that for 2003 SARS, "from a diagnostic point of view, it is important to note that nasal and throat swabs seem less suitable for diagnosis, since these materials contain considerably less viral RNA than sputum, and the virus may escape detection if only these materials are tested."[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-drosten03-38)
Sensitivity of clinical samples by RT-PCR is 63% for nasal swab, 32% for pharyngeal swab, 48% for feces, 72–75% for sputum, and 93–95% for bronchoalveolar [lavage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_irrigation "Therapeutic irrigation").[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid332875524-39)
The likelihood of detecting the virus depends on collection method and how much time has passed since infection. According to Drosten tests performed with throat swabs are reliable only in the first week. Thereafter the virus may abandon the throat and multiply in the lungs. In the second week, sputum or deep airways collection is preferred.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-chrdrosten20200326-35)
Collecting saliva may be as effective as nasal and throat swabs,[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-sciencenews_saliva-36) although this is not certain.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-40)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_saliva-37) Sampling saliva may reduce the risk for health care professionals by eliminating close physical interaction.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Rutgers_saliva-41) It is also more comfortable for the patient.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cnn_saliva-42) Quarantined people can collect their own samples.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Rutgers_saliva-41) A saliva test's diagnostic value depends on sample site (deep throat, oral cavity, or salivary glands).[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_saliva-37) Some studies have found that saliva yielded greater sensitivity and consistency when compared with swab samples.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32857487-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32855317-44)[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-45)
On 15 August 2020, the US FDA granted an emergency use authorization for a saliva test developed at Yale University that gives results in hours.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-46)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-47)
On 4 January 2021, the US FDA issued an alert about the risk of false results, particularly false negative results, with the [Curative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curative_\(company\) "Curative (company)") SARS-Cov-2 Assay real-time RT-PCR test.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-FDA_Curative-48)
Viral burden measured in [upper respiratory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_respiratory "Upper respiratory") specimens declines after symptom onset.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-49) Following recovery, many patients no longer have detectable viral RNA in upper respiratory specimens. Among those who do, RNA concentrations three days following recovery are generally below the range in which replication-competent virus has been reliably isolated.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-50) No clear correlation has been described between length of illness and duration of post-recovery shedding of viral RNA in upper respiratory specimens.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-51)
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Infektionsschutzzentrum_im_Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum,_K%C3%B6ln-6313_\(cropped\).jpg "Demonstration of a nasopharyngeal swab for COVID-19 testing")
Demonstration of a [nasopharyngeal swab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_swab "Nasopharyngeal swab") for COVID-19 testing
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Infektionsschutzzentrum_im_Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum,_K%C3%B6ln-6306_\(cropped\).jpg "Demonstration of a throat swab for COVID-19 testing")
Demonstration of a [throat swab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throat_swab "Throat swab") for COVID-19 testing
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cycler_offen.JPG "A PCR machine")
A PCR machine
- Video of a [nasopharyngeal swab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_swab "Nasopharyngeal swab") for COVID-19 testing
#### Other molecular tests
[Isothermal nucleic acid amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_PCR#Isothermal_amplification_methods "Variants of PCR") tests also amplify the virus's genome. They are faster than PCR because they do not involve repeated heating and cooling cycles. These tests typically detect DNA using [fluorescent tags](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_tag "Fluorescent tag"), which are read out with specialized machines.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
[CRISPR gene editing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing "CRISPR gene editing") technology was modified to perform the detection: if the CRISPR enzyme attaches to the sequence, it colors a paper strip. The researchers expect the resulting test to be cheap and easy to use in point-of-care settings.[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-52)[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-53) The test amplifies RNA directly, without the RNA-to-DNA conversion step of RT-PCR.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-54)
#### Antigen tests
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corona_positive_Rapid_Antigen_test_\(50688059186\).jpg)
COVID-19 Antigen Rapid Test Kit; the [timer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timer "Timer") is provided by the user.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Safe_Corona_Rapid_Test_Diagnostic_\(50687306273\).jpg)
Mucus from nose or throat in a test liquid is placed onto a COVID-19 rapid antigen diagnostic test device.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Covid-19_rapid_test_in_Rwanda.jpg)
COVID-19 rapid testing in Rwanda
An [antigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen") is the part of a [pathogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen "Pathogen") that elicits an [immune response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_response "Immune response"). Antigen tests look for antigen [proteins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein "Protein") from the viral surface. In the case of a [coronavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus "Coronavirus"), these are usually proteins from the [surface spikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein").[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55) SARS-CoV-2 antigens can be detected before onset of COVID-19 symptoms (as soon as sufficient SARS-CoV-2 virus particles are present) with more rapid test results, but with less sensitivity than PCR tests for the virus.[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32939084-56)
[COVID-19 rapid antigen tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test") are [lateral flow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test "Lateral flow test") [immunoassays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoassay "Immunoassay") that detect the presence of a specific viral [antigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen"), which indicates current viral infection. Antigen tests produce results quickly (within approximately 15–30 minutes), and most can be used at the point-of-care or as self-tests. Self-tests are rapid tests that can be taken at home or anywhere, are easy to use, and produce rapid results.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CDC_testing-1) Antigen tests can be performed on nasopharyngeal, nasal swab, or saliva specimens.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:19-15)
Antigen tests that can identify SARS-CoV-2 offer a faster and less expensive method to test for the virus.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:9-14) Antigen tests are generally less sensitive than real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and other nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs).[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:19-15)
Antigen tests may be one way to scale up testing to much greater levels.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55) Isothermal nucleic acid amplification tests can process only one sample at a time per machine. [RT-PCR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT-PCR "RT-PCR") tests are accurate but require too much time, energy and trained personnel to run the tests.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55) "There will never be the ability on a \[PCR\] test to do 300 million tests a day or to test everybody before they go to work or to school," [Deborah Birx](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deborah_Birx "Deborah Birx"), head of the [White House Coronavirus Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Coronavirus_Task_Force "White House Coronavirus Task Force"), said on 17 April 2020. "But there might be with the antigen test."[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-57)
Samples may be collected via nasopharyngeal swab, a swab of the [anterior nares](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_nares "Anterior nares"), or from saliva (obtained by various methods including *lollipop tests* for children).[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-M%C3%BCllender_2021-58) The sample is then exposed to paper strips containing artificial antibodies designed to bind to coronavirus antigens. Antigens bind to the strips and give a visual readout. The process takes less than 30 minutes, can deliver results at point of care, and does not require expensive equipment or extensive training.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55)
Swabs of respiratory viruses often lack enough antigen material to be detectable.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AAAS-59) This is especially true for [asymptomatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic "Asymptomatic") patients who have little if any [nasal discharge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinorrhea "Rhinorrhea"). Viral proteins are not amplified in an antigen test.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55)[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cnn_test_types-60) A Cochrane review based on 64 studies investigating the efficacy of 16 different antigen tests determined that they correctly identified COVID-19 infection in an average of 72% of people with symptoms, compared to 58% of people without symptoms.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:2-32)[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid35866452-33) Tests were most accurate (78%) when used in the first week after symptoms first developed, likely because people have the most virus in their system in the first days after they are infected.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:2-32) While some scientists doubt whether an antigen test can be useful against COVID-19,[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cnn_test_types-60) others have argued that antigen tests are highly sensitive when viral load is high and people are contagious, making them suitable for public health screening.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-61)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-62) Routine antigen tests can quickly identify when asymptomatic people are contagious, while follow-up PCR can be used if confirmatory diagnosis is needed.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-FDA_antigen-63)
### Antibody tests
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antibody_tester.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corona_antibody_test.jpg)
Left: [Automated analyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_analyzer "Automated analyzer") for [immunoassays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoassays "Immunoassays"), used, for example, to find SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Right: Example of [quantitative](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quantitative "wikt:quantitative") results for SARS-CoV-2 antibody test.
The body responds to a viral infection by producing [antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodies "Antibodies") that help neutralize the virus.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Klasse_pp._1%E2%80%9324-64) Blood tests (also called [serology tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serology_test "Serology test") or serology immunoassays[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:11-3)) can detect the presence of such antibodies.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-65) Antibody tests can be used to assess what fraction of a population has once been infected, which can then be used to calculate the disease's [mortality rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate "Mortality rate").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JAMA_antibody-5) They can also be used to determine how much antibody is contained in a unit of convalescent plasma, for COVID-19 treatment, or to verify if a given vaccine generates an adequate immune response.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:12-66)
SARS-CoV-2 antibodies' potency and protective period have not been established.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JAMA_antibody-5)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-SA_immun-67) Therefore, a positive antibody test may not imply immunity to a future infection. Further, whether mild or asymptomatic infections produce sufficient antibodies for a test to detect has not been established.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:1-68) Antibodies for some diseases persist in the bloodstream for many years, while others fade away.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55)
The most notable antibodies are [IgM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_M "Immunoglobulin M") and [IgG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G "Immunoglobulin G"). IgM antibodies are generally detectable several days after initial infection, although levels over the course of infection and beyond are not well characterized.[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cellex_eua-69) IgG antibodies generally become detectable 10–14 days after infection and normally peak around 28 days after infection.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NYT_antibody-70)[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-MtSinai_EUA-71) This pattern of antibody development seen with other infections, often does not apply to SARS-CoV-2, however, with IgM sometimes occurring after IgG, together with IgG or not occurring at all.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32633840-72) Generally, however, median IgM detection occurs 5 days after symptom onset, whereas IgG is detected a median 14 days after symptom onset.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32729549-73) IgG levels significantly decline after two or three months.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32882235-74)
Genetic tests verify infection earlier than antibody tests. Only 30% of those with a positive genetic test produced a positive antibody test on day 7 of their infection.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:1-68)
#### Antibody Test Types
##### Rapid diagnostic test (RDT)
[RDTs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test "Rapid diagnostic test") typically use a small, portable, positive/negative [lateral flow assay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_assay "Lateral flow assay") that can be executed at point of care. RDTs may process blood samples, saliva samples, or nasal swab fluids. RDTs produce colored lines to indicate positive or negative results.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2)
##### Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
[ELISAs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme-linked_immunosorbent_assay "Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay") can be qualitative or quantitative and generally require a lab. These tests usually use [whole blood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_blood "Whole blood"), [plasma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasma "Blood plasma"), or [serum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum_\(blood\) "Serum (blood)") samples. A plate is coated with a viral protein, such as a SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Samples are incubated with the protein, allowing any antibodies to bind to it. The antibody-protein complex can then be detected with another wash of antibodies that produce a color/fluorescent readout.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2)
##### Neutralization assay
Neutralization assays assess whether sample antibodies prevent viral infection in test cells.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Klasse_pp._1%E2%80%9324-64) These tests sample blood, plasma or serum. The test cultures cells that allow viral reproduction (e.g., [Vero E6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vero_cell "Vero cell") cells). By varying antibody concentrations, researchers can visualize and quantify how many test antibodies block virus replication.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2)
##### Chemiluminescent immunoassay
Chemiluminescent [immunoassays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoassay "Immunoassay") are quantitative lab tests. They sample blood, plasma, or serum. Samples are mixed with a known viral protein, buffer reagents and specific, enzyme-labeled antibodies. The result is luminescent. A chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay uses magnetic, protein-coated microparticles. Antibodies react to the viral protein, forming a complex. Secondary enzyme-labeled antibodies are added and bind to these complexes. The resulting chemical reaction produces light. The radiance is used to calculate the number of antibodies. This test can identify multiple types of antibodies, including IgG, IgM, and [IgA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A "Immunoglobulin A").[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2)
#### Neutralizing vis-à-vis binding antibodies
Most if not all large scale COVID-19 antibody testing looks for binding antibodies only and does not measure the more important [neutralizing antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralizing_antibody "Neutralizing antibody") (NAb).[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-research_svnt-75)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_antibody-76)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fcheck_antibody-77) A NAb is an antibody that neutralizes the infectivity of a virus particle by blocking its attachment to or entry into a susceptible cell; enveloped viruses, like e.g. SARS-CoV-2, are neutralized by the blocking of steps in the replicative cycle up to and including membrane fusion.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Def-78)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Klasse_pp._1%E2%80%9324-64) A non-neutralizing antibody either does not bind to the crucial structures on the virus surface or binds but leaves the virus particle infectious; the antibody may still contribute to the destruction of virus particles or infected cells by the immune system.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-schmaljohn2013-79)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Klasse_pp._1%E2%80%9324-64) It may even enhance infectivity by interacting with receptors on [macrophages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage "Macrophage").[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-80) Since most COVID-19 antibody tests return a positive result if they find only binding antibodies, these tests cannot indicate that the subject has generated protective NAbs that protect against re-infection.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_antibody-76)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fcheck_antibody-77)
It is expected that binding antibodies imply the presence of NAbs[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fcheck_antibody-77) and for many viral diseases total antibody responses correlate somewhat with NAb responses[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-sciencemediacentre-81) but this is not established for COVID-19. A study of 175 recovered patients in China who experienced mild symptoms reported that 10 individuals had no detectable NAbs at discharge, or thereafter. How these patients recovered without the help of NAbs and whether they were at risk of re-infection was not addressed.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_antibody-76) An additional source of uncertainty is that even if NAbs are present, viruses such as HIV can evade NAb responses.[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-research_svnt-75)
Studies have indicated that NAbs to the original [SARS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS") virus (the predecessor to the current SARS-CoV-2) can remain active for two years[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-82) and are gone after six years.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JImm6-83) Nevertheless, memory cells including [memory B cells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_B_cell "Memory B cell") and [memory T cells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_T_cell "Memory T cell")[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-84) can last much longer and may have the ability to reduce reinfection severity.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JImm6-83)
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MINISTRO_DE_DEFENSA_SUPERVIS%C3%93_TOMA_DE_PRUEBAS_DE_COVID-19_A_COMERCIANTES_DEL_MERCADO_CAQUET%C3%81_\(49833483173\).jpg "A point of care test in Peru. A blood droplet is collected by a pipette.")
A point of care test in Peru. A blood droplet is collected by a [pipette](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipette "Pipette").
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MINISTRO_DE_DEFENSA_SUPERVIS%C3%93_TOMA_DE_PRUEBAS_DE_COVID-19_A_COMERCIANTES_DEL_MERCADO_CAQUET%C3%81_\(49834325922\).jpg "Blood from pipette is then placed onto a COVID-19 rapid diagnostic test device.")
Blood from pipette is then placed onto a COVID-19 [rapid diagnostic test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test "Rapid diagnostic test") device.
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IgGIgM-Covid19-Test.jpg "The rapid diagnostic test shows reactions of IgG and IgM antibodies. The left tray shows a negative result, and the right positive")
The rapid diagnostic test shows reactions of [IgG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G "Immunoglobulin G") and [IgM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_M "Immunoglobulin M") antibodies. The left tray shows a negative result, and the right positive
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Home_COVID_test_-_positive_result.jpg "Home test with a positive result. The \"C\" is the control; the \"T\" is the test")
Home test with a positive result. The "C" is the control; the "T" is the test
### Other tests
#### Sniff tests
Sudden loss of smell can be used to screen people on a daily basis for COVID-19. A study by the National Institutes of Health showed that those infected with SARS-CoV-2 could not smell a 25% mixture of ethanol and water.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-85) Because various conditions can lead to the loss of the sense of smell, a sniff test would not be definitive but indicate the need for a PCR test. Because the loss of the sense of smell shows up before other symptoms, there has been a call for widespread sniff testing.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-86) Health care bureaucracies have generally ignored sniff tests even though they are quick, easy and capable of being self-administered daily. This has led some medical journals to write editorials supporting the adoption of sniff testing.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-87)
#### Imaging
Typical visible features on CT initially include bilateral multilobar [ground-glass opacities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_glass_opacity "Ground glass opacity") with a peripheral or posterior distribution.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:0-88) COVID-19 can be identified with higher precision using CT than with RT-PCR.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32843849-89)
[Subpleural dominance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleural_cavity "Pleural cavity"), [crazy paving](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy_paving_\(medicine\) "Crazy paving (medicine)"), and [consolidation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_consolidation "Pulmonary consolidation") may develop as the disease evolves.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:0-88)[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-90) Chest [CT scans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scan "CT scan") and [chest x-rays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_radiograph "Chest radiograph") are not recommended for diagnosing COVID-19. Radiologic findings in COVID-19 lack specificity.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:0-88)[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-91)
Chest X-rays, computed tomography scans and ultrasounds are all ways the coronavirus disease can be detected.
A chest x-ray is a portable lightweight machine. This machine is typically more available than polymerase chain reaction and computerized tomography scans. it only takes approximately 15 seconds per patient.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:02-92) This makes chest-x ray readily accessible and inexpensive. It also has quick turnaround time and can be crucial to the clinical equipment in the detection of coronavirus disease.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-93) Computerized tomography scans involve looking at 3D images from various angles. This is not as available as chest x-ray, but still only takes about 15 minutes per patient.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:02-92) Computerized tomography has been a known routine scanning for pneumonia diagnosis, therefore can also be used to diagnose coronavirus disease. Computerized tomography scans may help with ongoing illness monitoring throughout treatment. Patients who had low-grade symptoms and high body temperatures revealed significant lung indications on their chest computed tomography scans. They emphasized how important chest computerized tomography scans are for determining how serious the coronavirus disease infection is.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:110-94)
Ultrasound can be another tool to detect coronavirus disease. An ultrasound is a type of imaging exam that produces images using sound waves. Unlike computerized tomography scans and x-rays, ultrasound does not use radiation. Moreover, it is inexpensive, simple to use, repeatable, and has several additional advantages. Using a hand-held mobile machine, ultrasound examinations can be performed in a variety of healthcare settings.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:22-95)
There are some downsides to using imaging, however. The equipment needed for computed tomography scans is not available in most hospitals, making it not as effective as some other tools used for detection of the coronavirus disease.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:02-92) One of the difficult tasks in a pandemic is manually inspecting each report, which takes numerous radiology professionals and time.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-96) There were several problems with early studies of using chest computerized tomography scans for diagnosing coronavirus. Some of these problems included the disease severity characters being different in severe and hospitalized cases. The criteria for doing a chest computerized tomography scan were not defined. There was also no characterization of positive chest computerized tomography scans results. The computerized tomography scans findings were not the same as positive computerized tomography scans findings of coronavirus.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:22-95) In a typical clinical setting, chest imaging is not advised for routine screening of COVID-19. Patients with asymptomatic to mild symptoms are not recommended to be tested via chest computerized tomography scans. However, it is still crucial to use, particularly when determining complications or disease progression. Chest imaging also is not always the first route to take with patients who have high risk factors for COVID. High risk patients that had mild symptoms, chest imaging findings were limited. Although a computerized tomography scan is a strong tool in the diagnosis of COVID-19, it is insufficient to identify COVID-19 alone due to the poor specificity and the difficulties that radiologists may experience in distinguishing COVID-19 from other viral pneumonia on chest computerized tomography scans.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:110-94)
#### Serology (CoLab score) tests
The standard blood test (quick scan) taken at the emergency room measures different values. By use of the blood quick scan the CoLab score is calculated with a developed algorithm based on how the coronavirus causes changes in the blood. The software is intended for use in emergency rooms to quickly rule out the presence of the disease in incoming patients. A not negative result is followed by a PCR ([polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction "Polymerase chain reaction")) or LAMP ([loop-mediated isothermal amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop-mediated_isothermal_amplification "Loop-mediated isothermal amplification")) test.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-97)
#### Breath tests
The breath test by a [Coronavirus breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer") is a pre-screening test for people who have no or mild symptoms of COVID-19. A not negative result is followed by a PCR or LAMP test.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
#### Animals
In May 2021, Reuters reported that Dutch researchers at [Wageningen University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wageningen_University "Wageningen University") had shown that trained bees could detect the virus in infected samples in seconds and this could benefit countries where test facilities are in short supply.[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-98) A two-month study by the Necker-Cochin hospital Paris in conjunction with the French national veterinary school reported in May 2021 that dogs were more reliable than current lateral flow tests.[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-99)
Researchers in Paris in March 2022 reported in a preprint not yet peer-reviewed that trained dogs were very effective for rapidly detecting the presence of SARS-Cov2 in people, whether displaying symptoms or not. The dogs were presented with sweat samples to smell from 335 people, of whom 78 with symptoms and 31 without tested positive by PCR. The dogs detected 97% of the symptomatic and 100% of the asymptomatic infections. They were 91% accurate at identifying volunteers who were not infected, and 94% accurate at ruling out the infection in people without symptoms. The authors said "Canine testing is non-invasive and provides immediate and reliable results. Further studies will be focused on direct sniffing by dogs to evaluate sniffer dogs for mass pre-test in airports, harbors, railways stations, cultural activities or sporting events."[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-100)[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-101)
#### Functional assays
Tollotest is a molecular test that detects the activity of a SARS-CoV2 protease, which is a biomarker for active infection.[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-102)
## History
Main article: [Development of COVID-19 tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_COVID-19_tests "Development of COVID-19 tests")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Full-list-cumulative-total-tests-per-million.svg)
Timeline of total number of tests in different countries[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-103)
In January 2020, scientists from China published the first [genetic sequences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_sequence "Genetic sequence") of SARS-CoV-2 via [virological.org](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virological.org "Virological.org"),[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-104) a "hub for prepublication data designed to assist with public health activities and research".[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Schnirring11Jan2020-105)
Even once the first tests were created, the supply was limited. As a result, no countries had reliable data on the prevalence of the virus early in the pandemic.[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:14-106) The WHO and other experts called for ramping up testing as the best way to slow the spread of the virus.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:15-107)[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:16-108) [Shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") of [reagent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent "Reagent") and other testing supplies became a [bottleneck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottleneck_\(production\) "Bottleneck (production)") for mass testing in the EU, the UK and the US.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:17-109)[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:18-110)[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:20-111) Early tests also encountered problems with reliability.[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:21-112)[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-113)
## Testing protocols
### Drive-through testing
In [drive-through](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive-through "Drive-through") testing, the person undergoing testing remains in a vehicle while a healthcare professional approaches the vehicle and obtains a sample, all while taking appropriate precautions such as wearing [personal protective equipment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment "Personal protective equipment") (PPE).[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-114)[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-115) Drive-through centers helped South Korea accelerate its testing program.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-116)
### Home collection
See also: [COVID-19 rapid antigen test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Randox_COVID-19_PCR_home_test_kit.jpg)
A [Randox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randox_Health "Randox Health") PCR home test kit in the UK, showing the swab, and multi-layer packaging to deliver it to the lab
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_USPS_Mailings.jpg)
A USPS package containing COVID-19 tests from the fifth round of free US distributions in the fall of 2023, with instructions regarding FDA extensions of test expiration dates.
In Hong Kong test subjects can stay home and receive a specimen tube. They spit into it, return it and later get the result.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-117) Additionally, by the fall of 2023, the United States had conducted six rounds of mailing free at-home COVID-19 tests to households nationwide. The [COVID-19 rapid antigen tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test"), while less accurate than PCR tests, did not require mailing the tests back to labs for analysis.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-118)[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-119)
### Pooled testing
See also: [List of countries implementing pool testing strategy against COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_implementing_pool_testing_strategy_against_COVID-19 "List of countries implementing pool testing strategy against COVID-19")
[Pooled testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_testing "Group testing") can improve turnaround time, by combining a number of samples to be tested together. If the pool result is negative, all samples are negative. If the test result is positive, samples will need to be individually tested.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:12-66)
In Israel, researchers at [Technion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technion_%E2%80%93_Israel_Institute_of_Technology "Technion – Israel Institute of Technology") and [Rambam Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambam_Health_Care_Campus "Rambam Health Care Campus") developed a method for testing samples from 64 patients simultaneously, by pooling the samples and only testing further if the combined sample was positive.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-120)[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-121)[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-122) Pool testing was then adopted in Israel, Germany, Ghana[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-123)[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-124)[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-125) South Korea,[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-126) [Nebraska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebraska "Nebraska"),[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-127) China[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-128) and the Indian states of [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh "Uttar Pradesh"),[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-129) [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal "West Bengal"),[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-130) [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_India "Punjab, India"),[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-131) [Chhattisgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhattisgarh "Chhattisgarh")[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-132) and [Maharashtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra").[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-133)
Open source, multiplexed designs released by Origami Assays can test as many as 1122 patient samples using only 93 assays.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-134) These balanced designs can be run in small laboratories without robotic liquid handlers.
### Multi-tiered testing
One study proposed a rapid immune response assay as a screening test, with a confirmatory nucleic acid test for diagnosis, followed by a rapid antibody test to determine course of action and assess population exposure/herd immunity.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-135)
### Required volume
Required testing levels are a function of disease spread. The more the cases, the more tests are needed to manage the outbreak. COVID-19 tends to grow exponentially at the beginning of an outbreak, meaning that the number of required tests initially also grows exponentially. If properly targeted testing grows more rapidly than cases, it can be contained.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
WHO recommends increasing testing until fewer than 10% are positive in any given jurisdiction.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-136)
#### United States
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_tests_for_SARS_CoV-2_-_May_11,_2020.jpg)
Number of tests done per day in the US, as of April 2020[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_testing&action=edit).
Blue: CDC lab
Orange: Public health lab
Gray: Data incomplete due to reporting lag
Not shown: Testing at private labs; total exceeded 100,000 per day by 27 March.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-137)
Economist [Paul Romer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Romer "Paul Romer") reported that the US has the technical capacity to scale up to 20 million tests per day, which is his estimate of the scale needed to fully remobilize the economy.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Romer_roadmap-138) The [Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_J._Safra_Center_for_Ethics "Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics") estimated on 4 April 2020 that this capacity could be available by late July 2020.[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-139) Romer pointed to [single-molecule real-time sequencing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-molecule_real-time_sequencing "Single-molecule real-time sequencing") equipment from [Pacific Biosciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Biosciences "Pacific Biosciences")[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Romer_roadmap-138)[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-140) and to the [Ion Torrent Next-Generation Sequencing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_semiconductor_sequencing "Ion semiconductor sequencing") equipment from [ThermoFisher Scientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThermoFisher_Scientific "ThermoFisher Scientific").[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Romer_roadmap-138)[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-141) According to Romer, "Recent research papers suggest that any one of these has the potential to scale up to millions of tests per day." This plan requires removing regulatory hurdles. Romer estimated that \$100 billion would cover the costs.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Romer_roadmap-138)
Romer also claimed that high test accuracy is not required if tests are administered frequently enough. He ran model simulations in which 7% of the population is tested every day using a test with a 20% [false negative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_negative "False negative") rate and a 1% [false positive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positive "False positive") rate. The average person would be tested roughly every two weeks. Those who tested positive would go into quarantine. Romer's simulation indicated that the fraction of the population that is infected at any given time (known as the [attack rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_rate "Attack rate")) peaks reaches roughly 8% in about thirty days before gradually declining, in most runs reaching zero at 500 days, with cumulative prevalence remaining below 20%.[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-142)
### Snapshot mass-testing
A study found that, despite possibly suboptimal implementation, the snapshot mass-testing approach conducted by [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") by which ~80% of its population was tested for COVID-19 within a weekend at the end of October 2020 was thought highly efficacious, decreasing observed prevalence by 58% within one week and by 70% compared to a hypothetical scenario of no snapshot mass-testing.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-143)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-144) The significant reduction resulted from a set of complementary lockdown and quarantine measures whereby citizens who tested positive were quarantined synchronously the weeks afterwards.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-145) The country increased other countermeasures at the same time so the inference was questionable. In the following months Slovakia's COVID-19 death rate per population increased to among the highest in the world. Research on mass testing suggests that people who test negative think it is safe to travel and come in contact with infected people. In the U.S. the tracing system was overwhelmed. On 70 percent of days there were more cases than tracers had time to contact and people contacted were often uncooperative.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-146)
### Surveillance and screening of populations
See also: [Pandemic prevention § Surveillance and mapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic_prevention#Surveillance_and_mapping "Pandemic prevention")
As of August 2020, the WHO recognizes wastewater surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 as a potentially useful source of information on the prevalence and temporal trends of COVID-19 in communities, while highlighting that gaps in research such as viral shedding characteristics should be addressed.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-SharifIkram2020-147) Such aggregative testing may have detected early cases.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-148) Studies show that [wastewater-based epidemiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater-based_epidemiology#Virus_surveillance "Wastewater-based epidemiology") has the potential for an early warning system and monitoring for COVID-19 infections.[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-149)[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-150)[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-151)[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-152)[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-153) This may prove particularly useful once large shares of regional populations are vaccinated or recovered and do not need to conduct rapid tests while in some cases being infectious nevertheless.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-154)
## Available tests
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg)
A temporary drive-in testing site for COVID-19 set up with tents in a parking lot
Countries around the world developed tests independently and in partnership with others.
### Nucleic acid tests
Tests are available that look for viral RNA using either [polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction "Polymerase chain reaction") (PCR) or [loop-mediated isothermal amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop-mediated_isothermal_amplification "Loop-mediated isothermal amplification") (LAMP) technology.
Tests developed in China, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the US targeted different parts of the viral genome. WHO adopted the German system for manufacturing kits sent to low-income countries without the resources to develop their own.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
PowerChek Coronavirus looks for the "E" gene shared by all [beta coronaviruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_coronavirus "Beta coronavirus"), and the RdRp gene specific to SARS-CoV-2.[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-155)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:President_Trump_Delivers_Remarks_During_a_Coronavirus_Update_Briefing_\(49720569077\).jpg)
US President [Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") displays a COVID-19 testing kit from [Abbott Laboratories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbott_Laboratories "Abbott Laboratories") in March 2020.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ID_Now_testing_\(51038387158\).jpg)
Nucleic acid testing conducted using an Abbott Laboratories ID Now device
[Abbott Laboratories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbott_Laboratories "Abbott Laboratories")' ID Now nucleic acid test uses [isothermal amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_PCR#Isothermal_amplification_methods "Variants of PCR") technology.[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Letter_from_FDA-156) The assay amplifies a unique region of the virus's [RdRp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase "RNA-dependent RNA polymerase") gene; the resulting copies are then detected with "[fluorescently-labeled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_tag "Fluorescent tag") [molecular beacons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_beacon "Molecular beacon")".[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:3-157) The test kit uses the company's "toaster-size" ID Now device, which is widely deployed in the US.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-158) The device can be used in laboratories or in point of care settings, and provides results in 13 minutes or less.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:3-157)
[Primerdesign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primerdesign "Primerdesign") offers its Genesig Real-Time PCR test system. [Roche Molecular Systems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Diagnostics "Roche Diagnostics") offers the Cobas 6800/8800 systems; they are offered among others by the United Nations.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
### Antigen tests
Main article: [COVID-19 rapid antigen test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NegativeCOVID19TestResult.jpg)
Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Lateral Flow Test kit showing a negative result. This device has been subject to accuracy concerns and a recall in the United States.
Antigen tests are readily available worldwide and have been approved by several health regulators.
