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| Boilerpipe Text | The United Kingdom in orange; the European Union (27 member states) in blue: a representation of the result of Brexit
Brexit
(
;
[
1
]
a
portmanteau
of "Britain" and "Exit") was the
withdrawal
of the
United Kingdom
(UK) from the
European Union
(EU).
Brexit took place at 23:00
GMT
on 31 January 2020 (00:00 1 February 2020
CET
).
[
a
]
The UK, which joined the EU precursor, the
European Communities
(EC), on 1 January 1973, is the only member state to have withdrawn, although previously the territories of
Algeria
ceased to be part of the EC following its independence from the member state France in 1962 and
Greenland
(part of the
Kingdom of Denmark
) left the EC in 1985. Following Brexit,
EU law
and the
Court of Justice of the European Union
no longer have
primacy over British law
but the UK remains bound by obligations in treaties it has with other countries around the world, including many with EU member states and with the EU itself. The
European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
retains relevant EU law as
domestic law
, which the UK can amend or repeal.
The EU and its institutions developed gradually after their establishment. Throughout the period of British membership,
Eurosceptic
groups had existed in the UK, opposing aspects of the EU and its predecessors. The
Labour
prime minister
Harold Wilson
's pro-EC government held
a referendum on continued EC membership in 1975
, in which 67.2% voted to stay. Despite growing political opposition by a minority of UK politicians to further
European integration
aimed at "
ever closer union
" between 1975â2016, from factions of the
Conservative Party
in the 1980sâ2000s, no further referendums on the issue were held.
By the mid-2010s, the growing popularity of the
UK Independence Party
(UKIP), as well as pressure from Eurosceptics within his own party, persuaded the Conservative prime minister
David Cameron
to promise a referendum on British membership of the EU if his government was re-elected. Following the
2015 general election
, which produced a small but unexpected majority for the governing Conservative Party, the promised
referendum on continued EU membership
was held on 23 June 2016. Supporters of the
Remain
campaign included then-prime minister David Cameron, the future prime ministers
Theresa May
,
Liz Truss
, and
Sir Keir Starmer
, and the exâprime ministers
John Major
,
Tony Blair
, and
Gordon Brown
; supporters of the
Leave
campaign included the future prime ministers
Boris Johnson
and
Rishi Sunak
. The electorate voted to Leave the EU by a slight margin, with a 51.9% share of the vote, all regions of
England
and
Wales
except
London
voting in favour of Brexit, and
Scotland
and
Northern Ireland
voting to remain. The result led to Cameron's sudden resignation, his replacement by former Home Secretary Theresa May, and four years of negotiations with the EU over the terms of departure and future relations, completed under a
Boris Johnson-led government
, with the Conservative Party in office.
The negotiation was both politically challenging and deeply divisive, leading to two snap general elections in
2017
and
2019
. One proposal under the
second May ministry
was overwhelmingly rejected by the
UK Parliament
, causing great uncertainty and leading to postponement of the withdrawal date to avoid a
no-deal Brexit
. The UK officially left the European Union on 31 January 2020 after a withdrawal deal was passed by Parliament, but continued to participate in many EU institutions (including the single market and customs union) during an
eleven-month transition period
during which it was hoped that details of the post-Brexit relationship could be agreed and implemented.
Trade deal negotiations
continued within days of the scheduled end of the transition period, and the
EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement
was signed on 30 December 2020. The effects of Brexit in the UK are in part determined by the cooperation agreement, which
provisionally applied
from 1 January 2021, until it formally came into force on 1 May 2021.
[
2
]
Following a UK-wide
referendum on 23 June 2016
, in which 51.89 per cent voted in favour of leaving the EU and 48.11 per cent voted to remain a member state,
David Cameron
resigned as prime minister. On 29 March 2017, the new
British government
led by
Theresa May
chose to formally notify the EU of the country's intention to withdraw from the EU in two years, despite there being no agreement among UK politicians on objectives for post-Brexit relations with the EU. The withdrawal, originally scheduled for 29 March 2019, was subsequently delayed by the
deadlock in the British parliament
after the
June 2017 general election
, which resulted in a
hung parliament
in which the
Conservatives
lost their majority but remained the largest party. This deadlock eventually led to three extensions of the
UK's Article 50 process
.
The deadlock was resolved after a
subsequent general election was held in December 2019
. In that election, Conservatives who campaigned in support of a "hard-brexit" withdrawal agreement led by
Boris Johnson
won an overall majority of 80 seats. After the December 2019 election, the British parliament finally ratified the
withdrawal agreement
with the
European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020
. The UK left the EU at the end of 31 January 2020
CET
(11Â p.m.
GMT
).
[
3
]
This began a transition period that ended on 31 December 2020 CET (11Â p.m. GMT), during which the UK and EU negotiated their future relationship.
[
4
]
During the transition, the UK remained subject to
EU law
and remained part of the
European Union Customs Union
and the
European single market
. However, it was no longer part of the EU's political bodies or institutions.
[
5
]
[
6
]
The withdrawal had been advocated by mostly right-wing and conservative
hard Eurosceptics
and opposed by
pro-Europeanists
mostly from the rest of the political spectrum.
In 1973, the UK joined
the
European Communities
(EC) â principally the
European Economic Community
(EEC) â and its continued membership was endorsed in the
1975 membership referendum
. In the 1970s and 1980s, withdrawal from the EC was advocated mainly by the political left, e.g. in the
Labour Party
's 1983 election manifesto. The 1992
Maastricht Treaty
, which founded the EU, was
ratified by the British parliament in 1993
but was not put to a referendum. The Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party led
a rebellion
over the ratification of the treaty and, with the
UK Independence Party
(UKIP) and the cross-party
People's Pledge
campaign, then led a collective campaign, particularly after the
Treaty of Lisbon
was also ratified by the
European Union (Amendment) Act 2008
without being put to a referendum following a previous promise to hold
a referendum
on ratifying the abandoned
European Constitution
, which was never held. After promising to hold a second membership referendum if his government was elected, Conservative prime minister David Cameron held this referendum in 2016. Cameron, who had campaigned to remain, resigned after the result and was succeeded by
Theresa May
.
On 29 March 2017, the British government formally began the withdrawal process by invoking Article 50 of the
Treaty on European Union
with
permission from Parliament
. May called
a snap general election
in June 2017, which resulted in a Conservative minority government
supported
by the
Democratic Unionist Party
(DUP). UKâEU withdrawal negotiations began later that month. The UK negotiated to leave the EU customs union and single market. This resulted in the November 2018
withdrawal agreement
, but the British parliament
voted against ratifying it
three times. The Labour Party wanted any agreement to maintain a customs union, while many Conservatives opposed the agreement's
financial settlement
, as well as the "
Irish backstop
" designed to prevent border controls between
Northern Ireland
and the
Republic of Ireland
. The
Liberal Democrats
,
Scottish National Party
(SNP), and others sought to reverse Brexit through
a proposed second referendum
.
On 14 March 2019, the British parliament voted for May to ask the EU to delay Brexit until June, and then later October.
[
7
]
Having failed to get her agreement approved, May resigned as prime minister in July and was succeeded by
Boris Johnson
. He sought to replace parts of the agreement and vowed to leave the EU by the new deadline. On 17 October 2019, the British government and the EU agreed on a revised withdrawal agreement, with new arrangements for Northern Ireland.
[
8
]
[
9
]
Parliament approved the agreement for further scrutiny, but rejected passing it into law before the 31 October deadline, and forced the government (through the "
Benn Act
") to ask for a third Brexit delay.
An early general election
was then held on 12 December. The Conservatives won a large majority in that election, with Johnson declaring that the UK would leave the EU in early 2020.
[
10
]
The withdrawal agreement was ratified by the UK on 23 January and by the EU on 30 January; it came into force on 31 January 2020.
[
11
]
[
12
]
[
13
]
Terminology and etymology
[
edit
]
Following the referendum of 23 June 2016, many new pieces of Brexit-related
jargon
entered popular use.
[
14
]
[
15
]
The word
Brexit
is a portmanteau of the phrase "British exit".
[
16
]
According to the
Oxford English Dictionary
, the term was coined in a blog post on the website
Euractiv
by Peter Wilding, director of European policy at
BSkyB
, on 15 May 2012.
[
17
]
Wilding coined
Brexit
to refer to the end of the UK's membership of the EU; by 2016, usage of the word had increased by 3,400% in one year.
[
18
]
On 2 November 2016, the
Collins English Dictionary
selected
Brexit
as the
word of the year
for 2016.
[
19
]
Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership
[
edit
]
When the UK first joined the
European Communities
(along with
Denmark
and
Ireland
) on 1 January 1973 it was one of just nine member states that made up the bloc at the time.
Â
 EC Members
The "
Inner Six
" European countries signed the
Treaty of Paris
in 1951, establishing the
European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC). The 1955
Messina Conference
deemed that the ECSC was a success, and resolved to extend the concept further, thereby leading to the 1957
Treaties of Rome
establishing the
European Economic Community
(EEC) and the
European Atomic Energy Community
(Euratom). In
1967
, these became known as the European Communities (EC). The UK attempted to join in 1963 and 1967, but these applications were vetoed by the
president of France
,
Charles de Gaulle
, who feared the UK would be a
Trojan Horse
for US influence.
[
20
]
[
21
]
Some time after de Gaulle resigned in 1969, the UK successfully applied for
European Communities
(EC) membership. Membership of the then EEC was thoroughly discussed at the long debate in the
House of Commons
in October 1971. It led to the decisive vote in favour of membership by 356 to 244. As historian Piers Ludlow observed, the 1971 parliamentary debate was of high quality and considered all issues. The British were not "misled and persuaded to accept membership in a narrow commercial entity without being aware that the EEC was a political project liable to develop in the future".
[
22
]
The
Conservative
prime minister
Edward Heath
signed the
Treaty of Accession
in 1972.
[
23
]
Parliament passed the
European Communities Act
later that year
[
24
]
and the UK joined
Denmark
and the
Republic of Ireland
in
becoming a member
on 1 January 1973, without referendum.
[
25
]
During the 1970s and 1980s, the
Labour Party
was the more Eurosceptic of the two major parties, and the Conservatives the more Europhile. Labour won the
February 1974 general election
without a majority and then contested the subsequent
October 1974 general election
with a commitment to renegotiate Britain's terms of membership of the EC, believing them to be unfavourable, and then hold a
referendum
on whether to remain in the EC on the new terms.
[
26
]
Labour again won the election (this time with a small majority), and in 1975 the UK held its
first ever national referendum
, asking whether the UK should remain in the EC. Despite significant division within the ruling Labour Party,
[
27
]
all major political parties and the mainstream press supported continuing membership of the EC. On 5 June 1975, 67.2% of the electorate and all but two
[
28
]
British counties and regions voted to stay in;
[
29
]
support for the UK to leave the EC in 1975 appears unrelated to the support for Leave in the 2016 referendum.
[
30
]
In 1979, the UK secured its first
opt-out
, although the expression was not contemporary; it was the only EEC country not to take part in the
European Monetary System
.
The Labour Party campaigned in the
1983 general election
on a commitment to withdraw from the EC without a referendum.
[
31
]
Following their heavy defeat in that election, Labour changed its policy.
[
31
]
In 1985, the
second Margaret Thatcher government
ratified the
Single European Act
âthe first major revision to the
Treaty of Rome
âwithout a referendum.
[
32
]
Comparison of results of 1975 and 2016 referendums
In October 1990, under pressure from senior ministers and despite Thatcher's deep reservations, the UK joined the
European Exchange Rate Mechanism
(ERM), with the
pound sterling
pegged to the
deutschmark
. Thatcher resigned as prime minister the following month, amid Conservative Party divisions arising partly from her increasingly Eurosceptic views. The UK was forced to withdraw from the ERM on
Black Wednesday
in September 1992, after the pound sterling came under pressure from
currency speculation
.
[
33
]
Italy left the same month, but would soon rejoin on a different band. The UK did not seek re-entry and remained outside the ERM.
On 1 November 1993, after the UK and the other eleven member states had ratified, the EC became the EU under the Maastricht Treaty
[
34
]
compromise between member states seeking deeper integration and those wishing to retain greater national control in the
economic
and
political union
.
[
35
]
Denmark
,
France
, and the Republic of Ireland held referendums to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. In accordance with
Constitution of the United Kingdom
, specifically that of
parliamentary sovereignty
, ratification in the UK was not subject to approval by referendum. Despite this, British constitutional historian
Vernon Bogdanor
wrote that there was "a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum" because although MPs are entrusted with legislative power by the electorate, they are not given authority to transfer that power (the UK's previous three referendums all concerned this). Further, as the ratification of the treaty was in the manifestos of the three major political parties, voters opposed to ratification had limited options for expressing this. For Bogdanor, while the ratification by the House of Commons might be legal, it would not be legitimateâwhich requires popular consent. The way in which the treaty was ratified, he judged, was "likely to have fundamental consequences both for British politics and for Britain's relationship with the [EC]."
[
36
]
[
37
]
Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom and the role of the EU leadership
[
edit
]
Thatcher, who had previously supported the common market and the Single European Act, in the
Bruges speech
of 1988 warned against "a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". She influenced
Daniel Hannan
, who in 1990 founded the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain; "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the campaign for Brexit", the
Financial Times
later wrote.
[
38
]
The vote to approve the
Maastricht Treaty
in 1993 triggered a strong Eurosceptic response, splitting the
Conservative
Party and leading to many past supporters forming alternative Eurosceptic parties. This included Sir
James Goldsmith
forming the
Referendum Party
in 1994 to contest the
1997 general election
on a platform of providing a referendum on the UK's relationship with the EU.
[
39
]
Role of the EU leadership
[
edit
]
Perceptions of EU leadership during major crises significantly contributed to Euroscepticism in the UK. During the eurozone debt crisis, strict austerity measures were imposed as a condition for bailouts, with EU member states, including the UK, asked to contribute to bailout plans. Critics argued that such policies disproportionately served the interests of leading EU nations, particularly Germany, and undermined national sovereignty.
[
40
]
Similarly, during the 2015 migration crisis, Chancellor
Angela Merkel
's decision to open EU borders and her request that member states share the burden of accommodating refugees sparked significant backlash. Many in the UK viewed this as an imposition of obligations without adequate consultation, reinforcing Eurosceptic narratives.
[
41
]
Populist parties such as
UKIP
exploited these perceptions, linking EU leadership to broader fears of a loss of British sovereignty. Campaign rhetoric often employed nationalist sentiments and portrayed the EU as disproportionately influenced by certain member states.
[
42
]
Electoral success and the 2016 referendum
[
edit
]
UKIP's electoral success, driven by its anti-EU campaigns, culminated in significant gains during the
2014 European elections
, where it became the largest UK party with 27.5% of the vote.
[
43
]
This success put pressure on the ruling
Conservative
Party, ultimately leading to Prime Minister
David Cameron
's decision to hold the
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
.
By linking perceived EU leadership overreach to concerns about sovereignty, Eurosceptic parties and media shaped public opinion in the UK, contributing to the referendum outcome.
Opinion polls 1977â2015
[
edit
]
Both pro- and anti-EU views had majority support at different times from 1977 to 2015.
[
44
]
In the
EC membership referendum of 1975
, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. Over the decades of UK-EU membership, Euroscepticism existed on both the left and right of British politics.
[
45
]
[
46
]
[
47
]
According to a statistical analysis published in April 2016 by Professor
John Curtice
of
Strathclyde University
, surveys showed an increase in Euroscepticism (a wish to leave the EU or stay in the EU and try to reduce the EU's powers) from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. The BSA survey for the period of JulyâNovember 2015 showed that 60% backed the option to continue as a member and 30% backed withdrawal.
[
48
]
2016 EU membership referendum
[
edit
]
Negotiations for membership reform
[
edit
]
In 2012, Prime Minister
David Cameron
initially rejected calls for a referendum on the UK's EU membership,
[
49
]
but then suggested the possibility of a future referendum to endorse his proposed renegotiation of Britain's relationship with the rest of the EU.
[
50
]
According to the
BBC
, "The prime minister acknowledged the need to ensure the UK's [renegotiated] position within the [EU] had 'the full-hearted support of the British people' but they needed to show 'tactical and strategic patience'."
[
51
]
On 23 January 2013, under pressure from many of his MPs and from the rise of UKIP, Cameron promised in his
Bloomberg speech
that a Conservative government would hold an in-or-out referendum on EU membership before the end of 2017, on a renegotiated package, if elected in the
7 May 2015 general election
.
[
52
]
This was included in the Conservative Party manifesto for the election.
[
53
]
[
54
]
The
Conservative Party
won the election with a majority. Soon afterwards, the
European Union Referendum Act 2015
was introduced into
Parliament
to enable the referendum. Cameron favoured remaining in a reformed EU, and sought to renegotiate on four key points: protection of the single market for non-eurozone countries, reduction of "red tape", exempting Britain from "ever-closer union", and restricting immigration from the rest of the EU.
[
55
]
In December 2015, opinion polls showed a clear majority in favour of remaining in the EU; they also showed support would drop if Cameron did not negotiate adequate safeguards
[
definition needed
]
for non-eurozone member states, and restrictions on benefits for non-UK EU citizens.