Quidel's "Sofia 2 SARS Antigen FIA"[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-FDA_antigen-63)[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:4-159) is a [lateral flow test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test "Lateral flow test") that uses [monoclonal antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody "Monoclonal antibody") to detect the virus's [nucleocapsid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleocapsid "Nucleocapsid") (N) protein.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:5-160) The result is read out by the company's Sofia 2 device using [immunofluorescence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunofluorescence "Immunofluorescence").[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:5-160) The test is simpler and cheaper but less accurate than nucleic acid tests. It can be deployed in laboratories or at point of care and gives results in 15 minutes.[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:4-159) A false negative result occurs if the sample's antigen level is positive but below the test's detection limit, requiring confirmation with a nucleic acid test.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:5-160)
The Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Test was never approved for use in the United States, but was being sold by the company anyway. The FDA inspected Innova facilities in California in March and April 2021, and found inadequate quality assurance of tests manufactured in China.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-c_and_e-161) On 23 April 2021, the company issued a recall. The FDA warned consumers to return or destroy the devices because the rate of [false positives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positive "False positive") and [false negatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_negative "False negative") found in clinical trials were higher than the rate claimed by the packaging.[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-162) Over 1 billion tests from the company have been distributed in the UK, with £3 billion in funding as part of [Operation Moonshot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonshot "Operation Moonshot"), and the [MHRK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicines_and_Healthcare_products_Regulatory_Agency "Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency") has authorized exceptional use until at least 28 August 2021.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-c_and_e-161) Concerned experts pointed out that accuracy dropped significantly when screening was conducted by the public instead of by a medical professional, and that the test was not designed to screen asymptomatic people.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-c_and_e-161) A 2020 study found 79% of positive cases were found when used by laboratory scientists, but only 58% when used by the general public and 40% when used for city-wide screening in [Liverpool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool").[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-163)
### Serology (antibody) tests
Antibodies are usually detectable 14 days after the onset of the infection. Multiple jurisdictions survey their populations using these tests.[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-164)[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NYT_antibody-70)
Private US labs including [Quest Diagnostics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quest_Diagnostics "Quest Diagnostics") and LabCorp offer antibody testing upon request.[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-165)
Certain antibody tests are available in several European countries and also in the US.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-166)[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-167)
Roche offers a selective [ELISA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELISA "ELISA") serology test.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-168)
A summary review has noted that while some "serological tests ... might be cheaper and easier to implement at the point of care \[than RT-PCR\]", and such testing can identify previously infected individuals, "caution is warranted ... using serological tests for ... epidemiological surveillance". The review called for higher quality studies assessing accuracy with reference to a standard of "RT-PCR performed on at least two consecutive specimens, and, when feasible, includ\[ing\] viral cultures."[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-BMJ1-169)[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CEMBreBMJ1-170) CEBM researchers have called for in-hospital 'case definition' to record "CT lung findings and associated blood tests"[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Spencer_2020-171) and for the WHO to produce a "protocol to standardise the use and interpretation of PCR" with continuous re-calibration.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-172)
## Accuracy
| Samples source | Positive rate |
|---|---|
| Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid specimens | 93% (14/15) |
| Sputum | 72% (75/104) |
| Nasal swabs | 63% (5/8) |
| Fibrobronchoscope brush biopsy | 46% (6/13) |
| Pharyngeal swabs | 32% (126/398) |
| Feces | 29% (44/153) |
| Blood | 1% (3/307) |
Accuracy is measured in terms of specificity and selectivity. Test errors can be false positives (the test is positive, but the virus is not present) or false negatives, (the test is negative, but the virus is present).[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-popsci-2020-5-10-174) In a study of over 900,000 rapid antigen tests, false positives were found to occur at a rate of 0.05% or 1 in 2000.[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-175)
### Sensitivity and specificity
Main article: [Sensitivity and specificity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity "Sensitivity and specificity")
Sensitivity indicates whether the test accurately identifies whether the virus is present. Each test requires a minimum level of [viral load](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_load "Viral load") in order to produce a positive result. A 90% sensitive test will correctly identify 90% of infections, missing the other 10% (a false negative). Even relatively high sensitivity rates can produce high rates of false negatives in populations with low incidence rates.[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-popsci-2020-5-10-174)
In a diagnostic test, sensitivity is a measure of how well a test can identify true positives and specificity is a measure of how well a test can identify true negatives. For all testing, both diagnostic and screening, there is usually a trade-off between sensitivity and specificity, such that higher sensitivities will mean lower specificities and vice versa.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PPV,_NPV,_Sensitivity_and_Specificity.svg)
Sensitivity and Specificity
A 90% specific test will correctly identify 90% of those who are uninfected, leaving 10% with a false positive result.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
Low-specificity tests have a low [positive predictive value](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_predictive_value "Positive predictive value") (PPV) when prevalence is low. For example, suppose incidence is 5%. Testing 100 people at random using a test that has a [specificity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity "Sensitivity and specificity") of 95% would yield on average 5 people who are actually negative who would incorrectly test positive. Since 5% of the subjects actually are positive, another five would also test positive correctly, totaling 10 positive results. Thus, the PPV is 50%,[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-176) an outcome no different from a coin toss. In this situation, assuming that the result of a second test is [independent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_\(probability_theory\) "Independence (probability theory)") of the first test, retesting those with a first positive result increases the PPV to 94.5%, meaning that only 4.5% of the second tests would return the incorrect result, on average less than 1 incorrect result.[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cdc_antibody-177)
### Causes of test error
The time course of infection affects the accuracy of some tests. Samples may be collected before the virus has a chance to establish itself or after the body has begun to eliminate it. A May 2020 review of PCR-RT testing found that the median probability of a false-negative result decreased from 100% on day 1 to 67% on day 4. On the day of symptom onset, the probability was 38%, which decreased to 20% 3 days later.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Kucirka-178)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\]
### PCR-based test
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fig4-positivity-rate\(1\).png)
Detection of SARS-CoV-2 by nasal swab over six weeks in patients who experienced mild to moderate illness
RT-PCR is the most commonly used diagnostic test.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-179) PCR tests by nasopharyngeal swab have a sensitivity of 73%, but systematic analysis of specificity has not been determined due to the lack of PCR studies with a control group.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-180)
In one study, the positivity rate was highest at week one (100%), followed by 89.3%, 66.1%, 32.1%, 5.4% and zero by week six since symptom onset.[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-181)
Sensitivity is also a function of the number of PCR cycles, as well as time and temperature between sample collection and analysis.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid33748564-182) A cycle threshold of 20 cycles would be adequate to detect SARS-Cov-2 in a highly infective person.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid33748564-182) Cycle thresholds above 34 are increasingly likely to give false positives outside of high biosafety level facilities.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid33748564-182)
In July 2020, [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci") of the US NIH indicated that positive results obtained from RT-PCR tests run at more than 35 cycles were almost always "just dead nucleotides".[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-183) In August 2020, it was reported that, "In three sets of testing data that include cycle thresholds, compiled by officials in Massachusetts, New York and Nevada ... most tests set the limit at 40 \[cycles\], a few at 37" and that the CDC was examining the use of cycle threshold measures "for policy decisions,"[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-184) On 21 July 2021, the CDC, in their "Real-Time RT-PCR Diagnostic Pan: Instructions for Use", indicated tests results should be determined at 40 cycles.[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-185)
A Dutch CDC-led laboratory investigation compared 7 PCR kits.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:6-186) Test kits made by BGI, R-Biopharm AG, BGI, KH Medical and Seegene showed high sensitivity.[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-187)
High sensitivity kits are recommended to assess people without symptoms, while lower sensitivity tests are adequate when diagnosing symptomatic patients.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:6-186)
The [University of Oxford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford")'s [Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Evidence-Based_Medicine "Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine") (CEBM) has pointed to mounting evidence[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-188)[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-189) that "a good proportion of 'new' mild cases and people re-testing positives via RT-PCR after quarantine or discharge from hospital are not infectious, but are simply clearing harmless virus particles which their immune system has efficiently dealt with", and have called for "an international effort to standardize and periodically calibrate testing".[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Spencer_2020-171) On 7 September, the UK government issued "guidance for procedures to be implemented in laboratories to provide assurance of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA results during periods of low prevalence, when there is a reduction in the predictive value of positive test results".[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-190)
On 4 January 2021, the US FDA issued an alert about the risk of false results, particularly false negative results, with the Curative SARS-Cov-2 Assay real-time RT-PCR test.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-FDA_Curative-48)
### Isothermal nucleic amplification test
One study reported that the ID Now COVID-19 test showed sensitivity of 85.2%. Abbott responded that the issue could have been caused by analysis delays.[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Cclinic-191) Another study rejected the test in their clinical setting because of this low sensitivity.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-192)
## Confirmatory testing
The WHO recommends countries that do not have testing capacity and national laboratories with limited experience on COVID-19 send their first five positives and the first ten negative COVID-19 samples to one of the 16 WHO reference laboratories for confirmatory testing.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-193)[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-194) Out of the sixteen reference laboratories, seven are in Asia, five in Europe, two in Africa, one in North America and one in Australia.[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-195)
## National or regional responses
### Iceland
Iceland managed the pandemic with aggressive contact tracing, inbound travel restrictions, testing, and quarantining, but with less aggressive lock-downs.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Iceland_screening-8)
### India
Main article: [COVID-19 pandemic in India § Testing and countermeasures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India#Testing_and_countermeasures "COVID-19 pandemic in India")
### Italy
Researchers tested the entire population of [Vo'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vo%27 "Vo'"), the site of Italy's first COVID-19 death. They tested about 3,400 people twice, at an interval of ten days. About half the people testing positive had no symptoms. All discovered cases were quarantined. Along with restricting travel to the commune, new infections were eliminated.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-196)
### Japan
Unlike other Asian countries, Japan did not experience a pandemic of [SARS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS") or [MERS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS "MERS"), so the country's PCR testing system was not well developed.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197)[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198) Japan preferentially tested patients with severe illness and their close contacts at the beginning. Japan's [Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel_Coronavirus_Expert_Meeting "Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting") chose cluster measures to identify infections clusters.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197)[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198) The Expert Meeting analyzed the outbreak from [Wuhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan "Wuhan") and identified conditions leading to clusters (closed spaces, crowded spaces and close-contact), and asked people to avoid them.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198)[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-bloomberg20200512-199)
In January, contact tracers took action shortly after the first infection was found. Only administrative tests were carried out at first, until insurance began covering PCR tests on 6 March. Private companies began to test, and the test system gradually expanded.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197)
In April, those with positive tests were legally permitted to recuperate at home or in a hotel if they had asymptomatic or mild illness, ending the hospital bed shortage.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200408-200) The first wave (from China) was contained,[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-201) but a second wave (caused by returnees from Europe and the US) in mid-March led to spreading infection in April.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198) On 7 April, Japan declared a state of emergency (less strict than a lockdown, because it did not block cities or restrict outings).[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198)[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200408-200)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200326-202) On 13 May, antigen test kits became covered by insurance, and were combined with a PCR test for diagnosis.[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-mainichi20200512-203)[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-medicalnikkeibp202005-204)
Japan's PCR test count per capita remained far smaller than in some other countries even though its positive test rate was lower.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-bloomberg20200512-199)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200326-202)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197) The Expert Meeting stated, "The Japanese health care system originally carries out pneumonia surveillance, allowing it to detect most of the severely ill patients who develop pneumonia. There are a large number of CT scanners in Japan and they have spread to small hospitals all over the country, so pneumonia patients are rarely missed. In that sense, it meets the same standards as other countries that mainly carry out PCR tests."[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-bloomberg20200512-199)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197) The group recommended using [CT scans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scans "CT scans") data and doctor's findings for diagnosis.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NoNosoco-205)[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-206) On the Diamond Princess cruise ship, many people who initially tested negative later tested positive. Half of coronavirus-positives there who remained mild or asymptomatic had pneumonia findings on CT scans and their CT image showed a frosted glass shadow that is characteristic of infection.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NoNosoco-205)[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-207)
As of 18 July, Japan's daily PCR testing capacity was about 32,000, more than three times the 10,000 cases as of April. When the antigen test is added to it, the number is about 58,000. The number of tests per 1,000 people in the United States is about 27 times that of Japan, the UK is 20 times, Italy is 8 times, and South Korea is twice (as of 26 July).[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-208)[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-209)[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-210) The number of those infected with coronavirus and inpatients has increased in July, but the number of serious cases has not increased. This is thought to be due to the proper testing of those infected in July compared to those in April. In April, the number of tests could not catch up with the increase in the number of infected people, and the test standards were strict, so the test positive rate exceeded 30% at the peak. It means that there were quite a few cases where those infected were not PCR tested. It is thought that the severe case was preferentially tested though there were a lot of mild cases and asymptomatic carriers mainly in the young during the first wave. In other words, it became possible to grasp the actual situation of infection much better than before by strengthening the testing system.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-211) At the end of July, accommodation facilities for mild and asymptomatic carriers became full, and the authorities requested hospitals to prepare beds for the mild. However, it became difficult to treat patients with other illnesses and to maintain the ICU system including the staff due to the occupation of hospital beds by patients with mild symptoms.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-212)[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-213)[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-214)
### Russia
In April 2020, Russia tested 3 million people and had 183,000 positive results.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-3mTests-215) On 28 April [Anna Popova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Popova "Anna Popova"), head of [Federal Service for Surveillance in Healthcare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rospotrebnadzor "Rospotrebnadzor") (Roszdravnadzor) stated that 506 laboratories were testing; that 45% of those who tested positive had no symptoms; that 5% of patients had a severe form; and 40% of infections were from family members. Illness improved from six days to one day after symptoms appeared. Antibody testing was carried out on 3,200 Moscow doctors, finding 20% immunity.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AnnaPopova28April-216)
### Singapore
With contact tracing, inbound travel restrictions, testing, and quarantining, [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") arrested the initial spread without complete lockdown.[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-217)
### Slovakia
In October 2020 Slovakia tested 3.62 million people in a weekend, from a population of 5.4m, representing 67% of the total (or 82% of the adult population), 38,359 tested positive, representing 1.06% of those tested. The government considered the mass test would significantly assist in controlling the virus and avoid a lockdown and may repeat the exercise at a later date.[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-218)
### South Korea
South Korea's broad testing approach helped reduce spread. Testing capacity, largely in private sector labs, was built up over several years by the South Korean government in the early 2000s.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-219)
Centers were sited mainly at national facilities and corporate training centers. The failure of Korea's MERS quarantine in May 2015 left Korea more prepared for COVID-19 than countries that did not face that pandemic. Then President [Park Geun-hye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Geun-hye "Park Geun-hye") allowed Korean CDC-approved private sector testing for infectious diseases in 2016. Korea already had a system for isolating, testing and treating infectious disease patients separately from others. Patients with respiratory illness but no epidemiological relevance were treated at the National Hospital, and those with epidemiological relevance were treated at selected clinics.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020041-220)[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020043-221)[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020044-222)[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan20200502-223)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fnn31819-224)[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-jcci20200510-225)[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan20200414-226)[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk4403-227)[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-mainichi20200416-228)
Korea established a large scale drive-through/walk-through" test testing program. However, the most common method was "mobile examination". In Daegu City, 54% of samples were collected by 23 March in home or hospital. Collecting samples door-to-door of avoided the risk of travel by possibly infected patients, but required additional staff. Korea solved the problem by drafting more than 2,700 public insurance doctors.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020041-220)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fnn31819-224)[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan20200502-223)
The government disclosed personal information to the public via KCDC without patient consent. The authorities used digital surveillance to trace possible spread.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020043-221)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fnn31819-224)[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-jcci20200510-225)[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk4403-227)[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-mainichi20200416-228)[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tokyonp20200401-229)[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-kazuhirotaira-230)[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-231)[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-232)[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-233)\[*[excessive citations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
### Taiwan
Health insurance IDs and [national identification card](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_identification_card_\(Taiwan\) "National identification card (Taiwan)") numbers were used to trace contacts.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-businessinsider212152-234)[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-wedge18823-235)[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-wedge18824-236)[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-businessnikkei20200421-237)
### United Arab Emirates
In January 2021, the COVID-19 testing results of the [UAE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAE "UAE") came under scrutiny, as [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") suspended the Emirati flights for five days. The European nation said that it barred the flights from the UAE due to growing suspicion of irregularities in the testing process being followed in the Gulf nation. Denmark's Minister of Transport, [Benny Engelbrecht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Engelbrecht "Benny Engelbrecht") said that they were taking time to ensure that the negative tests of travelers from the Emirates were a real screening carried out appropriately.[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-238)
### United States
Main article: [COVID-19 testing in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 testing in the United States")
#### New York State
New York State's control measures consisted of PCR tests, stay-at-home measures and strengthening the healthcare system. On 29 February before its first case, the state allowed testing at the Wordsworth Center. They managed to convince the CDC to approve tests at state laboratories and the FDA to approve a test kit. As of 13 March the state was conducting more than 1,000 daily tests, growing to 10,000/day on 19 March. In April, the number exceeded 20,000. Many people queued at hospitals to get tested. On 21 March New York City health officials directed medical providers to test only those entering the hospital, for lack of PPE.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk4403-227)[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-239)[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-240)[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-241)[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-242)\[*[excessive citations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
#### USS *Theodore Roosevelt*
Main article: [COVID-19 pandemic on USS Theodore Roosevelt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_USS_Theodore_Roosevelt "COVID-19 pandemic on USS Theodore Roosevelt")
Following an outbreak, 94% of the 4,800 aircraft carrier crew were tested. Roughly 60 percent of the 600-plus sailors who tested positive were asymptomatic.[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-243) Five infected sailors who completed quarantine subsequently developed flu-like symptoms and again tested positive.[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NBC_sailors-244)
#### Nevada
In 2020, Nevada received a donation of 250,000 Covid testing kits, which were a product of China's leading genetics company, [BGI Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BGI_Group "BGI Group"). A UAE-based firm owned by [Tahnoun bin Zayed Al Nahyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahnoun_bin_Zayed_Al_Nahyan_\(national_security_advisor\) "Tahnoun bin Zayed Al Nahyan (national security advisor)"), [Group 42](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_42_\(Emirati_company\) "Group 42 (Emirati company)") partnered with the BGI Group to supply the testing kits to [Nevada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"). However, the US [Department of Homeland Security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security "United States Department of Homeland Security") and the [State Department](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State "United States Department of State") raised a warning for Nevada hospitals to not use the Chinese-made testing kits, as there were concerns around the involvement of the Chinese government, test accuracy and privacy of the patients.[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-245)
## Testing statistics by country
Testing strategies vary by country and over time,[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-246) with some countries testing very widely,[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Iceland_screening-8) while others have at times focused narrowly on only testing the seriously ill.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Bund-6) The country that tests only people showing symptoms will have a higher figure for "Confirmed"/"tested" than the country that also tests others.[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-247) If two countries are alike in every respect, including which people they test, the one that tests more people will have a higher "Confirmed / population". Studies have also found that countries that test more, relative to the number of deaths, have lower estimated case fatality rates[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Ward_2020-9) and younger age distributions of cases.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:7-11)
| Country or region | Date[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-248) | Tested | Units[\[b\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-249) | Confirmed (cases) | Confirmed / tested, % | Tested / population, % | Confirmed / population, % | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Afghanistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Afghanistan") | 17 Dec 2020 | 154,767 | samples | 49,621 | 32\.1 | 0\.40 | 0\.13 | [\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-250) |
|  [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Albania "COVID-19 pandemic in Albania") | 18 Feb 2021 | 428,654 | samples | 96,838 | 22\.6 | 15\.0 | 3\.4 | [\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-251) |
|  [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Algeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria") | 2 Nov 2020 | 230,553 | samples | 58,574 | 25\.4 | 0\.53 | 0\.13 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-253) |
|  [Andorra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andorra "COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra") | 23 Feb 2022 | 300,307 | samples | 37,958 | 12\.6 | 387 | 49\.0 | [\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-254) |
|  [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Angola "COVID-19 pandemic in Angola") | 2 Feb 2021 | 399,228 | samples | 20,981 | 5\.3 | 1\.3 | 0\.067 | [\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-255) |
|  [Antigua and Barbuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Antigua and Barbuda") | 6 Mar 2021 | 15,268 | samples | 832 | 5\.4 | 15\.9 | 0\.86 | [\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-256) |
|  [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") | 16 Apr 2022 | 35,716,069 | samples | 9,060,495 | 25\.4 | 78\.3 | 20\.0 | [\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-257) |
|  [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Armenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia") | 29 May 2022 | 3,099,602 | samples | 422,963 | 13\.6 | 105 | 14\.3 | [\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-258) |
|  [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Australia") | 9 Sep 2022 | 78,548,492 | samples | 10,112,229 | 12\.9 | 313 | 40\.3 | [\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-259) |
|  [Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austria "COVID-19 pandemic in Austria") | 1 Feb 2023 | 205,817,752 | samples | 5,789,991 | 2\.8 | 2,312 | 65\.0 | [\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-260) |
|  [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Azerbaijan "COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan") | 11 May 2022 | 6,838,458 | samples | 792,638 | 11\.6 | 69\.1 | 8\.0 | [\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-261) |
|  [Bahamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Bahamas "COVID-19 pandemic in the Bahamas") | 28 Nov 2022 | 259,366 | samples | 37,483 | 14\.5 | 67\.3 | 9\.7 | [\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-262) |
|  [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bahrain "COVID-19 pandemic in Bahrain") | 3 Dec 2022 | 10,578,766 | samples | 696,614 | 6\.6 | 674 | 44\.4 | [\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-263) |
|  [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") | 24 Jul 2021 | 7,417,714 | samples | 1,151,644 | 15\.5 | 4\.5 | 0\.70 | [\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-264) |
|  [Barbados](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Barbados "COVID-19 pandemic in Barbados") | 14 Oct 2022 | 770,100 | samples | 103,014 | 13\.4 | 268 | 35\.9 | [\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-265) |
|  [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus "COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus") | 9 May 2022 | 13,217,569 | samples | 982,809 | 7\.4 | 139 | 10\.4 | [\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-266) |
|  [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belgium "COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium") | 24 Jan 2023 | 36,548,544 | samples | 4,691,499 | 12\.8 | 317 | 40\.7 | [\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-267) |
|  [Belize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belize "COVID-19 pandemic in Belize") | 8 Jun 2022 | 572,900 | samples | 60,694 | 10\.6 | 140 | 14\.9 | [\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-268)[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-269) |
|  [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Benin "COVID-19 pandemic in Benin") | 4 May 2021 | 595,112 | samples | 7,884 | 1\.3 | 5\.1 | 0\.067 | [\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-270) |
|  [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 pandemic in Bhutan") | 28 Feb 2022 | 1,736,168 | samples | 12,702 | 0\.73 | 234 | 1\.71 | [\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-271) |
|  [Bolivia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bolivia "COVID-19 pandemic in Bolivia") | 5 Jun 2022 | 4,358,669 | cases | 910,228 | 20\.9 | 38\.1 | 8\.0 | [\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-272) |
|  [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 pandemic in Bosnia and Herzegovina") | 27 Sep 2022 | 1,872,934 | samples | 399,887 | 21\.4 | 54\.7 | 11\.7 | [\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-273) |
|  [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Botswana "COVID-19 pandemic in Botswana") | 11 Jan 2022 | 2,026,898 | | 232,432 | 11\.5 | 89\.9 | 10\.3 | [\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-274)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-275) |
|  [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") | 19 Feb 2021 | 23,561,497 | samples | 10,081,676 | 42\.8 | 11\.2 | 4\.8 | [\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-276)[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-277) |
|  [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brunei "COVID-19 pandemic in Brunei") | 2 Aug 2021 | 153,804 | samples | 338 | 0\.22 | 33\.5 | 0\.074 | [\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-278) |
|  [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 pandemic in Bulgaria") | 2 Feb 2023 | 10,993,239 | samples | 1,295,524 | 11\.8 | 158 | 18\.6 | [\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-279) |
|  [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 pandemic in Burkina Faso") | 4 Mar 2021 | 158,777 | samples | 12,123 | 7\.6 | 0\.76 | 0\.058 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-280) |
|  [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burundi "COVID-19 pandemic in Burundi") | 5 Jan 2021 | 90,019 | | 884 | 0\.98 | 0\.76 | 0\.0074 | [\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-281) |
|  [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cambodia "COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia") | 1 Aug 2021 | 1,812,706 | | 77,914 | 4\.3 | 11\.2 | 0\.48 | [\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-282) |
|  [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 pandemic in Cameroon") | 18 Feb 2021 | 942,685 | samples | 32,681 | 3\.5 | 3\.6 | 0\.12 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252) |
|  [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") | 26 Nov 2022 | 66,343,123 | samples | 4,423,053 | 6\.7 | 175 | 11\.7 | [\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-283) |
|  [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chad "COVID-19 pandemic in Chad") | 2 Mar 2021 | 99,027 | samples | 4,020 | 4\.1 | 0\.72 | 0\.029 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-284) |
|  [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") | 1 Feb 2023 | 48,154,268 | samples | 5,123,007 | 10\.6 | 252 | 26\.9 | [\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-285) |
|  [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China")[\[c\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-286) | 31 Jul 2020 | 160,000,000 | cases | 87,655 | 0\.055 | 11\.1 | 0\.0061 | [\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-287)[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-288) |
|  [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") | 24 Nov 2022 | 36,875,818 | samples | 6,314,769 | 17\.1 | 76\.4 | 13\.1 | [\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-289)[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-290) |
|  [Costa Rica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Costa_Rica "COVID-19 pandemic in Costa Rica") | 2 Nov 2021 | 2,575,363 | samples | 561,054 | 21\.8 | 51\.5 | 11\.2 | [\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-291) |
|  [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") | 2 Feb 2023 | 5,481,285 | cases | 1,267,798 | 23\.1 | 134 | 31\.1 | [\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-292) |
|  [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cuba "COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba") | 2 Feb 2023 | 14,301,394 | samples | 1,112,470 | 7\.8 | 126 | 9\.8 | [\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-293)[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-294) |
|  [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus")[\[d\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-295) | 29 Jan 2023 | 27,820,163 | samples | 644,160 | 2\.3 | 3,223 | 74\.4 | [\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-296) |
|  [Czechia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Czech_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic") | 1 Feb 2023 | 22,544,928 | samples | 4,590,529 | 20\.4 | 211 | 42\.9 | [\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-297) |
|  [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Denmark "COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark")[\[e\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-298) | 31 Jan 2023 | 67,682,707 | samples | 3,399,947 | 5\.0 | 1,162 | 58\.4 | [\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-299)[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-300) |
|  [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 pandemic in Djibouti") | 28 Apr 2022 | 305,941 | | 15,631 | 5\.1 | 33\.2 | 1\.7 | [\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-301) |
|  [Dominica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dominica "COVID-19 pandemic in Dominica") | 20 Jun 2022 | 209,803 | cases | 14,821 | 7\.1 | 293 | 20\.7 | [\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-302) |
|  [Dominican Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Dominican_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Dominican Republic") | 22 Jul 2022 | 3,574,665 | samples | 626,030 | 17\.5 | 32\.9 | 5\.8 | [\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-303) |
|  [DR Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo") | 28 Feb 2021 | 124,838 | | 25,961 | 20\.8 | 0\.14 | 0\.029 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-304) |
|  [Ecuador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ecuador "COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador") | 23 Jul 2021 | 1,627,189 | samples | 480,720 | 29\.5 | 9\.5 | 2\.8 | [\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-305) |
|  [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") | 23 Jul 2021 | 3,137,519 | samples | 283,947 | 9\.1 | 3\.1 | 0\.28 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-306) |
|  [El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_El_Salvador "COVID-19 pandemic in El Salvador") | 18 Mar 2022 | 1,847,861 | samples | 161,052 | 8\.7 | 28\.5 | 2\.5 | [\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-307) |
|  [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Equatorial Guinea") | 30 Jan 2023 | 403,773 | | 17,113 | 4\.2 | 30\.8 | 1\.3 | [\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-308) |
|  [Estonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Estonia "COVID-19 pandemic in Estonia") | 31 Jan 2023 | 3,637,908 | samples | 613,954 | 16\.9 | 274 | 46\.2 | [\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-309) |
|  [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 pandemic in Eswatini") | 8 Dec 2021 | 415,110 | | 49,253 | 11\.9 | 36\.5 | 4\.3 | [\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-310) |
|  [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ethiopia "COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia") | 24 Jun 2021 | 2,981,185 | samples | 278,446 | 9\.3 | 2\.6 | 0\.24 | [\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-311) |
|  [Faroe Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Faroe_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Faroe Islands") | 27 Feb 2022 | 774,000 | samples | 34,237 | 4\.4 | 1,493 | 65\.7 | [\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-312) |
|  [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Fiji "COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji") | 2 Jan 2023 | 667,953 | samples | 68,848 | 10\.3 | 74\.5 | 7\.7 | [\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-313) |
|  [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Finland "COVID-19 pandemic in Finland") | 14 Jan 2022 | 9,042,453 | samples | 371,135 | 4\.1 | 163 | 6\.7 | [\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-314) |
|  [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France "COVID-19 pandemic in France")[\[f\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-315)[\[g\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-316) | 15 May 2022 | 272,417,258 | samples | 29,183,646 | 10\.7 | 417 | 44\.7 | [\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-317) |
|  [Gabon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gabon "COVID-19 pandemic in Gabon") | 23 Jul 2021 | 958,807 | samples | 25,325 | 2\.6 | 3\.1 | 0\.082 | [\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-318) |
|  [Gambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Gambia "COVID-19 pandemic in the Gambia") | 15 Feb 2021 | 43,217 | samples | 4,469 | 10\.3 | 2\.0 | 0\.21 | [\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-319) |
|  [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(country\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (country)")[\[h\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-320) | 3 Nov 2021 | 4,888,787 | samples | 732,965 | 15\.0 | 132 | 19\.7 | [\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-321) |
|  [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany "COVID-19 pandemic in Germany") | 7 Jul 2021 | 65,247,345 | samples | 3,733,519 | 5\.7 | 77\.8 | 4\.5 | [\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-322)[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-323) |
|  [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana "COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana") | 3 Jul 2021 | 1,305,749 | samples | 96,708 | 7\.4 | 4\.2 | 0\.31 | [\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-324) |
|  [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greece "COVID-19 pandemic in Greece") | 18 Dec 2022 | 101,576,831 | samples | 5,548,487 | 5\.5 | 943 | 51\.5 | [\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-325) |
|  [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greenland "COVID-19 pandemic in Greenland") | 30 Jan 2022 | 164,573 | samples | 10,662 | 6\.5 | 293 | 19\.0 | [\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-326) |
|  [Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Grenada "COVID-19 pandemic in Grenada") | 11 May 2021 | 28,684 | | 161 | 0\.56 | 25\.7 | 0\.14 | [\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-327) |
|  [Guatemala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guatemala "COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala") | 6 Jan 2023 | 6,800,560 | samples | 1,230,098 | 18\.1 | 39\.4 | 7\.1 | [\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-328) |
|  [Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea") | 21 Jul 2021 | 494,898 | samples | 24,878 | 5\.0 | 3\.8 | 0\.19 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-329) |
|  [Guinea-Bissau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea-Bissau "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea-Bissau") | 7 Jul 2022 | 145,231 | | 8,400 | 5\.8 | 7\.7 | 0\.45 | [\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-330) |
|  [Guyana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guyana "COVID-19 pandemic in Guyana") | 15 Jun 2022 | 648,569 | cases | 66,129 | 10\.2 | 82\.5 | 8\.4 | [\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-331) |
|  [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haiti "COVID-19 pandemic in Haiti") | 26 Nov 2022 | 223,475 | cases | 33,874 | 15\.2 | 2\.0 | 0\.30 | [\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-332) |
|  [Honduras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Honduras "COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras") | 26 Nov 2021 | 1,133,782 | samples | 377,859 | 33\.3 | 11\.8 | 3\.9 | [\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-333) |
|  [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hungary "COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary") | 10 May 2022 | 11,394,556 | samples | 1,909,948 | 16\.8 | 118 | 19\.8 | [\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-334) |
|  [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iceland "COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland") | 9 Aug 2022 | 1,988,652 | samples | 203,162 | 10\.2 | 546 | 55\.8 | [\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-335) |
|  [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India") | 8 Jul 2022 | 866,177,937 | samples | 43,585,554 | 5\.0 | 63 | 31\.7 | [\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-336)[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-337) |
|  [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia") | 3 Jul 2023 | 76,062,770 | cases | 6,812,127 | 9\.0 | 28\.2 | 2\.5 | |
|  [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran "COVID-19 pandemic in Iran") | 31 May 2022 | 52,269,202 | samples | 7,232,268 | 13\.8 | 62\.8 | 8\.7 | [\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-338) |
|  [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iraq "COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq") | 3 Aug 2022 | 19,090,652 | samples | 2,448,484 | 12\.8 | 47\.5 | 6\.1 | [\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-339) |
|  [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") | 31 Jan 2023 | 12,990,476 | samples | 1,700,817 | 13\.1 | 264 | 34\.6 | [\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-340) |
|  [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Israel "COVID-19 pandemic in Israel") | 17 Jan 2022 | 41,373,364 | samples | 1,792,137 | 4\.3 | 451 | 19\.5 | [\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-341) |
|  [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") | 16 Mar 2023 | 269,127,054 | samples | 25,651,205 | 9\.5 | 446 | 42\.5 | [\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-italy-dpc-342) |
|  [Ivory Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ivory_Coast "COVID-19 pandemic in Ivory Coast") | 3 Mar 2021 | 429,177 | samples | 33,285 | 7\.8 | 1\.6 | 0\.13 | [\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-343) |
|  [Jamaica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jamaica "COVID-19 pandemic in Jamaica") | 30 Sep 2022 | 1,184,973 | samples | 151,931 | 12\.8 | 43\.5 | 5\.6 | [\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-344) |
|  [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") | 1 Mar 2021 | 8,487,288 | | 432,773 | 5\.1 | 6\.7 | 0\.34 | [\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-345) |
|  [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jordan "COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan") | 6 Jun 2021 | 7,407,053 | samples | 739,847 | 10\.0 | 69\.5 | 6\.9 | [\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-346) |
|  [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") | 28 May 2021 | 11,575,012 | samples | 385,144 | 3\.3 | 62\.1 | 2\.1 | [\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-347) |
|  [Kenya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kenya "COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya") | 5 Mar 2021 | 1,322,806 | samples | 107,729 | 8\.1 | 2\.8 | 0\.23 | [\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-348) |
|  [Kosovo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kosovo "COVID-19 pandemic in Kosovo") | 31 May 2021 | 611,357 | cases | 107,410 | 17\.6 | 33\.8 | 5\.9 | [\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-349) |
|  [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuwait "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait") | 9 Mar 2022 | 7,754,247 | samples | 624,573 | 8\.1 | 181 | 14\.6 | [\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-350) |
|  [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kyrgyzstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kyrgyzstan") | 10 Feb 2021 | 695,415 | samples | 85,253 | 12\.3 | 10\.7 | 1\.3 | [\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-351) |
|  [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Laos "COVID-19 pandemic in Laos") | 1 Mar 2021 | 114,030 | cases | 45 | 0\.039 | 1\.6 | 0\.00063 | [\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-352) |
|  [Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Latvia "COVID-19 pandemic in Latvia") | 5 Sep 2021 | 3,630,095 | samples | 144,518 | 4\.0 | 189 | 7\.5 | [\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-353) |
|  [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lebanon "COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon") | 14 Jun 2021 | 4,599,186 | samples | 542,649 | 11\.8 | 67\.4 | 8\.0 | [\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-354) |
|  [Lesotho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lesotho "COVID-19 pandemic in Lesotho") | 30 Mar 2022 | 431,221 | | 32,910 | 7\.6 | 21\.5 | 1\.6 | [\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-355) |
|  [Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liberia "COVID-19 pandemic in Liberia") | 17 Jul 2021 | 128,246 | | 5,396 | 4\.2 | 2\.5 | 0\.11 | [\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-356) |
|  [Libya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Libya "COVID-19 pandemic in Libya") | 14 Apr 2022 | 2,578,215 | samples | 501,862 | 19\.5 | 37\.6 | 7\.3 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-357) |
|  [Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lithuania "COVID-19 pandemic in Lithuania") | 31 Jan 2023 | 9,046,584 | samples | 1,170,108 | 12\.9 | 324 | 41\.9 | [\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-358)[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-359) |
|  [Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Luxembourg "COVID-19 pandemic in Luxembourg")[\[i\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-360) | 12 May 2022 | 4,248,188 | samples | 244,182 | 5\.7 | 679 | 39\.0 | [\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-361) |
|  [Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madagascar "COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar") | 19 Feb 2021 | 119,608 | cases | 19,831 | 16\.6 | 0\.46 | 0\.076 | [\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-362) |
|  [Malawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malawi "COVID-19 pandemic in Malawi") | 29 Nov 2022 | 624,784 | samples | 88,086 | 14\.1 | 3\.3 | 0\.46 | [\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-363) |
|  [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") | 7 Sep 2021 | 23,705,425 | cases | 1,880,734 | 7\.9 | 72\.3 | 5\.7 | [\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-364) |
|  [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Maldives "COVID-19 pandemic in the Maldives") | 13 Mar 2022 | 2,216,560 | samples | 174,658 | 7\.9 | 398 | 31\.3 | [\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-365)[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-366) |
|  [Mali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mali "COVID-19 pandemic in Mali") | 7 Jul 2021 | 322,504 | samples | 14,449 | 4\.5 | 1\.6 | 0\.071 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-367) |
|  [Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malta "COVID-19 pandemic in Malta") | 8 Sep 2021 | 1,211,456 | samples | 36,606 | 3\.0 | 245 | 7\.4 | [\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-368) |
|  [Mauritania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritania "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritania") | 16 Apr 2021 | 268,093 | | 18,103 | 6\.8 | 6\.1 | 0\.41 | [\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-369) |
|  [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritius "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritius") | 22 Nov 2020 | 289,552 | samples | 494 | 0\.17 | 22\.9 | 0\.039 | [\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-370) |
|  [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") | 15 Oct 2021 | 10,503,678 | cases | 3,749,860 | 35\.7 | 8\.2 | 2\.9 | [\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-371) |
|  [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Moldova "COVID-19 pandemic in Moldova")[\[j\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-372) | 20 Apr 2022 | 3,213,594 | samples | 516,864 | 16\.1 | 122 | 19\.6 | [\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-373) |
|  [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia") | 10 Jul 2021 | 3,354,200 | cases | 136,053 | 4\.1 | 100 | 4\.1 | [\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-374) |
|  [Montenegro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montenegro "COVID-19 pandemic in Montenegro") | 10 May 2021 | 394,388 | samples | 98,449 | 25\.0 | 62\.5 | 15\.6 | [\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-375)[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-376) |
|  [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Morocco "COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco") | 6 Jan 2023 | 14,217,563 | cases | 1,272,299 | 8\.9 | 38\.5 | 3\.4 | [\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-377) |
|  [Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mozambique "COVID-19 pandemic in Mozambique") | 22 Jul 2021 | 688,570 | samples | 105,866 | 15\.4 | 2\.2 | 0\.34 | [\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-378) |
|  [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Myanmar "COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar") | 16 Sep 2021 | 4,047,680 | samples | 440,741 | 10\.9 | 7\.4 | 0\.81 | [\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-379) |
|  [Namibia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Namibia "COVID-19 pandemic in Namibia") | 4 Jul 2022 | 1,062,663 | samples | 166,229 | 15\.6 | 38\.7 | 6\.1 | [\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-380) |
|  [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nepal "COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal") | 26 Jul 2022 | 5,804,358 | samples | 984,475 | 17\.0 | 20\.7 | 3\.5 | [\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-381) |
|  [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands") | 6 Jul 2021 | 14,526,293 | cases | 1,692,834 | 11\.7 | 83\.4 | 9\.7 | [\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-382) |
|  [New Caledonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Caledonia "COVID-19 pandemic in New Caledonia") | 3 Sep 2021 | 41,962 | samples | 136 | 0\.32 | 15\.7 | 0\.050 | [\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-383) |
|  [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") | 29 Jan 2023 | 7,757,935 | samples | 2,136,662 | 27\.5 | 156 | 42\.9 | [\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-384)[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-385) |
|  [Niger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niger "COVID-19 pandemic in Niger") | 22 Feb 2021 | 79,321 | cases | 4,740 | 6\.0 | 0\.35 | 0\.021 | [\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-386) |