[
56
]
The outcome of the renegotiations was revealed in February 2016. Some limits to in-work benefits for new EU immigrants were agreed, but before they could be applied, a member state such as the UK would have to get permission from the
European Commission
and then from the
European Council
, which is composed of the heads of government of every member state.
[
57
]
In a speech to the House of Commons on 22 February 2016, Cameron announced a referendum date of 23 June 2016, and commented on the renegotiation settlement.
[
58
]
He spoke of an intention to trigger the Article 50 process immediately following a Leave vote and of the "two-year time period to negotiate the arrangements for exit."
[
59
]
After the original wording for the referendum question was challenged,
[
60
]
the government agreed to change the official referendum question to "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?"
In the referendum 51.89% voted in favour of leaving the EU (Leave), and 48.11% voted in favour of remaining a member of the EU (Remain).
[
61
]
[
62
]
After this result, Cameron resigned on 13 July 2016, with
Theresa May
becoming Prime Minister after a
leadership contest
. A
petition calling for a second referendum
attracted more than four million signatures,
[
63
]
[
64
]
but was rejected by the government on 9 July.
[
65
]
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
Choice
Votes
%
Leave the European Union
17,410,742
51.89
Remain a member of the European Union
16,141,241
48.11
Valid votes
33,551,983
99.92
Invalid or blank votes
25,359
0.08
Total votes
33,577,342
100.00
Registered voters/turnout
46,500,001
72.21
Source: Electoral Commission
[
66
]
National referendum results (excluding invalid votes)
Leave
17,410,742 (51.9%)
Remain
16,141,241 (48.1%)
âČ
50%
Results by UK voting region (left) and by council district/unitary authority (GB) & UK Parliament constituency (NI) (right)
Â
 Leave
Â
 Remain
Referendum results by United Kingdom regions
Region
Electorate
Voter turnout,
of eligible
Votes
Proportion of votes
Invalid votes
Remain
Leave
Remain
Leave
Â
East Midlands
3,384,299
74.2%
1,033,036
1,475,479
41.18%
58.82%
1,981
Â
East of England
4,398,796
75.7%
1,448,616
1,880,367
43.52%
56.48%
2,329
Â
Greater London
5,424,768
69.7%
2,263,519
1,513,232
59.93%
40.07%
4,453
Â
North East England
1,934,341
69.3%
562,595
778,103
41.96%
58.04%
689
Â
North West England
5,241,568
70.0%
1,699,020
1,966,925
46.35%
53.65%
2,682
Â
Northern Ireland
1,260,955
62.7%
440,707
349,442
55.78%
44.22%
374
Â
Scotland
3,987,112
67.2%
1,661,191
1,018,322
62.00%
38.00%
1,666
Â
South East England
6,465,404
76.8%
2,391,718
2,567,965
48.22%
51.78%
3,427
Â
South West England
(inc
Gibraltar
)
4,138,134
76.7%
1,503,019
1,669,711
47.37%
52.63%
2,179
Â
Wales
2,270,272
71.7%
772,347
854,572
47.47%
52.53%
1,135
Â
West Midlands
4,116,572
72.0%
1,207,175
1,755,687
40.74%
59.26%
2,507
Â
Yorkshire and the Humber
3,877,780
70.7%
1,158,298
1,580,937
42.29%
57.71%
1,937
Overall Total
Â
United Kingdom
46,500,001
72.2%
16,141,241
17,410,742
48.11%
51.89%
25,359
Referendum results by United Kingdom constituent countries & Gibraltar
Country
Electorate
Voter turnout,
of eligible
Votes
Proportion of votes
Invalid votes
Remain
Leave
Remain
Leave
Â
England
38,981,662
73.0%
13,247,674
15,187,583
46.59%
53.41%
22,157
Â
Gibraltar
24,119
83.7%
19,322
823
95.91%
4.08%
27
Â
Northern Ireland
1,260,955
62.7%
440,707
349,442
55.78%
44.22%
384
Â
Scotland
3,987,112
67.2%
1,661,191
1,018,322
62.00%
38.00%
1,666
Â
Wales
2,270,272
71.7%
772,347
854,572
47.47%
52.53%
1,135
Overall Total
Â
United Kingdom
46,500,001
72.2%
16,141,241
17,410,742
48.11%
51.89%
25,359
Voter demographics and trends
[
edit
]
A 2017 study published in the journal
Economic Policy
showed that the Leave vote tended to be greater in areas which had lower incomes and high
unemployment
, a strong tradition of
manufacturing
employment, and in which the population had fewer
qualifications
. It also tended to be greater where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers.
[
67
]
Those in lower
social grades
(especially the
working class
) were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades (especially the
upper middle class
) more likely to vote Remain.
[
67
]
[
68
]
[
69
]
Studies found that the Leave vote tended to be higher in areas affected by economic decline,
[
70
]
high rates of suicides and drug-related deaths,
[
71
]
and
austerity
reforms introduced in 2010.
[
72
]
Studies suggest that older people were more likely to vote Leave, and younger people more likely to vote Remain.
[
73
]
According to Thomas Sampson, an economist at the
London School of Economics
, "Older and less-educated voters were more likely to vote 'leave' [...] A majority of white voters wanted to leave, but only 33% of Asian voters and 27% of black voters chose leave. [...] Leaving the European Union received support from across the political spectrum [...] Voting to leave the European Union was strongly associated with holding socially conservative political beliefs, opposing cosmopolitanism, and thinking life in Britain is getting worse."
[
74
]
Polling conducted by YouGov supported these conclusions, showing that factors such as age, political party affiliation, education, and household income were the primary factors indicating how people would vote. For example,
Conservative Party
voters were 61% likely to vote leave, compared to Labour Party voters, who were 35% likely to vote leave. Age was one of the biggest factors affecting whether someone would vote leave, with 64% of people over the age of 65 likely to vote leave, whereas 18â24-year-olds were only 29% likely to vote leave. Education was another factor indicating voting likelihood: people with a
GCSE
or lower level of education were 70% likely to vote leave, whereas university graduates were only 32% likely to vote leave. Household income was another important factor, with households earning less than ÂŁ20,000 62% likely to vote leave, compared to households earning ÂŁ60,000 or more, which were only 35% likely to vote leave.
[
75
]
There were major variations in geographic support for each side. Scotland and Northern Ireland both returned majorities for remain, although these had a relatively small impact on the overall result as England has a much larger population. There were also significant regional differences within England, with most of London returning a majority remain vote, alongside urban centres in northern England such as
Manchester
and
Liverpool
, which returned remain majorities of 60% and 58% respectively. Opposite trends appeared in industrial and
post-industrial
areas of
Northern England
, with areas such as
North Lincolnshire
and
South Tyneside
both heavily supporting leave.
[
76
]
Opinion polls found that Leave voters believed leaving the EU was "more likely to bring about a better immigration system, improved border controls, a fairer welfare system, better quality of life, and the ability to control our own laws", while Remain voters believed EU membership "would be better for the economy, international investment, and the UK's influence in the world." Polls found that the main reasons people voted Leave were "the principle that decisions about the UK should be taken in the UK", and that leaving "offered the best chance for the UK to regain control over immigration and its own borders." The main reason people voted Remain was that "the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy, jobs and prices."
[
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]
Post-referendum investigations
[
edit
]
Following the referendum, a series of irregularities related to campaign spending were investigated by the
Electoral Commission
, which subsequently issued a large number of fines. In February 2017, the main campaign group for the "Leave" vote,
Leave.EU
, was fined ÂŁ50,000 for sending marketing messages without permission.
[
78
]
In December 2017, the
Electoral Commission
fined two pro-EU groups, the
Liberal Democrats
(ÂŁ18,000) and
Open Britain
(ÂŁ1,250), for breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign.
[
79
]
In May 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU ÂŁ70,000 for unlawfully overspending and inaccurately reporting loans from
Arron Banks
totalling ÂŁ6Â million.
[
80
]
Smaller fines were levelled against the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future and two trade union donors for inaccurate reporting.
[
81
]
In July 2018
Vote Leave
was fined ÂŁ61,000 for overspending, not declaring finances shared with
BeLeave
, and failing to comply with investigators.
[
82
]
In November 2017, the Electoral Commission launched a probe into
claims that Russia had attempted to sway public opinion
over the referendum using social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook.
[
83
]
In February 2019, the parliamentary
Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee
called for an inquiry into "foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of data" in the Brexit vote.
[
84
]
In July 2020,
Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament
published a
report
which accused the UK government of actively avoiding investigating whether Russia interfered with public opinion. The report did not pass judgement over whether Russian information operations had an impact on the result.
[
85
]
English
Wikisource
has original text related to this article:
Withdrawal from the European Union is governed by Article 50 of the
Treaty on European Union
. It was originally drafted by
Lord Kerr of Kinlochard
,
[
86
]
and introduced by the
Treaty of Lisbon
which entered into force in 2009.
[
87
]
The article states that any member state can withdraw "in accordance with its own constitutional requirements" by notifying the
European Council
of its intention to do so.
[
88
]
The notification triggers a two-year negotiation period, in which the EU must "negotiate and conclude an agreement with [the leaving] State, setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal, taking account of the framework for its future relationship with the [European] Union".
[
89
]
If no agreement is reached within the two years, the membership ends without an agreement, unless an extension is unanimously agreed among all EU states, including the withdrawing state.
[
89
]
On the EU side, the agreement needs to be ratified by
qualified majority in the European Council
, and by the European Parliament.
[
89
]
Invocation of Article 50
[
edit
]
Letter from Theresa May invoking Article 50
The 2015 Referendum Act did not expressly require Article 50 to be invoked,
[
89
]
but prior to the referendum, the British government said it would respect the result.
[
90
]
When Cameron resigned following the referendum, he said that it would be for the incoming prime minister to invoke Article 50.
[
61
]
[
91
]
The new prime minister,
Theresa May
, said she would wait until 2017 to invoke the article, in order to prepare for the negotiations.
[
92
]
In October 2016, she said Britain would trigger Article 50 in March 2017,
[
93
]
and in December she gained the support of MPs for her timetable.
[
94
]
In January 2017, the
Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
ruled in
the Miller case
that government could only invoke Article 50 if authorised by an act of parliament to do so.
[
95
]
The government subsequently introduced a bill for that purpose, and it was passed into law on 16 March as the
European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017
.
[
96
]
On 29 March,
Theresa May
triggered Article 50 when
Tim Barrow
, the British ambassador to the EU, delivered the invocation letter to European Council President
Donald Tusk
. This made 29 March 2019 the expected date that UK would leave EU.
[
97
]
[
98
]
2017 UK general election
[
edit
]
A map presenting the results of the 2017 United Kingdom general election, by party of the MP elected from each constituency, with Conservatives in blue, Labour in red, and SNP in yellow
In April 2017,
Theresa May
called a
snap general election, held on 8 June
, in an attempt to "strengthen [her] hand" in the negotiations;
[
99
]
The Conservative Party, Labour and UKIP made manifesto pledges to implement the referendum, the Labour manifesto differing in its approach to Brexit negotiations, such as unilaterally offering permanent residence to EU immigrants.
[
100
]
[
101
]
[
102
]
The Liberal Democrat Party and the
Green Party
manifestos proposed a policy of remaining in the EU via a
second referendum
.
[
103
]
[
104
]
[
105
]
The Scottish National Party (SNP) manifesto proposed a policy of waiting for the outcome of the Brexit negotiations and then holding a referendum on
Scottish independence
.
[
106
]
[
107
]
The result produced an unexpected
hung parliament
, the governing Conservatives gained votes and remained the largest party but nevertheless lost seats and their majority in the House of Commons. Labour gained significantly on votes and seats, retaining its position as the second-largest party. The Liberal Democrats gained six seats despite a slight decrease in vote share compared with 2015. The Green Party kept its single MP while also losing national vote share. Losing votes and seats were the SNP, which lost 21 MPs, and UKIP, which suffered a â10.8% swing and lost its only MP. The
Democratic Unionist Party
(DUP) and
Sinn FĂ©in
also made gains in votes and seats.
[
108
]
On 26 June 2017, Conservatives and the DUP reached a
confidence and supply
agreement whereby the DUP would back the Conservatives in key votes in the House of Commons over the course of the parliament. The agreement included additional funding of ÂŁ1Â billion for Northern Ireland, highlighted mutual support for Brexit and national security, expressed commitment to the Good Friday Agreement, and indicated that policies such as the state pension triple lock and
Winter Fuel Payments
would be maintained.
[
109
]
[
110
]
UKâEU negotiations in 2017 and 2018
[
edit
]
Prior to the negotiations, May said that the British government would not seek permanent
single market membership
, would end ECJ jurisdiction, seek a new trade agreement, end
free movement of people
and maintain the
Common Travel Area
with
Ireland
.
[
111
]
The EU had adopted its
negotiating directives
in May,
[
112
]
and appointed
Michel Barnier
as Chief Negotiator.
[
113
]
The EU wished to perform the negotiations in two phases: first the UK would agree to a financial commitment and to lifelong benefits for EU citizens in Britain, and then negotiations on a future relationship could begin.
[
114
]
In the first phase, the member states would demand that the UK pay a "
divorce bill
", initially estimated as amounting to ÂŁ52Â billion.
[
115
]
EU negotiators said that an agreement must be reached between UK and the EU by October 2018.
[
116
]
Negotiations commenced on 19 June 2017.
[
113
]
Negotiating groups were established for three topics: the rights of EU citizens living in Britain and vice versa; Britain's outstanding financial obligations to the EU; and the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
[
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]
[
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]
[
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]
In December 2017, a partial agreement was reached. It ensured that there would be no hard border in Ireland, protected the rights of UK citizens in the EU and of EU citizens in Britain, and estimated the financial settlement to be ÂŁ35â39Â billion.
[
120
]
May stressed that "Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed".
[
121
]
Following this partial agreement, EU leaders agreed to move on to the second phase in the negotiations: discussion of the future relationship, a transition period and a possible trade deal.
[
122
]
In March 2018, a 21-month transition period and the terms for it were provisionally agreed.
[
123
]
In June 2018, Irish
Taoiseach
Leo Varadkar
said that there had been little progress on the
Irish border question
âon which the EU proposed a
backstop
, to come into effect if no overall trade deal had been reached by the end of the transition periodâand that it was unlikely that there would be a solution before October, when the whole deal was to be agreed.
[
124
]
In July 2018, the British government published the
Chequers plan
, containing its aims for the future relationship that was to be determined in the negotiations. The plan sought to keep British access to the single market for goods, but not necessarily for services, while allowing for an independent
trade policy
.
[
125
]
The plan caused cabinet resignations, including those of
Brexit Secretary
David Davis
[
126
]
and
Foreign Secretary
Boris Johnson
.
[
127
]
May's agreement and failed ratification
[
edit
]
English
Wikisource
has original text related to this article:
On 13 November 2018, UK and EU negotiators agreed the text of a draft withdrawal agreement,
[
128
]
and May secured her Cabinet's backing of the deal the following day,
[
129
]
though Brexit Secretary
Dominic Raab
resigned over "fatal flaws" in the agreement.
[
130
]
It was expected that ratification in the British parliament would be difficult.
[
131
]
[
132
]
[
133
]
On 25 November, all 27 leaders of the remaining EU countries endorsed the agreement.
[
131
]
[
132
]
On 10 December 2018, the Prime Minister postponed the vote in the House of Commons on her Brexit deal. This came minutes after the
Prime Minister's Office
confirmed the vote would be going ahead.
[
134
]
Faced with the prospect of a defeat in the House of Commons, this option gave May more time to negotiate with Conservative
backbenchers
and the EU, even though they had ruled out further discussions.
[
135
]
The decision was met with calls from many
Welsh Labour
MPs for a
motion of no confidence
in the Government.
[
136
]
Also on 10 December 2018, the
European Court of Justice
(ECJ) ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its notification of withdrawal, as long as it was still a member and had not agreed a withdrawal agreement. The decision to do so should be "unequivocal and unconditional" and "follow a democratic process".
[
137
]
If the British revoked their notification, they would remain a member of the EU under their current membership terms. The case was launched by Scottish politicians and referred to the ECJ by the Scottish
Court of Session
.
[
138
]
The
European Research Group
(ERG), a research support group of Eurosceptic Conservative MPs, opposed the Prime Minister's proposed Withdrawal Agreement treaty. Its members objected strongly to the Withdrawal Agreement's inclusion of the
Irish backstop
.
[
139
]
[
140
]
ERG members also objected to the proposed ÂŁ39Â billion financial settlement with the EU and stated that the agreement would result in the UK's agreement to continuing to follow EU regulations in major policy areas; and to the continuing jurisdiction of the ECJ over interpretation of the agreement and of European law still applicable to the UK.
[
141
]
[
142
]
On 15 January 2019, the House of Commons voted 432 to 202 against the deal, which was the largest majority ever against a United Kingdom government.
[
143
]
[
144
]
Soon after,
a motion of no confidence in Her Majesty's Government was tabled by the opposition
,
[
145
]
which was rejected by 325 votes to 306.
[
146
]
On 24 February, Prime Minister May proposed that the next vote on the withdrawal agreement would be on 12 March 2019, 17 days away from the Brexit date.
[
147
]
On 12 March, the proposal was defeated by 391 votes to 242âa loss by 149 votes, down from 230 from when the deal had been proposed in January.
[
148
]
On 18 March 2019, the
Speaker
informed the House of Commons that a third meaningful vote could be held only on a
motion
that was significantly different from the previous one, citing parliamentary precedents going back to 1604.
[
149
]
The Withdrawal Agreement was brought back to the House without the attached understandings on 29 March.
[
150
]
The Government's motion of support for the Withdrawal Agreement was defeated by 344 votes to 286âa loss by 58 votes, down from 149 when the deal had been proposed on 12 March.
[
151
]
Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement
[
edit
]
On 20 March 2019, the Prime Minister wrote to European Council President Tusk requesting that Brexit be postponed until 30 June 2019.
[
152
]
On 21 March 2019, May presented her case to a European Council summit meeting in Brussels. After May left the meeting, a discussion amongst the remaining EU leaders resulted in the rejection of 30 June date and offered instead a choice of two new alternative Brexit dates. On 22 March 2019, the extension options were agreed between the British government and the European Council.
[
153
]
The first alternative offered was that if MPs rejected May's deal in the next week, Brexit would be due to occur by 12 April 2019, with, or without, a dealâor alternatively another extension be asked for and a commitment to participate in the
2019 European Parliament elections
given. The second alternative offered was that if MPs approved May's deal, Brexit would be due to occur on 22 May 2019. The later date was the day before the start of European Parliament elections.
[
154
]
After the government deemed unwarranted the concerns over the legality of the proposed change (because it contained two possible exit dates) the previous day,
[
155
]
on 27 March 2019 both the Lords (without a vote)
[
156
]
and the Commons (by 441 to 105) approved the statutory instrument changing the exit date to 22 May 2019 if a withdrawal deal is approved, or 12 April 2019 if it is not.
[
157
]
The amendment was then signed into law at 12:40Â p.m. the next day.
[
153
]
Following the failure of the British Parliament to approve the Withdrawal Agreement by 29 March, the UK was required to leave the EU on 12 April 2019. On 10 April 2019, late-night talks in Brussels resulted in a further extension, to 31 October 2019;
Theresa May
had again requested an extension only until 30 June. Under the terms of this new extension, if the Withdrawal Agreement were to be passed before October, Brexit would occur on the first day of the subsequent month. The UK would then be obligated to hold European Parliament elections in May or leave the EU on 1 June without a deal.
[
158
]
[
159
]
In granting the Article 50 extensions, the EU adopted a stance of refusing to "reopen" (that is, renegotiate) the Withdrawal Agreement.
[
160
]
After
Boris Johnson
became prime minister on 24 July 2019 and met with EU leaders, the EU changed its stance. On 17 October 2019, following "tunnel talks" between UK and EU,
[
161
]
a revised withdrawal agreement was agreed on negotiators level, and endorsed by the British government and the EU Commission.
[
162
]
The revised deal contained a new
Northern Ireland Protocol
, as well as technical modifications to related articles.
[
8
]
In addition, the Political Declaration was also revised.
[
163
]
The revised deal and the political declaration was endorsed by the
European Council
later that day.
[
164
]
To come into effect, it needed to be ratified by the
European Parliament
and the
Parliament of the United Kingdom
.
[
165
]
The British Parliament passed the
European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019
, which received
Royal Assent
on 9 September 2019, obliging the Prime Minister to seek a third extension if no agreement has been reached at the next European Council meeting in October 2019.
[
166
]
In order for such an extension to be granted if it is requested by the prime minister, it would be necessary for there to be unanimous agreement by all other heads of EU governments.
[
167
]
On 28 October 2019, the third extension was agreed to by the EU, with a new withdrawal deadline of 31 January 2020.
[
168
]
'Exit day' in British law was then amended to this new date by statutory instrument on 30 October 2019.
[
169
]
2019 UK general election
[
edit
]
Map for results of the
2019 general election in the United Kingdom
. Ultimately based upon data from the Boundary Commission. Colours are as below.
After Johnson was unable to induce Parliament to approve a revised version of the
withdrawal agreement
by the end of October, he chose to call for a
snap election
. Due to the fact three motions for an early general election under the
Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011
failed to achieve the necessary two-thirds super majority for it to pass so instead, in order to circumvent the existing law, the Government introduced an "
election bill
" which only needed a simple majority of MPs to vote in favour into the House of Commons which was passed by 438â20, setting the election date for Thursday 12 December.
[
170
]
Opinion polls
up to polling day showed a firm lead for the Conservatives against Labour throughout the campaign.
[
171
]
In the run-up to the general election on 12 December 2019 the Conservative Party pledged to leave the EU with the withdrawal agreement negotiated in October 2019. Labour promised to renegotiate aforementioned deal and hold a referendum, letting voters choose between the renegotiated deal and remain. The Liberal Democrats vowed to revoke Article 50, while the SNP intended to hold a second referendum, however, revoking Article 50 if the alternative was a no-deal exit. The DUP supported Brexit but would seek to change parts related to Northern Ireland it was dissatisfied with.
Plaid Cymru
and the
Green Party
backed a second referendum, believing the UK should stay in the EU. The
Brexit Party
was the only major party running for election which wanted the UK to leave the EU without a deal.
[
172
]
The election produced a decisive result for Boris Johnson with the Conservatives winning 365 seats (gaining 47 seats) and an overall majority of 80 seats with Labour suffering their worst election defeat since 1935 after losing 60 seats to leave them with 202 seats and only a single seat in
Scotland
. The Liberal Democrats won just 11 seats with their leader
Jo Swinson
losing her own seat. The Scottish National Party won 48 seats after gaining 14 seats in Scotland.
The result broke the
deadlock in the UK Parliament
and ended the possibility of a
referendum being held on the withdrawal agreement
and ensured that the
United Kingdom
would leave the
European Union
on 31 January 2020.
Ratification and departure
[
edit
]
Foreign and Commonwealth Office
illuminated in the colours of the
Union Jack
on 31 January 2020
Subsequently, the government introduced a bill to ratify the withdrawal agreement. It passed its second reading in the
House of Commons
in a 358â234 vote on 20 December 2019,
[
173
]
and became law on 23 January 2020 as the
European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020
.
[
174
]
The withdrawal agreement received the backing of the
constitutional committee
in the
European Parliament
on 23 January 2020, setting expectation that the entire parliament would approve it in a later vote.
[
175
]
[
176
]
[
177
]
On the following day,
Ursula von der Leyen
and
Charles Michel
signed the withdrawal agreement in Brussels, and it was sent to London where
Boris Johnson
signed it.
[
11
]
The European Parliament gave its consent to ratification on 29 January by 621 votes to 49.
[
178
]
[
12
]
Immediately after voting approval, members of the European Parliament joined hands and sang
Auld Lang Syne
.
[
179
]
The
Council of the European Union
concluded EU ratification the following day.
[
180
]
At 11 p.m.
GMT
, 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union ended, 47 years after it had joined.
[
13
]
As confirmed by the
Court of Justice
in
EP v Préfet du Gers
,
[
181
]
all British nationals ceased to be Union citizens.
[
182
]
To commemorate the moment of Brexit, a countdown clock was projected onto 10 Downing Street with a recording of Big Ben chiming. In addition, there was a nearby party in
Parliament Square
, being led by Farage, sang "
God Save the Queen
" at the moment of departure.
[
183
]
In Gibraltar, a flag ceremony was held as the EU flag was lowered to "
Ode to Joy
" and the
Commonwealth flag
was raised to "God Save the Queen".
[
184
]
Transition period and final trade agreement
[
edit
]
Conservative party advertisement from early 2020 featuring
Boris Johnson
answering frequently searched for online Brexit-related questions
Following the British exit on 31 January 2020 the UK entered a Transition Period for the rest of 2020. Trade, travel and freedom of movement remain largely unchanged during this period.
[
185
]
The Withdrawal Agreement still applies after this date.
[
186
]
This agreement
provides
free access of goods between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, provided checks are made to goods entering Northern Ireland from the rest of the UK. The British Government attempted to back out of this commitment
[
187
]
by passing the
Internal Market Bill
: domestic legislation in the British Parliament. In September, Northern Ireland secretary
Brandon Lewis
said:
I would say to my hon. Friend that yes, this does break international law in a very specific and limited way.
[
188
]
leading to the resignation of
Sir Jonathan Jones
, permanent secretary to the Government Legal Department
[
189
]
and
Lord Keen
, the law officer for Scotland.
[
190
]
The
European Commission
started legal action.
[
186
]
During the transition period, David Frost and Michel Barnier continued to
negotiate a permanent trade agreement
.
[
191
]
On 24 December 2020 both parties announced that a deal had been reached.
[
192
]
The deal was passed by both houses of the British parliament on 30 December and given Royal Assent in the early hours of the next day. In the House of Commons, the governing Conservatives and main opposition Labour voted in favour of the agreement whilst all other opposition parties voted against it.
[
193
]
The transition period concluded under its terms the following evening.
[
194
]
After the UK said it would unilaterally extend a
grace period
limiting checks on trade between Northern Ireland and Great Britain, the
European Parliament
postponed setting a date to ratify the agreement.
[
195
]
The vote was later scheduled for 27 April when it passed with an overwhelming majority of votes.
[
196
]
[
197
]
There was a customs transitional arrangement in place until 1 July 2021. During this time period, traders importing standard goods from the EU to the UK could defer submitting their customs declarations and paying import duties to HMRC for up to six months. This arrangement simplified and avoided most import controls during the early months of the new situation and was designed to facilitate inward trade during the COVID-19 health crisis and to avoid major disruptions in domestic supply chains in the short term.
[
198
]
Following reports that the border infrastructure was not ready, the UK government further postponed import checks from the EU to the UK until the end of the year in order to avoid supply issues during the ongoing Covid crisis.
[
199
]
This was again followed by another delay of import controls, in a situation of truck driver shortages; the controls are scheduled to be phased in during 2022.
[
200
]
United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification
[
edit
]
European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
[
edit
]
In October 2016, Theresa May promised a "Great Repeal Bill", which would repeal the
European Communities Act 1972
and restate in British law all enactments previously in force under EU law. Subsequently renamed the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill, it was introduced into the House of Commons on 13 July 2017.
[
201
]
On 12 September 2017, the Bill passed its first vote and second reading by a margin of 326 votes to 290 votes in the House of Commons.
[
202
]
The Bill was further amended on a series of votes in both Houses. After the Act became law on 26 June 2018, the European Council decided on 29 June to renew its call on member states and European Union institutions to step up their work on preparedness at all levels and for all outcomes.
[
203
]
The Withdrawal Act fixed the period ending 21 January 2019 for the government to decide on how to proceed if the negotiations had not reached agreement in principle on both the withdrawal arrangements and the framework for the future relationship between the UK and EU; while, alternatively, making future ratification of the withdrawal agreement as a treaty between the UK and EU depend upon the prior enactment of another act of Parliament for approving the final terms of withdrawal when the
Brexit negotiations
were completed. In any event, the Act did not alter the two-year period for negotiating allowed by Article 50 that ended at the latest on 29 March 2019 if the UK had not by then ratified a withdrawal agreement or agreed a prolongation of the negotiating period.
[
204
]
The Withdrawal Act which became law in June 2018 allowed for various outcomes including no negotiated settlement. It authorises the government to bring into force, by
order
made under section 25, the provisions that fixed "exit day" and the repeal of the European Communities Act 1972 but exit day must be the same day and time as when the EU Treaties ceased to apply to the UK.
[
205
]
Exit day was the end of 31 January 2020
CET
(11.00 p.m.
GMT
).
[
169
]
The
European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
(as amended by a British
Statutory Instrument
on 11 April 2019), in section 20 (1), defined 'exit day' as 11:00Â p.m. on 31 October 2019.
[
153
]
Originally, 'exit day' was defined as 11:00Â p.m. on 29 March 2019 GMT (
UTC+0
).
[
204
]
[
206
]
[
207
]
Additional government bills
[
edit
]
A report published in March 2017 by the
Institute for Government
commented that, in addition to the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, primary and secondary legislation would be needed to cover the gaps in policy areas such as customs, immigration and agriculture.
[
208
]
The report also commented that the role of the devolved legislatures was unclear, and could cause problems, and that as many as 15 new additional Brexit Bills might be required, which would involve strict prioritisation and limiting Parliamentary time for in-depth examination of new legislation.
[
209
]
In 2016 and 2017, the House of Lords published a series of reports on Brexit-related subjects, including:
Brexit: the options for trade
Brexit: UKâIrish relations
Brexit: future UKâEU security and police cooperation
Brexit: fisheries
Brexit: environment and climate change
Brexit: the Crown Dependencies
Brexit: justice for families, individuals and businesses?
Brexit: trade in non-financial services
Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018
[
edit
]
The
Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018
, relating to withdrawal from Euratom, was presented to Parliament in October 2017. The act makes provision about nuclear safeguards, and for connected purposes. The Secretary of State may by regulations ("nuclear safeguards regulations") make provision for the purpose of â (a) ensuring that qualifying nuclear material, facilities or equipment are available only for use for civil activities (whether in the UK or elsewhere), or (b) giving effect to provisions of a relevant international agreement.
[
210
]
European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020
[
edit
]
The
European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020
makes legal provision for ratifying the
Brexit Withdrawal Agreement
and incorporating it into the domestic law of the United Kingdom.
[
211
]
The bill was first introduced
[
212
]
by the government on 21 October 2019. This bill was not further debated and lapsed on 6 November when
parliament was dissolved
in preparation for the
2019 general election
. The bill was reintroduced immediately following the general election and was the first bill to be put before the
House of Commons
in the first session of the 58th Parliament,
[
213
]
with changes from the previous bill, by the re-elected government and was
read a first time
on 19 December, immediately after the first reading of the
Outlawries Bill
and before the debate on the
Queen's Speech
began. The second reading took place on 20 December, and the third on 9 January 2020. This act was given
Royal Assent
on 23 January 2020, nine days before the UK left the
European Union
.
Public opinion since the Brexit referendum
[
edit
]
Opinion polling overall showed an initial fall in support for Brexit from the referendum to late 2016, when responses were split evenly between support and opposition. Support rose again to a plurality, which held until the
2017 general election
. Since then, opinion polls tended to show a plurality of support for remaining in the EU or for the view that Brexit was a mistake, with the estimated margin increasing until a small decrease in 2019 (to 53% Remain: 47% Leave, as of October 2019
).
[
214
]
This seems to be largely due to a preference for remaining in the EU among those who did not vote in 2016's referendum (an estimated 2.5 million of whom, as of October 2019
, were
too young to vote
at the time).
[
215
]
[
216
]
Other reasons suggested include slightly more Leave voters than Remain voters (14% and 12% of each, respectively, as of October 2019
)
[
217
]
changing how they would vote (particularly in
Labour
areas) and the deaths of older voters,
[
214
]
most of whom voted to leave the EU. One estimate of demographic changes (ignoring other effects) implies that had an EU referendum taken place in October 2019,
there would have been between 800,000 and 900,000 fewer Leave voters and between 600,000 and 700,000 more Remain voters, resulting in a Remain majority.
[
215
]
In March 2019, a
petition
submitted to the British Parliament petitions website, calling on the government to revoke Article 50 and stay in the EU, reached a record-level of more than 6.1Â million signatures.
[
218
]
[
219
]
Post-referendum opinion polling (2016â2020)
Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU
Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including "Neither" responses
Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding "Neither" responses and normalised
YouGov
polling has shown a gradual but progressive decline in the public perception of the benefits of Brexit, with the overall margin of sentiment about the rightness of the Brexit decision declining from slightly positive in 2016 to â11% in 2022.
[
220
]
A May 2022 poll showed that a majority of respondents who expressed an opinion thought that Brexit had gone either "badly" or "very badly".
[
221
]
A new study showed that since Brexit, citizens in other European nations were more against leaving the EU than they had been since 2016.
[
222
]
A January 2023 poll in the United Kingdom also reflected these numbers, with 54% of poll respondents who believed that the country was wrong to leave the European Union, while 35% of respondents believed it was the right decision.
[
223
]
An average of six polls conducted in June and July 2023 shows 58% of voters in favour of rejoining the EU with 42% of voters against rejoining the EU.
[
224
]
Since 2020, pollsters have asked respondents how they would vote in a potential second referendum to rejoin the EU.
As shown in the chart below, five and a half years after the United Kingdom left the European Union, opinions about Brexit and the option to rejoin the EU had changed significantly. After the first polls data was released shortly after the UK left the EU, both support for rejoining it or staying out of it declined over the course of 2020, with a noticeable increase of neutral opinions. However, after one year and a half, poll results were showing more support for rejoining EU than staying out of it, and rejoin support consistently increased over the next three years, going from below 40% in the spring of 2020 to surpassing Brexit support between August and September 2021 and rising to slightly below 50% in early 2024. On the other hand, support for staying out of the EU greatly dropped in 2022, falling below 40% in spring and never reaching this threshold again, and by summer 2023, pro-Brexit support reached its nadir, with only a third of votes in polls data supporting it. While the gap was reduced over the course of 2024, it became even wider in the first half of 2025 due to a second, sharper rise of popular support in favour of the return in the EU, while support in favour of staying out of it kept remaining poor, once again falling below the 35% threshold in the middle of the year. In between May and June 2025, pro-rejoin-EU support in polls data reached the 50% supermajority threshold and surpassed it in July.