|  [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria") | 28 Feb 2021 | 1,544,008 | samples | 155,657 | 10\.1 | 0\.75 | 0\.076 | [\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-387) |
|  [North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in North Korea") | 25 Nov 2020 | 16,914 | cases | 0 | 0 | 0\.066 | 0 | [\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-388) |
|  [North Macedonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Macedonia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Macedonia") | 1 Jul 2021 | 881,870 | samples | 155,689 | 17\.7 | 42\.5 | 7\.5 | [\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-389)[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-390) |
|  [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus")[\[k\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-391) | 12 Jul 2022 | 7,096,998 | samples | 103,034 | 1\.5 | 2,177 | 31\.6 | [\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-392) |
|  [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norway "COVID-19 pandemic in Norway") | 20 Jan 2022 | 9,811,888 | samples | 554,778 | 5\.7 | 183 | 10\.3 | [\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-393) |
|  [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oman "COVID-19 pandemic in Oman") | 28 Oct 2020 | 509,959 | samples | 114,434 | 22\.4 | 11\.0 | 2\.5 | [\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-394) |
|  [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pakistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan") | 5 Mar 2021 | 9,173,593 | samples | 588,728 | 6\.4 | 4\.2 | 0\.27 | [\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-395) |
|  [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_State_of_Palestine "COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine") | 5 Feb 2022 | 3,078,533 | samples | 574,105 | 18\.6 | 60\.9 | 11\.4 | [\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-396) |
|  [Panama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Panama "COVID-19 pandemic in Panama") | 28 Jan 2023 | 7,475,016 | samples | 1,029,701 | 13\.8 | 179 | 24\.7 | [\[386\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-397) |
|  [Papua New Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Papua_New_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Papua New Guinea") | 17 Feb 2021 | 47,490 | cases | 961 | 2\.0 | 0\.53 | 0\.011 | [\[387\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-398) |
|  [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Paraguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Paraguay") | 27 Mar 2022 | 2,609,819 | samples | 647,950 | 24\.8 | 36\.6 | 9\.1 | [\[388\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-399) |
|  [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") | 17 Nov 2022 | 36,073,768 | samples | 4,177,786 | 11\.6 | 109\.9 | 12\.7 | [\[389\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-400) |
|  [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines") | 7 Jan 2023 | 34,402,980 | samples | 4,073,980 | 11\.8 | 34\.1 | 4\.0 | [\[390\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-401)[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-402) |
|  [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Poland "COVID-19 pandemic in Poland") | 27 Apr 2022 | 36,064,311 | samples | 5,993,861 | 16\.6 | 94\.0 | 15\.6 | [\[392\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-403) |
|  [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portugal "COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal") | 5 Jan 2022 | 27,515,490 | samples | 1,499,976 | 5\.5 | 268 | 14\.6 | [\[393\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-404) |
|  [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Qatar "COVID-19 pandemic in Qatar") | 11 Nov 2022 | 4,061,988 | cases | 473,440 | 11\.7 | 141 | 16\.4 | [\[394\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-405) |
|  [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") | 29 Jan 2021 | 5,405,393 | samples | 724,250 | 13\.4 | 27\.9 | 3\.7 | [\[395\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-406) |
|  [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") | 6 Jun 2022 | 295,542,733 | samples | 18,358,459 | 6\.2 | 201 | 12\.5 | [\[396\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-407)[\[397\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-408) |
|  [Rwanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rwanda "COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda") | 6 Oct 2021 | 2,885,812 | samples | 98,209 | 3\.4 | 22\.3 | 0\.76 | [\[398\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-409) |
|  [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Kitts and Nevis") | 26 Aug 2021 | 30,231 | cases | 995 | 3\.3 | 57\.6 | 1\.9 | [\[399\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-410) |
|  [Saint Lucia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Lucia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Lucia") | 7 Oct 2022 | 212,132 | samples | 29,550 | 13\.9 | 116\.6 | 16\.2 | [\[400\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-411) |
|  [Saint Vincent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines") | 28 Jan 2023 | 113,504 | cases | 9,585 | 8\.4 | 103\.0 | 8\.7 | [\[401\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-412) |
|  [San Marino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_San_Marino "COVID-19 pandemic in San Marino") | 29 Jan 2023 | 192,613 | samples | 23,427 | 12\.2 | 563 | 68\.4 | [\[402\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-413) |
|  [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia") | 26 Apr 2022 | 41,849,069 | samples | 753,632 | 1\.8 | 120 | 2\.2 | [\[403\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-414) |
|  [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Senegal "COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal") | 12 Jul 2021 | 624,502 | samples | 46,509 | 7\.4 | 3\.9 | 0\.29 | [\[404\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-415) |
|  [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") | 2 Feb 2023 | 12,185,475 | cases | 2,473,599 | 20\.3 | 175 | 35\.5 | [\[405\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-416) |
|  [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") | 3 Aug 2021 | 16,206,203 | samples | 65,315 | 0\.40 | 284 | 1\.1 | [\[406\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-417)[\[407\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-418) |
|  [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") | 2 Feb 2023 | 7,391,882 | samples | 1,861,034 | 25\.2 | 135 | 34\.1 | [\[408\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-419) |
|  [Slovenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovenia") | 2 Feb 2023 | 2,826,117 | samples | 1,322,282 | 46\.8 | 135 | 63\.1 | [\[409\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-420) |
|  [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa") | 24 May 2021 | 11,378,282 | cases | 1,637,848 | 14\.4 | 19\.2 | 2\.8 | [\[410\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-421)[\[411\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-422) |
|  [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea") | 1 Mar 2021 | 6,592,010 | samples | 90,029 | 1\.4 | 12\.7 | 0\.17 | [\[412\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-423) |
|  [South Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in South Sudan") | 26 May 2021 | 164,472 | | 10,688 | 6\.5 | 1\.3 | 0\.084 | [\[413\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-424) |
|  [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") | 1 Jul 2021 | 54,128,524 | samples | 3,821,305 | 7\.1 | 116 | 8\.2 | [\[414\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-425)[\[415\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-426) |
|  [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka") | 30 Mar 2021 | 2,384,745 | samples | 93,128 | 3\.9 | 10\.9 | 0\.43 | [\[416\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-427)[\[417\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-428) |
|  [Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sudan") | 7 Jan 2021 | 158,804 | samples | 23,316 | 14\.7 | 0\.36 | 0\.053 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252) |
|  [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sweden "COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden") | 24 May 2021 | 9,996,795 | samples | 1,074,751 | 10\.8 | 96\.8 | 10\.4 | [\[418\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-429)[\[419\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-430) |
|  [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland")[\[l\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-431) | 7 Nov 2022 | 23,283,909 | samples | 4,276,836 | 18\.4 | 270 | 49\.7 | [\[420\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-432) |
|  [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan")[\[m\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-433) | 3 Feb 2023 | 30,275,725 | samples | 8,622,129 | 28\.48 | 128\.3 | 36\.528 | [\[421\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-434) |
|  [Tanzania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tanzania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tanzania") | 18 Nov 2020 | 3,880 | | 509 | 13\.1 | 0\.0065 | 0\.00085 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252) |
|  [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") | 4 Mar 2021 | 1,579,597 | cases | 26,162 | 1\.7 | 2\.3 | 0\.038 | [\[422\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-435) |
|  [Togo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Togo "COVID-19 pandemic in Togo") | 6 Jan 2023 | 807,269 | | 39,358 | 4\.9 | 9\.4 | 0\.46 | [\[423\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-436) |
|  [Trinidad and Tobago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") | 3 Jan 2022 | 512,730 | cases | 92,997 | 18\.1 | 37\.6 | 6\.8 | [\[424\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-437) |
|  [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tunisia "COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia") | 23 Aug 2021 | 2,893,625 | samples | 703,732 | 24\.3 | 24\.5 | 6\.0 | [\[425\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-438) |
|  [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") | 2 Jul 2021 | 61,236,294 | samples | 5,435,831 | 8\.9 | 73\.6 | 6\.5 | [\[426\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-439) |
|  [Uganda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uganda "COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda") | 11 Feb 2021 | 852,444 | samples | 39,979 | 4\.7 | 1\.9 | 0\.087 | [\[427\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-440) |
|  [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine") | 24 Nov 2021 | 15,648,456 | samples | 3,367,461 | 21\.5 | 37\.2 | 8\.0 | [\[428\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-441) |
|  [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates") | 1 Feb 2023 | 198,685,717 | samples | 1,049,537 | 0\.53 | 2,070 | 10\.9 | [\[429\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-442) |
|  [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") | 19 May 2022 | 522,526,476 | samples | 22,232,377 | 4\.3 | 774 | 32\.9 | [\[430\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-443) |
|  [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") | 29 Jul 2022 | 929,349,291 | samples | 90,749,469 | 9\.8 | 281 | 27\.4 | [\[431\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-444)[\[432\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-445) |
|  [Uruguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uruguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Uruguay") | 16 Apr 2022 | 6,089,116 | samples | 895,592 | 14\.7 | 175 | 25\.8 | [\[433\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-446) |
|  [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uzbekistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Uzbekistan") | 7 Sep 2020 | 2,630,000 | samples | 43,975 | 1\.7 | 7\.7 | 0\.13 | [\[434\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-447) |
|  [Venezuela](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Venezuela "COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela") | 30 Mar 2021 | 3,179,074 | samples | 159,149 | 5\.0 | 11\.0 | 0\.55 | [\[435\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-448) |
|  [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") | 28 Aug 2022 | 45,772,571 | samples | 11,403,302 | 24\.9 | 46\.4 | 11\.6 | [\[436\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-449) |
|  [Zambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zambia "COVID-19 pandemic in Zambia") | 10 Mar 2022 | 3,301,860 | samples | 314,850 | 9\.5 | 19\.0 | 1\.8 | [\[437\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-450) |
|  [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe") | 15 Oct 2022 | 2,529,087 | samples | 257,893 | 10\.2 | 17\.0 | 1\.7 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[438\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-451) |
| **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-248)** Local time. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-249)** For some countries it is unclear whether they report samples or cases. One person tested twice is recorded as one case and two samples. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-286)** Excluding [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-295)** Excluding [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cyprus "Northern Cyprus"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-298)** Excluding [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greenland "COVID-19 pandemic in Greenland") and the [Faroe Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Faroe_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Faroe Islands"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-315)** Excluding [Overseas France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_France "Overseas France"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-316)** Testing data from 4 May to 12 May is missing because of the transition to the new reporting system SI-DEP. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-320)** Excluding [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Abkhazia "COVID-19 pandemic in Abkhazia") and [South Ossetia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Ossetia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Ossetia"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-360)** Data for residents only. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-372)** Excluding [Transnistria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transnistria "Transnistria"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-391)** [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cyprus "Northern Cyprus") is not recognized as a [sovereign state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state "Sovereign state") by any country except [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-431)** Includes data for [Liechtenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liechtenstein "COVID-19 pandemic in Liechtenstein"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-433)** Not a [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") member. | | | | | | | | |
## See also
- [2002–2004 SARS outbreak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak "2002–2004 SARS outbreak")
- [Coronavirus breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer")
- [Coronavirus disease 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019 "Coronavirus disease 2019")
- [COVID-19 misinformation § PCR testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation#PCR_testing "COVID-19 misinformation")
- [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic")
- [Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic § COVID-19 testing controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic#COVID-19_testing_controversy "Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic")
## References
-  This article incorporates [public domain material](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States "Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States") from
[*Symptom-Based Strategy to Discontinue Isolation for Persons with COVID-19*](https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/88537). [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"). Retrieved 5 May 2020.
1. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-CDC_testing_1-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-CDC_testing_1-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-CDC_testing_1-2)
["Testing for COVID-19"](https://www.cdc.gov/covid/testing/). *U.S. [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC)*. 11 February 2020.
2. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-Serology_testing_2-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-Serology_testing_2-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-Serology_testing_2-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-Serology_testing_2-3) [***e***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-Serology_testing_2-4)
Kobokovich A, West R, Gronvall G. ["Serology and Other Adaptive Immune Response Testing for COVID-19"](https://centerforhealthsecurity.org/sites/default/files/2022-11/200228-serology-testing-covid.pdf) (PDF). *Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security*.
3. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-:11_3-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-:11_3-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-:11_3-2)
Kubina R, Dziedzic A (June 2020). ["Molecular and Serological Tests for COVID-19 a Comparative Review of SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Laboratory and Point-of-Care Diagnostics"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7345211). *Diagnostics*. **10** (6): 434. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.3390/diagnostics10060434](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fdiagnostics10060434). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [7345211](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7345211). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32604919](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32604919).
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-CDC-antibody-test_4-0)**
["Test for Past Infection"](https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/testing/serology-overview.html). *U.S. [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") (CDC)*. 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200516235606/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/testing/serology-overview.html) from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020. "Antibody blood tests, also called antibody tests, check your blood by looking for antibodies, which show if you had a previous infection with the virus. Depending on when someone was infected and the timing of the test, the test may not find antibodies in someone with a current COVID-19 infection."
5. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-JAMA_antibody_5-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-JAMA_antibody_5-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-JAMA_antibody_5-2)
Abbasi J (May 2020). ["The Promise and Peril of Antibody Testing for COVID-19"](https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2020.6170). *JAMA*. **323** (19): 1881–1883\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1001/jama.2020.6170](https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2020.6170). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32301958](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32301958).
6. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-Bund_6-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-Bund_6-1)
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Հիվանդությունների վերահսկման և կանխարգելման ազգային կենտրոն
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დაავადებათა კონტროლისა და საზოგადოებრივი ჯანმრთელობის ეროვნული ცენტრი
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.
Федеральная служба по надзору в сфере защиты прав потребителей и благополучия человека (Роспотребнадзор)
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[стопкоронавирус](https://стопкоронавирус.рф/information/)
.
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.
코로나바이러스감염증-19(COVID-19)
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[รายงานสถานการณ์โรคติดเชื้อไวรัสโคโรนา 2019 ฉบับที่ 426 วันที่ 4 มีนาคม 2564](https://ddc.moph.go.th/viralpneumonia/file/situation/situation-no426-040364.pdf)
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[الأرقام الرئيسيّة المسجّلة بتاريخ 03 فيفري 2021 \#كوفيد\_19](https://www.facebook.com/santetunisie.rns.tn/)
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## Further reading
- Guglielmi G (July 2020). ["The explosion of new coronavirus tests that could help to end the pandemic"](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-020-02140-8). *Nature*. **583** (7817): 506–509\. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2020Natur.583..506G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Natur.583..506G). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/d41586-020-02140-8](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-020-02140-8). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32681157](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32681157).
- Kevadiya BD, Machhi J, Herskovitz J, Oleynikov MD, Blomberg WR, Bajwa N, et al. (May 2021). ["Diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 infections"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8264308). *Nature Materials*. **20** (5): 593–605\. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2021NatMa..20..593K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatMa..20..593K). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/s41563-020-00906-z](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41563-020-00906-z). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8264308](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8264308). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [33589798](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33589798). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [231930978](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:231930978).
## External links
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg)
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|---|---|
| **[COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19")** (disease) **[SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2")** (virus) | |
| [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| | |
| [Pre-pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic_predictions_and_preparations_prior_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Pandemic predictions and preparations prior to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Severe acute respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS") (SARS) [Middle East respiratory syndrome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS "MERS") (MERS) [Crimson Contagion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimson_Contagion "Crimson Contagion") [Disease X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_X "Disease X") [Exercise Cygnus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_Cygnus "Exercise Cygnus") [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2019 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019") |
| 2020 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2020") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2020") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2020") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2020") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2020") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2020") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2020 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2020") |
| 2021 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2021") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2021") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2021") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2021") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2021") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2021") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2021") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2021") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2021") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2021") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2021 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2021") |
| 2022 | [January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_January_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2022") [February](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_February_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in February 2022") [March](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_March_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2022") [April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_April_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in April 2022") [May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_May_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2022") [June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_June_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2022") [July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_July_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2022") [August](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_August_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in August 2022") [September](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_September_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in September 2022") [October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_October_2022 "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in October 2022") [November](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_November_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in November 2022") [December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_December_2022 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in December 2022") |
| 2023 | [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_2023 "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2023") |
| [Locations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_by_country_and_territory "COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory") | |
| | |
| [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in Africa")([national responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Africa "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa")) | |
| | |
| Northern | [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Algeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria") [Canary Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Canary_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Canary Islands") [Ceuta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ceuta "COVID-19 pandemic in Ceuta") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") [Libya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Libya "COVID-19 pandemic in Libya") [Mauritania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritania "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritania") [Melilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Melilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Melilla") [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Morocco "COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco") [Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sudan") [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tunisia "COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia") [Western Sahara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Sahara "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Sahara") [Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic") |
| Eastern | [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burundi "COVID-19 pandemic in Burundi") [Comoros](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Comoros "COVID-19 pandemic in the Comoros") [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 pandemic in Djibouti") [Eritrea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eritrea "COVID-19 pandemic in Eritrea") [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ethiopia "COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia") [Kenya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kenya "COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya") [Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madagascar "COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar") [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritius "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritius") [Mayotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mayotte "COVID-19 pandemic in Mayotte") [Réunion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_R%C3%A9union "COVID-19 pandemic in Réunion") [Rwanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rwanda "COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda") [Seychelles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Seychelles "COVID-19 pandemic in Seychelles") [Somalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Somalia "COVID-19 pandemic in Somalia") [Puntland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puntland "COVID-19 pandemic in Puntland") [Somaliland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Somaliland "COVID-19 pandemic in Somaliland") [South Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in South Sudan") [Tanzania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tanzania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tanzania") [Uganda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uganda "COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda") |
| Southern | [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Angola "COVID-19 pandemic in Angola") [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Botswana "COVID-19 pandemic in Botswana") [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 pandemic in Eswatini") [Lesotho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lesotho "COVID-19 pandemic in Lesotho") [Malawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malawi "COVID-19 pandemic in Malawi") [Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mozambique "COVID-19 pandemic in Mozambique") [Namibia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Namibia "COVID-19 pandemic in Namibia") [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa") [list of deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_deaths_in_South_Africa "List of COVID-19 deaths in South Africa") [Zambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zambia "COVID-19 pandemic in Zambia") [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe") |
| Central | [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 pandemic in Cameroon") [Central African Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Central_African_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Central African Republic") [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chad "COVID-19 pandemic in Chad") [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo") [Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of the Congo") [Gabon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gabon "COVID-19 pandemic in Gabon") [São Tomé and Príncipe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe "COVID-19 pandemic in São Tomé and Príncipe") |
| Western | [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Benin "COVID-19 pandemic in Benin") [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 pandemic in Burkina Faso") [Cape Verde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cape_Verde "COVID-19 pandemic in Cape Verde") [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Equatorial Guinea") [Gambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Gambia "COVID-19 pandemic in the Gambia") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana "COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana") timeline 2020 [March–July](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(March%E2%80%93July_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (March–July 2020)") [August–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(August%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (August–December 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana (2021)") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ghanaian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") impact [education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_Ghana "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in Ghana") [Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea") [Guinea-Bissau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea-Bissau "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea-Bissau") [Ivory Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ivory_Coast "COVID-19 pandemic in Ivory Coast") [Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liberia "COVID-19 pandemic in Liberia") [Mali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mali "COVID-19 pandemic in Mali") [Niger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niger "COVID-19 pandemic in Niger") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Nigerian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha") [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Senegal "COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal") [Sierra Leone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sierra_Leone "COVID-19 pandemic in Sierra Leone") [Togo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Togo "COVID-19 pandemic in Togo") |
| [Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Asia") | |
| | |
| Central/North | [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kyrgyzstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kyrgyzstan") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") timeline [January–June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (January–June 2020)") [July–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (July–December 2020)") impact [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [political](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") [Tajikistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tajikistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Tajikistan") [Turkmenistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkmenistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkmenistan") [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uzbekistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Uzbekistan") |
| East | |
| | |
| [Hong Kong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hong_Kong "COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong") [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") [Tokyo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tokyo "COVID-19 pandemic in Tokyo") [2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_cases_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_and_2020_Summer_Paralympics "COVID-19 cases at the 2020 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics") [North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in North Korea") [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea") [Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Macau "COVID-19 pandemic in Macau") [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia") [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan") [respirator diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator_diplomacy_of_Taiwan "Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan") | |
| [Mainland China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China") | [lockdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdown_in_China "COVID-19 lockdown in China") [detail](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:COVID-19_pandemic_lockdowns_in_mainland_China&action=edit&redlink=1 "Template:COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns in mainland China (page does not exist)") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 vaccination in mainland China") [Beijing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Beijing "COVID-19 pandemic in Beijing") [2022 Winter Olympics and Paralympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_cases_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_and_2022_Winter_Paralympics "COVID-19 cases at the 2022 Winter Olympics and 2022 Winter Paralympics") [Heilongjiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Heilongjiang "COVID-19 pandemic in Heilongjiang") [Henan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Henan "COVID-19 pandemic in Henan") [Hubei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hubei "COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei") [Inner Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Inner_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Inner Mongolia") [Liaoning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liaoning "COVID-19 pandemic in Liaoning") [Shanghai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Shanghai "COVID-19 pandemic in Shanghai") [2022 outbreak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Shanghai_COVID-19_outbreak "2022 Shanghai COVID-19 outbreak") [Sichuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sichuan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sichuan") [Tibet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tibet "COVID-19 pandemic in Tibet") [Xinjiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Xinjiang "COVID-19 pandemic in Xinjiang") |
| [South](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Asia") | |
| | |
| [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Afghanistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Afghanistan") [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 pandemic in Bhutan") [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maldives "COVID-19 pandemic in Maldives") [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nepal "COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal") [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pakistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan") [Tablighi Jamaat hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Pakistan "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Pakistan") [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka") | |
| [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India") | |
| | |
| [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [lockdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdown_in_India "COVID-19 lockdown in India") [migrant workers' crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_migrant_workers_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian migrant workers during the COVID-19 pandemic") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") timeline 2020 [January–May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(January%E2%80%93May_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (January–May 2020)") [June–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(June%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (June–December 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in India (2021)") [union government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [PM CARES Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PM_CARES_Fund "PM CARES Fund") [state government responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_state_government_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian state government responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_India "COVID-19 vaccination in India") [Vaccine Maitri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Maitri "Vaccine Maitri") | |
| By location | [Andaman and Nicobar Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands") [Andhra Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andhra_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Andhra Pradesh") [Arunachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arunachal_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Arunachal Pradesh") [Assam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Assam "COVID-19 pandemic in Assam") [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bihar "COVID-19 pandemic in Bihar") [Chandigarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chandigarh "COVID-19 pandemic in Chandigarh") [Chhattisgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chhattisgarh "COVID-19 pandemic in Chhattisgarh") [Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli_and_Daman_and_Diu "COVID-19 pandemic in Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu") [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Delhi "COVID-19 pandemic in Delhi") [Tablighi Jamaat hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Delhi "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Delhi") [Goa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Goa "COVID-19 pandemic in Goa") [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gujarat "COVID-19 pandemic in Gujarat") [Haryana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haryana "COVID-19 pandemic in Haryana") [Himachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Himachal_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Himachal Pradesh") [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir "COVID-19 pandemic in Jammu and Kashmir") [Jharkhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jharkhand "COVID-19 pandemic in Jharkhand") [Karnataka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Karnataka "COVID-19 pandemic in Karnataka") [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kerala "COVID-19 pandemic in Kerala") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kerala "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Kerala") [Ladakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ladakh "COVID-19 pandemic in Ladakh") [Lakshadweep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lakshadweep "COVID-19 pandemic in Lakshadweep") [Madhya Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madhya_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Madhya Pradesh") [Maharashtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maharashtra "COVID-19 pandemic in Maharashtra") [Manipur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Manipur "COVID-19 pandemic in Manipur") [Meghalaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Meghalaya "COVID-19 pandemic in Meghalaya") [Mizoram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mizoram "COVID-19 pandemic in Mizoram") [Nagaland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nagaland "COVID-19 pandemic in Nagaland") [Odisha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Odisha "COVID-19 pandemic in Odisha") [Puducherry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puducherry "COVID-19 pandemic in Puducherry") [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Punjab,_India "COVID-19 pandemic in Punjab, India") [Rajasthan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rajasthan "COVID-19 pandemic in Rajasthan") [Sikkim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sikkim "COVID-19 pandemic in Sikkim") [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tamil_Nadu "COVID-19 pandemic in Tamil Nadu") [Telangana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Telangana "COVID-19 pandemic in Telangana") [Tripura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tripura "COVID-19 pandemic in Tripura") [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uttar_Pradesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Uttar Pradesh") [Uttarakhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uttarakhand "COVID-19 pandemic in Uttarakhand") [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_West_Bengal "COVID-19 pandemic in West Bengal") |
| [Southeast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Southeast_Asia "COVID-19 pandemic in Southeast Asia") | |
| | |
| [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brunei "COVID-19 pandemic in Brunei") [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cambodia "COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia") [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia") timeline [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia (2021)") [social restrictions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia_large-scale_social_restrictions "Indonesia large-scale social restrictions") [Community Activities Restrictions Enforcement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_Activities_Restrictions_Enforcement "Community Activities Restrictions Enforcement") [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Laos "COVID-19 pandemic in Laos") [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Myanmar "COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar") [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore (2022)") [circuit breaker response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_Singapore_circuit_breaker_measures "2020–21 Singapore circuit breaker measures") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Singapore "COVID-19 vaccination in Singapore") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Thailand "COVID-19 vaccination in Thailand") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") [Timor-Leste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Timor-Leste "COVID-19 pandemic in Timor-Leste") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vietnamese government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") | impact [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [political](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Malaysia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Malaysia") [Aid and relief efforts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_and_relief_efforts_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Aid and relief efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [movement control order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_movement_control_order "Malaysian movement control order") [Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Tablighi_Jamaat_COVID-19_hotspot_in_Malaysia "2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Malaysia") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia (2023)") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [Johor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Johor "COVID-19 pandemic in Johor") [Kuala Lumpur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuala_Lumpur "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuala Lumpur") [Sabah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sabah "COVID-19 pandemic in Sabah") [Sarawak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sarawak "COVID-19 pandemic in Sarawak") [Selangor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Selangor "COVID-19 pandemic in Selangor") |
| [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines (2022)") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [community quarantines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_community_quarantines_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 community quarantines in the Philippines") [Luzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_community_quarantine_in_Luzon "Enhanced community quarantine in Luzon") [evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_by_the_Philippines_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations by the Philippines related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 vaccination in the Philippines") [Bangsamoro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangsamoro "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangsamoro") [Bicol Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Bicol_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Bicol Region") [Cagayan Valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cagayan_Valley "COVID-19 pandemic in Cagayan Valley") [Calabarzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Calabarzon "COVID-19 pandemic in Calabarzon") [Caraga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Caraga "COVID-19 pandemic in Caraga") [Central Luzon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Central_Luzon "COVID-19 pandemic in Central Luzon") [Central Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Central_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Central Visayas") [Cordillera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cordillera_Administrative_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cordillera Administrative Region") [Davao Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Davao_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Davao Region") [Eastern Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eastern_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Eastern Visayas") [Ilocos Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Ilocos_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Ilocos Region") [Metro Manila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Metro_Manila "COVID-19 pandemic in Metro Manila") [Mimaropa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mimaropa "COVID-19 pandemic in Mimaropa") [Northern Mindanao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Mindanao "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Mindanao") [Soccsksargen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Soccsksargen "COVID-19 pandemic in Soccsksargen") [Western Visayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Visayas "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Visayas") [Zamboanga Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zamboanga_Peninsula "COVID-19 pandemic in Zamboanga Peninsula") [Overseas Filipinos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Filipinos_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Overseas Filipinos during the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| West | [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Armenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia") [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Azerbaijan "COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan") [Artsakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Artsakh "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Artsakh") [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bahrain "COVID-19 pandemic in Bahrain") [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus") [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(country\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (country)") [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Abkhazia "COVID-19 pandemic in Abkhazia") [South Ossetia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Ossetia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Ossetia") [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran "COVID-19 pandemic in Iran") [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iraq "COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq") [Kurdistan Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Kurdistan_Region "COVID-19 pandemic in the Kurdistan Region") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Israel "COVID-19 pandemic in Israel") [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jordan "COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan") [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuwait "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait") [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lebanon "COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon") [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oman "COVID-19 pandemic in Oman") [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_State_of_Palestine "COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine") [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Qatar "COVID-19 pandemic in Qatar") [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_programme_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 vaccination programme in Saudi Arabia") [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Syria "COVID-19 pandemic in Syria") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates") [Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Yemen "COVID-19 pandemic in Yemen") |
| [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe "COVID-19 pandemic in Europe") | |
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| [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") | |
| | |
| [history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "History of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") timeline [January–June 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (January–June 2020)") [July–December 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (July–December 2020)") [January–June 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (January–June 2021)") [July–December 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (July–December 2021)") [January–June 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(January%E2%80%93June_2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (January–June 2022)") [July–December 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(July%E2%80%93December_2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (July–December 2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom (2023)") [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United Kingdom responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Broadshare "Operation Broadshare") [Operation Rescript](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Rescript "Operation Rescript") [contracts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversies_regarding_COVID-19_contracts_in_the_United_Kingdom "Controversies regarding COVID-19 contracts in the United Kingdom") impact [social](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_Kingdom "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom") | |
| By location | [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_England "COVID-19 pandemic in England") timeline 2020 [January–June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (January–June 2020)") [July–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (July–December 2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_England_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in England (2022)") [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_London "COVID-19 pandemic in London") [local lockdown regulations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_local_lockdown_regulations_in_England "COVID-19 local lockdown regulations in England") [first tier regulations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_COVID-19_tier_regulations_in_England "First COVID-19 tier regulations in England") [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Ireland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Ireland (2022)") [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland "COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Scotland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland (2022)") [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales "COVID-19 pandemic in Wales") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wales_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales (2021)") [Crown Dependencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Crown_Dependencies "COVID-19 pandemic in the Crown Dependencies") [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Isle_of_Man "COVID-19 pandemic in the Isle of Man") [Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jersey "COVID-19 pandemic in Jersey") [Guernsey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guernsey "COVID-19 pandemic in Guernsey") [Overseas territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Overseas_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Overseas Territories") [Akrotiri and Dhekelia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia "COVID-19 pandemic in Akrotiri and Dhekelia") [British Indian Ocean Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Indian Ocean Territory") [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gibraltar "COVID-19 pandemic in Gibraltar") |
| Eastern | [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus "COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus (2022)") [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Moldova "COVID-19 pandemic in Moldova") [Gagauzia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gagauzia "COVID-19 pandemic in Gagauzia") [Transnistria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Transnistria "COVID-19 pandemic in Transnistria") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") timeline [January–June 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (January–June 2020)") [July–December 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (July–December 2020)") [government responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Russian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [political impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine") [Crimea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Crimea "COVID-19 pandemic in Crimea") [Sevastopol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sevastopol "COVID-19 pandemic in Sevastopol") |
| Western Balkans | [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Albania "COVID-19 pandemic in Albania") [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 pandemic in Bosnia and Herzegovina") [Kosovo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kosovo "COVID-19 pandemic in Kosovo") [Montenegro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montenegro "COVID-19 pandemic in Montenegro") [North Macedonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Macedonia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Macedonia") [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") |
| [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austria "COVID-19 pandemic in Austria") [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belgium "COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 pandemic in Bulgaria") [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus") [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus") [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Czech_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic") [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Denmark "COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark") [Faroe Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Faroe_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Faroe Islands") [Estonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Estonia "COVID-19 pandemic in Estonia") [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Finland "COVID-19 pandemic in Finland") [Åland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_%C3%85land "COVID-19 pandemic in Åland") [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France "COVID-19 pandemic in France") [Guadeloupe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guadeloupe "COVID-19 pandemic in Guadeloupe") [French Guiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Guiana "COVID-19 pandemic in French Guiana") [Réunion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_R%C3%A9union "COVID-19 pandemic in Réunion") [Martinique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Martinique "COVID-19 pandemic in Martinique") [Mayotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mayotte "COVID-19 pandemic in Mayotte") [Normandy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Normandy "COVID-19 pandemic in Normandy") [Saint Martin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin "COVID-19 pandemic in the Collectivity of Saint Martin") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany "COVID-19 pandemic in Germany") [North Rhine-Westphalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Rhine-Westphalia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Rhine-Westphalia") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "German government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greece "COVID-19 pandemic in Greece") [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hungary "COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland (2022)") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 vaccination in the Republic of Ireland") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns_in_Italy "COVID-19 lockdowns in Italy") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Latvia "COVID-19 pandemic in Latvia") [Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lithuania "COVID-19 pandemic in Lithuania") [Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Luxembourg "COVID-19 pandemic in Luxembourg") [Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malta "COVID-19 pandemic in Malta") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Dutch government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Poland "COVID-19 pandemic in Poland") [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portugal "COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") [Slovenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovenia") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") [Asturias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Asturias "COVID-19 pandemic in Asturias") [Canary Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Canary_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Canary Islands") [Ceuta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ceuta "COVID-19 pandemic in Ceuta") [Community of Madrid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Community_of_Madrid "COVID-19 pandemic in the Community of Madrid") [Melilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Melilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Melilla") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sweden "COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Swedish government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Operation Gloria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Gloria "Operation Gloria") |
| EFTA countries | [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iceland "COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland") [Liechtenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liechtenstein "COVID-19 pandemic in Liechtenstein") [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norway "COVID-19 pandemic in Norway") [Svalbard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Svalbard "COVID-19 pandemic in Svalbard") [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland") |
| Microstates | [Andorra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andorra "COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra") [Monaco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Monaco "COVID-19 pandemic in Monaco") [San Marino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_San_Marino "COVID-19 pandemic in San Marino") [Vatican City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vatican_City "COVID-19 pandemic in Vatican City") |
| [North America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_America "COVID-19 pandemic in North America") | |
| | |
| Atlantic | [Bermuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bermuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Bermuda") [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greenland "COVID-19 pandemic in Greenland") [Saint Pierre and Miquelon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Pierre and Miquelon") |
| Canada | [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [federal aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_aid_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Federal aid during the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Canada "COVID-19 vaccination in Canada") [military response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Laser "Operation Laser") [Atlantic Bubble](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Bubble "Atlantic Bubble") [Alberta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alberta "COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alberta "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta") [British Columbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_British_Columbia "COVID-19 pandemic in British Columbia") [Manitoba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Manitoba "COVID-19 pandemic in Manitoba") [New Brunswick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Brunswick "COVID-19 pandemic in New Brunswick") [Newfoundland and Labrador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Newfoundland_and_Labrador "COVID-19 pandemic in Newfoundland and Labrador") [Northwest Territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northwest_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northwest Territories") [Nova Scotia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nova_Scotia "COVID-19 pandemic in Nova Scotia") [Nunavut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nunavut "COVID-19 pandemic in Nunavut") [Ontario](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario "COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario (2022)") [Ottawa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ottawa "COVID-19 pandemic in Ottawa") [Peel Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Regional_Municipality_of_Peel "COVID-19 pandemic in the Regional Municipality of Peel") [Toronto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Toronto "COVID-19 pandemic in Toronto") [York Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Regional_Municipality_of_York "COVID-19 pandemic in the Regional Municipality of York") [Provincial government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincial_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario "Provincial government response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario") [Vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ontario "COVID-19 vaccination in Ontario") [Prince Edward Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Prince_Edward_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Prince Edward Island") [Quebec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Quebec "COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec") [Montreal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montreal "COVID-19 pandemic in Montreal") [boroughs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boroughs_of_Montreal_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Boroughs of Montreal during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Saskatchewan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saskatchewan "COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saskatchewan "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan") [Yukon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Yukon "COVID-19 pandemic in Yukon") |
| Caribbean | |
| | |
| Countries | [Antigua and Barbuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Antigua and Barbuda") [Bahamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Bahamas "COVID-19 pandemic in the Bahamas") [Barbados](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Barbados "COVID-19 pandemic in Barbados") [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cuba "COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba") [Guantanamo Bay Naval Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base "COVID-19 pandemic in the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base") [Dominica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dominica "COVID-19 pandemic in Dominica") [Dominican Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Dominican_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Dominican Republic") [Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Grenada "COVID-19 pandemic in Grenada") [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haiti "COVID-19 pandemic in Haiti") [Jamaica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jamaica "COVID-19 pandemic in Jamaica") [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Kitts and Nevis") [Saint Lucia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Lucia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Lucia") [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines") [Trinidad and Tobago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") |
| [British Overseas Territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Overseas_Territories "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Overseas Territories") | [Anguilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Anguilla "COVID-19 pandemic in Anguilla") [British Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the British Virgin Islands") [Cayman Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cayman_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cayman Islands") [Montserrat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montserrat "COVID-19 pandemic in Montserrat") [Turks and Caicos Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Turks and Caicos Islands") [response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Broadshare "Operation Broadshare") |
| | |
| [Aruba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Aruba "COVID-19 pandemic in Aruba") [Curaçao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cura%C3%A7ao "COVID-19 pandemic in Curaçao") [Sint Maarten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sint_Maarten "COVID-19 pandemic in Sint Maarten") | |
| Caribbean Netherlands | [Bonaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bonaire "COVID-19 pandemic in Bonaire") [Saba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saba "COVID-19 pandemic in Saba") [Sint Eustatius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sint_Eustatius "COVID-19 pandemic in Sint Eustatius") |
| French West Indies | [Guadeloupe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guadeloupe "COVID-19 pandemic in Guadeloupe") [Martinique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Martinique "COVID-19 pandemic in Martinique") [Saint Barthélemy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Barthélemy") [Saint Martin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin "COVID-19 pandemic in the Collectivity of Saint Martin") |
| US insular areas | [Puerto Rico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puerto_Rico "COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico") [U.S. Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Virgin Islands") |
| Central America | [Belize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belize "COVID-19 pandemic in Belize") [Costa Rica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Costa_Rica "COVID-19 pandemic in Costa Rica") [El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_El_Salvador "COVID-19 pandemic in El Salvador") [Guatemala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guatemala "COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala") [Honduras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Honduras "COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras") [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") [vaccination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Mexico "COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico") [Nicaragua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nicaragua "COVID-19 pandemic in Nicaragua") [Panama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Panama "COVID-19 pandemic in Panama") |
| [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") | |
| | |
| [Trump administration communication](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_of_the_Trump_administration_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Communication of the Trump administration during the COVID-19 pandemic") timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States (2021)") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [2021 hospital crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_hospital_crisis_in_the_U.S._from_COVID-19 "2021 hospital crisis in the U.S. from COVID-19") | |
| [responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "United States responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [federal government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._federal_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [state and local governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state_and_local_government_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "U.S. state and local government responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [California government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "California government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [New York government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_state_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New York state government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Texas government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Texas government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Eastern States Multi-state Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_States_Multi-state_Council "Eastern States Multi-state Council") [Midwest Governors Regional Pact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwest_Governors_Regional_Pact "Midwest Governors Regional Pact") [Western States Pact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_States_Pact "Western States Pact") |
| By location | [Alabama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alabama "COVID-19 pandemic in Alabama") [Alaska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Alaska "COVID-19 pandemic in Alaska") [American Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_American_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in American Samoa") [Arizona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arizona "COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona") [Navajo Nation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Navajo_Nation "COVID-19 pandemic in the Navajo Nation") [Arkansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Arkansas "COVID-19 pandemic in Arkansas") [California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_California "COVID-19 pandemic in California") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_California "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in California") [S.F. Bay Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area "COVID-19 pandemic in the San Francisco Bay Area") [Colorado](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colorado "COVID-19 pandemic in Colorado") [Connecticut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Connecticut "COVID-19 pandemic in Connecticut") [Delaware](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Delaware "COVID-19 pandemic in Delaware") [Florida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Florida "COVID-19 pandemic in Florida") [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(U.S._state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (U.S. state)") [Guam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guam "COVID-19 pandemic in Guam") [Hawaii](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hawaii "COVID-19 pandemic in Hawaii") [Idaho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Idaho "COVID-19 pandemic in Idaho") [Illinois](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Illinois "COVID-19 pandemic in Illinois") [Indiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indiana "COVID-19 pandemic in Indiana") [Iowa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iowa "COVID-19 pandemic in Iowa") [Kansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kansas "COVID-19 pandemic in Kansas") [Kentucky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kentucky "COVID-19 pandemic in Kentucky") [Louisiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Louisiana "COVID-19 pandemic in Louisiana") [Maine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maine "COVID-19 pandemic in Maine") [Maryland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maryland "COVID-19 pandemic in Maryland") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Maryland "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Maryland") [Massachusetts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Massachusetts "COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Massachusetts "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Massachusetts") [Boston](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Boston "COVID-19 pandemic in Boston") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Boston "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Boston") [Michigan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Michigan "COVID-19 pandemic in Michigan") [Minnesota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Minnesota "COVID-19 pandemic in Minnesota") [Mississippi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mississippi "COVID-19 pandemic in Mississippi") [Missouri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Missouri "COVID-19 pandemic in Missouri") [Montana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montana "COVID-19 pandemic in Montana") [Nebraska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nebraska "COVID-19 pandemic in Nebraska") [Nevada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nevada "COVID-19 pandemic in Nevada") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nevada "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Nevada") [New Hampshire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Hampshire "COVID-19 pandemic in New Hampshire") [New Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Jersey "COVID-19 pandemic in New Jersey") [New Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in New Mexico") [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in New York (state)") [New York City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_City "COVID-19 pandemic in New York City") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_York_City "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City") [North Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Carolina "COVID-19 pandemic in North Carolina") [North Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Dakota "COVID-19 pandemic in North Dakota") [Northern Mariana Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Mariana Islands") [Ohio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ohio "COVID-19 pandemic in Ohio") [Columbus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Columbus,_Ohio "COVID-19 pandemic in Columbus, Ohio") [Oklahoma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oklahoma "COVID-19 pandemic in Oklahoma") [Oregon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oregon "COVID-19 pandemic in Oregon") [Portland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portland,_Oregon "COVID-19 pandemic in Portland, Oregon") [Pennsylvania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pennsylvania "COVID-19 pandemic in Pennsylvania") [Philadelphia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Philadelphia "COVID-19 pandemic in Philadelphia") [Puerto Rico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Puerto_Rico "COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico") [Rhode Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rhode_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Rhode Island") [South Carolina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Carolina "COVID-19 pandemic in South Carolina") [South Dakota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Dakota "COVID-19 pandemic in South Dakota") [Tennessee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tennessee "COVID-19 pandemic in Tennessee") [Texas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Texas "COVID-19 pandemic in Texas") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Texas "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Texas") [Austin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austin,_Texas "COVID-19 pandemic in Austin, Texas") [U.S. Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Virgin Islands") [Utah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Utah "COVID-19 pandemic in Utah") [Vermont](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vermont "COVID-19 pandemic in Vermont") [Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Virginia "COVID-19 pandemic in Virginia") [Washington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Washington_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Washington (state)") [Washington, D.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Washington,_D.C. "COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C.") [White House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_COVID-19_outbreak "White House COVID-19 outbreak") [West Virginia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_West_Virginia "COVID-19 pandemic in West Virginia") [Wisconsin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wisconsin "COVID-19 pandemic in Wisconsin") [Wyoming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wyoming "COVID-19 pandemic in Wyoming") |
| [Oceania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oceania "COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania") | |
| | |
| [American Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_American_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in American Samoa") [Cook Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cook_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cook Islands") [Easter Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Easter_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Easter Island") [Federated States of Micronesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia "COVID-19 pandemic in the Federated States of Micronesia") [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Fiji "COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji") [French Polynesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Polynesia "COVID-19 pandemic in French Polynesia") [Guam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guam "COVID-19 pandemic in Guam") [Hawaii](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hawaii "COVID-19 pandemic in Hawaii") [Kiribati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kiribati "COVID-19 pandemic in Kiribati") [Marshall Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Marshall_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Marshall Islands") [Nauru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nauru "COVID-19 pandemic in Nauru") [New Caledonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Caledonia "COVID-19 pandemic in New Caledonia") [Niue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niue "COVID-19 pandemic in Niue") [Northern Mariana Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Mariana Islands") [Palau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Palau "COVID-19 pandemic in Palau") [Papua New Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Papua_New_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Papua New Guinea") [Bougainville](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Autonomous_Region_of_Bougainville "COVID-19 pandemic in the Autonomous Region of Bougainville") [Pitcairn Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Pitcairn Islands") [Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Samoa "COVID-19 pandemic in Samoa") [Solomon Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Solomon_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Solomon Islands") [Tokelau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tokelau "COVID-19 pandemic in Tokelau") [Tonga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tonga "COVID-19 pandemic in Tonga") [Tuvalu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tuvalu "COVID-19 pandemic in Tuvalu") [Vanuatu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vanuatu "COVID-19 pandemic in Vanuatu") [Wallis and Futuna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Wallis_and_Futuna "COVID-19 pandemic in Wallis and Futuna") | |
| [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Australia") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (2020)") 2021 [January–June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(January%E2%80%93June_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (January–June 2021)") [July–December](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(July%E2%80%93December_2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (July–December 2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (2022)") [Australian Capital Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Australian_Capital_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the Australian Capital Territory") [Christmas Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Christmas_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Christmas Island") [Cocos (Keeling) Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Cocos_\(Keeling\)_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands") [New South Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_South_Wales "COVID-19 pandemic in New South Wales") [Norfolk Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norfolk_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Norfolk Island") [Northern Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Northern_Territory "COVID-19 pandemic in the Northern Territory") [Queensland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Queensland "COVID-19 pandemic in Queensland") [South Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Australia") [Tasmania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tasmania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tasmania") [Victoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Victoria "COVID-19 pandemic in Victoria") [Western Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Western_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Western Australia") |
| [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") | timeline [2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2020\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2020)") [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2021\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2021)") [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2022\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2022)") [2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand_\(2023\) "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand (2023)") [economic impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "New Zealand government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Alert levels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_alert_levels_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 alert levels in New Zealand") [Traffic light system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Protection_Framework "COVID-19 Protection Framework") [social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [managed isolation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_managed_isolation_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 managed isolation in New Zealand") |
| [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_America "COVID-19 pandemic in South America") | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") [human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_human_rights_in_Argentina "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on human rights in Argentina") [Bolivia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bolivia "COVID-19 pandemic in Bolivia") [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") [São Paulo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_S%C3%A3o_Paulo_\(state\) "COVID-19 pandemic in São Paulo (state)") [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") [Easter Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Easter_Island "COVID-19 pandemic in Easter Island") [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") [Ecuador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ecuador "COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador") [Falkland Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Falkland_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Falkland Islands") [French Guiana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_French_Guiana "COVID-19 pandemic in French Guiana") [Guyana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guyana "COVID-19 pandemic in Guyana") [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Paraguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Paraguay") [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") [statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") [Cusco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cusco "COVID-19 pandemic in Cusco") [Suriname](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Suriname "COVID-19 pandemic in Suriname") [Uruguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uruguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Uruguay") [Venezuela](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Venezuela "COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela") |
| Others | [Antarctica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antarctica "COVID-19 pandemic in Antarctica") [Cruise ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_cruise_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships") [*Diamond Princess*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Diamond_Princess "COVID-19 pandemic on Diamond Princess") [*Grand Princess*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Grand_Princess "COVID-19 pandemic on Grand Princess") [Naval ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_naval_ships "COVID-19 pandemic on naval ships") [*Charles de Gaulle*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_Charles_de_Gaulle "COVID-19 pandemic on Charles de Gaulle") [USS *Theodore Roosevelt*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_USS_Theodore_Roosevelt "COVID-19 pandemic on USS Theodore Roosevelt") |
| [Impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| | |
| Culture and entertainment | |
| | |
| [Arts and cultural heritage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_arts_and_cultural_heritage "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage") | [References in popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_popular_culture "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture") [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cinema "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema") [films affected](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Corona-chan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona-chan "Corona-chan") [Disney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Walt_Disney_Company "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Walt Disney Company") [Fashion industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_fashion_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the fashion industry") [Music industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_music_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the music industry") [Performing arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_performing_arts "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performing arts") [Television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television") [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_television_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television in the United States") [U.S. sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_American_sports_broadcasting "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on American sports broadcasting") [programs affected](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_television_series_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of American television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Video games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_video_game_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the video game industry") |
| [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education") | |
| | |
| [Female education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_female_education "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on female education") [Homeschooling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeschooling_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| By country | [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_Ghana "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in Ghana") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the Republic of Ireland") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_Kingdom "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom") [exam grading controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_Kingdom_school_exam_grading_controversy "2020 United Kingdom school exam grading controversy") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_education_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United States") |
| [Sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports") | |
| | |
| [Bio-secure bubble](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-secure_bubble "Bio-secure bubble") | |
| By country | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_sports_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports in the Republic of Ireland") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Philippine_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Philippine sports") |
| By sport | [Association football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_association_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on association football") [Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_baseball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on baseball") [Basketball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_basketball "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on basketball") [NBA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_the_2019%E2%80%9320_NBA_season "Suspension of the 2019–20 NBA season") [Combat sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_combat_sports "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on combat sports") [Cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_cricket "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cricket") [Disc golf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_disc_golf "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on disc golf") [Gaelic games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Gaelic_games "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Gaelic games") [Gridirion football (NCAAF, NFL, and CFL)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_gridiron_football "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gridiron football") [Ice hockey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ice_hockey "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ice hockey") [Motorsport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_motorsport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on motorsport") [Rugby league](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_rugby_league "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rugby league") |
| Society and rights | |
| | |
| [Social impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Social media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_social_media "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media") [Stigma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stigma_associated_with_COVID-19 "Social stigma associated with COVID-19") [Children](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_children "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children") [foster care in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_foster_care_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on foster care in the United States") [Pandemic baking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic_baking "Pandemic baking") |
| Labor | [Healthcare workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_healthcare_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_migrant_workers_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Indian migrant workers during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Great Resignation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Resignation "Great Resignation") [Strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikes_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Strikes during the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| [Human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_issues_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Human rights issues related to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_human_rights_in_Argentina "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on human rights in Argentina") [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Myanmar_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "2021 Myanmar coup d'état") |
| Legal | [Abortion in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_abortion_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on abortion in the United States") [Crime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_crime "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on crime") [Domestic violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_domestic_violence "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence") [Prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_prisons "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prisons") [U.S. immigration detention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_U.S._immigration_detention "COVID-19 pandemic in U.S. immigration detention") |
| Minority | [Gender](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendered_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Gendered impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") [LGBT community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_LGBT_community "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the LGBT community") [African communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities") [Indian migrant workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Indian_migrant_workers "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Indian migrant workers") [Disability community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_people_with_disabilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on people with disabilities") [Native American communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Native_American_tribes_and_tribal_communities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Native American tribes and tribal communities") [Xenophobia and racism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_religion "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion") | [Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church") [Hajj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_Hajj "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Hajj") |
| [Economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| | |
| [Charitable activity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charitable_activities_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Charitable activities related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [COVID-19 scams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_scams "COVID-19 scams") [Travel restrictions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| By country | [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") [COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Pandemic_Unemployment_Payment "COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") [U.K.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") |
| By industry | [Aviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_commercial_air_transport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on commercial air transport") [Airlines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airlines_impacted_by_the_COVID-19_pandemic "List of airlines impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic") [Cannabis industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_cannabis_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cannabis industry") [Food industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_food_industry "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food industry") [meat industry in Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_meat_industry_in_Canada "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the meat industry in Canada") [meat industry in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_meat_industry_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the meat industry in the United States") [restaurant industry in the U.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_restaurant_industry_in_the_United_States "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the restaurant industry in the United States") [Hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_hospitals "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on hospitals") [ICU capacity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_ICU_capacity "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ICU capacity") [Long-term care facilities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_long-term_care_facilities "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on long-term care facilities") [Mink farming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Public transport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_public_transport "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public transport") [Retail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_retail "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on retail") [Tourism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_tourism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism") |
| Supply and trade | [Shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Chip supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_global_chip_shortage "2020–2023 global chip shortage") [Energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_global_energy_crisis "2021–2023 global energy crisis") [Global supply chain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_global_supply_chain_crisis "2021–2023 global supply chain crisis") [Oil price war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war "2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war") [Food security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Food security during the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| [Financial markets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Global stock market crash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_stock_market_crash "2020 stock market crash") [COVID-19 recession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_recession "COVID-19 recession") [Inflation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_inflation_surge "2021–2022 inflation surge") |
| Information | |
| | |
| [Journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_journalism "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism") [Media coverage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic") [Wikipedia's response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_and_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Wikipedia and the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| [Misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation "COVID-19 misinformation") | [Governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments "COVID-19 misinformation by governments") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China "COVID-19 misinformation by China") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States "COVID-19 misinformation by the United States") By country [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_Canada "COVID-19 misinformation in Canada") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines") [Ivermectin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic") *[Plandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plandemic "Plandemic")* |
| [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| | |
| [National responses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_pandemic_legislation "List of COVID-19 pandemic legislation") [List of political officials who have tested positive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_officials_who_have_tested_positive_for_COVID-19 "List of political officials who have tested positive for COVID-19") [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "European Union response to the COVID-19 pandemic") | |
| [Political impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in the Republic of Ireland") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Malaysia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Malaysia") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_politics_in_Russia "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics in Russia") |
| [Protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_against_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Protests against responses to the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Abkhazia_unrest "2021 Abkhazia unrest") [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17A "17A") [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Australia "COVID-19 protests in Australia") [Convoy to Canberra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy_to_Canberra "Convoy to Canberra") [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Azerbaijani_protests "2020 Azerbaijani protests") [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Belarusian_protests "2020–2021 Belarusian protests") [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Brussels_protests "2022 Brussels protests") [2020 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Brazilian_protests "2020 Brazilian protests") [2021 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Brazilian_protests "2021 Brazilian protests") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Bulgarian_protests "2020–2021 Bulgarian protests") [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Canada "COVID-19 protests in Canada") [convoy protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_convoy_protest "Canada convoy protest") [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%932022_Chilean_protests "2019–2022 Chilean protests") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_COVID-19_protests_in_China "2022 COVID-19 protests in China") [Beijing Sitong Bridge protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Beijing_Sitong_Bridge_protest "2022 Beijing Sitong Bridge protest") [healthcare reform protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Chinese_healthcare_reform_protests "2023 Chinese healthcare reform protests") [2021 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Colombian_protests "2021 Colombian protests") [2022 protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Colombian_protests "2022 Colombian protests") [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Cuban_protests "2021 Cuban protests") [Yellow vests protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_vests_protests "Yellow vests protests") [labor protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_French_labor_protests "2021 French labor protests") [French West Indies social unrest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_social_unrest_in_the_French_West_Indies "2021–2022 social unrest in the French West Indies") [convoy protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_convoy_protest "France convoy protest") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Germany "COVID-19 protests in Germany") [Idar-Oberstein shooting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Idar-Oberstein_shooting "2021 Idar-Oberstein shooting") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Greek_protests "2021 Greek protests") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_Israel "COVID-19 protests in Israel") [protests against Benjamin Netanyahu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_protests_against_Benjamin_Netanyahu "2020–2021 protests against Benjamin Netanyahu") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_over_COVID-19_policies_in_Italy "Protests over COVID-19 policies in Italy") [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Mongolian_protests "2021 Mongolian protests") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 protests in the Netherlands") [curfew riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Dutch_curfew_riots "2021 Dutch curfew riots") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 protests in New Zealand") [Wellington protest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Wellington_protest "2022 Wellington protest") [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Paraguayan_protests "2021 Paraguayan protests") [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Serbian_protests "2020–2022 Serbian protests") [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Tunisian_protests "2021 Tunisian protests") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 protests in the United Kingdom") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_protests_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 protests in the United States") [Open the States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_the_States "Open the States") |
| [International relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_international_relations "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations") | [Aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "International reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") [Moldovan–Romanian collaboration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan%E2%80%93Romanian_collaboration_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Moldovan–Romanian collaboration during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator_diplomacy_of_Taiwan "Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan") [Vaccine diplomacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_diplomacy "Vaccine diplomacy") |
| [Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Glossary of the COVID-19 pandemic") | [Anthropause](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropause "Anthropause") [Doomscrolling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomscrolling "Doomscrolling") [Flattening the curve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flattening_the_curve "Flattening the curve") [Green recovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_recovery "Green recovery") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing "Social distancing") [Superspreader](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superspreading_event "Superspreading event") [Twindemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twindemic "Twindemic") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") [Zoom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom_\(software\) "Zoom (software)") [Zoom towns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom_town "Zoom town") |
| Others | [Animals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_and_animals "COVID-19 pandemic and animals") [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_environment "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment") [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_military "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the military") [Pregnant women](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_pregnant_women "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on pregnant women") [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology") |
| Health issues | |
| | |
| Medical topics | [Transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_of_COVID-19 "Transmission of COVID-19") [Symptoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptoms_of_COVID-19 "Symptoms of COVID-19") [Cancer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_and_cancer "COVID-19 and cancer") [Endemic COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_COVID-19 "Endemic COVID-19") [Skin manifestations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous_manifestations_of_COVID-19 "Cutaneous manifestations of COVID-19") [Long COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID "Long COVID") [Mental health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic") [neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes") [Pregnancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_in_pregnancy "COVID-19 in pregnancy") [Non-COVID-19–related health issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_other_health_issues "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues") [Shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Rehabilitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehabilitation_after_COVID-19 "Rehabilitation after COVID-19") [Unproven medical methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19 "List of unproven methods against COVID-19") |
| Testing and epidemiology | |
| | |
| [Datasets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_datasets "COVID-19 datasets") [Death rates by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_death_rates_by_country "COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country") [Disease testing]() [Breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer") [Operation Moonshot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonshot "Operation Moonshot") [Test to Release](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_to_Release "Test to Release") [UK Rapid Test Consortium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Rapid_Test_Consortium "UK Rapid Test Consortium") [AbC-19 rapid antibody test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AbC-19_rapid_antibody_test "AbC-19 rapid antibody test") [investigations into the origins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigations_into_the_origin_of_COVID-19 "Investigations into the origin of COVID-19") [lab leak theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lab_leak_theory "COVID-19 lab leak theory") [Rapid antigen test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test") [Software](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_for_COVID-19_pandemic_mitigation "Software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation") [Surveillance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance "COVID-19 surveillance") [Undercounting COVID-19 deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercounting_of_COVID-19_pandemic_deaths_by_country "Undercounting of COVID-19 pandemic deaths by country") | |
| [Apps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_apps "COVID-19 apps") | [Aarogya Setu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarogya_Setu "Aarogya Setu") [BlueTrace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlueTrace "BlueTrace") [careFIJI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CareFIJI "CareFIJI") [Coronavirus Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_Australia "Coronavirus Australia") [Corona-Warn-App](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona-Warn-App "Corona-Warn-App") [COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Contact-Confirming_Application "COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application") [COVID Alert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Alert "COVID Alert") (Canada) [COVIDSafe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVIDSafe "COVIDSafe") [COVID Tracker Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Tracker_Ireland "COVID Tracker Ireland") [Covid Watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid_Watch "Covid Watch") [Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralized_Privacy-Preserving_Proximity_Tracing "Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing") [Exposure Notification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_Notification "Exposure Notification") [Health Code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Code "Health Code") [Healthy Together](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_Together "Healthy Together") [Immuni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuni "Immuni") [Koronavilkku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronavilkku "Koronavilkku") [LeaveHomeSafe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeaveHomeSafe "LeaveHomeSafe") [MySejahtera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySejahtera "MySejahtera") [NHS COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_COVID-19 "NHS COVID-19") [NZ COVID Tracer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZ_COVID_Tracer "NZ COVID Tracer") [NZ Pass Verifier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZ_Pass_Verifier "NZ Pass Verifier") [PathCheck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PathCheck "PathCheck") [PeduliLindungi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PeduliLindungi "PeduliLindungi") [SafeEntry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafeEntry "SafeEntry") [SafePass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafePass "SafePass") [StaySafe.ph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StaySafe.ph "StaySafe.ph") [SwissCovid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SwissCovid "SwissCovid") [TCN Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCN_Protocol "TCN Protocol") [Test, Trace, Protect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test,_Trace,_Protect "Test, Trace, Protect") [Thai Chana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_Chana "Thai Chana") [TousAntiCovid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TousAntiCovid "TousAntiCovid") [TraceTogether](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TraceTogether "TraceTogether") [Valtrace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valtrace "Valtrace") [Zoe Health Study](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_Health_Study "Zoe Health Study") |