In autumn 2025, UK Chancellor Rachel Reeves said the economic damage caused by Brexit had forced her to take action, including tax rises and spending cuts in the 2025 budget.
[
225
]
A chart of showing polling since January 2020 on whether the United Kingdom should rejoin the European Union or not: rejoin support became more prevalent over Brexit support after one year and a half and kept increasing over time, reaching a supermajority in mid-2025, while support for staying out of the EU sharply dropped in 2022 and remained poor in the following years, failing to reach the threshold of 40% of support in polls since the spring of 2022.
On 19 December 2018, the EU Commission revealed its "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in specific sectors, in respect of the UK leaving the EU "in 100 days' time."
[
226
]
In the wake of the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union, the
Department for International Trade
(DIT) for reaching and extending trade agreements between the UK and non-EU states was created by Prime Minister May, shortly after she took office on 13 July 2016.
[
227
]
By 2017, it employed about 200 trade negotiators
[
228
]
and was overseen by then
Secretary of State for International Trade
Liam Fox
. In March 2019, the British government announced that it would cut many import tariffs to zero, in the event of a no-deal Brexit.
[
229
]
The
Confederation of British Industry
said the move would be a "sledgehammer for our economy",
[
230
]
[
231
]
[
232
]
and the
National Farmer's Union
was also highly critical.
[
233
]
Additionally, the plan appeared to breach standard WTO rules.
[
234
]
[
235
]
[
236
]
On 2 June 2020, Chancellor of Germany
Angela Merkel
stated that the
European Union
must prepare for the possible failure of Brexit trade talks with the
UK
. She added that negotiations were being accelerated to try and reach a deal that could be ratified by the end of the year. Her warning came as the deadline for extending talks passed, with negotiations expected to end on 31 December with or without a deal.
[
237
]
There has been litigation to explore the constitutional footings on which Brexit stands after
R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union
(simply known as the "Miller case") and the 2017 Notification Act:
In
R. (Webster) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union
, a
divisional court
of
Gross LJ
and
Green MR
determined that the substantive decision to leave the EU that was notified on 29 March 2017 was in fact the executive decision of the Prime Minister using a statutory power of decision found to have been delegated to her by the Notification Act: this is confirmed by the
House of Commons Library
commentary on the case.
[
238
]
The case was appealed to the
Court of Appeal
[
239
]
and paragraph 15 of the judgement, along with the citable nature of the decision were upheld. While the case was criticised academically by Robert Craig, who lectures in jurisprudence at the London School of Economics,
[
240
]
aspects of the case's analysis were supported by the
Supreme Court
in
Miller 2
at paragraph 57, which confirmed:
... that Parliament, and in particular the House of Commons as the democratically elected representatives of the people, has a right to have a voice in how that change comes about is indisputable.
[
241
]
ââSupreme Court of the United Kingdom (UKSC/2019/41)
This confirmation that the decision was an executive act was part of the basis of
R.
(
Wilson) v. Prime Minister
[
242
]
which allied this point with the concerns about the irregularities in the referendum. The High Court hearing was on 7 December 2018 before
Ouseley MJ
[
243
]
and when judgement was given it was held that: courts' job was not to rule on irregularities in the 'leave' campaign as these were not questions of law; it was also said that the case was brought both too early and too late.
[
238
]
Judgement in the Court of Appeal (before
Hickinbottom LJ
and
Haddon-Cave LJ
) before also went against the applicant.
[
244
]
Regarding the reversibility of a notification under Article 50,
Wightman and others v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union
was referred to the
Court of Justice of the European Union
;
[
245
]
the UK government sought to block this referral, taking the matter on appeal to the Supreme Court, but was unsuccessful.
[
246
]
On 10 December 2018, the Court of Justice of the EU ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its Article 50 notification.
[
247
]
Many effects of Brexit depended on whether the UK left with a
withdrawal agreement
, or before an agreement was ratified (
"no-deal" Brexit
).
[
248
]
In 2017, the
Financial Times
said that there were approximately 759 international agreements, spanning 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would no longer be a party to upon leaving the EU.
[
249
]
Economists speculated that Brexit would have a damaging impact on the economies of the UK and at least part of the EU27. In particular, there was a broad consensus among economists and in the economic literature that Brexit would likely reduce the UK's real per capita income in the medium and long term, and that the Brexit referendum itself would damage the economy.
[
74
]
[
250
]
[
251
]
Studies found Brexit-induced uncertainty reduced British GDP, British national income, investment by business, employment, and British international trade from June 2016 onwards.
[
252
]
[
253
]
[
254
]
A 2019 analysis found that British firms substantially increased
offshoring
to the EU after the Brexit referendum, whereas European firms reduced new investments in the UK.
[
255
]
[
256
]
The British government's Brexit analysis, leaked in January 2018, showed British economic growth would be stunted by 2â8% over the 15 years following Brexit, the amount depending on the leave scenario.
[
257
]
[
258
]
Economists warned that London's future as an international financial centre depended on passport agreements with the EU.
[
259
]
[
260
]
Pro-Brexit activists and politicians have argued for negotiating trade and migration agreements with the "
CANZUK
" countriesâthose of
Canada
,
Australia
,
New Zealand
and the
United Kingdom
[
261
]
[
262
]
âbut economists have said that trade deals with those countries would be far less valuable to the UK than EU membership.
[
263
]
[
264
]
[
265
]
Studies projected that Brexit would exacerbate regional economic inequality in the UK, by hitting already-struggling regions the hardest.
[
266
]
On 11 January 2024, the London Mayor's Office released "
Mayor highlights Brexit damage to London economy
".
[
267
]
The release cites the independent report by Cambridge Econometrics that London has almost 300,000 fewer jobs, and nationwide two million fewer jobs as a direct consequence of Brexit.
[
267
]
Brexit is recognised as a key contributor to the 2023 cost-of-living crisis, with the average citizen being nearly ÂŁ2,000 worse off, and the average Londoner nearly ÂŁ3,400 worse off in 2023 as a result of Brexit.
[
267
]
In addition, UK real Gross Value Added was approximately ÂŁ140bn less in 2023 than it would have been had the UK remained in the Single Market.
[
267
]
In 2024, French customs considered Brexit, in the meantime, has reduced trade between the UK and the EU, but increased trade between China and the United Kingdom.
[
268
]
Local and geographic effects
[
edit
]
Border crossing at Killeen (near
Newry
in
Northern Ireland
), marked only by a speed limit in km/h (Northern Ireland uses mph.)
The potential
impact on the border
between
Northern Ireland
and the
Republic of Ireland
has been a contentious issue. Since 2005,
the border
had been essentially invisible.
[
269
]
After Brexit, it became the only UKâEU land border
[
270
]
(not counting the land borders that EU states Spain and Cyprus have with
British Overseas Territories
). All involved parties agreed a hard border should be avoided,
[
271
]
because it might compromise the
Good Friday Agreement
that ended the
Northern Ireland conflict
.
[
272
]
[
273
]
[
274
]
To forestall this, the EU proposed a
"backstop agreement"
that would keep the UK in the Customs Union and keep Northern Ireland in some aspects of the Single Market until a lasting solution was found.
[
275
]
The UK Parliament rejected this proposal. After
further negotiations in autumn of 2019
, an alternative model, the
Ireland/Northern Ireland Protocol
was agreed between the UK and the EU. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is formally outside the EU single market, but
EU free movement of goods
rules and
EU Customs Union
rules still apply; this ensures there are no customs checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. In place of an Ireland/Northern Ireland land border, the protocol has created a
de facto
customs "
Irish Sea border
" for goods from (but not to) Great Britain,
[
276
]
[
277
]
to the disquiet of prominent
Unionists
.
[
278
]
After the Brexit referendum, the
Scottish Government
 â led by the
Scottish National Party
(SNP)Â â planned
another independence referendum
because Scotland voted to remain in the EU while England and Wales voted to leave.
[
279
]
It had suggested this before the Brexit referendum.
[
280
]
The
First Minister of Scotland
,
Nicola Sturgeon
, requested a referendum be held before the UK's withdrawal,
[
281
]
but the British prime minister rejected this timing, but not the referendum itself.
[
282
]
At the referendum in 2014, 55% of voters had decided to remain in the UK, but the referendum on Britain's withdrawal from the EU was held in 2016, with 62% of Scottish voters against it. In March 2017, the Scottish Parliament voted in favour of holding another independence referendum. Sturgeon called for a "phased return" of an independent Scotland back to the EU.
[
283
]
In 2017, if Northern Ireland remained associated with the EU â for example, by remaining in the Customs Union â some analysts argued Scotland would also insist on special treatment.
[
284
]
However, in that event, the only part of the United Kingdom which would receive unique treatment was Northern Ireland.
[
285
]
On 21 March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the
Scottish Continuity Bill
.
[
286
]
This was passed due to stalling negotiations between the Scottish Government and the British Government on where powers within devolved policy areas should lie after Brexit. The Act allowed for all devolved policy areas to remain within the remit of the Scottish Parliament and reduced the executive power upon exit day that the UK Withdrawal Bill provides for Ministers of the Crown.
[
287
]
The bill was referred to the UK Supreme Court, which found that it could not come into force as the
European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
, which received royal assent between the Scottish Parliament passing its bill and the Supreme Court's judgement, designated itself under schedule
Â
4 of the
Scotland Act 1998
as unamendable by the Scottish Parliament.
[
288
]
The bill has therefore not received royal assent.
[
289
]
Cars crossing into
Gibraltar
from
Spain
clearing customs formalities. Gibraltar is outside the customs union, VAT area, and
Schengen Zone
.
Gibraltar
, a
British Overseas Territory
bordering Spain, is
affected by Brexit
too. Spain asserts a
territorial claim on Gibraltar
. After the referendum, Spain's Foreign Minister renewed calls for joint SpanishâBritish control.
[
290
]
In late 2018, the British and Spanish governments agreed that any dispute over Gibraltar would not affect Brexit negotiations,
[
291
]
and the British government agreed that UKâEU treaties made after Brexit would not automatically apply to Gibraltar.
[
292
]
In December 2020, Spain and the UK reached an
agreement in principle on future arrangements
for Brexit and invited the European Commission to formalise it as a treaty.
The French and British governments say they remain committed to the
Le Touquet Agreement
, which lets UK border checks be completed in France, and vice versa (
juxtaposed controls
).
[
293
]
The two governments signed the Sandhurst Treaty in January 2018, which will shorten the time taken to process
migrants attempting to reach the UK
from
Calais
, from six months to one month. The UK also announced it will invest a further ÂŁ44.5 million on border security at the English Channel.
[
293
]
Effects on the European Union
[
edit
]
Brexit
caused the European Union
to lose its second-largest economy, its third-most populous country,
[
294
]
and the second-largest net contributor to the EU budget.
[
295
]
The UK is no longer a shareholder in the
European Investment Bank
, where it had 16% of the shares.
[
296
]
The European Investment Bank's Board of Governors decided that the remaining member states would proportionally increase their capital subscriptions to maintain the same level of overall subscribed capital (EUR 243.3 billion).
[
297
]
As of March 2020, the subscribed capital of the EIB had increased by an additional EUR 5.5 billion, following the decision by two member states to increase their capital subscriptions (
Poland
and
Romania
). The EIB's total subscribed capital thus amounted to EUR 248.8 billion. Brexit did not impact the EIB Group's AAA credit rating.
[
298
]
Analyses indicated that the departure of the relatively economically liberal UK would reduce the ability of remaining economically liberal countries to block measures in the
Council of the EU
.
[
299
]
[
300
]
In 2019, ahead of Brexit, the
European Medicines Agency
and
European Banking Authority
moved their headquarters from London to
Amsterdam
and
Paris
, respectively.
[
301
]
[
302
]
[
303
]
Brexit poses challenges to British academia and research, as the UK loses research funding from EU sources and sees a reduction in students from the EU. Academic institutions find it harder to hire researchers from the EU and British students will face greater difficulties with studying abroad in the EU.
[
304
]
The UK was a member of the
European Research Area
and likely to wish to remain an associated member following Brexit.
[
305
]
The British government has guaranteed funding for research currently funded by EU.
[
306
]
By leaving the EU, the UK would leave the
European Common Aviation Area
(ECAA), a
single market
in commercial air travel,
[
307
]
but could negotiate a number of different future relationships with the EU.
[
307
]
British airlines would still have permission to operate within the EU with no restrictions, and vice versa. The British government seeks continued participation in the
European Aviation Safety Agency
(EASA).
[
307
]
The UK has its own
air service agreements
with 111 countries, which permit flights to-and-from the country, and further 17 countries through its EU membership.
[
308
]
These have since been replaced. Ferries will continue, but with obstacles such as customs checks.
[
309
]
New ferry departures between the Republic of Ireland and the European mainland have been established.
[
309
]
As of August 2020
, the government's
Goods Vehicle Movement Service
, an IT system essential to post-Brexit goods movements, was still only in the early stages of beta testing, with four months to go before it is required to be in operation.
[
310
]
A 2025 report estimated that Brexit has caused a ÂŁ20 billion productivity decline in the UK financial sector, as major firms shifted staff and assets to EU cities such as Frankfurt and Paris. Policymakers are exploring measures to revive competitiveness outside the single market.
[
311
]
The UK has left the
Common Agricultural Policy
(CAP),
[
312
]
which provides government financial support to farmers in the EU.
[
313
]
Brexit allowed the UK to develop its own agriculture policy
[
314
]
and the
Agriculture Act 2020
replaced the CAP with a new system.
[
315
]
The UK also left the
Common Fisheries Policy
(CFP)
[
316
]
that lets all EU countries fish within 12 nautical miles of the British coast
[
317
]
and lets the EU set catch quotas.
[
318
]
The combined EU fishing fleets landed about six million tonnes of fish per year, as of 2016,
[
319
]
about half of which were from British waters.
[
320
]
By leaving the CFP, the UK could develop its own fisheries policy.
[
318
]
The UK did also leave the
London Fisheries Convention
that lets Irish, French, Belgian, Dutch and German vessels fish within six nautical miles of the UK's coast.
[
321
]
An early 2019 study found that Brexit would deplete the
National Health Service
(NHS) workforce, create uncertainties regarding care for British nationals living in the EU, and put at risk access to vaccines, equipment, and medicines.
[
322
]
The
Department of Health and Social Care
has said it has taken steps to ensure the continuity of medical supplies after Brexit.
[
323
]
The number of non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS fell from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in April 2017.
[
324
]
[
needs update
]
In June 2016, 58,702 NHS staff recorded a non-British EU nationality, and in June 2022, 70,735 NHS staff recorded an EU nationality. However, "to present this as the full story would be misleading, because there are over 57,000 more staff for whom nationality is known now than in 2016"
[
325
]
[
326
]
There was a concern that a disorderly Brexit might have compromised patients' access to vital medicines.
[
327
]
Pharmaceutical organisations working with the Civil Service to keep medicine supplies available in the case of a no-deal Brexit had to sign 26
Non-Disclosure Agreements
(NDAs) to prevent them from giving the public information. The figures were given on 21 December 2018 after
Rushanara Ali
asked a parliamentary question.
[
328
]
UK net migration before and after the withdrawal from the EU.
After Brexit, the UK is able to control immigration from the
European Economic Area
(EU (except Ireland) and
EFTA
countries),
[
329
]
as withdrawal ends UK participation in the EU's
freedom of movement
principle â in both directions. The British government of the time proposed to replace it with a new system of immigration control. The government's 2018
white paper
proposes a "skills-based immigration system" that prioritises skilled migrants. EU and EEA citizens already living in the UK can continue living there after Brexit by applying to the EU Settlement Scheme, which began in March 2019. Irish citizens will not have to apply to the scheme.
[
330
]
[
331
]
[
332
]
Studies estimate that Brexit and the end of free movement will likely result in a large decline in immigration from EEA countries to the UK.
[
333
]
[
334
]
After Brexit, any foreigner wanting to work in the UK would need a work permit.
[
335
]
[
336
]
Since the full implementation of Brexit, more
EU nationals
are leaving the UK than moving to it.
[
337
]
After Brexit, the number of EU citizens who were refused entry to the UK increased fivefold.
[
338
]
Of the 1,218,000 immigrants who came to the UK in 2023, only 126,000 were citizens of EU member states.
[
339
]
BBC reported that "In the 12 months to June 2023, net EU migration was -86,000, meaning more EU nationals left the UK than arrived".
[
339
]
Under the
European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
, EU laws will no longer have
supremacy over
British laws after Brexit.
[
340
]
To maintain continuity, the Act converts EU law into British law as "retained EU law". After Brexit, the British parliament (and the devolved legislatures) can decide which elements of that law to keep, amend or repeal.
[
340
]
Furthermore, British courts will no longer be bound by the judgments of the
EU Court of Justice
after Brexit.