| Prevention | [Air purifier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier "Air purifier") ([Corsi–Rosenthal Box](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsi%E2%80%93Rosenthal_Box "Corsi–Rosenthal Box")) [Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroquine_and_hydroxychloroquine_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Evacuations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuations_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Face masks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic") [Anti-mask sentiment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-mask_sentiment "Anti-mask sentiment") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") [Flattening the curve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flattening_the_curve "Flattening the curve") [Great Barrington Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrington_Declaration "Great Barrington Declaration") [International aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_aid_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "International aid related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Lockdowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdowns "COVID-19 lockdowns") [Public health mitigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19 "Public health mitigation of COVID-19") [Safe Hands Challenge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Hands_Challenge "Safe Hands Challenge") [Social distancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing_measures_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic") [Workplace hazard controls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_hazard_controls_for_COVID-19 "Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19") [Zero-COVID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-COVID "Zero-COVID") |
| [Vaccines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine "COVID-19 vaccine") | |
| | |
| Topics | [Authorizations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_COVID-19_vaccine_authorizations "List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations") [Clinical research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research "COVID-19 vaccine clinical research") [Deployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") [Development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_COVID-19_vaccine_development "History of COVID-19 vaccine development") [EU Certificate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Digital_COVID_Certificate "EU Digital COVID Certificate") [Misinformation and hesitancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy "COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy") [Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaths_of_anti-vaccine_advocates_from_COVID-19 "Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates from COVID-19") [US](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_hesitancy_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the United States") [Operation Warp Speed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Warp_Speed "Operation Warp Speed") (U.S.) [Post-vaccination complications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolic_and_thrombotic_events_after_COVID-19_vaccination "Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination") [Vaccine card](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_card "COVID-19 vaccine card") [Vaccine passports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_passports_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic") |
| Authorized | |
| | |
| [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_vaccine "DNA vaccine") | [ZyCoV-D](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZyCoV-D "ZyCoV-D") |
| [Inactivated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine "Inactivated vaccine") | [Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences_COVID-19_vaccine "Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences COVID-19 vaccine") [CoronaVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoronaVac "CoronaVac") [Covaxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covaxin "Covaxin") [COVIran Barekat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVIran_Barekat "COVIran Barekat") [CoviVac (Russia)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoviVac_\(Russia_COVID-19_vaccine\) "CoviVac (Russia COVID-19 vaccine)") [FAKHRAVAC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAKHRAVAC "FAKHRAVAC") [Minhai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minhai_COVID-19_vaccine "Minhai COVID-19 vaccine") [QazCovid-in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QazCovid-in "QazCovid-in") [Sinopharm BIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Sinopharm WIBP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_WIBP_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm WIBP COVID-19 vaccine") [Turkovac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkovac "Turkovac") [Valneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valneva_COVID-19_vaccine "Valneva COVID-19 vaccine") |
| [mRNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine "MRNA vaccine") | [Moderna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine") [Pfizer–BioNTech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine") |
| [Subunit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subunit_vaccine "Subunit vaccine") | [Abdala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdala_\(vaccine\) "Abdala (vaccine)") [Corbevax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbevax "Corbevax") (Bio E COVID-19) [COVAX-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVAX-19 "COVAX-19") [EpiVacCorona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EpiVacCorona "EpiVacCorona") [IndoVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IndoVac "IndoVac") [MVC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVC_COVID-19_vaccine "MVC COVID-19 vaccine") [Noora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noora_\(vaccine\) "Noora (vaccine)") [Novavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine "Novavax COVID-19 vaccine") [Razi Cov Pars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi_Cov_Pars "Razi Cov Pars") [Sinopharm CNBG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopharm_CNBG_COVID-19_vaccine "Sinopharm CNBG COVID-19 vaccine") [Soberana 02](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_02 "Soberana 02") [Soberana Plus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberana_Plus "Soberana Plus") [ZF2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF2001 "ZF2001") (Zifivax) |
| [Viral vector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_vector_vaccine "Viral vector vaccine") | [Convidecia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convidecia "Convidecia") [Janssen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janssen_COVID-19_vaccine "Janssen COVID-19 vaccine") [Oxford–AstraZeneca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik V](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine "Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine") [Sputnik Light](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_Light "Sputnik Light") |
| [Virus-like particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") | [CoVLP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoVLP "CoVLP") |
| In trials | |
| | |
| [Attenuated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine "Attenuated vaccine") | [COVI-VAC (United States)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVI-VAC_\(U.S._COVID-19_vaccine\) "COVI-VAC (U.S. COVID-19 vaccine)") |
| DNA | [AG0302-COVID‑19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AG0302-COVID%E2%80%9119 "AG0302-COVID‑19") [GX-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GX-19 "GX-19") [Inovio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inovio_COVID-19_vaccine "Inovio COVID-19 vaccine") |
| Inactivated | [KD-414](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KD-414 "KD-414") [NDV-HXP-S](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDV-HXP-S "NDV-HXP-S") |
| RNA | [ARCT-021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCT-021 "ARCT-021") [ARCT-154](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCT-154 "ARCT-154") [Bangavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangavax "Bangavax") [CureVac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CureVac_COVID-19_vaccine "CureVac COVID-19 vaccine") (terminated) [HGC019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HGC019 "HGC019") [mRNA-1283](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA-1283 "MRNA-1283") [PTX-COVID19-B](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PTX-COVID19-B "PTX-COVID19-B") [Sanofi–Translate Bio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93Translate_Bio_COVID-19_vaccine "Sanofi–Translate Bio COVID-19 vaccine") (terminated) [Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemirna_COVID-19_vaccine "Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine") [Walvax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walvax_COVID-19_vaccine "Walvax COVID-19 vaccine") |
| Subunit | [202-CoV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/202-CoV "202-CoV") [AKS-452](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKS-452 "AKS-452") [EuCorVac-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuCorVac-19 "EuCorVac-19") [IVX-411](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IVX-411 "IVX-411") [Nanocovax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocovax "Nanocovax") [ReCOV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReCOV "ReCOV") [Sanofi–GSK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93GSK_COVID-19_vaccine "Sanofi–GSK COVID-19 vaccine") [S-268019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-268019 "S-268019") [SCB-2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCB-2019 "SCB-2019") [SCTV01C](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCTV01C "SCTV01C") [Skycovione](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skycovione "Skycovione") [UB-612](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UB-612 "UB-612") [V-01](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-01 "V-01") [V451](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V451_vaccine "V451 vaccine") (terminated) [Vabiotech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vabiotech_COVID-19_vaccine "Vabiotech COVID-19 vaccine") [West China Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_China_Hospital_COVID-19_vaccine "West China Hospital COVID-19 vaccine") [Zhongyianke Biotech–Liaoning Maokangyuan Biotech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF2001 "ZF2001") |
| Viral vector | [AdCLD-CoV19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdCLD-CoV19 "AdCLD-CoV19") [BriLife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BriLife "BriLife") [COH04S1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COH04S1 "COH04S1") [DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT "DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT") [GRAd-COV2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAd-COV2 "GRAd-COV2") [ImmunityBio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ImmunityBio_COVID-19_vaccine "ImmunityBio COVID-19 vaccine") [iNCOVACC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCOVACC "INCOVACC") [INNA-051](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INNA-051 "INNA-051") [NDV-HXP-S](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDV-HXP-S "NDV-HXP-S") [Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaxart_COVID-19_vaccine "Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine") |
| [Virus-like particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus-like_particle "Virus-like particle") | [ABNCoV2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABNCoV2 "ABNCoV2") [LYB001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LYB001 "LYB001") [MigVax-101](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MigVax-101 "MigVax-101") [VBI-2902](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VBI-2902 "VBI-2902") |
| [Deployment by location](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deployment_of_COVID-19_vaccines "Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines") | |
| | |
| [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Africa "COVID-19 vaccination in Africa") | [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Algeria "COVID-19 vaccination in Algeria") [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Angola "COVID-19 vaccination in Angola") [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Botswana "COVID-19 vaccination in Botswana") [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 vaccination in Burkina Faso") [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Burundi "COVID-19 vaccination in Burundi") [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 vaccination in Cameroon") [Cape Verde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cape_Verde "COVID-19 vaccination in Cape Verde") [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 vaccination in Cameroon") [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Chad "COVID-19 vaccination in Chad") [Comoros](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Comoros "COVID-19 vaccination in the Comoros") [Democratic Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 vaccination in the Democratic Republic of the Congo") [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 vaccination in Djibouti") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Egypt "COVID-19 vaccination in Egypt") [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 vaccination in Equatorial Guinea") [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 vaccination in Eswatini") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ghana "COVID-19 vaccination in Ghana") [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Morocco "COVID-19 vaccination in Morocco") [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 vaccination in Nigeria") [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Senegal "COVID-19 vaccination in Senegal") [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 vaccination in South Africa") [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 vaccination in Zimbabwe") |
| Asia | [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 vaccination in Bangladesh") [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 vaccination in Bhutan") [Mainland China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 vaccination in mainland China") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_India "COVID-19 vaccination in India") [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 vaccination in Indonesia") [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Iran "COVID-19 vaccination in Iran") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Israel "COVID-19 vaccination in Israel") [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Japan "COVID-19 vaccination in Japan") [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 vaccination in Kazakhstan") [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 vaccination in Malaysia") [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Nepal "COVID-19 vaccination in Nepal") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 vaccination in the Philippines") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Russia "COVID-19 vaccination in Russia") [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Singapore "COVID-19 vaccination in Singapore") [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 vaccination in South Korea") [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 vaccination in Sri Lanka") [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 vaccination in Taiwan") [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Thailand "COVID-19 vaccination in Thailand") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Turkey "COVID-19 vaccination in Turkey") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 vaccination in the United Arab Emirates") [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 vaccination in Vietnam") |
| Europe | [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Albania "COVID-19 vaccination in Albania") [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 vaccination in Bosnia and Herzegovina") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 vaccination in Bulgaria") [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Croatia "COVID-19 vaccination in Croatia") [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Denmark "COVID-19 vaccination in Denmark") [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_France "COVID-19 vaccination in France") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Germany "COVID-19 vaccination in Germany") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Greece "COVID-19 vaccination in Greece") [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Hungary "COVID-19 vaccination in Hungary") [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Iceland "COVID-19 vaccination in Iceland") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 vaccination in the Republic of Ireland") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Italy "COVID-19 vaccination in Italy") [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Moldova "COVID-19 vaccination in Moldova") [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Norway "COVID-19 vaccination in Norway") [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Portugal "COVID-19 vaccination in Portugal") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Romania "COVID-19 vaccination in Romania") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Russia "COVID-19 vaccination in Russia") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Spain "COVID-19 vaccination in Spain") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Sweden "COVID-19 vaccination in Sweden") [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 vaccination in Switzerland") [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 vaccination in Ukraine") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 vaccination in the United Kingdom") |
| North America | [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Canada "COVID-19 vaccination in Canada") [Ontario](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Ontario "COVID-19 vaccination in Ontario") [Quebec](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Quebec "COVID-19 vaccination in Quebec") [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Haiti "COVID-19 vaccination in Haiti") [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Mexico "COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccination in the United States") [mandates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_mandates_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 vaccination mandates in the United States") |
| Oceania | [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Australia "COVID-19 vaccination in Australia") [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Fiji "COVID-19 vaccination in Fiji") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 vaccination in New Zealand") |
| South America | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Argentina "COVID-19 vaccination in Argentina") [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Brazil "COVID-19 vaccination in Brazil") [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Colombia "COVID-19 vaccination in Colombia") [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_Peru "COVID-19 vaccination in Peru") |
| Others | |
| [Treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatment_and_management_of_COVID-19 "Treatment and management of COVID-19") | |
| | |
| [Drug development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_development "COVID-19 drug development") [Drug repurposing research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_drug_repurposing_research "COVID-19 drug repurposing research") [Baricitinib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baricitinib "Baricitinib") [PANORAMIC trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PANORAMIC_trial "PANORAMIC trial") (UK) [RECOVERY Trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RECOVERY_Trial "RECOVERY Trial") (UK) [Solidarity trial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidarity_trial "Solidarity trial") (WHO) | |
| [Monoclonal antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody "Monoclonal antibody") | [Bamlanivimab/etesevimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamlanivimab/etesevimab "Bamlanivimab/etesevimab") [Bamlanivimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamlanivimab "Bamlanivimab") Etesevimab [Bebtelovimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebtelovimab "Bebtelovimab") [Casirivimab/imdevimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casirivimab/imdevimab "Casirivimab/imdevimab") [Regdanvimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regdanvimab "Regdanvimab") [Sarilumab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarilumab "Sarilumab") [Sotrovimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotrovimab "Sotrovimab") [Tixagevimab/cilgavimab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tixagevimab/cilgavimab "Tixagevimab/cilgavimab") [Tocilizumab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocilizumab "Tocilizumab") |
| [Small molecule antivirals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral_drug "Antiviral drug") | [Broad-spectrum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad-spectrum_antiviral_drug "Broad-spectrum antiviral drug") [Ensitrelvir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensitrelvir "Ensitrelvir") [Molnupiravir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molnupiravir "Molnupiravir") Co-packaged [Nirmatrelvir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirmatrelvir "Nirmatrelvir") [ritonavir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir "Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir") |
| [Variants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_SARS-CoV-2 "Variants of SARS-CoV-2") | |
| | |
| Specific | [Alpha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Alpha_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant") [Beta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant") [Gamma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Gamma_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant") [Delta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant") [Epsilon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Epsilon_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Epsilon variant") [Zeta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Zeta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Zeta variant") [Eta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Eta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Eta variant") [Theta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Theta_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Theta variant") [Iota](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Iota_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Iota variant") [Kappa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Kappa_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Kappa variant") [Lambda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Lambda_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Lambda variant") [Mu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Mu_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Mu variant") [Omicron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") [timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant "Timeline of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant") |
| General | [Cluster 5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_5 "Cluster 5") [Lineage B.1.617](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_lineage_B.1.617 "SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.617") [Variant of concern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_variant_of_concern "SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern") |
| Institutions | |
| | |
| Hospitals and medical clinics | |
| | |
| Mainland China | [Central Hospital of Wuhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Hospital_of_Wuhan "Central Hospital of Wuhan") [Dabie Mountain Regional Medical Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabie_Mountain_Regional_Medical_Centre "Dabie Mountain Regional Medical Centre") [Fangcang hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fangcang_hospital "Fangcang hospital") [Huoshenshan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huoshenshan_Hospital "Huoshenshan Hospital") [Leishenshan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishenshan_Hospital "Leishenshan Hospital") [Xinjia Express Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collapse_of_Xinjia_Express_Hotel "Collapse of Xinjia Express Hotel") [Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan_Jinyintan_Hospital "Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital") |
| Others | [Hospital ships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_ships_designated_for_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Hospital ships designated for the COVID-19 pandemic") [Garran Surge Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garran_Surge_Centre "Garran Surge Centre") (Australia) [Hospital El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_El_Salvador "Hospital El Salvador") [Kemayoran Athletes Village](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemayoran_Athletes_Village "Kemayoran Athletes Village") (Indonesia) [Pyongyang General Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyongyang_General_Hospital "Pyongyang General Hospital") (North Korea) [Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia_Agro_Exposition_Park_Serdang "Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang") (Malaysia) [Mega Ligtas COVID Centers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega_Ligtas_COVID_Centers "Mega Ligtas COVID Centers") (Philippines) [Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandakadu_Treatment_and_Rehabilitation_Centre "Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre") (Sri Lanka) [Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Öz Emergency Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancaktepe_Prof._Dr._Feriha_%C3%96z_Emergency_Hospital "Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Öz Emergency Hospital") (Turkey) [Yeşilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye%C5%9Filk%C3%B6y_Prof._Dr._Murat_Dilmener_Emergency_Hospital "Yeşilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital") (Turkey) [COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_hospitals_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom") [Birmingham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_Birmingham "NHS Nightingale Hospital Birmingham") [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_London "NHS Nightingale Hospital London") [North East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_North_East "NHS Nightingale Hospital North East") [North West](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_North_West "NHS Nightingale Hospital North West") [Yorkshire and the Humber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_Yorkshire_and_the_Humber "NHS Nightingale Hospital Yorkshire and the Humber") [NHS Louisa Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_Louisa_Jordan "NHS Louisa Jordan") (Scotland) [Dragon's Heart Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon%27s_Heart_Hospital "Dragon's Heart Hospital") (Wales) |
| Organizations | |
| | |
| [National Cabinet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cabinet_\(Australia\) "National Cabinet (Australia)") (Australia) [ScienceUpFirst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceUpFirst "ScienceUpFirst") (Canada) [Wuhan Institute of Virology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan_Institute_of_Virology "Wuhan Institute of Virology") (China) [Independent SAGE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_SAGE "Independent SAGE") (United Kingdom) | |
| Health institutes | [Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_Centres_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention") (African Union) [Ghana Infectious Disease Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Infectious_Disease_Centre "Ghana Infectious Disease Centre") (Ghana) [Department of Health (Hong Kong)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Health_\(Hong_Kong\) "Department of Health (Hong Kong)") [Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_Disease_Control_and_Prevention_Agency "Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency") (South Korea) [National Institute for Communicable Diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Communicable_Diseases "National Institute for Communicable Diseases") (South Africa) [Taiwan Centers for Disease Control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Centers_for_Disease_Control "Taiwan Centers for Disease Control") (Taiwan) |
| Pandemic institutes | [National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_COVID-19_Commission_Advisory_Board "National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board") (Australia) [COVID-19 Immunity Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Immunity_Task_Force "COVID-19 Immunity Task Force") (Canada) [COVID-19 Supply Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Supply_Council "COVID-19 Supply Council") (Canada) [PREPARE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PREPARE "PREPARE") (European Union) [National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Expert_Group_on_Vaccine_Administration_for_COVID-19 "National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19") (India) [COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Response_Acceleration_Task_Force "COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force") (Indonesia) [National Public Health Emergency Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Health_Emergency_Team_\(2020\) "National Public Health Emergency Team (2020)") (Ireland) [Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel_Coronavirus_Expert_Meeting "Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting") (Japan) [Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_Preparedness_and_Response_Centre "Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre") (Malaysia) [Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defeat_COVID-19_Ad_Hoc_Committee "Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee") (Philippines) [Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-Agency_Task_Force_for_the_Management_of_Emerging_Infectious_Diseases "Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases") (Philippines) [Central Epidemic Command Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Epidemic_Command_Center "Central Epidemic Command Center") (Taiwan) [Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_Scientific_Advisory_Board "Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board") (Turkey) [COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Genomics_UK_Consortium "COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium") (United Kingdom) [Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_College_COVID-19_Response_Team "Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team") (United Kingdom) [Joint Biosecurity Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Biosecurity_Centre "Joint Biosecurity Centre") (United Kingdom) [Vaccine Taskforce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Taskforce "Vaccine Taskforce") (United Kingdom) [COVID-19 Advisory Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_Advisory_Board "COVID-19 Advisory Board") (United States) [Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_American_Economic_Revival_Industry_Groups "Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups") (United States) [White House Coronavirus Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Coronavirus_Task_Force "White House Coronavirus Task Force") (United States) [White House COVID-19 Response Team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_COVID-19_Response_Team "White House COVID-19 Response Team") (United States) [GACH](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GACH "GACH") (Uruguay) |
| Relief funds | [PM CARES Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PM_CARES_Fund "PM CARES Fund") (India) [Artist Relief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artist_Relief "Artist Relief") (United States) |
| People | |
| | |
| Medical professionals | [Ai Fen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai_Fen "Ai Fen") [Corona Rintawan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_Rintawan "Corona Rintawan") [Li Wenliang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Wenliang "Li Wenliang") [Liu Wen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Wen_\(doctor\) "Liu Wen (doctor)") [Xie Linka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xie_Linka "Xie Linka") [Zhang Wenhong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Wenhong "Zhang Wenhong") |
| [Researchers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Coronavirus_researchers "Category:Coronavirus researchers") | [Awang Bulgiba Awang Mahmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awang_Bulgiba_Awang_Mahmud "Awang Bulgiba Awang Mahmud") [Roberto Burioni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Burioni "Roberto Burioni") [Chen Wei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Wei_\(medical_scientist\) "Chen Wei (medical scientist)") [Kizzmekia Corbett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kizzmekia_Corbett "Kizzmekia Corbett") [Andrea Crisanti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Crisanti_\(scientist\) "Andrea Crisanti (scientist)") [Peter Daszak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Daszak "Peter Daszak") [Christian Drosten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Drosten "Christian Drosten") [Neil Ferguson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Ferguson_\(epidemiologist\) "Neil Ferguson (epidemiologist)") [Dale Fisher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Fisher "Dale Fisher") [George F. Gao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_F._Gao "George F. Gao") [Azra Ghani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azra_Ghani "Azra Ghani") [Sarah Gilbert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Gilbert "Sarah Gilbert") [Guan Yi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan_Yi "Guan Yi") [Kentaro Iwata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentaro_Iwata "Kentaro Iwata") [Katalin Karikó](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3 "Katalin Karikó") [Matt Keeling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Keeling "Matt Keeling") [Trudie Lang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trudie_Lang "Trudie Lang") [Li Lanjuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Lanjuan "Li Lanjuan") [W. Ian Lipkin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Ian_Lipkin "W. Ian Lipkin") [Ma Xiaowei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Xiaowei "Ma Xiaowei") [Shabir Madhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabir_Madhi "Shabir Madhi") [Allison McGeer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_McGeer "Allison McGeer") [Camilla Rothe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camilla_Rothe "Camilla Rothe") [Shi Zhengli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi_Zhengli "Shi Zhengli") [Moncef Slaoui](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moncef_Slaoui "Moncef Slaoui") [Mike Tildesley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tildesley "Mike Tildesley") [John Todd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Todd_\(British_biologist\) "John Todd (British biologist)") [Wang Chen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Chen_\(physician\) "Wang Chen (physician)") [Wang Guangfa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Guangfa "Wang Guangfa") [Drew Weissman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Weissman "Drew Weissman") [Yuen Kwok-yung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuen_Kwok-yung "Yuen Kwok-yung") [Zeng Guang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeng_Guang "Zeng Guang") [Zhang Jixian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Jixian "Zhang Jixian") [Zhang Yongzhen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Yongzhen "Zhang Yongzhen") [Zhong Nanshan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhong_Nanshan "Zhong Nanshan") |
| Officials | |
| | |
| WHO | [Tedros Adhanom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedros_Adhanom_Ghebreyesus "Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus") (Director-General of the WHO) [Bruce Aylward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Aylward "Bruce Aylward") (Team lead of WHO-China COVID-19 mission) [Maria Van Kerkhove](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Van_Kerkhove "Maria Van Kerkhove") (Technical Lead for COVID-19 response) [Michael J. Ryan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Ryan_\(doctor\) "Michael J. Ryan (doctor)") (Executive Director of the WHO Health Emergencies Programme) |
| By location | [Frank Atherton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Atherton "Frank Atherton") (Wales) [Ashley Bloomfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_Bloomfield "Ashley Bloomfield") (New Zealand) [Catherine Calderwood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Calderwood "Catherine Calderwood") (Scotland) [Chang Shan-chwen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang_Shan-chwen "Chang Shan-chwen") (Taiwan) [Anutin Charnvirakul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anutin_Charnvirakul "Anutin Charnvirakul") (Thailand) [Chen Shih-chung](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Shih-chung "Chen Shih-chung") (Taiwan) [Kenneth Chuang Yin-ching](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuang_Yin-ching "Chuang Yin-ching") (Taiwan) [Victor Costache](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Costache "Victor Costache") (Romania) [Fabrizio Curcio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrizio_Curcio "Fabrizio Curcio") (Italy) [Carmen Deseda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen_Deseda "Carmen Deseda") (Puerto Rico) [Jaap van Dissel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaap_van_Dissel "Jaap van Dissel") (the Netherlands) [Christian Drosten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Drosten "Christian Drosten") (Germany) [Francisco Duque III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Duque_III "Francisco Duque III") (Philippines) [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci") (United States) [Francesco Paolo Figliuolo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Paolo_Figliuolo "Francesco Paolo Figliuolo") (Italy) [Graça Freitas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gra%C3%A7a_Freitas "Graça Freitas") (Portugal) [Henrique Gouveia e Melo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrique_Gouveia_e_Melo "Henrique Gouveia e Melo") (Portugal) [Matt Hancock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Hancock "Matt Hancock") (United Kingdom) [Hamad Hasan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamad_Hasan "Hamad Hasan") (Lebanon) [Greg Hunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Hunt "Greg Hunt") (Australia) [Tony Holohan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Holohan "Tony Holohan") (Ireland) [Jeong Eun-kyeong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeong_Eun-kyeong "Jeong Eun-kyeong") (South Korea) [Fahrettin Koca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrettin_Koca "Fahrettin Koca") (Turkey) [Li Keqiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Keqiang "Li Keqiang") (China) [Hugo López-Gatell Ramírez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_L%C3%B3pez-Gatell_Ram%C3%ADrez "Hugo López-Gatell Ramírez") (Mexico) [Michael McBride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_McBride_\(doctor\) "Michael McBride (doctor)") (Northern Ireland) [Oriol Mitjà](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriol_Mitj%C3%A0 "Oriol Mitjà") (Andorra) [Zweli Mkhize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweli_Mkhize "Zweli Mkhize") (South Africa) [Doni Monardo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doni_Monardo "Doni Monardo") (Indonesia) [Alma Möller](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_M%C3%B6ller "Alma Möller") (Iceland) [Saeed Namaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saeed_Namaki "Saeed Namaki") (Iran) [Ala Nemerenco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ala_Nemerenco "Ala Nemerenco") (Moldova) [Nguyễn Thanh Long](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Thanh_Long "Nguyễn Thanh Long") (Vietnam) [Noor Hisham Abdullah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noor_Hisham_Abdullah "Noor Hisham Abdullah") (Malaysia) [Ali Pilli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Pilli "Ali Pilli") (Northern Cyprus) [Daniel Salinas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Salinas "Daniel Salinas") (Uruguay) [Jérôme Salomon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Salomon "Jérôme Salomon") (France) [Fernando Simón](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Sim%C3%B3n "Fernando Simón") (Spain) [Gregor Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Smith "Gregor Smith") (Scotland) [Su Ih-jen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Ih-jen "Su Ih-jen") (Taiwan) [Łukasz Szumowski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81ukasz_Szumowski "Łukasz Szumowski") (Poland) [Theresa Tam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_Tam "Theresa Tam") (Canada) [Anders Tegnell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Tegnell "Anders Tegnell") (Sweden) [Þórólfur Guðnason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%B3lfur_Gu%C3%B0nason "Þórólfur Guðnason") (Iceland) [Sotiris Tsiodras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotiris_Tsiodras "Sotiris Tsiodras") (Greece) [Harsh Vardhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsh_Vardhan_\(Delhi_politician\) "Harsh Vardhan (Delhi politician)") (India) [Víðir Reynisson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%AD%C3%B0ir_Reynisson "Víðir Reynisson") (Iceland) [Carla Vizzotti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Vizzotti "Carla Vizzotti") (Argentina) [Vlad Voiculescu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_Voiculescu "Vlad Voiculescu") (Romania) [Chris Whitty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Whitty "Chris Whitty") (United Kingdom) [Lawrence Wong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Wong "Lawrence Wong") (Singapore) [Jeff Zients](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Zients "Jeff Zients") (United States) |
| Others | [Chen Qiushi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Qiushi "Chen Qiushi") [Brett Crozier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brett_Crozier "Brett Crozier") [Fang Bin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fang_Bin "Fang Bin") [Fang Fang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fang_Fang "Fang Fang") [Joseph Ashitey Hammond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Ashitey_Hammond "Joseph Ashitey Hammond") [Li Zehua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zehua "Li Zehua") [Captain Tom Moore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_Tom_Moore "Captain Tom Moore") [Qiu Menghuang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Menghuang "Qiu Menghuang") [Ren Zhiqiang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren_Zhiqiang "Ren Zhiqiang") |
| [List of deaths due to COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaths_due_to_COVID-19 "List of deaths due to COVID-19") | |
| Data (templates) | |
| | |
| Global | WHO situation reports [cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_cases "COVID-19 pandemic cases") [deaths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_deaths "COVID-19 pandemic deaths") [World map by countries: confirmed per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") |
| Asia | [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Armenia_medical_cases_chart "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Armenia medical cases chart") [Artsakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Republic_of_Artsakh_medical_cases_chart "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Republic of Artsakh medical cases chart") China [confirmed per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:COVID-19_pandemic_data/Mainland_China_medical_cases_map_\(dots\) "Template:COVID-19 pandemic data/Mainland China medical cases map (dots)") |
[Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals "Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"):
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SARS-CoV-2_\(Wikimedia_colors\).svg) [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:COVID-19 "Portal:COVID-19")
-  [Medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Medicine "Portal:Medicine")
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sida-aids.png) [Viruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Viruses "Portal:Viruses")
Retrieved from "<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=COVID-19_testing&oldid=1347458798>"
[Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category "Help:Category"):
- [COVID-19 testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:COVID-19_testing "Category:COVID-19 testing")
Hidden categories:
- [CS1 German-language sources (de)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_\(de\) "Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)")
- [Source attribution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Source_attribution "Category:Source attribution")
- [Webarchive template wayback links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links "Category:Webarchive template wayback links")
- [CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Japanese-language_sources_\(ja\) "Category:CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)")
- [CS1 Albanian-language sources (sq)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Albanian-language_sources_\(sq\) "Category:CS1 Albanian-language sources (sq)")
- [CS1 French-language sources (fr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_\(fr\) "Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)")
- [CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Portuguese-language_sources_\(pt\) "Category:CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)")
- [CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Spanish-language_sources_\(es\) "Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)")
- [CS1 uses Armenian-language script (hy)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Armenian-language_script_\(hy\) "Category:CS1 uses Armenian-language script (hy)")
- [CS1 Armenian-language sources (hy)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Armenian-language_sources_\(hy\) "Category:CS1 Armenian-language sources (hy)")
- [CS1 Azerbaijani-language sources (az)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Azerbaijani-language_sources_\(az\) "Category:CS1 Azerbaijani-language sources (az)")
- [CS1 uses Arabic-language script (ar)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Arabic-language_script_\(ar\) "Category:CS1 uses Arabic-language script (ar)")
- [CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Arabic-language_sources_\(ar\) "Category:CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar)")
- [CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_\(ru\) "Category:CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)")
- [CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_\(ru\) "Category:CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)")
- [CS1 Bosnian-language sources (bs)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Bosnian-language_sources_\(bs\) "Category:CS1 Bosnian-language sources (bs)")
- [CS1 uses Bulgarian-language script (bg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Bulgarian-language_script_\(bg\) "Category:CS1 uses Bulgarian-language script (bg)")
- [CS1 Bulgarian-language sources (bg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Bulgarian-language_sources_\(bg\) "Category:CS1 Bulgarian-language sources (bg)")
- [CS1 uses Khmer-language script (km)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Khmer-language_script_\(km\) "Category:CS1 uses Khmer-language script (km)")
- [CS1 Khmer-language sources (km)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Khmer-language_sources_\(km\) "Category:CS1 Khmer-language sources (km)")
- [CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Chinese-language_script_\(zh\) "Category:CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)")
- [CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Chinese-language_sources_\(zh\) "Category:CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)")
- [CS1 Croatian-language sources (hr)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Croatian-language_sources_\(hr\) "Category:CS1 Croatian-language sources (hr)")
- [CS1 uses Greek-language script (el)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Greek-language_script_\(el\) "Category:CS1 uses Greek-language script (el)")
- [CS1 Greek-language sources (el)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Greek-language_sources_\(el\) "Category:CS1 Greek-language sources (el)")
- [CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Czech-language_sources_\(cs\) "Category:CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)")
- [CS1 Danish-language sources (da)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Danish-language_sources_\(da\) "Category:CS1 Danish-language sources (da)")
- [CS1 uses Amharic-language script (am)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Amharic-language_script_\(am\) "Category:CS1 uses Amharic-language script (am)")
- [CS1 Amharic-language sources (am)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Amharic-language_sources_\(am\) "Category:CS1 Amharic-language sources (am)")
- [CS1 uses Georgian-language script (ka)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Georgian-language_script_\(ka\) "Category:CS1 uses Georgian-language script (ka)")
- [CS1 Georgian-language sources (ka)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Georgian-language_sources_\(ka\) "Category:CS1 Georgian-language sources (ka)")
- [CS1 Hungarian-language sources (hu)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Hungarian-language_sources_\(hu\) "Category:CS1 Hungarian-language sources (hu)")
- [CS1 uses Hebrew-language script (he)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Hebrew-language_script_\(he\) "Category:CS1 uses Hebrew-language script (he)")
- [CS1 Hebrew-language sources (he)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Hebrew-language_sources_\(he\) "Category:CS1 Hebrew-language sources (he)")
- [CS1 Italian-language sources (it)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Italian-language_sources_\(it\) "Category:CS1 Italian-language sources (it)")
- [CS1 uses Japanese-language script (ja)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Japanese-language_script_\(ja\) "Category:CS1 uses Japanese-language script (ja)")
- [CS1 Kyrgyz-language sources (ky)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Kyrgyz-language_sources_\(ky\) "Category:CS1 Kyrgyz-language sources (ky)")
- [CS1 Lao-language sources (lo)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Lao-language_sources_\(lo\) "Category:CS1 Lao-language sources (lo)")
- [CS1 Latvian-language sources (lv)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Latvian-language_sources_\(lv\) "Category:CS1 Latvian-language sources (lv)")
- [CS1 Lithuanian-language sources (lt)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Lithuanian-language_sources_\(lt\) "Category:CS1 Lithuanian-language sources (lt)")
- [CS1 Malagasy-language sources (mg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Malagasy-language_sources_\(mg\) "Category:CS1 Malagasy-language sources (mg)")
- [CS1 Malay-language sources (ms)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Malay-language_sources_\(ms\) "Category:CS1 Malay-language sources (ms)")
- [CS1 Romanian-language sources (ro)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_Romanian-language_sources_\(ro\) "Category:CS1 Romanian-language sources (ro)")
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COVID-19 testing
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| Readable Markdown | [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CDC_2019-nCoV_Laboratory_Test_Kit.jpg)
The US CDC's COVID-19 laboratory test kit
**COVID-19 testing** involves analyzing samples to assess the current or past presence of [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2"), the virus that causes [COVID-19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") and is responsible for the [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"). The two main types of tests detect either the presence of the virus or [antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodies "Antibodies") produced in response to infection.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CDC_testing-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2) Molecular tests for viral presence through its molecular components are used to diagnose individual cases and to allow public health authorities to trace and contain outbreaks. Antibody tests (serology immunoassays) instead show whether someone once had the disease.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:11-3) They are less useful for diagnosing current infections because antibodies may not develop for weeks after infection.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CDC-antibody-test-4) It is used to assess disease prevalence, which aids the estimation of the [infection fatality rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_fatality_rate "Case fatality rate").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JAMA_antibody-5)
Individual jurisdictions have adopted varied testing protocols, including whom to test, how often to test, analysis protocols, sample collection and the uses of test results.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Bund-6)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-7)[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Iceland_screening-8) This variation has likely significantly impacted reported statistics, including case and test numbers, case fatality rates and case demographics.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Ward_2020-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:7-11)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-12) Because SARS-CoV-2 transmission occurs days after exposure (and before onset of symptoms), there is an urgent need for frequent surveillance and rapid availability of results.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32997903-13)
Test analysis is often performed in [automated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_analyzer "Automated analyzer"), [high-throughput](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_automation "Laboratory automation"), [medical laboratories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory "Medical laboratory") by [medical laboratory scientists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist "Medical laboratory scientist"). [Rapid self-tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_antigen_test "Rapid antigen test") and [point-of-care testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing "Point-of-care testing") are also available and can offer a faster and less expensive method to test for the virus although with a lower accuracy.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:9-14)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:19-15)
Methods
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Covid-19-Time-Course-05.gif)
Explanation of the underlying pathophysiology pertaining to diagnosis of COVID-19[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-16)
Positive viral tests indicate a current infection, while positive antibody tests indicate a prior infection.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CDC_testing-1) Other techniques include a [CT scan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scan "CT scan"), checking for elevated body temperature, checking for low blood oxygen level, and [detection by trained dogs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_dogs "Detection dogs").[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-ap-helsinki-vantaa-detection-dogs-17)[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-jtm-detection-dogs-18)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-bmc-detection-dogs-19)
Detection of the virus
Detection of the virus is usually done either by looking for the virus's inner [RNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA "RNA"), or pieces of protein on the outside of the virus. Tests that look for the viral [antigens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen") (parts of the virus) are called *antigen tests*.
There are multiple types of tests that look for the virus by detecting the presence of the virus's RNA. These are called *nucleic acid* or *molecular* tests, after [molecular biology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology "Molecular biology"). As of 2021, the most common form of molecular test is the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:13-20) Other methods used in molecular tests include [CRISPR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing "CRISPR gene editing"), [isothermal nucleic acid amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_amplification_test "Nucleic acid amplification test"), [digital polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_polymerase_chain_reaction "Digital polymerase chain reaction"), [microarray analysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microarray_analysis_techniques "Microarray analysis techniques"), and [next-generation sequencing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_parallel_sequencing "Massive parallel sequencing").[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:13-20)
Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test
[Polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction "Polymerase chain reaction") (PCR) is a process that [amplifies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication "DNA replication") (replicates) a small, well-defined segment of [DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA "DNA") many hundreds of thousands of times, creating enough of it for analysis. Test samples are treated with certain chemicals[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-21)[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-iaea_rt-pcr-22) that allow DNA to be extracted. [Reverse transcription](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase "Reverse transcriptase") converts RNA into DNA.
[Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction "Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction") (RT-PCR) first uses reverse transcription to obtain DNA, followed by PCR to amplify that DNA, creating enough to be analyzed.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-iaea_rt-pcr-22) RT-PCR can thereby detect [SARS-CoV-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2"), which contains only RNA. The RT-PCR process generally requires a few hours.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-globenewswire1977226-23) These tests are also referred to as molecular or genetic assays.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:11-3)
[Real-time PCR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_polymerase_chain_reaction "Real-time polymerase chain reaction") (qPCR)[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Bustin2009-24) provides advantages including automation, higher-throughput and more reliable instrumentation. It has become the preferred method.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-25)[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-26)
The combined technique has been described as real-time RT-PCR[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid20515509-27) or quantitative RT-PCR[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid12325527-28) and is sometimes abbreviated [qRT-PCR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction "Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction"),[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid20204872-29) rRT-PCR[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-30) or RT-qPCR,[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid20215014-31) although sometimes RT-PCR or PCR are used. The [Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_Information_for_Publication_of_Quantitative_Real-Time_PCR_Experiments "Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments") (MIQE) guidelines propose the term *RT-qPCR*,[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Bustin2009-24) but not all authors adhere to this.
Average [sensitivity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity "Sensitivity and specificity") for rapid molecular tests depend on the brand. For ID NOW, the average sensitivity was 73.0% with an average specificity of 99.7%; for Xpert Xpress the average sensitivity was 100% with an average specificity of 97.2%.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:2-32)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\][\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid35866452-33)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\]
In a diagnostic test, sensitivity is a measure of how well a test can identify true positives and specificity is a measure of how well a test can identify true negatives. For all testing, both diagnostic and screening, there is usually a trade-off between sensitivity and specificity, such that higher sensitivities will mean lower specificities and vice versa.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PPV,_NPV,_Sensitivity_and_Specificity.svg)
Sensitivity and Specificity
A 90% specific test will correctly identify 90% of those who are uninfected, leaving 10% with a false positive result.
Samples can be obtained by various methods, including a [nasopharyngeal swab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_swab "Nasopharyngeal swab"), [sputum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputum "Sputum") (coughed up material),[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-20200129cdc-34) throat swabs,[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-chrdrosten20200326-35) deep airway material collected via [suction catheter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankauer_suction_tip "Yankauer suction tip")[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-chrdrosten20200326-35) or [saliva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saliva "Saliva").[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-sciencenews_saliva-36)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_saliva-37) [Drosten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Drosten "Christian Drosten") et al. remarked that for 2003 SARS, "from a diagnostic point of view, it is important to note that nasal and throat swabs seem less suitable for diagnosis, since these materials contain considerably less viral RNA than sputum, and the virus may escape detection if only these materials are tested."[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-drosten03-38)
Sensitivity of clinical samples by RT-PCR is 63% for nasal swab, 32% for pharyngeal swab, 48% for feces, 72–75% for sputum, and 93–95% for bronchoalveolar [lavage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_irrigation "Therapeutic irrigation").[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid332875524-39)
The likelihood of detecting the virus depends on collection method and how much time has passed since infection. According to Drosten tests performed with throat swabs are reliable only in the first week. Thereafter the virus may abandon the throat and multiply in the lungs. In the second week, sputum or deep airways collection is preferred.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-chrdrosten20200326-35)
Collecting saliva may be as effective as nasal and throat swabs,[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-sciencenews_saliva-36) although this is not certain.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-40)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_saliva-37) Sampling saliva may reduce the risk for health care professionals by eliminating close physical interaction.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Rutgers_saliva-41) It is also more comfortable for the patient.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cnn_saliva-42) Quarantined people can collect their own samples.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Rutgers_saliva-41) A saliva test's diagnostic value depends on sample site (deep throat, oral cavity, or salivary glands).[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_saliva-37) Some studies have found that saliva yielded greater sensitivity and consistency when compared with swab samples.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32857487-43)[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32855317-44)[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-45)
On 15 August 2020, the US FDA granted an emergency use authorization for a saliva test developed at Yale University that gives results in hours.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-46)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-47)
On 4 January 2021, the US FDA issued an alert about the risk of false results, particularly false negative results, with the [Curative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curative_\(company\) "Curative (company)") SARS-Cov-2 Assay real-time RT-PCR test.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-FDA_Curative-48)
Viral burden measured in [upper respiratory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_respiratory "Upper respiratory") specimens declines after symptom onset.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-49) Following recovery, many patients no longer have detectable viral RNA in upper respiratory specimens. Among those who do, RNA concentrations three days following recovery are generally below the range in which replication-competent virus has been reliably isolated.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-50) No clear correlation has been described between length of illness and duration of post-recovery shedding of viral RNA in upper respiratory specimens.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-51)
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Infektionsschutzzentrum_im_Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum,_K%C3%B6ln-6313_\(cropped\).jpg "Demonstration of a nasopharyngeal swab for COVID-19 testing")
Demonstration of a [nasopharyngeal swab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_swab "Nasopharyngeal swab") for COVID-19 testing
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Infektionsschutzzentrum_im_Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum,_K%C3%B6ln-6306_\(cropped\).jpg "Demonstration of a throat swab for COVID-19 testing")
Demonstration of a [throat swab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throat_swab "Throat swab") for COVID-19 testing
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cycler_offen.JPG "A PCR machine")
A PCR machine
- Video of a [nasopharyngeal swab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_swab "Nasopharyngeal swab") for COVID-19 testing
Other molecular tests
[Isothermal nucleic acid amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_PCR#Isothermal_amplification_methods "Variants of PCR") tests also amplify the virus's genome. They are faster than PCR because they do not involve repeated heating and cooling cycles. These tests typically detect DNA using [fluorescent tags](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_tag "Fluorescent tag"), which are read out with specialized machines.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
[CRISPR gene editing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing "CRISPR gene editing") technology was modified to perform the detection: if the CRISPR enzyme attaches to the sequence, it colors a paper strip. The researchers expect the resulting test to be cheap and easy to use in point-of-care settings.[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-52)[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-53) The test amplifies RNA directly, without the RNA-to-DNA conversion step of RT-PCR.[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-54)
Antigen tests
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corona_positive_Rapid_Antigen_test_\(50688059186\).jpg)
COVID-19 Antigen Rapid Test Kit; the [timer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timer "Timer") is provided by the user.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Safe_Corona_Rapid_Test_Diagnostic_\(50687306273\).jpg)
Mucus from nose or throat in a test liquid is placed onto a COVID-19 rapid antigen diagnostic test device.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Covid-19_rapid_test_in_Rwanda.jpg)
COVID-19 rapid testing in Rwanda
An [antigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen") is the part of a [pathogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen "Pathogen") that elicits an [immune response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_response "Immune response"). Antigen tests look for antigen [proteins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein "Protein") from the viral surface. In the case of a [coronavirus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus "Coronavirus"), these are usually proteins from the [surface spikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein "Coronavirus spike protein").[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55) SARS-CoV-2 antigens can be detected before onset of COVID-19 symptoms (as soon as sufficient SARS-CoV-2 virus particles are present) with more rapid test results, but with less sensitivity than PCR tests for the virus.[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32939084-56)
[COVID-19 rapid antigen tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test") are [lateral flow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test "Lateral flow test") [immunoassays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoassay "Immunoassay") that detect the presence of a specific viral [antigen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen "Antigen"), which indicates current viral infection. Antigen tests produce results quickly (within approximately 15–30 minutes), and most can be used at the point-of-care or as self-tests. Self-tests are rapid tests that can be taken at home or anywhere, are easy to use, and produce rapid results.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CDC_testing-1) Antigen tests can be performed on nasopharyngeal, nasal swab, or saliva specimens.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:19-15)
Antigen tests that can identify SARS-CoV-2 offer a faster and less expensive method to test for the virus.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:9-14) Antigen tests are generally less sensitive than real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and other nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs).[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:19-15)
Antigen tests may be one way to scale up testing to much greater levels.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55) Isothermal nucleic acid amplification tests can process only one sample at a time per machine. [RT-PCR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT-PCR "RT-PCR") tests are accurate but require too much time, energy and trained personnel to run the tests.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55) "There will never be the ability on a \[PCR\] test to do 300 million tests a day or to test everybody before they go to work or to school," [Deborah Birx](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deborah_Birx "Deborah Birx"), head of the [White House Coronavirus Task Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Coronavirus_Task_Force "White House Coronavirus Task Force"), said on 17 April 2020. "But there might be with the antigen test."[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-57)
Samples may be collected via nasopharyngeal swab, a swab of the [anterior nares](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_nares "Anterior nares"), or from saliva (obtained by various methods including *lollipop tests* for children).[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-M%C3%BCllender_2021-58) The sample is then exposed to paper strips containing artificial antibodies designed to bind to coronavirus antigens. Antigens bind to the strips and give a visual readout. The process takes less than 30 minutes, can deliver results at point of care, and does not require expensive equipment or extensive training.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55)
Swabs of respiratory viruses often lack enough antigen material to be detectable.[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AAAS-59) This is especially true for [asymptomatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic "Asymptomatic") patients who have little if any [nasal discharge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinorrhea "Rhinorrhea"). Viral proteins are not amplified in an antigen test.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55)[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cnn_test_types-60) A Cochrane review based on 64 studies investigating the efficacy of 16 different antigen tests determined that they correctly identified COVID-19 infection in an average of 72% of people with symptoms, compared to 58% of people without symptoms.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:2-32)[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid35866452-33) Tests were most accurate (78%) when used in the first week after symptoms first developed, likely because people have the most virus in their system in the first days after they are infected.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:2-32) While some scientists doubt whether an antigen test can be useful against COVID-19,[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cnn_test_types-60) others have argued that antigen tests are highly sensitive when viral load is high and people are contagious, making them suitable for public health screening.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-61)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-62) Routine antigen tests can quickly identify when asymptomatic people are contagious, while follow-up PCR can be used if confirmatory diagnosis is needed.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-FDA_antigen-63)
Antibody tests
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antibody_tester.jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corona_antibody_test.jpg)
The body responds to a viral infection by producing [antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodies "Antibodies") that help neutralize the virus.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Klasse_pp._1%E2%80%9324-64) Blood tests (also called [serology tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serology_test "Serology test") or serology immunoassays[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:11-3)) can detect the presence of such antibodies.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-65) Antibody tests can be used to assess what fraction of a population has once been infected, which can then be used to calculate the disease's [mortality rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate "Mortality rate").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JAMA_antibody-5) They can also be used to determine how much antibody is contained in a unit of convalescent plasma, for COVID-19 treatment, or to verify if a given vaccine generates an adequate immune response.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:12-66)
SARS-CoV-2 antibodies' potency and protective period have not been established.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JAMA_antibody-5)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-SA_immun-67) Therefore, a positive antibody test may not imply immunity to a future infection. Further, whether mild or asymptomatic infections produce sufficient antibodies for a test to detect has not been established.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:1-68) Antibodies for some diseases persist in the bloodstream for many years, while others fade away.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tech_antigens-55)
The most notable antibodies are [IgM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_M "Immunoglobulin M") and [IgG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G "Immunoglobulin G"). IgM antibodies are generally detectable several days after initial infection, although levels over the course of infection and beyond are not well characterized.[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cellex_eua-69) IgG antibodies generally become detectable 10–14 days after infection and normally peak around 28 days after infection.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NYT_antibody-70)[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-MtSinai_EUA-71) This pattern of antibody development seen with other infections, often does not apply to SARS-CoV-2, however, with IgM sometimes occurring after IgG, together with IgG or not occurring at all.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32633840-72) Generally, however, median IgM detection occurs 5 days after symptom onset, whereas IgG is detected a median 14 days after symptom onset.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32729549-73) IgG levels significantly decline after two or three months.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32882235-74)
Genetic tests verify infection earlier than antibody tests. Only 30% of those with a positive genetic test produced a positive antibody test on day 7 of their infection.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:1-68)
Antibody Test Types
Rapid diagnostic test (RDT)
[RDTs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test "Rapid diagnostic test") typically use a small, portable, positive/negative [lateral flow assay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_assay "Lateral flow assay") that can be executed at point of care. RDTs may process blood samples, saliva samples, or nasal swab fluids. RDTs produce colored lines to indicate positive or negative results.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2)
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
[ELISAs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme-linked_immunosorbent_assay "Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay") can be qualitative or quantitative and generally require a lab. These tests usually use [whole blood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_blood "Whole blood"), [plasma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasma "Blood plasma"), or [serum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum_\(blood\) "Serum (blood)") samples. A plate is coated with a viral protein, such as a SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Samples are incubated with the protein, allowing any antibodies to bind to it. The antibody-protein complex can then be detected with another wash of antibodies that produce a color/fluorescent readout.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2)
Neutralization assay
Neutralization assays assess whether sample antibodies prevent viral infection in test cells.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Klasse_pp._1%E2%80%9324-64) These tests sample blood, plasma or serum. The test cultures cells that allow viral reproduction (e.g., [Vero E6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vero_cell "Vero cell") cells). By varying antibody concentrations, researchers can visualize and quantify how many test antibodies block virus replication.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2)
Chemiluminescent immunoassay
Chemiluminescent [immunoassays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoassay "Immunoassay") are quantitative lab tests. They sample blood, plasma, or serum. Samples are mixed with a known viral protein, buffer reagents and specific, enzyme-labeled antibodies. The result is luminescent. A chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay uses magnetic, protein-coated microparticles. Antibodies react to the viral protein, forming a complex. Secondary enzyme-labeled antibodies are added and bind to these complexes. The resulting chemical reaction produces light. The radiance is used to calculate the number of antibodies. This test can identify multiple types of antibodies, including IgG, IgM, and [IgA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A "Immunoglobulin A").[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Serology_testing-2)
Neutralizing vis-à-vis binding antibodies
Most if not all large scale COVID-19 antibody testing looks for binding antibodies only and does not measure the more important [neutralizing antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralizing_antibody "Neutralizing antibody") (NAb).[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-research_svnt-75)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_antibody-76)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fcheck_antibody-77) A NAb is an antibody that neutralizes the infectivity of a virus particle by blocking its attachment to or entry into a susceptible cell; enveloped viruses, like e.g. SARS-CoV-2, are neutralized by the blocking of steps in the replicative cycle up to and including membrane fusion.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Def-78)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Klasse_pp._1%E2%80%9324-64) A non-neutralizing antibody either does not bind to the crucial structures on the virus surface or binds but leaves the virus particle infectious; the antibody may still contribute to the destruction of virus particles or infected cells by the immune system.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-schmaljohn2013-79)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Klasse_pp._1%E2%80%9324-64) It may even enhance infectivity by interacting with receptors on [macrophages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage "Macrophage").[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-80) Since most COVID-19 antibody tests return a positive result if they find only binding antibodies, these tests cannot indicate that the subject has generated protective NAbs that protect against re-infection.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_antibody-76)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fcheck_antibody-77)
It is expected that binding antibodies imply the presence of NAbs[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fcheck_antibody-77) and for many viral diseases total antibody responses correlate somewhat with NAb responses[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-sciencemediacentre-81) but this is not established for COVID-19. A study of 175 recovered patients in China who experienced mild symptoms reported that 10 individuals had no detectable NAbs at discharge, or thereafter. How these patients recovered without the help of NAbs and whether they were at risk of re-infection was not addressed.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nature_antibody-76) An additional source of uncertainty is that even if NAbs are present, viruses such as HIV can evade NAb responses.[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-research_svnt-75)
Studies have indicated that NAbs to the original [SARS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS") virus (the predecessor to the current SARS-CoV-2) can remain active for two years[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-82) and are gone after six years.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JImm6-83) Nevertheless, memory cells including [memory B cells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_B_cell "Memory B cell") and [memory T cells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_T_cell "Memory T cell")[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-84) can last much longer and may have the ability to reduce reinfection severity.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-JImm6-83)
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MINISTRO_DE_DEFENSA_SUPERVIS%C3%93_TOMA_DE_PRUEBAS_DE_COVID-19_A_COMERCIANTES_DEL_MERCADO_CAQUET%C3%81_\(49833483173\).jpg "A point of care test in Peru. A blood droplet is collected by a pipette.")
A point of care test in Peru. A blood droplet is collected by a [pipette](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipette "Pipette").
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MINISTRO_DE_DEFENSA_SUPERVIS%C3%93_TOMA_DE_PRUEBAS_DE_COVID-19_A_COMERCIANTES_DEL_MERCADO_CAQUET%C3%81_\(49834325922\).jpg "Blood from pipette is then placed onto a COVID-19 rapid diagnostic test device.")
Blood from pipette is then placed onto a COVID-19 [rapid diagnostic test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test "Rapid diagnostic test") device.
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IgGIgM-Covid19-Test.jpg "The rapid diagnostic test shows reactions of IgG and IgM antibodies. The left tray shows a negative result, and the right positive")
The rapid diagnostic test shows reactions of [IgG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G "Immunoglobulin G") and [IgM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_M "Immunoglobulin M") antibodies. The left tray shows a negative result, and the right positive
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Home_COVID_test_-_positive_result.jpg "Home test with a positive result. The \"C\" is the control; the \"T\" is the test")
Home test with a positive result. The "C" is the control; the "T" is the test
Other tests
Sniff tests
Sudden loss of smell can be used to screen people on a daily basis for COVID-19. A study by the National Institutes of Health showed that those infected with SARS-CoV-2 could not smell a 25% mixture of ethanol and water.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-85) Because various conditions can lead to the loss of the sense of smell, a sniff test would not be definitive but indicate the need for a PCR test. Because the loss of the sense of smell shows up before other symptoms, there has been a call for widespread sniff testing.[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-86) Health care bureaucracies have generally ignored sniff tests even though they are quick, easy and capable of being self-administered daily. This has led some medical journals to write editorials supporting the adoption of sniff testing.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-87)
Imaging
Typical visible features on CT initially include bilateral multilobar [ground-glass opacities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_glass_opacity "Ground glass opacity") with a peripheral or posterior distribution.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:0-88) COVID-19 can be identified with higher precision using CT than with RT-PCR.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid32843849-89)
[Subpleural dominance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleural_cavity "Pleural cavity"), [crazy paving](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy_paving_\(medicine\) "Crazy paving (medicine)"), and [consolidation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_consolidation "Pulmonary consolidation") may develop as the disease evolves.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:0-88)[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-90) Chest [CT scans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scan "CT scan") and [chest x-rays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_radiograph "Chest radiograph") are not recommended for diagnosing COVID-19. Radiologic findings in COVID-19 lack specificity.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:0-88)[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-91)
Chest X-rays, computed tomography scans and ultrasounds are all ways the coronavirus disease can be detected.
A chest x-ray is a portable lightweight machine. This machine is typically more available than polymerase chain reaction and computerized tomography scans. it only takes approximately 15 seconds per patient.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:02-92) This makes chest-x ray readily accessible and inexpensive. It also has quick turnaround time and can be crucial to the clinical equipment in the detection of coronavirus disease.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-93) Computerized tomography scans involve looking at 3D images from various angles. This is not as available as chest x-ray, but still only takes about 15 minutes per patient.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:02-92) Computerized tomography has been a known routine scanning for pneumonia diagnosis, therefore can also be used to diagnose coronavirus disease. Computerized tomography scans may help with ongoing illness monitoring throughout treatment. Patients who had low-grade symptoms and high body temperatures revealed significant lung indications on their chest computed tomography scans. They emphasized how important chest computerized tomography scans are for determining how serious the coronavirus disease infection is.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:110-94)
Ultrasound can be another tool to detect coronavirus disease. An ultrasound is a type of imaging exam that produces images using sound waves. Unlike computerized tomography scans and x-rays, ultrasound does not use radiation. Moreover, it is inexpensive, simple to use, repeatable, and has several additional advantages. Using a hand-held mobile machine, ultrasound examinations can be performed in a variety of healthcare settings.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:22-95)
There are some downsides to using imaging, however. The equipment needed for computed tomography scans is not available in most hospitals, making it not as effective as some other tools used for detection of the coronavirus disease.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:02-92) One of the difficult tasks in a pandemic is manually inspecting each report, which takes numerous radiology professionals and time.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-96) There were several problems with early studies of using chest computerized tomography scans for diagnosing coronavirus. Some of these problems included the disease severity characters being different in severe and hospitalized cases. The criteria for doing a chest computerized tomography scan were not defined. There was also no characterization of positive chest computerized tomography scans results. The computerized tomography scans findings were not the same as positive computerized tomography scans findings of coronavirus.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:22-95) In a typical clinical setting, chest imaging is not advised for routine screening of COVID-19. Patients with asymptomatic to mild symptoms are not recommended to be tested via chest computerized tomography scans. However, it is still crucial to use, particularly when determining complications or disease progression. Chest imaging also is not always the first route to take with patients who have high risk factors for COVID. High risk patients that had mild symptoms, chest imaging findings were limited. Although a computerized tomography scan is a strong tool in the diagnosis of COVID-19, it is insufficient to identify COVID-19 alone due to the poor specificity and the difficulties that radiologists may experience in distinguishing COVID-19 from other viral pneumonia on chest computerized tomography scans.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:110-94)
Serology (CoLab score) tests
The standard blood test (quick scan) taken at the emergency room measures different values. By use of the blood quick scan the CoLab score is calculated with a developed algorithm based on how the coronavirus causes changes in the blood. The software is intended for use in emergency rooms to quickly rule out the presence of the disease in incoming patients. A not negative result is followed by a PCR ([polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction "Polymerase chain reaction")) or LAMP ([loop-mediated isothermal amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop-mediated_isothermal_amplification "Loop-mediated isothermal amplification")) test.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-97)
Breath tests
The breath test by a [Coronavirus breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer") is a pre-screening test for people who have no or mild symptoms of COVID-19. A not negative result is followed by a PCR or LAMP test.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
Animals
In May 2021, Reuters reported that Dutch researchers at [Wageningen University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wageningen_University "Wageningen University") had shown that trained bees could detect the virus in infected samples in seconds and this could benefit countries where test facilities are in short supply.[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-98) A two-month study by the Necker-Cochin hospital Paris in conjunction with the French national veterinary school reported in May 2021 that dogs were more reliable than current lateral flow tests.[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-99)
Researchers in Paris in March 2022 reported in a preprint not yet peer-reviewed that trained dogs were very effective for rapidly detecting the presence of SARS-Cov2 in people, whether displaying symptoms or not. The dogs were presented with sweat samples to smell from 335 people, of whom 78 with symptoms and 31 without tested positive by PCR. The dogs detected 97% of the symptomatic and 100% of the asymptomatic infections. They were 91% accurate at identifying volunteers who were not infected, and 94% accurate at ruling out the infection in people without symptoms. The authors said "Canine testing is non-invasive and provides immediate and reliable results. Further studies will be focused on direct sniffing by dogs to evaluate sniffer dogs for mass pre-test in airports, harbors, railways stations, cultural activities or sporting events."[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-100)[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-101)
Functional assays
Tollotest is a molecular test that detects the activity of a SARS-CoV2 protease, which is a biomarker for active infection.[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-102)
History
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Full-list-cumulative-total-tests-per-million.svg)
Timeline of total number of tests in different countries[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-103)
In January 2020, scientists from China published the first [genetic sequences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_sequence "Genetic sequence") of SARS-CoV-2 via [virological.org](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virological.org "Virological.org"),[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-104) a "hub for prepublication data designed to assist with public health activities and research".[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Schnirring11Jan2020-105)
Even once the first tests were created, the supply was limited. As a result, no countries had reliable data on the prevalence of the virus early in the pandemic.[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:14-106) The WHO and other experts called for ramping up testing as the best way to slow the spread of the virus.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:15-107)[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:16-108) [Shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortages_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic") of [reagent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent "Reagent") and other testing supplies became a [bottleneck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottleneck_\(production\) "Bottleneck (production)") for mass testing in the EU, the UK and the US.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:17-109)[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:18-110)[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:20-111) Early tests also encountered problems with reliability.[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:21-112)[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-113)
Testing protocols
Drive-through testing
In [drive-through](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive-through "Drive-through") testing, the person undergoing testing remains in a vehicle while a healthcare professional approaches the vehicle and obtains a sample, all while taking appropriate precautions such as wearing [personal protective equipment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment "Personal protective equipment") (PPE).[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-114)[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-115) Drive-through centers helped South Korea accelerate its testing program.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-116)
Home collection
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Randox_COVID-19_PCR_home_test_kit.jpg)
A [Randox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randox_Health "Randox Health") PCR home test kit in the UK, showing the swab, and multi-layer packaging to deliver it to the lab
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19_USPS_Mailings.jpg)
A USPS package containing COVID-19 tests from the fifth round of free US distributions in the fall of 2023, with instructions regarding FDA extensions of test expiration dates.