Concerns were raised by European lawmakers, including
Michel Barnier
, that Brexit might create security problems for the UK given that its law enforcement and counter-terrorism forces would no longer have access to the EU's security databases.
[
341
]
Forecasts were made at the time of the referendum that Brexit would impose trade barriers, leading to a decline in trade between the United Kingdom and the European Union; however, after a dip in 2020 as result of worldwide lockdowns, by 2022 trade in both directions had risen to higher levels than before Brexit. Goods trade had fallen but was outweighed by an increase in professional services.
[
342
]
Some analysts have suggested that the severe
economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK
has masked the economic impact of Brexit in 2021.
[
343
]
In December 2021, the
Financial Times
quoted a range of economists as saying that the economic impact of Brexit on the UK economy and living standards "appears to be negative but uncertain".
[
344
]
According to the
Office for Budget Responsibility
, the new trade agreement between the EU and UK could, over time, result in a 4% reduction in British productivity, compared with its level had the 2016 EU referendum gone the other way.
[
345
]
Brexit was widely described as a factor contributing to the
2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis
, in which
panic buying
led to serious disruption of road fuel supplies across the UK, as it exacerbated the UK's shortage of
HGV
drivers.
[
346
]
[
347
]
[
348
]
In a July 2021 report, the
Road Haulage Association
estimated the UK faced a shortage of up to 100,000 truck drivers.
[
349
]
[
350
]
[
351
]
Cultural references
[
edit
]
Brexit has inspired many creative works, such as murals, sculptures, novels, plays, music, movies and video games. The response of British artists and writers to Brexit has in general been negative, reflecting a reported overwhelming percentage of people involved in Britain's
creative industries
voting against leaving the European Union.
[
352
]
Despite issues around immigration being central in the Brexit debate, British artists left the migrants' perspective largely unexplored. However, Brexit also inspired UK-based migrant artists to create new works and "claim agency over their representation within public spaces and create a platform for a new social imagination that can facilitate transnational and trans-local encounters, multicultural democratic spaces, sense of commonality, and solidarity."
[
353
]
2010s in United Kingdom political history
2020s in United Kingdom political history
Equivalence in financial services
 â EU assessment of third country financial regulations
Greek withdrawal from the eurozone
(proposed)
International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
 â Responses from other countries to the Brexit vote
Interpretation of EU Treaty law by European Court of Justice
Multi-speed Europe
 â Political idea
Opposition to Brexit
 â Opposition to the UK's withdrawal from the EU
Potential re-accession of the United Kingdom to the European Union
Referendums related to the European Union
United KingdomâEuropean Union relations
Withdrawal from the European Union
(Legal basis)
Danish withdrawal from the European Union
(proposed)
Dutch withdrawal from the European Union
(proposed)
Hungarian withdrawal from the European Union
(proposed)
Polish withdrawal from the European Union
(proposed)
Romanian withdrawal from the European Union
(proposed)**
Frexit
(French withdrawal from the European Union) (proposed)
^
The UK also left the
European Atomic Energy Community
(EAEC or Euratom).
^
Hall, Damien (11 August 2017).
"
'Breksit' or 'bregzit'? The question that divides a nation"
.
The Conversation
.
Archived
from the original on 4 July 2019
. Retrieved
22 March
2019
.
^
"EU-UK trade and cooperation agreement: Council adopts decision on conclusion"
.
www.consilium.europa.eu
. 29 April 2021.
Archived
from the original on 17 August 2021
. Retrieved
11 July
2021
.
^
Sparrow, Andrew (1 February 2020).
"Brexit day: end of an era as United Kingdom leaves EU â as it happened"
.
The Guardian
.
^
Bennett, Asa (27 January 2020).
"How will the Brexit transition period work?"
.
The Telegraph
.
Archived
from the original on 28 January 2020
. Retrieved
28 January
2020
.
^
Tom Edgington (31 January 2020).
"Brexit: What is the transition period?"
.
BBC News
.
Archived
from the original on 31 January 2020
. Retrieved
1 February
2020
.
^
"Questions and Answers on the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020"
. European Commission. 24 January 2020.
Archived
from the original on 1 February 2020
. Retrieved
1 February
2020
.
^
"House of Commons votes to seek Article 50 extension"
. 14 March 2019.
Archived
from the original on 7 March 2020
. Retrieved
11 May
2020
.
^
a
b
"Revised Withdrawal Agreement"
(PDF)
. European Commission. 17 October 2019.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 17 October 2019
. Retrieved
17 October
2019
.
^
"New Brexit deal agreed, says Boris Johnson"
.
BBC News
. 17 October 2019.
Archived
from the original on 13 December 2019
. Retrieved
17 October
2019
.
^
Landler, Mark; Castle, Stephen (12 December 2019).
"Conservatives Win Commanding Majority in U.K. Vote: 'Brexit Will Happen'
"
.
The New York Times
. New York City.
Archived
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"
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. London School of Economics, 20 December 2018 |
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## Contents
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- [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit)
- [1 Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Timeline)
- [2 Terminology and etymology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Terminology_and_etymology)
- [3 Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Background:_the_United_Kingdom_and_EC/EU_membership)
Toggle Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership subsection
- [3\.1 Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom and the role of the EU leadership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Euroscepticism_in_the_United_Kingdom_and_the_role_of_the_EU_leadership)
- [3\.1.1 Background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Background)
- [3\.1.2 Role of the EU leadership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Role_of_the_EU_leadership)
- [3\.1.3 Electoral success and the 2016 referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Electoral_success_and_the_2016_referendum)
- [3\.2 Opinion polls 1977â2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Opinion_polls_1977%E2%80%932015)
- [4 2016 EU membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#2016_EU_membership_referendum)
Toggle 2016 EU membership referendum subsection
- [4\.1 Negotiations for membership reform](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Negotiations_for_membership_reform)
- [4\.2 Referendum result](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Referendum_result)
- [4\.3 Voter demographics and trends](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Voter_demographics_and_trends)
- [4\.4 Post-referendum investigations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Post-referendum_investigations)
- [5 Withdrawal process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Withdrawal_process)
Toggle Withdrawal process subsection
- [5\.1 Invocation of Article 50](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Invocation_of_Article_50)
- [5\.2 2017 UK general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#2017_UK_general_election)
- [5\.3 UKâEU negotiations in 2017 and 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#UK%E2%80%93EU_negotiations_in_2017_and_2018)
- [5\.4 May's agreement and failed ratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#May's_agreement_and_failed_ratification)
- [5\.5 Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Article_50_extensions_and_Johnson's_agreement)
- [5\.6 2019 UK general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#2019_UK_general_election)
- [5\.7 Ratification and departure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Ratification_and_departure)
- [5\.8 Transition period and final trade agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Transition_period_and_final_trade_agreement)
- [6 United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#United_Kingdom_legislation_after_Article_50_notification)
Toggle United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification subsection
- [6\.1 European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018)
- [6\.2 Exit day](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Exit_day)
- [6\.3 Additional government bills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Additional_government_bills)
- [6\.3.1 Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Nuclear_Safeguards_Act_2018)
- [6\.3.2 European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020)
- [7 Public opinion since the Brexit referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Public_opinion_since_the_Brexit_referendum)
Toggle Public opinion since the Brexit referendum subsection
- [7\.1 Prior to 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Prior_to_2020)
- [7\.2 2020âpresent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#2020%E2%80%93present)
- [8 No-deal planning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#No-deal_planning)
- [9 Litigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Litigation)
- [10 Impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Impact)
Toggle Impact subsection
- [10\.1 Economic effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Economic_effects)
- [10\.2 Local and geographic effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Local_and_geographic_effects)
- [10\.3 Effects on the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Effects_on_the_European_Union)
- [10\.4 Sectorial effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Sectorial_effects)
- [10\.4.1 Academia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Academia)
- [10\.4.2 Aviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Aviation)
- [10\.4.3 Finance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Finance)
- [10\.4.4 Fishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Fishing)
- [10\.4.5 Health Services](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Health_Services)
- [10\.4.6 Immigration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Immigration)
- [10\.4.7 Law and Security](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Law_and_Security)
- [10\.4.8 Trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Trade)
- [10\.4.9 Utilities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Utilities)
- [11 Cultural references](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Cultural_references)
- [12 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#See_also)
- [13 Notes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Notes)
- [14 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#References)
- [15 Further reading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#Further_reading)
- [16 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#External_links)
Toggle External links subsection
- [16\.1 About court cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#About_court_cases)
Toggle the table of contents
# Brexit
107 languages
- [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Afrikaans")
- [Alemannisch](https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Alemannic")
- [AragonĂ©s](https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Aragonese")
- [ۧÙŰč۱ۚÙŰ©](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A "ۧÙŰłŰۧۚ ۧÙÙ
Ù
ÙÙŰ© ۧÙÙ
ŰȘŰŰŻŰ© Ù
Ù Ű§ÙۧŰȘŰۧۯ ۧÙŰŁÙ۱ÙŰšÙ â Arabic")
- [Ù
۔۱Ù](https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AA "ۚ۱ÙÙŰČÙŰȘ â Egyptian Arabic")
- [àŠ
àŠžàŠźà§àŠŻàŠŒàŠŸ](https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F "àŠŹà§à§°à§àŠà§àŠžàŠżàŠ â Assamese")
- [Asturianu](https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salida_del_Reinu_Xun%C3%ADu_de_la_Xuni%C3%B3n_Europea "Salida del Reinu XunĂu de la XuniĂłn Europea â Asturian")
- [AzÉrbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_Britaniyan%C4%B1n_Avropa_%C4%B0ttifaq%C4%B1ndan_%C3%A7%C4%B1x%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1 "BöyĂŒk Britaniyanın Avropa Ä°ttifaqından çıxıĆı â Azerbaijani")
- [ĆœemaitÄĆĄka](https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Samogitian")
- [ĐДлаŃŃŃĐșĐ°Ń](https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%96_%D0%B7_%D0%95%D1%9E%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0 "ĐŃŃ
Đ°ĐŽ ĐŃĐ»ŃĐșабŃŃŃĐ°ĐœŃŃ Đ· ĐŃŃапДĐčŃĐșага ŃĐ°ŃĐ·Đ° â Belarusian")
- [ĐŃлгаŃŃĐșĐž](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%8A%D1%8E%D0%B7 "ĐĐ·Đ»ĐžĐ·Đ°ĐœĐ” ĐœĐ° ĐДлОĐșĐŸĐ±ŃĐžŃĐ°ĐœĐžŃ ĐŸŃ ĐĐČŃĐŸĐżĐ”ĐčŃĐșĐžŃ ŃŃŃĐ· â Bulgarian")
- [à€à„à€à€Șà„à€°à„](https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F "à€Źà„à€°à„à€à„à€à€żà€ â Bhojpuri")
- [Banjar](https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Banjar")
- [àŠŹàŠŸàŠàŠČàŠŸ](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F "àŠŹà§àŠ°à§àŠà§àŠžàŠżàŠ â Bangla")
- [Brezhoneg](https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Breton")
- [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Bosnian")
- [CatalĂ ](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sortida_del_Regne_Unit_de_la_Uni%C3%B3_Europea "Sortida del Regne Unit de la UniĂł Europea â Catalan")
- [ÄeĆĄtina](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Czech")
- [Cymraeg](https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Welsh")
- [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Danish")
- [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU-Austritt_des_Vereinigten_K%C3%B6nigreichs "EU-Austritt des Vereinigten Königreichs â German")
- [ThuÉĆjĂ€Ć](https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C9%9B%CC%88kdh%C3%AFt "BrÉÌkdhĂŻt â Dinka")
- [Zazaki](https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Dimli")
- [ÎλληΜÎčÎșÎŹ](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%BE%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%97%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%8C_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%95%CF%85%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%88%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7 "ÎÎŸÎżÎŽÎżÏ ÏÎżÏ
ÎÎœÏÎŒÎÎœÎżÏ
ÎαÏÎčλΔίοÏ
αÏÏ ÏηΜ ÎÏ
ÏÏÏαÏÎșÎź ÎÎœÏÏη â Greek")
- [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briteliro "Briteliro â Esperanto")
- [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salida_del_Reino_Unido_de_la_Uni%C3%B3n_Europea "Salida del Reino Unido de la UniĂłn Europea â Spanish")
- [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Estonian")
- [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Basque")
- [Ùۧ۱۳Û](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%AA "ۚ۱گŰČÛŰȘ â Persian")
- [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Finnish")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â French")
- [Gaeilge](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breatimeacht "Breatimeacht â Irish")
- [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Galician")
- [ŚąŚŚšŚŚȘ](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%95%D7%97%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%97%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99 "Ś€ŚšŚŚ©ŚȘ ŚŚŚŚŚŚ ŚŚŚŚŚŚŚȘ ŚŚŚŚŚŚŚ ŚŚŚŚšŚŚ€Ś â Hebrew")
- [à€čà€żà€šà„à€Šà„](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%98_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8 "à€Żà„à€šà€Ÿà€à€à„à€Ą à€à€żà€à€à€Ąà€ź à€à€Ÿ à€Żà„à€°à„à€Șà„à€Ż à€žà€à€ à€žà„ à€Źà€čà€żà€°à„à€à€źà€š â Hindi")
- [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Croatian")
- [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Hungarian")
- [ŐŐĄŐ”Ő„ÖŐ„Ő¶](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A9 "ÔČÖŐ„ÖŐœŐ«Ő© â Armenian")
- [Ô±ÖŐ„ÖŐŽŐżŐĄŐ°ŐĄŐ”Ő„ÖŐ§Ő¶](https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%B5_%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A8_%D4%B5%D6%82%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A7%D5%B6 "Ô±Ő¶ŐŁŐŹŐ«ŐžŐ” ŐŐ„ŐŒŐĄÖŐžÖŐŽŐš Ô”ÖÖŐžŐșŐĄŐŻŐĄŐ¶ ŐŐ«ŐžÖŐ©Ő„Ő¶Ő§Ő¶ â Western Armenian")
- [Interlingua](https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Interlingua")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Indonesian")
- [Interlingue](https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Interlingue")
- [Ido](https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brekiro "Brekiro â Ido")
- [Ăslenska](https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Atganga_Breta_%C3%BAr_Evr%C3%B3pusambandinu "Ătganga Breta Ășr EvrĂłpusambandinu â Icelandic")
- [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uscita_del_Regno_Unito_dall%27Unione_europea "Uscita del Regno Unito dall'Unione europea â Italian")
- [æ„æŹèȘ](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%81%AE%E6%AC%A7%E5%B7%9E%E9%80%A3%E5%90%88%E9%9B%A2%E8%84%B1 "ă€ăźăȘăčăźæŹ§ć·éŁćéąè± â Japanese")
- [Jawa](https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Javanese")
- [á„áá ááŁáá](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%95%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90_%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C "áááá áááááááŁáá áĄáááá€áᥠáááĄááá ááá ááááášáá áááá â Georgian")
- [GÄ©kĆ©yĆ©](https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Kikuyu")
- [ÒĐ°Đ·Đ°ÒŃĐ°](https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8B%D2%A3_%D0%95%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%88%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%83%D1%8B "Ò°Đ»ŃбŃĐžŃĐ°ĐœĐžŃĐœŃÒŁ ĐŃŃĐŸĐŸĐŽĐ°ÒŃĐ°Đœ ŃŃÒŃŃ â Kazakh")
- [àČàČšàłàČšàČĄ](https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D "àČŹàłàČ°àłàČàłàČžàČżàČàł â Kannada")
- [íê”ìŽ](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B8%8C%EB%A0%89%EC%8B%9C%ED%8A%B8 "ëžë ìíž â Korean")
- [Ú©ÙČŰŽÙ۱](https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%D9%B9 "ۚ۱ÛÚŻŰČÙč â Kashmiri")
- [Kernowek](https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Cornish")
- [ĐŃŃĐłŃĐ·ŃĐ°](https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82 "ĐŃĐ”ĐșŃĐžŃ â Kyrgyz")
- [Latina](https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexitus "Brexitus â Latin")
- [LĂ«tzebuergesch](https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austr%C3%ABtt_vum_Vereenegte_Kinnekr%C3%A4ich_aus_der_Europ%C3%A4escher_Unioun "AustrĂ«tt vum Vereenegte KinnekrĂ€ich aus der EuropĂ€escher Unioun â Luxembourgish")
- [Lingua Franca Nova](https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Lingua Franca Nova")
- [Limburgs](https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Limburgish")
- [LietuviĆł](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Lithuanian")
- [LatvieĆĄu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apvienot%C4%81s_Karalistes_izst%C4%81%C5%A1an%C4%81s_no_Eiropas_Savien%C4%ABbas "ApvienotÄs Karalistes izstÄĆĄanÄs no Eiropas SavienÄ«bas â Latvian")
- [Malagasy](https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Malagasy")
- [ĐĐ°ĐșĐ”ĐŽĐŸĐœŃĐșĐž](https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%95%D0%A3 "ĐĐŸĐČлДĐșŃĐČĐ°ŃĐ” ĐœĐ° ĐĐ±Đ”ĐŽĐžĐœĐ”ŃĐŸŃĐŸ ĐŃĐ°Đ»ŃŃĐČĐŸ ĐŸĐŽ ĐĐŁ â Macedonian")
- [àŽźàŽČàŽŻàŽŸàŽłàŽ](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D "àŽŹà”àŽ°àŽżàŽà”àŽžàŽżàŽ±à”àŽ±à” â Malayalam")
- [ááŹááŹáááș](https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA_\(Brexit\) "ááŒáááááș (Brexit) â Mon")
- [à€źà€°à€Ÿà€ à„](https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F "à€Źà„à€°à„à€à„à€à€żà€ â Marathi")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Malay")
- [ááŒááșááŹááŹááŹ](https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%9B%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%87%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA "ááááșáá
áș â Burmese")
- [Nedersaksies](https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Low Saxon")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Dutch")
- [Norsk nynorsk](https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Norwegian Nynorsk")
- [Norsk bokmĂ„l](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Norwegian BokmĂ„l")
- [Occitan](https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debats_sus_la_retirada_del_Reialme_Unit_de_l%27Union_europ%C3%A8a "Debats sus la retirada del Reialme Unit de l'Union europĂša â Occitan")
- [àšȘà©°àšàšŸàšŹà©](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%82_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%A1_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%BE "àšŻà©àš°àšȘà© àšŻà©àššà©àš
àšš àš€à©àš àšŻà©àššàšŸàšàšàšĄ àšàšżà©°àšàšĄàšź àšŠàšŸ àššàšżàšàšČàšŁàšŸ â Punjabi")
- [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Polish")
- [ÙŸÙۏۧۚÛ](https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%D9%B9 "ۚ۱ÛÚŻŰČÙč â Western Punjabi")
- [ÙŸÚŰȘÙ](https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%84_%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%86%D9%87 "ŰŻ ۚ۱ŰȘۧÙÛۧ ÙŰȘÙ ŰŻ ۧ۱ÙÙŸŰ§ÛÙ Ű§ŰȘŰۧۯÛÙ ÙÙ â Pashto")
- [PortuguĂȘs](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%ADda_do_Reino_Unido_da_Uni%C3%A3o_Europeia "SaĂda do Reino Unido da UniĂŁo Europeia â Portuguese")
- [RomĂąnÄ](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Romanian")
- [Đ ŃŃŃĐșĐžĐč](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0 "ĐŃŃ
ĐŸĐŽ ĐДлОĐșĐŸĐ±ŃĐžŃĐ°ĐœĐžĐž Оз ĐĐČŃĐŸĐżĐ”ĐčŃĐșĐŸĐłĐŸ ŃĐŸŃĐ·Đ° â Russian")
- [Đ ŃŃĐžĐœŃŃĐșŃĐč](https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Rusyn")
- [Sardu](https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essida_de_su_R%C3%A8nniu_Unidu_dae_s%27Unione_Europea "Essida de su RĂšnniu Unidu dae s'Unione Europea â Sardinian")
- [Scots](https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Scots")
- [Srpskohrvatski / ŃŃĐżŃĐșĐŸŃ
ŃĐČĐ°ŃŃĐșĐž](https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Serbo-Croatian")
- [à·à·à¶à·à¶œ](https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A "බà·âරà·à¶à·à·à·à¶§à· â Sinhala")
- [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Simple English")
- [SlovenÄina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyst%C3%BApenie_Spojen%C3%A9ho_kr%C3%A1%C4%BEovstva_z_Eur%C3%B3pskej_%C3%BAnie "VystĂșpenie SpojenĂ©ho krĂĄÄŸovstva z EurĂłpskej Ășnie â Slovak")
- [SlovenĆĄÄina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Slovenian")
- [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/BREXIT "BREXIT â Albanian")
- [ĐĄŃĐżŃĐșĐž / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82 "ĐŃĐ”ĐłĐ·ĐžŃ â Serbian")
- [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Swedish")
- [Kiswahili](https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Swahili")
- [àź€àźźàźżàźŽàŻ](https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81 "àźȘàźżàź°àŻàźàŻàźàźżàźàŻàźàŻ â Tamil")
- [à°€à±à°Čà±à°à±](https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%BF_%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%89%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A3 "à°Żà±à°°à±à°Șà°żà°Żà°šà± à°Żà±à°šà°żà°Żà°šà± à°šà±à°à°à°ż à°Źà±à°°à°żà°à°šà± à°à°Șà°žà°à°čà°°à°Ł â Telugu")
- [àčàžàžą](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95 "àčàžàžŁàčàžàžàžŽàž â Thai")
- [TĂŒrkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birle%C5%9Fik_Krall%C4%B1k%27%C4%B1n_Avrupa_Birli%C4%9Fi%27nden_ayr%C4%B1lmas%C4%B1 "BirleĆik Krallık'ın Avrupa BirliÄi'nden ayrılması â Turkish")
- [ĐŁĐșŃĐ°ŃĐœŃŃĐșĐ°](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%97_%D0%B7_%D0%84%D0%A1 "ĐĐžŃ
ŃĐŽ ĐДлОĐșĐŸŃ ĐŃĐžŃĐ°ĐœŃŃ Đ· ĐĐĄ â Ukrainian")
- [ۧ۱ۯÙ](https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%D9%B9 "ۚ۱ÛÚŻŰČÙč â Urdu")
- [OÊ»zbekcha / ŃзбДĐșŃĐ°](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Uzbek")
- [Tiáșżng Viá»t](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87c_V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Li%C3%AAn_hi%E1%BB%87p_Anh_v%C3%A0_B%E1%BA%AFc_Ireland_r%E1%BB%9Di_Li%C3%AAn_minh_ch%C3%A2u_%C3%82u "Viá»c VÆ°ÆĄng quá»c LiĂȘn hiá»p Anh vĂ BáșŻc Ireland rá»i LiĂȘn minh chĂąu Ău â Vietnamese")
- [Winaray](https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Waray")
- [ćŽèŻ](https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E8%84%B1%E6%AC%A7 "è±ćœè±æŹ§ â Wu")
- [ŚŚÖŽŚŚŚ©](https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%98 "ŚŚšŚąŚ§ŚĄŚŚ â Yiddish")
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- [é©ćèȘ / BĂąn-lĂąm-gĂ](https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit â Minnan")
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## Page version status
This is an accepted version of this page
This is the [latest accepted revision](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes "Wikipedia:Pending changes"), [reviewed](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Brexit) on *24 March 2026*.
Withdrawal of the UK from the EU
For other uses, see [Brexit (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_\(disambiguation\) "Brexit (disambiguation)").
| | |
|---|---|
| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Brexit "Category:Brexit") on | |
| [Brexit]() | |
|  | |
| [Withdrawal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Withdrawal from the European Union") of the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") from the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") [Glossary of terms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Brexit_terms "Glossary of Brexit terms") | |
| [Background](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum#Background "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [European Communities Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_\(UK\) "European Communities Act 1972 (UK)") [1975 EC membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum") [UK rebate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_rebate "UK rebate") [Bruges speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges_speech "Bruges speech") [No. No. No.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._No._No._\(Margaret_Thatcher\) "No. No. No. (Margaret Thatcher)") [Maastricht Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty "Maastricht Treaty") ([Rebels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Rebels "Maastricht Rebels")) [Black Wednesday](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Wednesday "Black Wednesday") [Treaty of Lisbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon "Treaty of Lisbon") ([Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Amendment\)_Act_2008 "European Union (Amendment) Act 2008")) [European Union Act 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Act_2011 "European Union Act 2011") [UK opt-outs from EU legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_opt-outs_from_EU_legislation "United Kingdom opt-outs from EU legislation") [Euroscepticism in the UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism_in_the_United_Kingdom "Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom") [UK opinion polling on EU membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_the_United_Kingdom%27s_membership_of_the_European_Union "Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union") Campaigns for a referendum [People's Pledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Pledge "People's Pledge") [Labour for a Referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_for_a_Referendum "Labour for a Referendum") [Bloomberg speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_speech "Bloomberg speech") *[In or Out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_European_Union:_In_or_Out "The European Union: In or Out")* [2013â14 EU (Referendum) Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Referendum\)_Bill_2013%E2%80%9314 "European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013â14") (unsuccessful) [2014 European Parliament election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") 2014 UK Parliament by-elections [Clacton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Clacton_by-election "2014 Clacton by-election") [Heywood and Middleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Heywood_and_Middleton_by-election "2014 Heywood and Middleton by-election") [Rochester and Strood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Rochester_and_Strood_by-election "2014 Rochester and Strood by-election") [2015 UK general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election") [2015â16 EU membership renegotiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_United_Kingdom_renegotiation_of_European_Union_membership "2015â16 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership") | |
| [2016 referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [EU Referendum Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_Act_2015 "European Union Referendum Act 2015") ([Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Referendum\)_Act_2016_\(Gibraltar\) "European Union (Referendum) Act 2016 (Gibraltar)")) [EU Referendum (Date of Referendum etc.) Regulations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_\(Date_of_Referendum_etc.\)_Regulations_2016 "European Union Referendum (Date of Referendum etc.) Regulations 2016") [EU Referendum (Conduct) Regulations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_European_Union_Referendum_\(Conduct\)_Regulations_2016 "The European Union Referendum (Conduct) Regulations 2016") [Issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issues_in_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Issues in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Endorsements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorsements_in_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Endorsements in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Opinion polling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [UK Government pro-EU leaflet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-EU_leaflet "Pro-EU leaflet") **[Campaigns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaigning_in_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Campaigning in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum")** **Leave campaigns** **[Vote Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_Leave "Vote Leave")** (official) [Business for Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_for_Britain "Business for Britain") [Conservatives for Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatives_for_Britain "Conservatives for Britain") [BeLeave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeLeave "BeLeave") [Leave.EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave.EU "Leave.EU") [Bpoplive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bpoplive "Bpoplive") [The Freedom Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Freedom_Association "The Freedom Association") [Better Off Out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Better_Off_Out "Better Off Out") [Grassroots Out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassroots_Out "Grassroots Out") [Labour Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Leave "Labour Leave") [Get Britain Out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Britain_Out "Get Britain Out") [Bruges Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges_Group_\(United_Kingdom\) "Bruges Group (United Kingdom)") [Campaign for an Independent Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_for_an_Independent_Britain "Campaign for an Independent Britain") *[Brexit: The Movie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit:_The_Movie "Brexit: The Movie")* **Remain campaigns** **[Britain Stronger in Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain_Stronger_in_Europe "Britain Stronger in Europe")** (official) [Labour In for Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_In_for_Britain "Labour In for Britain") [European Movement UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Movement_UK "European Movement UK") [Britain in Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain_in_Europe "Britain in Europe") [British Influence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Influence "British Influence") [Business for New Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_for_New_Europe "Business for New Europe") [Nucleus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_\(advocacy_group\) "Nucleus (advocacy group)") [Project Fear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Fear "Project Fear") **Outcome** [Results](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_of_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Causes for result](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_the_vote_in_favour_of_Brexit "Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit") [International reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Immediate aftermath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [2016 Conservative Party election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2016 Conservative Party leadership election") [2016 Labour Party election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Labour_Party_leadership_election_\(UK\) "2016 Labour Party leadership election (UK)") [2016 UKIP election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%E2%80%93September_2016_UK_Independence_Party_leadership_election "JulyâSeptember 2016 UK Independence Party leadership election") [Department for Exiting the EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "Department for Exiting the European Union") [Department for International Trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_International_Trade "Department for International Trade") [Allegations of unlawful campaigning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegations_of_unlawful_campaigning_in_the_2016_EU_referendum "Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum") [Alleged Russian interference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum "Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum") | |
| [Notice of withdrawal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union") [Article 50 process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Withdrawal from the European Union") [*Miller* case (Article 50)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union") [EU (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Notification_of_Withdrawal\)_Act_2017 "European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017") [Brexit plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_plan "Brexit plan") [Repeal Bill plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeal_Bill_plan "Repeal Bill plan") [2017 UK general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") | |
| [Negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations") Negotiation positions [EU negotiation mandate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_negotiating_directives_for_Brexit "European Union negotiating directives for Brexit") [Chequers agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chequers_agreement "Chequers agreement") Timeline: [2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations_in_2017 "Brexit negotiations in 2017"), [2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations_in_2018 "Brexit negotiations in 2018"), [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations_in_2019 "Brexit negotiations in 2019") [2019 European Parliament election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") [2019 UK general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election") | |
| [Withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") [Brexit divorce bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_divorce_bill "Brexit divorce bill") [Fish for finance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_for_finance "Fish for finance") [Irish backstop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop") [No-deal Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-deal_Brexit "No-deal Brexit") [Northern Ireland Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol") [Northern Ireland Protocol Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol_Bill "Northern Ireland Protocol Bill") [Windsor Framework](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Framework "Windsor Framework") | |
| [Legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") [Withdrawal Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018") ([Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2019_\(Gibraltar\) "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019 (Gibraltar)")) [Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Safeguards_Act_2018 "Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018") [CooperâLetwin Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2019 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019") [Benn Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_\(No._2\)_Act_2019 "European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019") [2019 suspension of rebel Conservative MPs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_suspension_of_rebel_Conservative_MPs "2019 suspension of rebel Conservative MPs") [Public Vote Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Withdrawal_Agreement_\(Public_Vote\)_Bill_2017%E2%80%9319 "European Union Withdrawal Agreement (Public Vote) Bill 2017â19") (not passed) [Terms of Withdrawal Bills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terms_of_Withdrawal_from_EU_\(Referendum\)_Bills "Terms of Withdrawal from EU (Referendum) Bills") (not passed) [Scottish EU Continuity Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union_\(Legal_Continuity\)_\(Scotland\)_Bill "UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal Continuity) (Scotland) Bill") (blocked) [Withdrawal Agreement Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020") ([Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020_\(Gibraltar\) "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 (Gibraltar)")) [Scottish EU Continuity Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union_\(Continuity\)_\(Scotland\)_Act_2021 "UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Continuity) (Scotland) Act 2021") [Internal Market Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_Internal_Market_Act_2020 "United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020") [EU (Future Relationship) Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Future_Relationship\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Future Relationship) Act 2020") [Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retained_EU_Law_\(Revocation_and_Reform\)_Act_2023 "Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Act 2023") | |
| [Impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit "Impact of Brexit") [Impact on the Irish border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_and_the_Irish_border "Brexit and the Irish border") [Good Friday Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement") [Impact on the EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit_on_the_European_Union "Impact of Brexit on the European Union") [Economic effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_effects_of_Brexit "Economic effects of Brexit") [Effects on Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_Brexit_on_Gibraltar "Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar") [Scientific cooperation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_and_arrangements_for_science_and_technology "Brexit and arrangements for science and technology") [Effects on popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_in_popular_culture "Brexit in popular culture") [Retained EU law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retained_EU_law_\(UK_Law\) "Retained EU law (UK Law)") [2021 Jersey dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Jersey_dispute "2021 Jersey dispute") | |
| [EUâUK relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Brexit_United_Kingdom_relations_with_the_European_Union "Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union") [Relations pre- and post-Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93European_Union_relations "United KingdomâEuropean Union relations") [EUâUK trade negotiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU "Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU") [EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement "EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement") (TCA) [Partnership Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Partnership_Council "EUâUK Partnership Council") [Partnership Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Parliamentary_Partnership_Assembly "EUâUK Parliamentary Partnership Assembly") **Relations with EU member states** [Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "AustriaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "BelgiumâUnited Kingdom relations") [Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "BulgariaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "CroatiaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "CyprusâUnited Kingdom relations") [Akrotiri and Dhekelia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia "Akrotiri and Dhekelia") [Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "Czech RepublicâUnited Kingdom relations") [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "DenmarkâUnited Kingdom relations") [Estonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "EstoniaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "FinlandâUnited Kingdom relations") [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "FranceâUnited Kingdom relations") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "GermanyâUnited Kingdom relations") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "GreeceâUnited Kingdom relations") [Hungary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "HungaryâUnited Kingdom relations") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "IrelandâUnited Kingdom relations") [IrelandâUK border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_border "Republic of IrelandâUnited Kingdom border") [BritishâIrish Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council "BritishâIrish Council") [North/South Ministerial Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North/South_Ministerial_Council "North/South Ministerial Council") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "ItalyâUnited Kingdom relations") [Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "LatviaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "LithuaniaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "LuxembourgâUnited Kingdom relations") [Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "MaltaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "NetherlandsâUnited Kingdom relations") [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "PolandâUnited Kingdom relations") [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "PortugalâUnited Kingdom relations") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "RomaniaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Slovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "SlovakiaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Slovenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "SloveniaâUnited Kingdom relations") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "SpainâUnited Kingdom relations") [Status of Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_of_Gibraltar "Status of Gibraltar") [GibraltarâSpain border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar%E2%80%93Spain_border "GibraltarâSpain border") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations "SwedenâUnited Kingdom relations") [Conjectured EEA membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membership_of_United_Kingdom_in_the_European_Economic_Area "Membership of United Kingdom in the European Economic Area") | |
| [Opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_Brexit "Opposition to Brexit") [Post-referendum opinion polling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_the_United_Kingdom%27s_membership_of_the_European_Union_\(2016%E2%80%93present\) "Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016âpresent)") New initiatives [Change Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_Britain "Change Britain") [More United](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_United "More United") [Open Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Britain "Open Britain") *[The New European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_European "The New European")* [Unite to Remain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unite_to_Remain "Unite to Remain") [Led By Donkeys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led_By_Donkeys "Led By Donkeys") [Revoke Article 50 petition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoke_Article_50_and_remain_in_the_EU_petition "Revoke Article 50 and remain in the EU petition") *[Postcards from the 48%](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcards_from_the_48%25 "Postcards from the 48%")* [Proposed second Scottish independence referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_second_Scottish_independence_referendum "Proposed second Scottish independence referendum") **Calls for a [second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement")** **[People's Vote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Vote "People's Vote")** [Britain for Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain_for_Europe "Britain for Europe") [European Movement UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Movement_UK "European Movement UK") [For our Future's Sake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_our_Future%27s_Sake "For our Future's Sake") [Healthier IN the EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthier_IN_the_EU "Healthier IN the EU") [InFacts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InFacts "InFacts") [Open Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Britain "Open Britain") [Our Future Our Choice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Future_Our_Choice "Our Future Our Choice") [Scientists for EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_for_EU "Scientists for EU") Other organisations [Best for Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_for_Britain "Best for Britain") [Bollocks to Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bollocks_to_Brexit "Bollocks to Brexit") [Change UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_UK "Change UK") [Liberal Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_\(UK\)#Opposing_Brexit_\(2015%E2%80%93present\) "Liberal Democrats (UK)") [Right to Vote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_Vote "Right to Vote") | |
| | |
| [Bloomberg speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_speech "Bloomberg speech") | Jan 2013 |
| [Referendum Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Referendum\)_Bill_2013%E2%80%9314 "European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013â14") blocked | Jan 2014 |
| [European Parliament election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") | May 2014 |
| [2015 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election") | May 2015 |
| Renegotiation begins | Jun 2015 |
| [Referendum Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_Act_2015 "European Union Referendum Act 2015") passed | Dec 2015 |
| [Renegotiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_United_Kingdom_renegotiation_of_European_Union_membership "2015â16 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership") concluded | Feb 2016 |
| [Referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") held | Jun 2016 |
| [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") resigns as [PM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom") | Jul 2016 |
| [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") [becomes PM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2016 Conservative Party leadership election") | Jul 2016 |
| [Article 50 judgement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union") | Jan 2017 |
| [Brexit plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_plan "Brexit plan") presented | Feb 2017 |
| [Notification Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Notification_of_Withdrawal\)_Act_2017 "European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017") passed | Mar 2017 |
| [Article 50](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union") invoked | Mar 2017 |
| [Repeal Bill plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeal_Bill_plan "Repeal Bill plan") presented | Mar 2017 |
| [2017 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") | Jun 2017 |
| [Brexit negotiations begin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations") | Jun 2017 |
| [Withdrawal Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018") passed | Jun 2018 |
| [Chequers plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chequers_agreement "Chequers agreement") presented | Jul 2018 |
| [Withdrawal agreement plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement_plan "Brexit withdrawal agreement plan") presented | July 2018 |
| [Withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") released | Nov 2018 |
| [Scottish Continuity Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union_\(Legal_Continuity\)_\(Scotland\)_Bill_2018 "UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal Continuity) (Scotland) Bill 2018") blocked | Dec 2018 |
| [Meaningful votes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") | JanâMar 2019 |
| [Brexit delayed until 12 April](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit#Vote_on_extending_Article_50_\(14_March_2019\) "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") | Mar 2019 |
| [CooperâLetwin Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2019 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019") passed | Apr 2019 |
| [Brexit delayed until 31 October](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2019#Motion_under_the_Act "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019") | Apr 2019 |
| [European Parliament election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") | May 2019 |
| Theresa May resigns as [PM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom") | Jul 2019 |
| [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") [becomes PM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2019 Conservative Party leadership election") | Jul 2019 |
| [Prorogation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_British_prorogation_controversy "2019 British prorogation controversy") and [annulment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_The_Prime_Minister_and_Cherry_v_Advocate_General_for_Scotland "R (Miller) v The Prime Minister and Cherry v Advocate General for Scotland") | AugâSep 2019 |