In Hong Kong test subjects can stay home and receive a specimen tube. They spit into it, return it and later get the result.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-117) Additionally, by the fall of 2023, the United States had conducted six rounds of mailing free at-home COVID-19 tests to households nationwide. The [COVID-19 rapid antigen tests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_rapid_antigen_test "COVID-19 rapid antigen test"), while less accurate than PCR tests, did not require mailing the tests back to labs for analysis.[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-118)[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-119)
Pooled testing
[Pooled testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_testing "Group testing") can improve turnaround time, by combining a number of samples to be tested together. If the pool result is negative, all samples are negative. If the test result is positive, samples will need to be individually tested.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:12-66)
In Israel, researchers at [Technion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technion_%E2%80%93_Israel_Institute_of_Technology "Technion – Israel Institute of Technology") and [Rambam Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambam_Health_Care_Campus "Rambam Health Care Campus") developed a method for testing samples from 64 patients simultaneously, by pooling the samples and only testing further if the combined sample was positive.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-120)[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-121)[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-122) Pool testing was then adopted in Israel, Germany, Ghana[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-123)[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-124)[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-125) South Korea,[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-126) [Nebraska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebraska "Nebraska"),[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-127) China[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-128) and the Indian states of [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh "Uttar Pradesh"),[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-129) [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal "West Bengal"),[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-130) [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_India "Punjab, India"),[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-131) [Chhattisgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhattisgarh "Chhattisgarh")[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-132) and [Maharashtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra").[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-133)
Open source, multiplexed designs released by Origami Assays can test as many as 1122 patient samples using only 93 assays.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-134) These balanced designs can be run in small laboratories without robotic liquid handlers.
Multi-tiered testing
One study proposed a rapid immune response assay as a screening test, with a confirmatory nucleic acid test for diagnosis, followed by a rapid antibody test to determine course of action and assess population exposure/herd immunity.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-135)
Required volume
Required testing levels are a function of disease spread. The more the cases, the more tests are needed to manage the outbreak. COVID-19 tends to grow exponentially at the beginning of an outbreak, meaning that the number of required tests initially also grows exponentially. If properly targeted testing grows more rapidly than cases, it can be contained.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
WHO recommends increasing testing until fewer than 10% are positive in any given jurisdiction.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-136)
United States
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_tests_for_SARS_CoV-2_-_May_11,_2020.jpg)
Number of tests done per day in the US, as of April 2020.
Blue: CDC lab
Orange: Public health lab
Gray: Data incomplete due to reporting lag
Not shown: Testing at private labs; total exceeded 100,000 per day by 27 March.[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-137)
Economist [Paul Romer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Romer "Paul Romer") reported that the US has the technical capacity to scale up to 20 million tests per day, which is his estimate of the scale needed to fully remobilize the economy.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Romer_roadmap-138) The [Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_J._Safra_Center_for_Ethics "Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics") estimated on 4 April 2020 that this capacity could be available by late July 2020.[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-139) Romer pointed to [single-molecule real-time sequencing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-molecule_real-time_sequencing "Single-molecule real-time sequencing") equipment from [Pacific Biosciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Biosciences "Pacific Biosciences")[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Romer_roadmap-138)[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-140) and to the [Ion Torrent Next-Generation Sequencing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_semiconductor_sequencing "Ion semiconductor sequencing") equipment from [ThermoFisher Scientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThermoFisher_Scientific "ThermoFisher Scientific").[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Romer_roadmap-138)[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-141) According to Romer, "Recent research papers suggest that any one of these has the potential to scale up to millions of tests per day." This plan requires removing regulatory hurdles. Romer estimated that \$100 billion would cover the costs.[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Romer_roadmap-138)
Romer also claimed that high test accuracy is not required if tests are administered frequently enough. He ran model simulations in which 7% of the population is tested every day using a test with a 20% [false negative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_negative "False negative") rate and a 1% [false positive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positive "False positive") rate. The average person would be tested roughly every two weeks. Those who tested positive would go into quarantine. Romer's simulation indicated that the fraction of the population that is infected at any given time (known as the [attack rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_rate "Attack rate")) peaks reaches roughly 8% in about thirty days before gradually declining, in most runs reaching zero at 500 days, with cumulative prevalence remaining below 20%.[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-142)
Snapshot mass-testing
A study found that, despite possibly suboptimal implementation, the snapshot mass-testing approach conducted by [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") by which ~80% of its population was tested for COVID-19 within a weekend at the end of October 2020 was thought highly efficacious, decreasing observed prevalence by 58% within one week and by 70% compared to a hypothetical scenario of no snapshot mass-testing.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-143)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-144) The significant reduction resulted from a set of complementary lockdown and quarantine measures whereby citizens who tested positive were quarantined synchronously the weeks afterwards.[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-145) The country increased other countermeasures at the same time so the inference was questionable. In the following months Slovakia's COVID-19 death rate per population increased to among the highest in the world. Research on mass testing suggests that people who test negative think it is safe to travel and come in contact with infected people. In the U.S. the tracing system was overwhelmed. On 70 percent of days there were more cases than tracers had time to contact and people contacted were often uncooperative.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-146)
Surveillance and screening of populations
As of August 2020, the WHO recognizes wastewater surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 as a potentially useful source of information on the prevalence and temporal trends of COVID-19 in communities, while highlighting that gaps in research such as viral shedding characteristics should be addressed.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-SharifIkram2020-147) Such aggregative testing may have detected early cases.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-148) Studies show that [wastewater-based epidemiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater-based_epidemiology#Virus_surveillance "Wastewater-based epidemiology") has the potential for an early warning system and monitoring for COVID-19 infections.[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-149)[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-150)[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-151)[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-152)[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-153) This may prove particularly useful once large shares of regional populations are vaccinated or recovered and do not need to conduct rapid tests while in some cases being infectious nevertheless.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-154)
Available tests
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg)
A temporary drive-in testing site for COVID-19 set up with tents in a parking lot
Countries around the world developed tests independently and in partnership with others.
Nucleic acid tests
Tests are available that look for viral RNA using either [polymerase chain reaction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction "Polymerase chain reaction") (PCR) or [loop-mediated isothermal amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop-mediated_isothermal_amplification "Loop-mediated isothermal amplification") (LAMP) technology.
Tests developed in China, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the US targeted different parts of the viral genome. WHO adopted the German system for manufacturing kits sent to low-income countries without the resources to develop their own.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
PowerChek Coronavirus looks for the "E" gene shared by all [beta coronaviruses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_coronavirus "Beta coronavirus"), and the RdRp gene specific to SARS-CoV-2.[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-155)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:President_Trump_Delivers_Remarks_During_a_Coronavirus_Update_Briefing_\(49720569077\).jpg)
US President [Donald Trump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") displays a COVID-19 testing kit from [Abbott Laboratories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbott_Laboratories "Abbott Laboratories") in March 2020.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ID_Now_testing_\(51038387158\).jpg)
Nucleic acid testing conducted using an Abbott Laboratories ID Now device
[Abbott Laboratories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbott_Laboratories "Abbott Laboratories")' ID Now nucleic acid test uses [isothermal amplification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variants_of_PCR#Isothermal_amplification_methods "Variants of PCR") technology.[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Letter_from_FDA-156) The assay amplifies a unique region of the virus's [RdRp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase "RNA-dependent RNA polymerase") gene; the resulting copies are then detected with "[fluorescently-labeled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_tag "Fluorescent tag") [molecular beacons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_beacon "Molecular beacon")".[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:3-157) The test kit uses the company's "toaster-size" ID Now device, which is widely deployed in the US.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-158) The device can be used in laboratories or in point of care settings, and provides results in 13 minutes or less.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:3-157)
[Primerdesign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primerdesign "Primerdesign") offers its Genesig Real-Time PCR test system. [Roche Molecular Systems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Diagnostics "Roche Diagnostics") offers the Cobas 6800/8800 systems; they are offered among others by the United Nations.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
Antigen tests
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NegativeCOVID19TestResult.jpg)
Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Lateral Flow Test kit showing a negative result. This device has been subject to accuracy concerns and a recall in the United States.
Antigen tests are readily available worldwide and have been approved by several health regulators.
Quidel's "Sofia 2 SARS Antigen FIA"[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-FDA_antigen-63)[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:4-159) is a [lateral flow test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test "Lateral flow test") that uses [monoclonal antibodies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody "Monoclonal antibody") to detect the virus's [nucleocapsid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleocapsid "Nucleocapsid") (N) protein.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:5-160) The result is read out by the company's Sofia 2 device using [immunofluorescence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunofluorescence "Immunofluorescence").[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:5-160) The test is simpler and cheaper but less accurate than nucleic acid tests. It can be deployed in laboratories or at point of care and gives results in 15 minutes.[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:4-159) A false negative result occurs if the sample's antigen level is positive but below the test's detection limit, requiring confirmation with a nucleic acid test.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:5-160)
The Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Test was never approved for use in the United States, but was being sold by the company anyway. The FDA inspected Innova facilities in California in March and April 2021, and found inadequate quality assurance of tests manufactured in China.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-c_and_e-161) On 23 April 2021, the company issued a recall. The FDA warned consumers to return or destroy the devices because the rate of [false positives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positive "False positive") and [false negatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_negative "False negative") found in clinical trials were higher than the rate claimed by the packaging.[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-162) Over 1 billion tests from the company have been distributed in the UK, with £3 billion in funding as part of [Operation Moonshot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonshot "Operation Moonshot"), and the [MHRK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicines_and_Healthcare_products_Regulatory_Agency "Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency") has authorized exceptional use until at least 28 August 2021.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-c_and_e-161) Concerned experts pointed out that accuracy dropped significantly when screening was conducted by the public instead of by a medical professional, and that the test was not designed to screen asymptomatic people.[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-c_and_e-161) A 2020 study found 79% of positive cases were found when used by laboratory scientists, but only 58% when used by the general public and 40% when used for city-wide screening in [Liverpool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool").[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-163)
Serology (antibody) tests
Antibodies are usually detectable 14 days after the onset of the infection. Multiple jurisdictions survey their populations using these tests.[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-164)[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NYT_antibody-70)
Private US labs including [Quest Diagnostics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quest_Diagnostics "Quest Diagnostics") and LabCorp offer antibody testing upon request.[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-165)
Certain antibody tests are available in several European countries and also in the US.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-166)[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-167)
Roche offers a selective [ELISA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELISA "ELISA") serology test.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-168)
A summary review has noted that while some "serological tests ... might be cheaper and easier to implement at the point of care \[than RT-PCR\]", and such testing can identify previously infected individuals, "caution is warranted ... using serological tests for ... epidemiological surveillance". The review called for higher quality studies assessing accuracy with reference to a standard of "RT-PCR performed on at least two consecutive specimens, and, when feasible, includ\[ing\] viral cultures."[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-BMJ1-169)[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-CEMBreBMJ1-170) CEBM researchers have called for in-hospital 'case definition' to record "CT lung findings and associated blood tests"[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Spencer_2020-171) and for the WHO to produce a "protocol to standardise the use and interpretation of PCR" with continuous re-calibration.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-172)
Accuracy
| Samples source | Positive rate |
|---|---|
| Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid specimens | 93% (14/15) |
| Sputum | 72% (75/104) |
| Nasal swabs | 63% (5/8) |
| Fibrobronchoscope brush biopsy | 46% (6/13) |
| Pharyngeal swabs | 32% (126/398) |
| Feces | 29% (44/153) |
| Blood | 1% (3/307) |
Accuracy is measured in terms of specificity and selectivity. Test errors can be false positives (the test is positive, but the virus is not present) or false negatives, (the test is negative, but the virus is present).[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-popsci-2020-5-10-174) In a study of over 900,000 rapid antigen tests, false positives were found to occur at a rate of 0.05% or 1 in 2000.[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-175)
Sensitivity and specificity
Sensitivity indicates whether the test accurately identifies whether the virus is present. Each test requires a minimum level of [viral load](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_load "Viral load") in order to produce a positive result. A 90% sensitive test will correctly identify 90% of infections, missing the other 10% (a false negative). Even relatively high sensitivity rates can produce high rates of false negatives in populations with low incidence rates.[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-popsci-2020-5-10-174)
In a diagnostic test, sensitivity is a measure of how well a test can identify true positives and specificity is a measure of how well a test can identify true negatives. For all testing, both diagnostic and screening, there is usually a trade-off between sensitivity and specificity, such that higher sensitivities will mean lower specificities and vice versa.
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PPV,_NPV,_Sensitivity_and_Specificity.svg)
Sensitivity and Specificity
A 90% specific test will correctly identify 90% of those who are uninfected, leaving 10% with a false positive result.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
Low-specificity tests have a low [positive predictive value](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_predictive_value "Positive predictive value") (PPV) when prevalence is low. For example, suppose incidence is 5%. Testing 100 people at random using a test that has a [specificity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity "Sensitivity and specificity") of 95% would yield on average 5 people who are actually negative who would incorrectly test positive. Since 5% of the subjects actually are positive, another five would also test positive correctly, totaling 10 positive results. Thus, the PPV is 50%,[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-176) an outcome no different from a coin toss. In this situation, assuming that the result of a second test is [independent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_\(probability_theory\) "Independence (probability theory)") of the first test, retesting those with a first positive result increases the PPV to 94.5%, meaning that only 4.5% of the second tests would return the incorrect result, on average less than 1 incorrect result.[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-cdc_antibody-177)
Causes of test error
The time course of infection affects the accuracy of some tests. Samples may be collected before the virus has a chance to establish itself or after the body has begun to eliminate it. A May 2020 review of PCR-RT testing found that the median probability of a false-negative result decreased from 100% on day 1 to 67% on day 4. On the day of symptom onset, the probability was 38%, which decreased to 20% 3 days later.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Kucirka-178)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\]
PCR-based test
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fig4-positivity-rate\(1\).png)
Detection of SARS-CoV-2 by nasal swab over six weeks in patients who experienced mild to moderate illness
RT-PCR is the most commonly used diagnostic test.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-179) PCR tests by nasopharyngeal swab have a sensitivity of 73%, but systematic analysis of specificity has not been determined due to the lack of PCR studies with a control group.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-180)
In one study, the positivity rate was highest at week one (100%), followed by 89.3%, 66.1%, 32.1%, 5.4% and zero by week six since symptom onset.[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-181)
Sensitivity is also a function of the number of PCR cycles, as well as time and temperature between sample collection and analysis.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid33748564-182) A cycle threshold of 20 cycles would be adequate to detect SARS-Cov-2 in a highly infective person.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid33748564-182) Cycle thresholds above 34 are increasingly likely to give false positives outside of high biosafety level facilities.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-pmid33748564-182)
In July 2020, [Anthony Fauci](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Fauci "Anthony Fauci") of the US NIH indicated that positive results obtained from RT-PCR tests run at more than 35 cycles were almost always "just dead nucleotides".[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-183) In August 2020, it was reported that, "In three sets of testing data that include cycle thresholds, compiled by officials in Massachusetts, New York and Nevada ... most tests set the limit at 40 \[cycles\], a few at 37" and that the CDC was examining the use of cycle threshold measures "for policy decisions,"[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-184) On 21 July 2021, the CDC, in their "Real-Time RT-PCR Diagnostic Pan: Instructions for Use", indicated tests results should be determined at 40 cycles.[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-185)
A Dutch CDC-led laboratory investigation compared 7 PCR kits.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:6-186) Test kits made by BGI, R-Biopharm AG, BGI, KH Medical and Seegene showed high sensitivity.[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-187)
High sensitivity kits are recommended to assess people without symptoms, while lower sensitivity tests are adequate when diagnosing symptomatic patients.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:6-186)
The [University of Oxford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford")'s [Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Evidence-Based_Medicine "Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine") (CEBM) has pointed to mounting evidence[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-188)[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-189) that "a good proportion of 'new' mild cases and people re-testing positives via RT-PCR after quarantine or discharge from hospital are not infectious, but are simply clearing harmless virus particles which their immune system has efficiently dealt with", and have called for "an international effort to standardize and periodically calibrate testing".[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Spencer_2020-171) On 7 September, the UK government issued "guidance for procedures to be implemented in laboratories to provide assurance of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA results during periods of low prevalence, when there is a reduction in the predictive value of positive test results".[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-190)
On 4 January 2021, the US FDA issued an alert about the risk of false results, particularly false negative results, with the Curative SARS-Cov-2 Assay real-time RT-PCR test.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-FDA_Curative-48)
Isothermal nucleic amplification test
One study reported that the ID Now COVID-19 test showed sensitivity of 85.2%. Abbott responded that the issue could have been caused by analysis delays.[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Cclinic-191) Another study rejected the test in their clinical setting because of this low sensitivity.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-192)
Confirmatory testing
The WHO recommends countries that do not have testing capacity and national laboratories with limited experience on COVID-19 send their first five positives and the first ten negative COVID-19 samples to one of the 16 WHO reference laboratories for confirmatory testing.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-193)[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-194) Out of the sixteen reference laboratories, seven are in Asia, five in Europe, two in Africa, one in North America and one in Australia.[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-195)
National or regional responses
Iceland
Iceland managed the pandemic with aggressive contact tracing, inbound travel restrictions, testing, and quarantining, but with less aggressive lock-downs.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Iceland_screening-8)
India
Italy
Researchers tested the entire population of [Vo'](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vo%27 "Vo'"), the site of Italy's first COVID-19 death. They tested about 3,400 people twice, at an interval of ten days. About half the people testing positive had no symptoms. All discovered cases were quarantined. Along with restricting travel to the commune, new infections were eliminated.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-196)
Japan
Unlike other Asian countries, Japan did not experience a pandemic of [SARS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS "SARS") or [MERS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS "MERS"), so the country's PCR testing system was not well developed.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197)[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198) Japan preferentially tested patients with severe illness and their close contacts at the beginning. Japan's [Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel_Coronavirus_Expert_Meeting "Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting") chose cluster measures to identify infections clusters.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197)[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198) The Expert Meeting analyzed the outbreak from [Wuhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuhan "Wuhan") and identified conditions leading to clusters (closed spaces, crowded spaces and close-contact), and asked people to avoid them.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198)[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-bloomberg20200512-199)
In January, contact tracers took action shortly after the first infection was found. Only administrative tests were carried out at first, until insurance began covering PCR tests on 6 March. Private companies began to test, and the test system gradually expanded.[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197)
In April, those with positive tests were legally permitted to recuperate at home or in a hotel if they had asymptomatic or mild illness, ending the hospital bed shortage.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200408-200) The first wave (from China) was contained,[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-201) but a second wave (caused by returnees from Europe and the US) in mid-March led to spreading infection in April.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198) On 7 April, Japan declared a state of emergency (less strict than a lockdown, because it did not block cities or restrict outings).[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200414-198)[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200408-200)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200326-202) On 13 May, antigen test kits became covered by insurance, and were combined with a PCR test for diagnosis.[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-mainichi20200512-203)[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-medicalnikkeibp202005-204)
Japan's PCR test count per capita remained far smaller than in some other countries even though its positive test rate was lower.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-bloomberg20200512-199)[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk20200326-202)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197) The Expert Meeting stated, "The Japanese health care system originally carries out pneumonia surveillance, allowing it to detect most of the severely ill patients who develop pneumonia. There are a large number of CT scanners in Japan and they have spread to small hospitals all over the country, so pneumonia patients are rarely missed. In that sense, it meets the same standards as other countries that mainly carry out PCR tests."[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-bloomberg20200512-199)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Expert_conferencep5-197) The group recommended using [CT scans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scans "CT scans") data and doctor's findings for diagnosis.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NoNosoco-205)[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-206) On the Diamond Princess cruise ship, many people who initially tested negative later tested positive. Half of coronavirus-positives there who remained mild or asymptomatic had pneumonia findings on CT scans and their CT image showed a frosted glass shadow that is characteristic of infection.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NoNosoco-205)[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-207)
As of 18 July, Japan's daily PCR testing capacity was about 32,000, more than three times the 10,000 cases as of April. When the antigen test is added to it, the number is about 58,000. The number of tests per 1,000 people in the United States is about 27 times that of Japan, the UK is 20 times, Italy is 8 times, and South Korea is twice (as of 26 July).[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-208)[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-209)[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-210) The number of those infected with coronavirus and inpatients has increased in July, but the number of serious cases has not increased. This is thought to be due to the proper testing of those infected in July compared to those in April. In April, the number of tests could not catch up with the increase in the number of infected people, and the test standards were strict, so the test positive rate exceeded 30% at the peak. It means that there were quite a few cases where those infected were not PCR tested. It is thought that the severe case was preferentially tested though there were a lot of mild cases and asymptomatic carriers mainly in the young during the first wave. In other words, it became possible to grasp the actual situation of infection much better than before by strengthening the testing system.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-211) At the end of July, accommodation facilities for mild and asymptomatic carriers became full, and the authorities requested hospitals to prepare beds for the mild. However, it became difficult to treat patients with other illnesses and to maintain the ICU system including the staff due to the occupation of hospital beds by patients with mild symptoms.[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-212)[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-213)[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-214)
Russia
In April 2020, Russia tested 3 million people and had 183,000 positive results.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-3mTests-215) On 28 April [Anna Popova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Popova "Anna Popova"), head of [Federal Service for Surveillance in Healthcare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rospotrebnadzor "Rospotrebnadzor") (Roszdravnadzor) stated that 506 laboratories were testing; that 45% of those who tested positive had no symptoms; that 5% of patients had a severe form; and 40% of infections were from family members. Illness improved from six days to one day after symptoms appeared. Antibody testing was carried out on 3,200 Moscow doctors, finding 20% immunity.[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AnnaPopova28April-216)
Singapore
With contact tracing, inbound travel restrictions, testing, and quarantining, [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") arrested the initial spread without complete lockdown.[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-217)
Slovakia
In October 2020 Slovakia tested 3.62 million people in a weekend, from a population of 5.4m, representing 67% of the total (or 82% of the adult population), 38,359 tested positive, representing 1.06% of those tested. The government considered the mass test would significantly assist in controlling the virus and avoid a lockdown and may repeat the exercise at a later date.[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-218)
South Korea
South Korea's broad testing approach helped reduce spread. Testing capacity, largely in private sector labs, was built up over several years by the South Korean government in the early 2000s.[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-219)
Centers were sited mainly at national facilities and corporate training centers. The failure of Korea's MERS quarantine in May 2015 left Korea more prepared for COVID-19 than countries that did not face that pandemic. Then President [Park Geun-hye](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Geun-hye "Park Geun-hye") allowed Korean CDC-approved private sector testing for infectious diseases in 2016. Korea already had a system for isolating, testing and treating infectious disease patients separately from others. Patients with respiratory illness but no epidemiological relevance were treated at the National Hospital, and those with epidemiological relevance were treated at selected clinics.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020041-220)[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020043-221)[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020044-222)[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan20200502-223)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fnn31819-224)[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-jcci20200510-225)[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan20200414-226)[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk4403-227)[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-mainichi20200416-228)
Korea established a large scale drive-through/walk-through" test testing program. However, the most common method was "mobile examination". In Daegu City, 54% of samples were collected by 23 March in home or hospital. Collecting samples door-to-door of avoided the risk of travel by possibly infected patients, but required additional staff. Korea solved the problem by drafting more than 2,700 public insurance doctors.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020041-220)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fnn31819-224)[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan20200502-223)
The government disclosed personal information to the public via KCDC without patient consent. The authorities used digital surveillance to trace possible spread.[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-newsweekjapan2020043-221)[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-fnn31819-224)[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-jcci20200510-225)[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk4403-227)[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-mainichi20200416-228)[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-tokyonp20200401-229)[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-kazuhirotaira-230)[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-231)[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-232)[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-233)\[*[excessive citations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
Taiwan
Health insurance IDs and [national identification card](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_identification_card_\(Taiwan\) "National identification card (Taiwan)") numbers were used to trace contacts.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-businessinsider212152-234)[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-wedge18823-235)[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-wedge18824-236)[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-businessnikkei20200421-237)
United Arab Emirates
In January 2021, the COVID-19 testing results of the [UAE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAE "UAE") came under scrutiny, as [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") suspended the Emirati flights for five days. The European nation said that it barred the flights from the UAE due to growing suspicion of irregularities in the testing process being followed in the Gulf nation. Denmark's Minister of Transport, [Benny Engelbrecht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Engelbrecht "Benny Engelbrecht") said that they were taking time to ensure that the negative tests of travelers from the Emirates were a real screening carried out appropriately.[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-238)
United States
New York State
New York State's control measures consisted of PCR tests, stay-at-home measures and strengthening the healthcare system. On 29 February before its first case, the state allowed testing at the Wordsworth Center. They managed to convince the CDC to approve tests at state laboratories and the FDA to approve a test kit. As of 13 March the state was conducting more than 1,000 daily tests, growing to 10,000/day on 19 March. In April, the number exceeded 20,000. Many people queued at hospitals to get tested. On 21 March New York City health officials directed medical providers to test only those entering the hospital, for lack of PPE.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-nhk4403-227)[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-239)[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-240)[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-241)[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-242)\[*[excessive citations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*\]
USS *Theodore Roosevelt*
Following an outbreak, 94% of the 4,800 aircraft carrier crew were tested. Roughly 60 percent of the 600-plus sailors who tested positive were asymptomatic.[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-243) Five infected sailors who completed quarantine subsequently developed flu-like symptoms and again tested positive.[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-NBC_sailors-244)
Nevada
In 2020, Nevada received a donation of 250,000 Covid testing kits, which were a product of China's leading genetics company, [BGI Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BGI_Group "BGI Group"). A UAE-based firm owned by [Tahnoun bin Zayed Al Nahyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahnoun_bin_Zayed_Al_Nahyan_\(national_security_advisor\) "Tahnoun bin Zayed Al Nahyan (national security advisor)"), [Group 42](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_42_\(Emirati_company\) "Group 42 (Emirati company)") partnered with the BGI Group to supply the testing kits to [Nevada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"). However, the US [Department of Homeland Security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security "United States Department of Homeland Security") and the [State Department](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State "United States Department of State") raised a warning for Nevada hospitals to not use the Chinese-made testing kits, as there were concerns around the involvement of the Chinese government, test accuracy and privacy of the patients.[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-245)
Testing statistics by country
Testing strategies vary by country and over time,[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-246) with some countries testing very widely,[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Iceland_screening-8) while others have at times focused narrowly on only testing the seriously ill.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Bund-6) The country that tests only people showing symptoms will have a higher figure for "Confirmed"/"tested" than the country that also tests others.[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-247) If two countries are alike in every respect, including which people they test, the one that tests more people will have a higher "Confirmed / population". Studies have also found that countries that test more, relative to the number of deaths, have lower estimated case fatality rates[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-Ward_2020-9) and younger age distributions of cases.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-:7-11)
| Country or region | Date[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-248) | Tested | Units[\[b\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-249) | Confirmed (cases) | Confirmed / tested, % | Tested / population, % | Confirmed / population, % | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Afghanistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Afghanistan") | 17 Dec 2020 | 154,767 | samples | 49,621 | 32\.1 | 0\.40 | 0\.13 | [\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-250) |
|  [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Albania "COVID-19 pandemic in Albania") | 18 Feb 2021 | 428,654 | samples | 96,838 | 22\.6 | 15\.0 | 3\.4 | [\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-251) |
|  [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Algeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Algeria") | 2 Nov 2020 | 230,553 | samples | 58,574 | 25\.4 | 0\.53 | 0\.13 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-253) |
|  [Andorra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Andorra "COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra") | 23 Feb 2022 | 300,307 | samples | 37,958 | 12\.6 | 387 | 49\.0 | [\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-254) |
|  [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Angola "COVID-19 pandemic in Angola") | 2 Feb 2021 | 399,228 | samples | 20,981 | 5\.3 | 1\.3 | 0\.067 | [\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-255) |
|  [Antigua and Barbuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda "COVID-19 pandemic in Antigua and Barbuda") | 6 Mar 2021 | 15,268 | samples | 832 | 5\.4 | 15\.9 | 0\.86 | [\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-256) |
|  [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Argentina "COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina") | 16 Apr 2022 | 35,716,069 | samples | 9,060,495 | 25\.4 | 78\.3 | 20\.0 | [\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-257) |
|  [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Armenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia") | 29 May 2022 | 3,099,602 | samples | 422,963 | 13\.6 | 105 | 14\.3 | [\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-258) |
|  [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Australia") | 9 Sep 2022 | 78,548,492 | samples | 10,112,229 | 12\.9 | 313 | 40\.3 | [\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-259) |
|  [Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Austria "COVID-19 pandemic in Austria") | 1 Feb 2023 | 205,817,752 | samples | 5,789,991 | 2\.8 | 2,312 | 65\.0 | [\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-260) |
|  [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Azerbaijan "COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan") | 11 May 2022 | 6,838,458 | samples | 792,638 | 11\.6 | 69\.1 | 8\.0 | [\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-261) |
|  [Bahamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Bahamas "COVID-19 pandemic in the Bahamas") | 28 Nov 2022 | 259,366 | samples | 37,483 | 14\.5 | 67\.3 | 9\.7 | [\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-262) |
|  [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bahrain "COVID-19 pandemic in Bahrain") | 3 Dec 2022 | 10,578,766 | samples | 696,614 | 6\.6 | 674 | 44\.4 | [\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-263) |
|  [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bangladesh "COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh") | 24 Jul 2021 | 7,417,714 | samples | 1,151,644 | 15\.5 | 4\.5 | 0\.70 | [\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-264) |
|  [Barbados](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Barbados "COVID-19 pandemic in Barbados") | 14 Oct 2022 | 770,100 | samples | 103,014 | 13\.4 | 268 | 35\.9 | [\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-265) |
|  [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belarus "COVID-19 pandemic in Belarus") | 9 May 2022 | 13,217,569 | samples | 982,809 | 7\.4 | 139 | 10\.4 | [\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-266) |