| [Benn Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_\(No._2\)_Act_2019 "European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019") passed | Sep 2019 |
| Withdrawal agreement [revised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement#Revisions_in_2019 "Brexit withdrawal agreement") | Oct 2019 |
| [Brexit delayed until 31 January](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_\(No._2\)_Act_2019#Outcome "European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019") | Oct 2019 |
| [2019 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election") | Dec 2019 |
| [Agreement Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020") passed | Jan 2020 |
| UK leaves the European Union | Jan 2020 |
| Implementation period begins | Jan 2020 |
| [UKâEU trade deal agreed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement "EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement") | Dec 2020 |
| [Future Relationship Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Future_Relationship\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Future Relationship) Act 2020") passed | Dec 2020 |
| [Scottish Continuity Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union_\(Continuity\)_\(Scotland\)_Act_2021 "UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Continuity) (Scotland) Act 2021") passed | Dec 2020 |
| Implementation period ends | Dec 2020 |
| New EUâUK relationship begins | Jan 2021 |
| UKâEU trade deal ratified | Apr 2021 |
| [Windsor Framework](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Framework "Windsor Framework") released | Feb 2023 |
| Windsor framework adopted | Mar 2023 |
|  [EU portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:European_Union "Portal:European Union")  [UK portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom "Portal:United Kingdom") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Brexit_sidebar "Template:Brexit sidebar") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Brexit_sidebar "Template talk:Brexit sidebar") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Brexit_sidebar "Special:EditPage/Template:Brexit sidebar") | |
| | |
|---|---|
| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:United_Kingdom%E2%80%93European_Union_relations "Category:United KingdomâEuropean Union relations") of articles on | |
| [UK membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_membership_of_the_European_Union "United Kingdom membership of the European Union") of the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") (1973â2020) | |
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_EU.svg) | |
| [Accession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Communities "Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities") [Treaty of Accession 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Accession_1972 "Treaty of Accession 1972") [1972 EC Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_\(UK\) "European Communities Act 1972 (UK)") [1973 enlargement of the EC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_enlargement_of_the_European_Communities "1973 enlargement of the European Communities") | |
| [1975 referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum") [Referendum Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum_Act_1975 "Referendum Act 1975") ([results](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_of_the_1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "Results of the 1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum")) | |
| | |
| [Single European Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_European_Act "Single European Act"), 1986 | ([UK ratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_1986 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 1986")) |
| [Maastricht Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty "Maastricht Treaty"), 1992 | ([UK ratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_1993 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 1993")) |
| [Treaty of Amsterdam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Amsterdam "Treaty of Amsterdam"), 1997 | ([UK ratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_1998 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 1998")) |
| [Treaty of Nice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nice "Treaty of Nice"), 2001 | ([UK ratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_2002 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 2002")) |
| [Treaty of Lisbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon "Treaty of Lisbon"), 2007 | ([UK ratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Amendment\)_Act_2008 "European Union (Amendment) Act 2008")) |
| | |
| [Members 1973â1979](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_1973%E2%80%931979 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 1973â1979") | (elected by parliament) |
| [Members 1979â1984](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_1979%E2%80%931984 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 1979â1984") | ([1979 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "1979 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| [Members 1984â1989](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_1984%E2%80%931989 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 1984â1989") | ([1984 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "1984 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| [Members 1989â1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_1989%E2%80%931994 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 1989â1994") | ([1989 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "1989 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| [Members 1994â1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_1994%E2%80%931999 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 1994â1999") | ([1994 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "1994 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| [Members 1999â2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_1999%E2%80%932004 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 1999â2004") | ([1999 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "1999 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| [Members 2004â2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_2004%E2%80%932009 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 2004â2009") | ([2004 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2004 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| [Members 2009â2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_2009%E2%80%932014 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 2009â2014") | ([2009 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2009 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| [Members 2014â2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_2014%E2%80%932019 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 2014â2019") | ([2014 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| [Members 2019â2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Parliament_for_the_United_Kingdom,_2019%E2%80%932020 "List of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom, 2019â2020") | ([2019 election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom")) |
| Officials and bodies [House of Lords EU Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Committee "European Union Committee") [House of Commons EU Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Scrutiny_Committee "European Scrutiny Committee") [Permanent EU Representatives for UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Permanent_Representatives_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Union "List of Permanent Representatives of the United Kingdom to the European Union") [Northern Ireland Executive in Brussels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Northern_Ireland_Executive_in_Brussels "Office of the Northern Ireland Executive in Brussels") [EU Representative in London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_of_the_European_Union,_London "Representative of the European Union, London") [UK European Commissioners](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_Commissioners_by_nationality#United_Kingdom "List of European Commissioners by nationality") [Department for Exiting the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "Department for Exiting the European Union") | |
| Issues and events Economy [The Euro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_the_euro "United Kingdom and the euro") [Black Wednesday](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Wednesday "Black Wednesday") [UK budget rebate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_rebate "UK rebate") [Nationality law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_nationality_law "British nationality law") [Euroscepticism in the UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism_in_the_United_Kingdom "Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom") [United Kingdom opt-outs from EU legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_opt-outs_from_EU_legislation "United Kingdom opt-outs from EU legislation") [Maastricht Rebels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Rebels "Maastricht Rebels") [Balance of Competences Review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_Competences_Review "Balance of Competences Review") | |
| [Withdrawal]() [2015 UK general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election") [2015â2016 membership renegotiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_United_Kingdom_renegotiation_of_European_Union_membership "2015â2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership") [2016 EU membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Vote Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_Leave "Vote Leave") [Britain Stronger in Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain_Stronger_in_Europe "Britain Stronger in Europe") [Notification of withdrawal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union") [2017 UK general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") [Brexit negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations") [Impact of Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit "Impact of Brexit") [Future relationship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Brexit_United_Kingdom_relations_with_the_European_Union "Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union") [Withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") [No-deal Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-deal_Brexit "No-deal Brexit") [Impact on Irish border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_and_the_Irish_border "Brexit and the Irish border") [Northern Ireland Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol") [Parliamentary votes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") [Proposed second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement") [2019 UK general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election") | |
|  [EU portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:European_Union "Portal:European Union")  [UK portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom "Portal:United Kingdom") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:United_Kingdom_in_the_European_Union "Template:United Kingdom in the European Union") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:United_Kingdom_in_the_European_Union "Template talk:United Kingdom in the European Union") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_Kingdom_in_the_European_Union "Special:EditPage/Template:United Kingdom in the European Union") | |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Location_map_of_the_United_Kingdom_and_the_European_Union.svg)
The United Kingdom in orange; the European Union (27 member states) in blue: a representation of the result of Brexit
**Brexit** ([/ËbrÉksÉȘt, ËbrÉÉĄzÉȘt/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English "Help:IPA/English");[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-1) a [portmanteau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portmanteau "Portmanteau") of "Britain" and "Exit") was the [withdrawal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Withdrawal from the European Union") of the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") (UK) from the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") (EU).
Brexit took place at 23:00 [GMT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT "GMT") on 31 January 2020 (00:00 1 February 2020 [CET](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_Time "Central European Time")).[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-2) The UK, which joined the EU precursor, the [European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") (EC), on 1 January 1973, is the only member state to have withdrawn, although previously the territories of [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria "Algeria") ceased to be part of the EC following its independence from the member state France in 1962 and [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland "Greenland") (part of the [Kingdom of Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Denmark "Kingdom of Denmark")) left the EC in 1985. Following Brexit, [EU law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_law "EU law") and the [Court of Justice of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union "Court of Justice of the European Union") no longer have [primacy over British law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_of_European_Union_law "Primacy of European Union law") but the UK remains bound by obligations in treaties it has with other countries around the world, including many with EU member states and with the EU itself. The [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018") retains relevant EU law as [domestic law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom "Law of the United Kingdom"), which the UK can amend or repeal.
The EU and its institutions developed gradually after their establishment. Throughout the period of British membership, [Eurosceptic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism_in_the_United_Kingdom "Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom") groups had existed in the UK, opposing aspects of the EU and its predecessors. The [Labour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)") prime minister [Harold Wilson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Wilson "Harold Wilson")'s pro-EC government held [a referendum on continued EC membership in 1975](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum"), in which 67.2% voted to stay. Despite growing political opposition by a minority of UK politicians to further [European integration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_integration "European integration") aimed at "[ever closer union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ever_closer_union "Ever closer union")" between 1975â2016, from factions of the [Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") in the 1980sâ2000s, no further referendums on the issue were held.
By the mid-2010s, the growing popularity of the [UK Independence Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Independence_Party "UK Independence Party") (UKIP), as well as pressure from Eurosceptics within his own party, persuaded the Conservative prime minister [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") to promise a referendum on British membership of the EU if his government was re-elected. Following the [2015 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election"), which produced a small but unexpected majority for the governing Conservative Party, the promised [referendum on continued EU membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") was held on 23 June 2016. Supporters of the [Remain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain_Stronger_in_Europe "Britain Stronger in Europe") campaign included then-prime minister David Cameron, the future prime ministers [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May"), [Liz Truss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_Truss "Liz Truss"), and [Sir Keir Starmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Keir_Starmer "Sir Keir Starmer"), and the exâprime ministers [John Major](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Major "John Major"), [Tony Blair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair "Tony Blair"), and [Gordon Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Brown "Gordon Brown"); supporters of the [Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_Leave "Vote Leave") campaign included the future prime ministers [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") and [Rishi Sunak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishi_Sunak "Rishi Sunak"). The electorate voted to Leave the EU by a slight margin, with a 51.9% share of the vote, all regions of [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England "England") and [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales "Wales") except [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_London "Greater London") voting in favour of Brexit, and [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") voting to remain. The result led to Cameron's sudden resignation, his replacement by former Home Secretary Theresa May, and four years of negotiations with the EU over the terms of departure and future relations, completed under a [Boris Johnson-led government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Johnson_ministry "First Johnson ministry"), with the Conservative Party in office.
The negotiation was both politically challenging and deeply divisive, leading to two snap general elections in [2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") and [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election"). One proposal under the [second May ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_May_ministry "Second May ministry") was overwhelmingly rejected by the [UK Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Parliament "UK Parliament"), causing great uncertainty and leading to postponement of the withdrawal date to avoid a [no-deal Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-deal_Brexit "No-deal Brexit"). The UK officially left the European Union on 31 January 2020 after a withdrawal deal was passed by Parliament, but continued to participate in many EU institutions (including the single market and customs union) during an [eleven-month transition period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") during which it was hoped that details of the post-Brexit relationship could be agreed and implemented. [Trade deal negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU "Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU") continued within days of the scheduled end of the transition period, and the [EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement "EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement") was signed on 30 December 2020. The effects of Brexit in the UK are in part determined by the cooperation agreement, which [provisionally applied](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_application_\(treaty\) "Provisional application (treaty)") from 1 January 2021, until it formally came into force on 1 May 2021.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CouncilRatifies-3)
## Timeline
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Timeline")\]
Main article: [Timeline of Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Brexit "Timeline of Brexit")
Following a UK-wide [referendum on 23 June 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum"), in which 51.89 per cent voted in favour of leaving the EU and 48.11 per cent voted to remain a member state, [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") resigned as prime minister. On 29 March 2017, the new [British government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government "British government") led by [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") chose to formally notify the EU of the country's intention to withdraw from the EU in two years, despite there being no agreement among UK politicians on objectives for post-Brexit relations with the EU. The withdrawal, originally scheduled for 29 March 2019, was subsequently delayed by the [deadlock in the British parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") after the [June 2017 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election"), which resulted in a [hung parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_parliament "Hung parliament") in which the [Conservatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") lost their majority but remained the largest party. This deadlock eventually led to three extensions of the [UK's Article 50 process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union").
The deadlock was resolved after a [subsequent general election was held in December 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election"). In that election, Conservatives who campaigned in support of a "hard-brexit" withdrawal agreement led by [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") won an overall majority of 80 seats. After the December 2019 election, the British parliament finally ratified the [withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_agreement "Withdrawal agreement") with the [European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020"). The UK left the EU at the end of 31 January 2020 [CET](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_Time "Central European Time") (11 p.m. [GMT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT "GMT")).[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-4) This began a transition period that ended on 31 December 2020 CET (11 p.m. GMT), during which the UK and EU negotiated their future relationship.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Bennett-5) During the transition, the UK remained subject to [EU law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_law "EU law") and remained part of the [European Union Customs Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union "European Union Customs Union") and the [European single market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_single_market "European single market"). However, it was no longer part of the EU's political bodies or institutions.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Edgington-6)[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-QAEC-7)
The withdrawal had been advocated by mostly right-wing and conservative [hard Eurosceptics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism#Hard_Euroscepticism "Euroscepticism") and opposed by [pro-Europeanists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-Europeanists "Pro-Europeanists") mostly from the rest of the political spectrum. [In 1973, the UK joined](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Communities "Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities") the [European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") (EC) â principally the [European Economic Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Community "European Economic Community") (EEC) â and its continued membership was endorsed in the [1975 membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum"). In the 1970s and 1980s, withdrawal from the EC was advocated mainly by the political left, e.g. in the [Labour Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)")'s 1983 election manifesto. The 1992 [Maastricht Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty "Maastricht Treaty"), which founded the EU, was [ratified by the British parliament in 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_1993 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 1993") but was not put to a referendum. The Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party led [a rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Rebels "Maastricht Rebels") over the ratification of the treaty and, with the [UK Independence Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Independence_Party "UK Independence Party") (UKIP) and the cross-party [People's Pledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Pledge "People's Pledge") campaign, then led a collective campaign, particularly after the [Treaty of Lisbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon "Treaty of Lisbon") was also ratified by the [European Union (Amendment) Act 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Amendment\)_Act_2008 "European Union (Amendment) Act 2008") without being put to a referendum following a previous promise to hold [a referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Bill_2004%E2%80%932005 "European Union Bill 2004â2005") on ratifying the abandoned [European Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Constitution "European Constitution"), which was never held. After promising to hold a second membership referendum if his government was elected, Conservative prime minister David Cameron held this referendum in 2016. Cameron, who had campaigned to remain, resigned after the result and was succeeded by [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May").