|  [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belgium "COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium") | 24 Jan 2023 | 36,548,544 | samples | 4,691,499 | 12\.8 | 317 | 40\.7 | [\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-267) |
|  [Belize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belize "COVID-19 pandemic in Belize") | 8 Jun 2022 | 572,900 | samples | 60,694 | 10\.6 | 140 | 14\.9 | [\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-268)[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-269) |
|  [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Benin "COVID-19 pandemic in Benin") | 4 May 2021 | 595,112 | samples | 7,884 | 1\.3 | 5\.1 | 0\.067 | [\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-270) |
|  [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bhutan "COVID-19 pandemic in Bhutan") | 28 Feb 2022 | 1,736,168 | samples | 12,702 | 0\.73 | 234 | 1\.71 | [\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-271) |
|  [Bolivia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bolivia "COVID-19 pandemic in Bolivia") | 5 Jun 2022 | 4,358,669 | cases | 910,228 | 20\.9 | 38\.1 | 8\.0 | [\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-272) |
|  [Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "COVID-19 pandemic in Bosnia and Herzegovina") | 27 Sep 2022 | 1,872,934 | samples | 399,887 | 21\.4 | 54\.7 | 11\.7 | [\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-273) |
|  [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Botswana "COVID-19 pandemic in Botswana") | 11 Jan 2022 | 2,026,898 | | 232,432 | 11\.5 | 89\.9 | 10\.3 | [\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-274)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-275) |
|  [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brazil "COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil") | 19 Feb 2021 | 23,561,497 | samples | 10,081,676 | 42\.8 | 11\.2 | 4\.8 | [\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-276)[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-277) |
|  [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Brunei "COVID-19 pandemic in Brunei") | 2 Aug 2021 | 153,804 | samples | 338 | 0\.22 | 33\.5 | 0\.074 | [\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-278) |
|  [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Bulgaria "COVID-19 pandemic in Bulgaria") | 2 Feb 2023 | 10,993,239 | samples | 1,295,524 | 11\.8 | 158 | 18\.6 | [\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-279) |
|  [Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burkina_Faso "COVID-19 pandemic in Burkina Faso") | 4 Mar 2021 | 158,777 | samples | 12,123 | 7\.6 | 0\.76 | 0\.058 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-280) |
|  [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Burundi "COVID-19 pandemic in Burundi") | 5 Jan 2021 | 90,019 | | 884 | 0\.98 | 0\.76 | 0\.0074 | [\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-281) |
|  [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cambodia "COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia") | 1 Aug 2021 | 1,812,706 | | 77,914 | 4\.3 | 11\.2 | 0\.48 | [\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-282) |
|  [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cameroon "COVID-19 pandemic in Cameroon") | 18 Feb 2021 | 942,685 | samples | 32,681 | 3\.5 | 3\.6 | 0\.12 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252) |
|  [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada "COVID-19 pandemic in Canada") | 26 Nov 2022 | 66,343,123 | samples | 4,423,053 | 6\.7 | 175 | 11\.7 | [\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-283) |
|  [Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chad "COVID-19 pandemic in Chad") | 2 Mar 2021 | 99,027 | samples | 4,020 | 4\.1 | 0\.72 | 0\.029 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-284) |
|  [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Chile "COVID-19 pandemic in Chile") | 1 Feb 2023 | 48,154,268 | samples | 5,123,007 | 10\.6 | 252 | 26\.9 | [\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-285) |
|  [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China "COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China")[\[c\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-286) | 31 Jul 2020 | 160,000,000 | cases | 87,655 | 0\.055 | 11\.1 | 0\.0061 | [\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-287)[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-288) |
|  [Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Colombia "COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia") | 24 Nov 2022 | 36,875,818 | samples | 6,314,769 | 17\.1 | 76\.4 | 13\.1 | [\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-289)[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-290) |
|  [Costa Rica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Costa_Rica "COVID-19 pandemic in Costa Rica") | 2 Nov 2021 | 2,575,363 | samples | 561,054 | 21\.8 | 51\.5 | 11\.2 | [\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-291) |
|  [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Croatia "COVID-19 pandemic in Croatia") | 2 Feb 2023 | 5,481,285 | cases | 1,267,798 | 23\.1 | 134 | 31\.1 | [\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-292) |
|  [Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cuba "COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba") | 2 Feb 2023 | 14,301,394 | samples | 1,112,470 | 7\.8 | 126 | 9\.8 | [\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-293)[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-294) |
|  [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus")[\[d\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-295) | 29 Jan 2023 | 27,820,163 | samples | 644,160 | 2\.3 | 3,223 | 74\.4 | [\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-296) |
|  [Czechia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Czech_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic") | 1 Feb 2023 | 22,544,928 | samples | 4,590,529 | 20\.4 | 211 | 42\.9 | [\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-297) |
|  [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Denmark "COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark")[\[e\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-298) | 31 Jan 2023 | 67,682,707 | samples | 3,399,947 | 5\.0 | 1,162 | 58\.4 | [\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-299)[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-300) |
|  [Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Djibouti "COVID-19 pandemic in Djibouti") | 28 Apr 2022 | 305,941 | | 15,631 | 5\.1 | 33\.2 | 1\.7 | [\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-301) |
|  [Dominica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Dominica "COVID-19 pandemic in Dominica") | 20 Jun 2022 | 209,803 | cases | 14,821 | 7\.1 | 293 | 20\.7 | [\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-302) |
|  [Dominican Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Dominican_Republic "COVID-19 pandemic in the Dominican Republic") | 22 Jul 2022 | 3,574,665 | samples | 626,030 | 17\.5 | 32\.9 | 5\.8 | [\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-303) |
|  [DR Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo") | 28 Feb 2021 | 124,838 | | 25,961 | 20\.8 | 0\.14 | 0\.029 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-304) |
|  [Ecuador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ecuador "COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador") | 23 Jul 2021 | 1,627,189 | samples | 480,720 | 29\.5 | 9\.5 | 2\.8 | [\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-305) |
|  [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Egypt "COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt") | 23 Jul 2021 | 3,137,519 | samples | 283,947 | 9\.1 | 3\.1 | 0\.28 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-306) |
|  [El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_El_Salvador "COVID-19 pandemic in El Salvador") | 18 Mar 2022 | 1,847,861 | samples | 161,052 | 8\.7 | 28\.5 | 2\.5 | [\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-307) |
|  [Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Equatorial_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Equatorial Guinea") | 30 Jan 2023 | 403,773 | | 17,113 | 4\.2 | 30\.8 | 1\.3 | [\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-308) |
|  [Estonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Estonia "COVID-19 pandemic in Estonia") | 31 Jan 2023 | 3,637,908 | samples | 613,954 | 16\.9 | 274 | 46\.2 | [\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-309) |
|  [Eswatini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Eswatini "COVID-19 pandemic in Eswatini") | 8 Dec 2021 | 415,110 | | 49,253 | 11\.9 | 36\.5 | 4\.3 | [\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-310) |
|  [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ethiopia "COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia") | 24 Jun 2021 | 2,981,185 | samples | 278,446 | 9\.3 | 2\.6 | 0\.24 | [\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-311) |
|  [Faroe Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Faroe_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Faroe Islands") | 27 Feb 2022 | 774,000 | samples | 34,237 | 4\.4 | 1,493 | 65\.7 | [\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-312) |
|  [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Fiji "COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji") | 2 Jan 2023 | 667,953 | samples | 68,848 | 10\.3 | 74\.5 | 7\.7 | [\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-313) |
|  [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Finland "COVID-19 pandemic in Finland") | 14 Jan 2022 | 9,042,453 | samples | 371,135 | 4\.1 | 163 | 6\.7 | [\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-314) |
|  [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_France "COVID-19 pandemic in France")[\[f\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-315)[\[g\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-316) | 15 May 2022 | 272,417,258 | samples | 29,183,646 | 10\.7 | 417 | 44\.7 | [\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-317) |
|  [Gabon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Gabon "COVID-19 pandemic in Gabon") | 23 Jul 2021 | 958,807 | samples | 25,325 | 2\.6 | 3\.1 | 0\.082 | [\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-318) |
|  [Gambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Gambia "COVID-19 pandemic in the Gambia") | 15 Feb 2021 | 43,217 | samples | 4,469 | 10\.3 | 2\.0 | 0\.21 | [\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-319) |
|  [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Georgia_\(country\) "COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia (country)")[\[h\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-320) | 3 Nov 2021 | 4,888,787 | samples | 732,965 | 15\.0 | 132 | 19\.7 | [\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-321) |
|  [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany "COVID-19 pandemic in Germany") | 7 Jul 2021 | 65,247,345 | samples | 3,733,519 | 5\.7 | 77\.8 | 4\.5 | [\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-322)[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-323) |
|  [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana "COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana") | 3 Jul 2021 | 1,305,749 | samples | 96,708 | 7\.4 | 4\.2 | 0\.31 | [\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-324) |
|  [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greece "COVID-19 pandemic in Greece") | 18 Dec 2022 | 101,576,831 | samples | 5,548,487 | 5\.5 | 943 | 51\.5 | [\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-325) |
|  [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greenland "COVID-19 pandemic in Greenland") | 30 Jan 2022 | 164,573 | samples | 10,662 | 6\.5 | 293 | 19\.0 | [\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-326) |
|  [Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Grenada "COVID-19 pandemic in Grenada") | 11 May 2021 | 28,684 | | 161 | 0\.56 | 25\.7 | 0\.14 | [\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-327) |
|  [Guatemala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guatemala "COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala") | 6 Jan 2023 | 6,800,560 | samples | 1,230,098 | 18\.1 | 39\.4 | 7\.1 | [\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-328) |
|  [Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea") | 21 Jul 2021 | 494,898 | samples | 24,878 | 5\.0 | 3\.8 | 0\.19 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-329) |
|  [Guinea-Bissau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guinea-Bissau "COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea-Bissau") | 7 Jul 2022 | 145,231 | | 8,400 | 5\.8 | 7\.7 | 0\.45 | [\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-330) |
|  [Guyana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Guyana "COVID-19 pandemic in Guyana") | 15 Jun 2022 | 648,569 | cases | 66,129 | 10\.2 | 82\.5 | 8\.4 | [\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-331) |
|  [Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Haiti "COVID-19 pandemic in Haiti") | 26 Nov 2022 | 223,475 | cases | 33,874 | 15\.2 | 2\.0 | 0\.30 | [\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-332) |
|  [Honduras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Honduras "COVID-19 pandemic in Honduras") | 26 Nov 2021 | 1,133,782 | samples | 377,859 | 33\.3 | 11\.8 | 3\.9 | [\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-333) |
|  [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Hungary "COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary") | 10 May 2022 | 11,394,556 | samples | 1,909,948 | 16\.8 | 118 | 19\.8 | [\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-334) |
|  [Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iceland "COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland") | 9 Aug 2022 | 1,988,652 | samples | 203,162 | 10\.2 | 546 | 55\.8 | [\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-335) |
|  [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India") | 8 Jul 2022 | 866,177,937 | samples | 43,585,554 | 5\.0 | 63 | 31\.7 | [\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-336)[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-337) |
|  [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia "COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia") | 3 Jul 2023 | 76,062,770 | cases | 6,812,127 | 9\.0 | 28\.2 | 2\.5 | |
|  [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran "COVID-19 pandemic in Iran") | 31 May 2022 | 52,269,202 | samples | 7,232,268 | 13\.8 | 62\.8 | 8\.7 | [\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-338) |
|  [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iraq "COVID-19 pandemic in Iraq") | 3 Aug 2022 | 19,090,652 | samples | 2,448,484 | 12\.8 | 47\.5 | 6\.1 | [\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-339) |
|  [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland") | 31 Jan 2023 | 12,990,476 | samples | 1,700,817 | 13\.1 | 264 | 34\.6 | [\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-340) |
|  [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Israel "COVID-19 pandemic in Israel") | 17 Jan 2022 | 41,373,364 | samples | 1,792,137 | 4\.3 | 451 | 19\.5 | [\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-341) |
|  [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy "COVID-19 pandemic in Italy") | 16 Mar 2023 | 269,127,054 | samples | 25,651,205 | 9\.5 | 446 | 42\.5 | [\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-italy-dpc-342) |
|  [Ivory Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ivory_Coast "COVID-19 pandemic in Ivory Coast") | 3 Mar 2021 | 429,177 | samples | 33,285 | 7\.8 | 1\.6 | 0\.13 | [\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-343) |
|  [Jamaica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jamaica "COVID-19 pandemic in Jamaica") | 30 Sep 2022 | 1,184,973 | samples | 151,931 | 12\.8 | 43\.5 | 5\.6 | [\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-344) |
|  [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Japan "COVID-19 pandemic in Japan") | 1 Mar 2021 | 8,487,288 | | 432,773 | 5\.1 | 6\.7 | 0\.34 | [\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-345) |
|  [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Jordan "COVID-19 pandemic in Jordan") | 6 Jun 2021 | 7,407,053 | samples | 739,847 | 10\.0 | 69\.5 | 6\.9 | [\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-346) |
|  [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kazakhstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan") | 28 May 2021 | 11,575,012 | samples | 385,144 | 3\.3 | 62\.1 | 2\.1 | [\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-347) |
|  [Kenya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kenya "COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya") | 5 Mar 2021 | 1,322,806 | samples | 107,729 | 8\.1 | 2\.8 | 0\.23 | [\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-348) |
|  [Kosovo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kosovo "COVID-19 pandemic in Kosovo") | 31 May 2021 | 611,357 | cases | 107,410 | 17\.6 | 33\.8 | 5\.9 | [\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-349) |
|  [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kuwait "COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait") | 9 Mar 2022 | 7,754,247 | samples | 624,573 | 8\.1 | 181 | 14\.6 | [\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-350) |
|  [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Kyrgyzstan "COVID-19 pandemic in Kyrgyzstan") | 10 Feb 2021 | 695,415 | samples | 85,253 | 12\.3 | 10\.7 | 1\.3 | [\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-351) |
|  [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Laos "COVID-19 pandemic in Laos") | 1 Mar 2021 | 114,030 | cases | 45 | 0\.039 | 1\.6 | 0\.00063 | [\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-352) |
|  [Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Latvia "COVID-19 pandemic in Latvia") | 5 Sep 2021 | 3,630,095 | samples | 144,518 | 4\.0 | 189 | 7\.5 | [\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-353) |
|  [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lebanon "COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon") | 14 Jun 2021 | 4,599,186 | samples | 542,649 | 11\.8 | 67\.4 | 8\.0 | [\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-354) |
|  [Lesotho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lesotho "COVID-19 pandemic in Lesotho") | 30 Mar 2022 | 431,221 | | 32,910 | 7\.6 | 21\.5 | 1\.6 | [\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-355) |
|  [Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liberia "COVID-19 pandemic in Liberia") | 17 Jul 2021 | 128,246 | | 5,396 | 4\.2 | 2\.5 | 0\.11 | [\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-356) |
|  [Libya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Libya "COVID-19 pandemic in Libya") | 14 Apr 2022 | 2,578,215 | samples | 501,862 | 19\.5 | 37\.6 | 7\.3 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-357) |
|  [Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Lithuania "COVID-19 pandemic in Lithuania") | 31 Jan 2023 | 9,046,584 | samples | 1,170,108 | 12\.9 | 324 | 41\.9 | [\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-358)[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-359) |
|  [Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Luxembourg "COVID-19 pandemic in Luxembourg")[\[i\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-360) | 12 May 2022 | 4,248,188 | samples | 244,182 | 5\.7 | 679 | 39\.0 | [\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-361) |
|  [Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Madagascar "COVID-19 pandemic in Madagascar") | 19 Feb 2021 | 119,608 | cases | 19,831 | 16\.6 | 0\.46 | 0\.076 | [\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-362) |
|  [Malawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malawi "COVID-19 pandemic in Malawi") | 29 Nov 2022 | 624,784 | samples | 88,086 | 14\.1 | 3\.3 | 0\.46 | [\[354\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-363) |
|  [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malaysia "COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia") | 7 Sep 2021 | 23,705,425 | cases | 1,880,734 | 7\.9 | 72\.3 | 5\.7 | [\[355\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-364) |
|  [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Maldives "COVID-19 pandemic in the Maldives") | 13 Mar 2022 | 2,216,560 | samples | 174,658 | 7\.9 | 398 | 31\.3 | [\[356\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-365)[\[357\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-366) |
|  [Mali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mali "COVID-19 pandemic in Mali") | 7 Jul 2021 | 322,504 | samples | 14,449 | 4\.5 | 1\.6 | 0\.071 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[358\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-367) |
|  [Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Malta "COVID-19 pandemic in Malta") | 8 Sep 2021 | 1,211,456 | samples | 36,606 | 3\.0 | 245 | 7\.4 | [\[359\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-368) |
|  [Mauritania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritania "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritania") | 16 Apr 2021 | 268,093 | | 18,103 | 6\.8 | 6\.1 | 0\.41 | [\[360\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-369) |
|  [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mauritius "COVID-19 pandemic in Mauritius") | 22 Nov 2020 | 289,552 | samples | 494 | 0\.17 | 22\.9 | 0\.039 | [\[361\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-370) |
|  [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico "COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico") | 15 Oct 2021 | 10,503,678 | cases | 3,749,860 | 35\.7 | 8\.2 | 2\.9 | [\[362\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-371) |
|  [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Moldova "COVID-19 pandemic in Moldova")[\[j\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-372) | 20 Apr 2022 | 3,213,594 | samples | 516,864 | 16\.1 | 122 | 19\.6 | [\[363\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-373) |
|  [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mongolia "COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia") | 10 Jul 2021 | 3,354,200 | cases | 136,053 | 4\.1 | 100 | 4\.1 | [\[364\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-374) |
|  [Montenegro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Montenegro "COVID-19 pandemic in Montenegro") | 10 May 2021 | 394,388 | samples | 98,449 | 25\.0 | 62\.5 | 15\.6 | [\[365\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-375)[\[366\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-376) |
|  [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Morocco "COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco") | 6 Jan 2023 | 14,217,563 | cases | 1,272,299 | 8\.9 | 38\.5 | 3\.4 | [\[367\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-377) |
|  [Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mozambique "COVID-19 pandemic in Mozambique") | 22 Jul 2021 | 688,570 | samples | 105,866 | 15\.4 | 2\.2 | 0\.34 | [\[368\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-378) |
|  [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Myanmar "COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar") | 16 Sep 2021 | 4,047,680 | samples | 440,741 | 10\.9 | 7\.4 | 0\.81 | [\[369\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-379) |
|  [Namibia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Namibia "COVID-19 pandemic in Namibia") | 4 Jul 2022 | 1,062,663 | samples | 166,229 | 15\.6 | 38\.7 | 6\.1 | [\[370\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-380) |
|  [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nepal "COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal") | 26 Jul 2022 | 5,804,358 | samples | 984,475 | 17\.0 | 20\.7 | 3\.5 | [\[371\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-381) |
|  [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands") | 6 Jul 2021 | 14,526,293 | cases | 1,692,834 | 11\.7 | 83\.4 | 9\.7 | [\[372\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-382) |
|  [New Caledonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Caledonia "COVID-19 pandemic in New Caledonia") | 3 Sep 2021 | 41,962 | samples | 136 | 0\.32 | 15\.7 | 0\.050 | [\[373\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-383) |
|  [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand "COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand") | 29 Jan 2023 | 7,757,935 | samples | 2,136,662 | 27\.5 | 156 | 42\.9 | [\[374\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-384)[\[375\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-385) |
|  [Niger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Niger "COVID-19 pandemic in Niger") | 22 Feb 2021 | 79,321 | cases | 4,740 | 6\.0 | 0\.35 | 0\.021 | [\[376\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-386) |
|  [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Nigeria "COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria") | 28 Feb 2021 | 1,544,008 | samples | 155,657 | 10\.1 | 0\.75 | 0\.076 | [\[377\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-387) |
|  [North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in North Korea") | 25 Nov 2020 | 16,914 | cases | 0 | 0 | 0\.066 | 0 | [\[378\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-388) |
|  [North Macedonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_Macedonia "COVID-19 pandemic in North Macedonia") | 1 Jul 2021 | 881,870 | samples | 155,689 | 17\.7 | 42\.5 | 7\.5 | [\[379\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-389)[\[380\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-390) |
|  [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Northern_Cyprus "COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Cyprus")[\[k\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-391) | 12 Jul 2022 | 7,096,998 | samples | 103,034 | 1\.5 | 2,177 | 31\.6 | [\[381\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-392) |
|  [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Norway "COVID-19 pandemic in Norway") | 20 Jan 2022 | 9,811,888 | samples | 554,778 | 5\.7 | 183 | 10\.3 | [\[382\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-393) |
|  [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Oman "COVID-19 pandemic in Oman") | 28 Oct 2020 | 509,959 | samples | 114,434 | 22\.4 | 11\.0 | 2\.5 | [\[383\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-394) |
|  [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Pakistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan") | 5 Mar 2021 | 9,173,593 | samples | 588,728 | 6\.4 | 4\.2 | 0\.27 | [\[384\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-395) |
|  [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_State_of_Palestine "COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine") | 5 Feb 2022 | 3,078,533 | samples | 574,105 | 18\.6 | 60\.9 | 11\.4 | [\[385\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-396) |
|  [Panama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Panama "COVID-19 pandemic in Panama") | 28 Jan 2023 | 7,475,016 | samples | 1,029,701 | 13\.8 | 179 | 24\.7 | [\[386\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-397) |
|  [Papua New Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Papua_New_Guinea "COVID-19 pandemic in Papua New Guinea") | 17 Feb 2021 | 47,490 | cases | 961 | 2\.0 | 0\.53 | 0\.011 | [\[387\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-398) |
|  [Paraguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Paraguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Paraguay") | 27 Mar 2022 | 2,609,819 | samples | 647,950 | 24\.8 | 36\.6 | 9\.1 | [\[388\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-399) |
|  [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Peru "COVID-19 pandemic in Peru") | 17 Nov 2022 | 36,073,768 | samples | 4,177,786 | 11\.6 | 109\.9 | 12\.7 | [\[389\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-400) |
|  [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Philippines "COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines") | 7 Jan 2023 | 34,402,980 | samples | 4,073,980 | 11\.8 | 34\.1 | 4\.0 | [\[390\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-401)[\[391\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-402) |
|  [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Poland "COVID-19 pandemic in Poland") | 27 Apr 2022 | 36,064,311 | samples | 5,993,861 | 16\.6 | 94\.0 | 15\.6 | [\[392\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-403) |
|  [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Portugal "COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal") | 5 Jan 2022 | 27,515,490 | samples | 1,499,976 | 5\.5 | 268 | 14\.6 | [\[393\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-404) |
|  [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Qatar "COVID-19 pandemic in Qatar") | 11 Nov 2022 | 4,061,988 | cases | 473,440 | 11\.7 | 141 | 16\.4 | [\[394\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-405) |
|  [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Romania "COVID-19 pandemic in Romania") | 29 Jan 2021 | 5,405,393 | samples | 724,250 | 13\.4 | 27\.9 | 3\.7 | [\[395\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-406) |
|  [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia "COVID-19 pandemic in Russia") | 6 Jun 2022 | 295,542,733 | samples | 18,358,459 | 6\.2 | 201 | 12\.5 | [\[396\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-407)[\[397\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-408) |
|  [Rwanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rwanda "COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda") | 6 Oct 2021 | 2,885,812 | samples | 98,209 | 3\.4 | 22\.3 | 0\.76 | [\[398\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-409) |
|  [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Kitts and Nevis") | 26 Aug 2021 | 30,231 | cases | 995 | 3\.3 | 57\.6 | 1\.9 | [\[399\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-410) |
|  [Saint Lucia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Lucia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Lucia") | 7 Oct 2022 | 212,132 | samples | 29,550 | 13\.9 | 116\.6 | 16\.2 | [\[400\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-411) |
|  [Saint Vincent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "COVID-19 pandemic in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines") | 28 Jan 2023 | 113,504 | cases | 9,585 | 8\.4 | 103\.0 | 8\.7 | [\[401\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-412) |
|  [San Marino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_San_Marino "COVID-19 pandemic in San Marino") | 29 Jan 2023 | 192,613 | samples | 23,427 | 12\.2 | 563 | 68\.4 | [\[402\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-413) |
|  [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Saudi_Arabia "COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia") | 26 Apr 2022 | 41,849,069 | samples | 753,632 | 1\.8 | 120 | 2\.2 | [\[403\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-414) |
|  [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Senegal "COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal") | 12 Jul 2021 | 624,502 | samples | 46,509 | 7\.4 | 3\.9 | 0\.29 | [\[404\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-415) |
|  [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Serbia "COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia") | 2 Feb 2023 | 12,185,475 | cases | 2,473,599 | 20\.3 | 175 | 35\.5 | [\[405\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-416) |
|  [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Singapore "COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore") | 3 Aug 2021 | 16,206,203 | samples | 65,315 | 0\.40 | 284 | 1\.1 | [\[406\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-417)[\[407\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-418) |
|  [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovakia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia") | 2 Feb 2023 | 7,391,882 | samples | 1,861,034 | 25\.2 | 135 | 34\.1 | [\[408\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-419) |
|  [Slovenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Slovenia "COVID-19 pandemic in Slovenia") | 2 Feb 2023 | 2,826,117 | samples | 1,322,282 | 46\.8 | 135 | 63\.1 | [\[409\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-420) |
|  [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa "COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa") | 24 May 2021 | 11,378,282 | cases | 1,637,848 | 14\.4 | 19\.2 | 2\.8 | [\[410\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-421)[\[411\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-422) |
|  [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Korea "COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea") | 1 Mar 2021 | 6,592,010 | samples | 90,029 | 1\.4 | 12\.7 | 0\.17 | [\[412\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-423) |
|  [South Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in South Sudan") | 26 May 2021 | 164,472 | | 10,688 | 6\.5 | 1\.3 | 0\.084 | [\[413\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-424) |
|  [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain "COVID-19 pandemic in Spain") | 1 Jul 2021 | 54,128,524 | samples | 3,821,305 | 7\.1 | 116 | 8\.2 | [\[414\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-425)[\[415\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-426) |
|  [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka "COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka") | 30 Mar 2021 | 2,384,745 | samples | 93,128 | 3\.9 | 10\.9 | 0\.43 | [\[416\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-427)[\[417\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-428) |
|  [Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sudan "COVID-19 pandemic in Sudan") | 7 Jan 2021 | 158,804 | samples | 23,316 | 14\.7 | 0\.36 | 0\.053 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252) |
|  [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sweden "COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden") | 24 May 2021 | 9,996,795 | samples | 1,074,751 | 10\.8 | 96\.8 | 10\.4 | [\[418\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-429)[\[419\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-430) |
|  [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Switzerland "COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland")[\[l\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-431) | 7 Nov 2022 | 23,283,909 | samples | 4,276,836 | 18\.4 | 270 | 49\.7 | [\[420\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-432) |
|  [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan")[\[m\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-433) | 3 Feb 2023 | 30,275,725 | samples | 8,622,129 | 28\.48 | 128\.3 | 36\.528 | [\[421\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-434) |
|  [Tanzania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tanzania "COVID-19 pandemic in Tanzania") | 18 Nov 2020 | 3,880 | | 509 | 13\.1 | 0\.0065 | 0\.00085 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252) |
|  [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Thailand "COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand") | 4 Mar 2021 | 1,579,597 | cases | 26,162 | 1\.7 | 2\.3 | 0\.038 | [\[422\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-435) |
|  [Togo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Togo "COVID-19 pandemic in Togo") | 6 Jan 2023 | 807,269 | | 39,358 | 4\.9 | 9\.4 | 0\.46 | [\[423\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-436) |
|  [Trinidad and Tobago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago "COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago") | 3 Jan 2022 | 512,730 | cases | 92,997 | 18\.1 | 37\.6 | 6\.8 | [\[424\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-437) |
|  [Tunisia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Tunisia "COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia") | 23 Aug 2021 | 2,893,625 | samples | 703,732 | 24\.3 | 24\.5 | 6\.0 | [\[425\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-438) |
|  [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Turkey "COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey") | 2 Jul 2021 | 61,236,294 | samples | 5,435,831 | 8\.9 | 73\.6 | 6\.5 | [\[426\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-439) |
|  [Uganda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uganda "COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda") | 11 Feb 2021 | 852,444 | samples | 39,979 | 4\.7 | 1\.9 | 0\.087 | [\[427\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-440) |
|  [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine "COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine") | 24 Nov 2021 | 15,648,456 | samples | 3,367,461 | 21\.5 | 37\.2 | 8\.0 | [\[428\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-441) |
|  [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates") | 1 Feb 2023 | 198,685,717 | samples | 1,049,537 | 0\.53 | 2,070 | 10\.9 | [\[429\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-442) |
|  [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") | 19 May 2022 | 522,526,476 | samples | 22,232,377 | 4\.3 | 774 | 32\.9 | [\[430\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-443) |
|  [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") | 29 Jul 2022 | 929,349,291 | samples | 90,749,469 | 9\.8 | 281 | 27\.4 | [\[431\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-444)[\[432\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-445) |
|  [Uruguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uruguay "COVID-19 pandemic in Uruguay") | 16 Apr 2022 | 6,089,116 | samples | 895,592 | 14\.7 | 175 | 25\.8 | [\[433\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-446) |
|  [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Uzbekistan "COVID-19 pandemic in Uzbekistan") | 7 Sep 2020 | 2,630,000 | samples | 43,975 | 1\.7 | 7\.7 | 0\.13 | [\[434\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-447) |
|  [Venezuela](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Venezuela "COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela") | 30 Mar 2021 | 3,179,074 | samples | 159,149 | 5\.0 | 11\.0 | 0\.55 | [\[435\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-448) |
|  [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Vietnam "COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam") | 28 Aug 2022 | 45,772,571 | samples | 11,403,302 | 24\.9 | 46\.4 | 11\.6 | [\[436\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-449) |
|  [Zambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zambia "COVID-19 pandemic in Zambia") | 10 Mar 2022 | 3,301,860 | samples | 314,850 | 9\.5 | 19\.0 | 1\.8 | [\[437\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-450) |
|  [Zimbabwe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Zimbabwe "COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe") | 15 Oct 2022 | 2,529,087 | samples | 257,893 | 10\.2 | 17\.0 | 1\.7 | [\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-AfricaCDC-252)[\[438\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_note-451) |
| **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-248)** Local time. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-249)** For some countries it is unclear whether they report samples or cases. One person tested twice is recorded as one case and two samples. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-286)** Excluding [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Taiwan "COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-295)** Excluding [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cyprus "Northern Cyprus"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-298)** Excluding [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Greenland "COVID-19 pandemic in Greenland") and the [Faroe Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Faroe_Islands "COVID-19 pandemic in the Faroe Islands"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-315)** Excluding [Overseas France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_France "Overseas France"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-316)** Testing data from 4 May to 12 May is missing because of the transition to the new reporting system SI-DEP. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-320)** Excluding [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Abkhazia "COVID-19 pandemic in Abkhazia") and [South Ossetia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Ossetia "COVID-19 pandemic in South Ossetia"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-360)** Data for residents only. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-372)** Excluding [Transnistria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transnistria "Transnistria"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-391)** [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cyprus "Northern Cyprus") is not recognized as a [sovereign state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state "Sovereign state") by any country except [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-431)** Includes data for [Liechtenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Liechtenstein "COVID-19 pandemic in Liechtenstein"). **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-433)** Not a [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") member. | | | | | | | | |
See also
- [2002–2004 SARS outbreak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak "2002–2004 SARS outbreak")
- [Coronavirus breathalyzer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_breathalyzer "Coronavirus breathalyzer")
- [Coronavirus disease 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019 "Coronavirus disease 2019")
- [COVID-19 misinformation § PCR testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation#PCR_testing "COVID-19 misinformation")
- [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic")
- [Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic § COVID-19 testing controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic#COVID-19_testing_controversy "Philippine government response to the COVID-19 pandemic")
References
-  This article incorporates [public domain material](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States "Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States") from
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Հիվանդությունների վերահսկման և կանխարգելման ազգային կենտրոն
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["Cifras Oficiales: COVID-19"](https://www.gob.cl/coronavirus/cifrasoficiales/). *Gobierno de Chile* \[*Government of Chile*\] (in Spanish). 2 February 2023.
284. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-287)**
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中华人民共和国中央人民政府
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285. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-288)**
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Πανεπιστήμιο Κύπρου
\[*University of Cyprus*\] (in Greek). 3 February 2023.
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["Přehled situace v ČR: COVID-19"](https://onemocneni-aktualne.mzcr.cz/covid-19). *Ministerstvo zdravotnictví České republiky* \[*The Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic*\] (in Czech). 2 February 2023.
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დაავადებათა კონტროლისა და საზოგადოებრივი ჯანმრთელობის ეროვნული ცენტრი
\[*National Center for Disease Control and Public Health*\] (in Georgian). 3 November 2021.
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وزارة الصحة العراقية (Facebook)
\[*Iraqi Ministry of Health (Facebook)*\] (in Arabic). 3 August 2022.
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厚生労働省
\[*The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare*\] (in Japanese). 1 March 2021.
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\[*National Center of Public Health of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Republic of Kazakhstan*\] (in Russian). 29 May 2021.
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["Instagram" За сутки проведено 3436 ПЦР-исследований на коронавирус](https://www.instagram.com/p/CLGRXgPKAJj/)
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344. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-352)**
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345. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-353)**
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فيروس كورونا: COVID-19
\[*Coronavirus: COVID-19*\] (in Arabic). Ministry of Information. 14 June 2021.
347. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-355)**
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356. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_testing#cite_ref-365)**
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\[*Ministry of Health*\] (in Mongolian). 10 July 2021.
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[مرض فيروس كورونا المستجد: الرصد الصحي بالمغرب](http://www.covidmaroc.ma/Pages/AccueilAR.aspx)
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البوابة الرسمية لفيروس كورونا بالمغرب
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[Во последните 24 часа](https://www.facebook.com/filipce.venko/)
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코로나바이러스감염증-19(COVID-19)
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[รายงานสถานการณ์โรคติดเชื้อไวรัสโคโรนา 2019 ฉบับที่ 426 วันที่ 4 มีนาคม 2564](https://ddc.moph.go.th/viralpneumonia/file/situation/situation-no426-040364.pdf)
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Further reading
- Guglielmi G (July 2020). ["The explosion of new coronavirus tests that could help to end the pandemic"](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-020-02140-8). *Nature*. **583** (7817): 506–509\. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2020Natur.583..506G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Natur.583..506G). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/d41586-020-02140-8](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-020-02140-8). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [32681157](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32681157).
- Kevadiya BD, Machhi J, Herskovitz J, Oleynikov MD, Blomberg WR, Bajwa N, et al. (May 2021). ["Diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 infections"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8264308). *Nature Materials*. **20** (5): 593–605\. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2021NatMa..20..593K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatMa..20..593K). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1038/s41563-020-00906-z](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41563-020-00906-z). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_\(identifier\) "PMC (identifier)") [8264308](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8264308). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [33589798](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33589798). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [231930978](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:231930978).
External links |
| Shard | 152 (laksa) |
| Root Hash | 17790707453426894952 |
| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/COVID-19_testing s443 |