On 29 March 2017, the British government formally began the withdrawal process by invoking Article 50 of the [Treaty on European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_European_Union "Treaty on European Union") with [permission from Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Notification_of_Withdrawal\)_Act_2017 "European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017"). May called [a snap general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") in June 2017, which resulted in a Conservative minority government [supported](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_and_supply "Confidence and supply") by the [Democratic Unionist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Unionist_Party "Democratic Unionist Party") (DUP). UKâEU withdrawal negotiations began later that month. The UK negotiated to leave the EU customs union and single market. This resulted in the November 2018 [withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_agreement "Withdrawal agreement"), but the British parliament [voted against ratifying it](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") three times. The Labour Party wanted any agreement to maintain a customs union, while many Conservatives opposed the agreement's [financial settlement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_divorce_bill "Brexit divorce bill"), as well as the "[Irish backstop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop")" designed to prevent border controls between [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") and the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland"). The [Liberal Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_\(UK\) "Liberal Democrats (UK)"), [Scottish National Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_National_Party "Scottish National Party") (SNP), and others sought to reverse Brexit through [a proposed second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement").
On 14 March 2019, the British parliament voted for May to ask the EU to delay Brexit until June, and then later October.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Parliament_UK-8) Having failed to get her agreement approved, May resigned as prime minister in July and was succeeded by [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson"). He sought to replace parts of the agreement and vowed to leave the EU by the new deadline. On 17 October 2019, the British government and the EU agreed on a revised withdrawal agreement, with new arrangements for Northern Ireland.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Europa17oct19-9)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_News-10) Parliament approved the agreement for further scrutiny, but rejected passing it into law before the 31 October deadline, and forced the government (through the "[Benn Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benn_Act "Benn Act")") to ask for a third Brexit delay. [An early general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election") was then held on 12 December. The Conservatives won a large majority in that election, with Johnson declaring that the UK would leave the EU in early 2020.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-11) The withdrawal agreement was ratified by the UK on 23 January and by the EU on 30 January; it came into force on 31 January 2020.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian2020jan24-12)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-sparrow1-13)[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-autogenerated1-14)
## Terminology and etymology
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Terminology and etymology")\]
Main article: [Glossary of Brexit terms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Brexit_terms "Glossary of Brexit terms")
Following the referendum of 23 June 2016, many new pieces of Brexit-related [jargon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon "Jargon") entered popular use.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-15)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-16) The word *[Brexit](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Brexit "wiktionary:Brexit")* is a portmanteau of the phrase "British exit".[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Lewis-Hargreave-17) According to the *[Oxford English Dictionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary "Oxford English Dictionary")*, the term was coined in a blog post on the website [Euractiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euractiv "Euractiv") by Peter Wilding, director of European policy at [BSkyB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSkyB "BSkyB"), on 15 May 2012.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Tempest-18) Wilding coined *Brexit* to refer to the end of the UK's membership of the EU; by 2016, usage of the word had increased by 3,400% in one year.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Davis-19) On 2 November 2016, the *[Collins English Dictionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary "Collins English Dictionary")* selected *Brexit* as the [word of the year](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_of_the_year#Collins_English_Dictionary "Word of the year") for 2016.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Flood-20)
## Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership")\]
Main articles: [Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Communities "Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities") and [United Kingdom membership of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_membership_of_the_European_Union "United Kingdom membership of the European Union")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inner_Six_and_Outer_Seven.svg)
The [Inner Six](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Six "Inner Six") (blue) and [Outer Seven](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Seven "Outer Seven") (green) of [European integration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_integration "European integration") from 1961 until 1973:
EC Members (Inner Six)
EFTA Members (Outer Seven)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EC09-1973_European_Community_map.svg)
When the UK first joined the [European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") (along with [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") and [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland")) on 1 January 1973 it was one of just nine member states that made up the bloc at the time.
EC Members
The "[Inner Six](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Six "Inner Six")" European countries signed the [Treaty of Paris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_\(1951\) "Treaty of Paris (1951)") in 1951, establishing the [European Coal and Steel Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community "European Coal and Steel Community") (ECSC). The 1955 [Messina Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messina_Conference "Messina Conference") deemed that the ECSC was a success, and resolved to extend the concept further, thereby leading to the 1957 [Treaties of Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaties_of_Rome "Treaties of Rome") establishing the [European Economic Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Community "European Economic Community") (EEC) and the [European Atomic Energy Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Atomic_Energy_Community "European Atomic Energy Community") (Euratom). In [1967](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merger_Treaty "Merger Treaty"), these became known as the European Communities (EC). The UK attempted to join in 1963 and 1967, but these applications were vetoed by the [president of France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_France "President of France"), [Charles de Gaulle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle"), who feared the UK would be a [Trojan Horse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Horse "Trojan Horse") for US influence.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-21)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-22)
Some time after de Gaulle resigned in 1969, the UK successfully applied for [European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") (EC) membership. Membership of the then EEC was thoroughly discussed at the long debate in the [House of Commons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom") in October 1971. It led to the decisive vote in favour of membership by 356 to 244. As historian Piers Ludlow observed, the 1971 parliamentary debate was of high quality and considered all issues. The British were not "misled and persuaded to accept membership in a narrow commercial entity without being aware that the EEC was a political project liable to develop in the future".[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-23) The [Conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") prime minister [Edward Heath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Heath "Edward Heath") signed the [Treaty of Accession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Accession_1972 "Treaty of Accession 1972") in 1972.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-24) Parliament passed the [European Communities Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_\(UK\) "European Communities Act 1972 (UK)") later that year[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-25) and the UK joined [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") and the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") in [becoming a member](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Communities "Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities") on 1 January 1973, without referendum.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-26)
During the 1970s and 1980s, the [Labour Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)") was the more Eurosceptic of the two major parties, and the Conservatives the more Europhile. Labour won the [February 1974 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election "February 1974 United Kingdom general election") without a majority and then contested the subsequent [October 1974 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election "October 1974 United Kingdom general election") with a commitment to renegotiate Britain's terms of membership of the EC, believing them to be unfavourable, and then hold a [referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum "Referendum") on whether to remain in the EC on the new terms.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-27) Labour again won the election (this time with a small majority), and in 1975 the UK held its [first ever national referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum"), asking whether the UK should remain in the EC. Despite significant division within the ruling Labour Party,[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-28) all major political parties and the mainstream press supported continuing membership of the EC. On 5 June 1975, 67.2% of the electorate and all but two[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-29) British counties and regions voted to stay in;[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-30) support for the UK to leave the EC in 1975 appears unrelated to the support for Leave in the 2016 referendum.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-31)
In 1979, the UK secured its first [opt-out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt-outs_in_the_European_Union "Opt-outs in the European Union"), although the expression was not contemporary; it was the only EEC country not to take part in the [European Monetary System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Monetary_System "European Monetary System").
The Labour Party campaigned in the [1983 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_United_Kingdom_general_election "1983 United Kingdom general election") on a commitment to withdraw from the EC without a referendum.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-foot-32) Following their heavy defeat in that election, Labour changed its policy.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-foot-32) In 1985, the [second Margaret Thatcher government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Thatcher_ministry "Second Thatcher ministry") ratified the [Single European Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_European_Act "Single European Act")âthe first major revision to the [Treaty of Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome "Treaty of Rome")âwithout a referendum.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-33)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum,_1975_compared_to_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum,_2016.svg)
Comparison of results of 1975 and 2016 referendums
In October 1990, under pressure from senior ministers and despite Thatcher's deep reservations, the UK joined the [European Exchange Rate Mechanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Exchange_Rate_Mechanism "European Exchange Rate Mechanism") (ERM), with the [pound sterling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sterling "Pound sterling") pegged to the [deutschmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutschmark "Deutschmark"). Thatcher resigned as prime minister the following month, amid Conservative Party divisions arising partly from her increasingly Eurosceptic views. The UK was forced to withdraw from the ERM on [Black Wednesday](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Wednesday "Black Wednesday") in September 1992, after the pound sterling came under pressure from [currency speculation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency_speculation "Currency speculation").[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-34) Italy left the same month, but would soon rejoin on a different band. The UK did not seek re-entry and remained outside the ERM.
On 1 November 1993, after the UK and the other eleven member states had ratified, the EC became the EU under the Maastricht Treaty[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-35) compromise between member states seeking deeper integration and those wishing to retain greater national control in the [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_union "Economic union") and [political union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_union "Political union").[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-36) [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"), [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France"), and the Republic of Ireland held referendums to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. In accordance with [Constitution of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom "Constitution of the United Kingdom"), specifically that of [parliamentary sovereignty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty "Parliamentary sovereignty"), ratification in the UK was not subject to approval by referendum. Despite this, British constitutional historian [Vernon Bogdanor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon_Bogdanor "Vernon Bogdanor") wrote that there was "a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum" because although MPs are entrusted with legislative power by the electorate, they are not given authority to transfer that power (the UK's previous three referendums all concerned this). Further, as the ratification of the treaty was in the manifestos of the three major political parties, voters opposed to ratification had limited options for expressing this. For Bogdanor, while the ratification by the House of Commons might be legal, it would not be legitimateâwhich requires popular consent. The way in which the treaty was ratified, he judged, was "likely to have fundamental consequences both for British politics and for Britain's relationship with the \[EC\]."[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-37)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-38)
### Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom and the role of the EU leadership
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom and the role of the EU leadership")\]
Main article: [Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism_in_the_United_Kingdom "Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Margaret_Thatcher_\(1983\).jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigel_Farage_\(45718080574\)_\(cropped\).jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_Cameron_official.jpg)
[Conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") prime ministers [Margaret Thatcher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher "Margaret Thatcher") (*left*) and [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") (*right*) used [Eurosceptic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurosceptic "Eurosceptic") rhetoric while supporting the UK's membership and development of the [European single market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_single_market "European single market"). Euroscepticism â and in particular the impact of the [UK Independence Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Independence_Party "UK Independence Party") (former leader [Nigel Farage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Farage "Nigel Farage") pictured centre) on the Conservatives' election results â contributed to Cameron's [2015â16 attempt to renegotiate the UK's EU membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_United_Kingdom_renegotiation_of_European_Union_membership "2015â2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership"), and ultimately the holding of the [2016 referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum"). Cameron supported the UK remaining in the EU, but resigned after the referendum produced a victory for the "Leave" campaign.
#### Background
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Background")\]
Thatcher, who had previously supported the common market and the Single European Act, in the [Bruges speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges_speech "Bruges speech") of 1988 warned against "a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". She influenced [Daniel Hannan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Hannan "Daniel Hannan"), who in 1990 founded the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain; "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the campaign for Brexit", the *[Financial Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")* later wrote.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-kuper20190620-39)
The vote to approve the [Maastricht Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty "Maastricht Treaty") in 1993 triggered a strong Eurosceptic response, splitting the [Conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") Party and leading to many past supporters forming alternative Eurosceptic parties. This included Sir [James Goldsmith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Goldsmith "James Goldsmith") forming the [Referendum Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum_Party "Referendum Party") in 1994 to contest the [1997 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_United_Kingdom_general_election "1997 United Kingdom general election") on a platform of providing a referendum on the UK's relationship with the EU.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-40)
#### Role of the EU leadership
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Role of the EU leadership")\]
Perceptions of EU leadership during major crises significantly contributed to Euroscepticism in the UK. During the eurozone debt crisis, strict austerity measures were imposed as a condition for bailouts, with EU member states, including the UK, asked to contribute to bailout plans. Critics argued that such policies disproportionately served the interests of leading EU nations, particularly Germany, and undermined national sovereignty.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-41)
Similarly, during the 2015 migration crisis, Chancellor [Angela Merkel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Merkel "Angela Merkel")'s decision to open EU borders and her request that member states share the burden of accommodating refugees sparked significant backlash. Many in the UK viewed this as an imposition of obligations without adequate consultation, reinforcing Eurosceptic narratives.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-42)
Populist parties such as [UKIP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKIP "UKIP") exploited these perceptions, linking EU leadership to broader fears of a loss of British sovereignty. Campaign rhetoric often employed nationalist sentiments and portrayed the EU as disproportionately influenced by certain member states.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-43)
#### Electoral success and the 2016 referendum
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Electoral success and the 2016 referendum")\]
UKIP's electoral success, driven by its anti-EU campaigns, culminated in significant gains during the [2014 European elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom"), where it became the largest UK party with 27.5% of the vote.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-44) This success put pressure on the ruling [Conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") Party, ultimately leading to Prime Minister [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron")'s decision to hold the [2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum").
By linking perceived EU leadership overreach to concerns about sovereignty, Eurosceptic parties and media shaped public opinion in the UK, contributing to the referendum outcome.
### Opinion polls 1977â2015
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Opinion polls 1977â2015")\]
Main article: [Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum")
Both pro- and anti-EU views had majority support at different times from 1977 to 2015.[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Mortimore-45) In the [EC membership referendum of 1975](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum"), two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. Over the decades of UK-EU membership, Euroscepticism existed on both the left and right of British politics.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-46)[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Foster-47)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-48)
According to a statistical analysis published in April 2016 by Professor [John Curtice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Curtice "John Curtice") of [Strathclyde University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strathclyde_University "Strathclyde University"), surveys showed an increase in Euroscepticism (a wish to leave the EU or stay in the EU and try to reduce the EU's powers) from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. The BSA survey for the period of JulyâNovember 2015 showed that 60% backed the option to continue as a member and 30% backed withdrawal.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-49)
## 2016 EU membership referendum
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: 2016 EU membership referendum")\]
Main article: [2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum")
### Negotiations for membership reform
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: Negotiations for membership reform")\]
Main article: [2015â2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_United_Kingdom_renegotiation_of_European_Union_membership "2015â2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership")
In 2012, Prime Minister [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") initially rejected calls for a referendum on the UK's EU membership,[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-50) but then suggested the possibility of a future referendum to endorse his proposed renegotiation of Britain's relationship with the rest of the EU.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-51) According to the [BBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC "BBC"), "The prime minister acknowledged the need to ensure the UK's \[renegotiated\] position within the \[EU\] had 'the full-hearted support of the British people' but they needed to show 'tactical and strategic patience'."[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-52) On 23 January 2013, under pressure from many of his MPs and from the rise of UKIP, Cameron promised in his [Bloomberg speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_speech "Bloomberg speech") that a Conservative government would hold an in-or-out referendum on EU membership before the end of 2017, on a renegotiated package, if elected in the [7 May 2015 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election").[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-53) This was included in the Conservative Party manifesto for the election.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-54)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-55)
The [Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") won the election with a majority. Soon afterwards, the [European Union Referendum Act 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_Act_2015 "European Union Referendum Act 2015") was introduced into [Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom") to enable the referendum. Cameron favoured remaining in a reformed EU, and sought to renegotiate on four key points: protection of the single market for non-eurozone countries, reduction of "red tape", exempting Britain from "ever-closer union", and restricting immigration from the rest of the EU.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_News_Nov_2015-56)
In December 2015, opinion polls showed a clear majority in favour of remaining in the EU; they also showed support would drop if Cameron did not negotiate adequate safeguards\[*[definition needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify "Wikipedia:Please clarify")*\] for non-eurozone member states, and restrictions on benefits for non-UK EU citizens.[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-57)
The outcome of the renegotiations was revealed in February 2016. Some limits to in-work benefits for new EU immigrants were agreed, but before they could be applied, a member state such as the UK would have to get permission from the [European Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") and then from the [European Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Council "European Council"), which is composed of the heads of government of every member state.[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-FF1-58)
In a speech to the House of Commons on 22 February 2016, Cameron announced a referendum date of 23 June 2016, and commented on the renegotiation settlement.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Hansard_22_February_2016_Column_21-25-59) He spoke of an intention to trigger the Article 50 process immediately following a Leave vote and of the "two-year time period to negotiate the arrangements for exit."[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-60)
After the original wording for the referendum question was challenged,[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Three_years_since_the_Brexit_vote,_meet_the_man_behind_Leave_and_Remain-61) the government agreed to change the official referendum question to "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?"
### Referendum result
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: Referendum result")\]
Main article: [Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_of_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum")
In the referendum 51.89% voted in favour of leaving the EU (Leave), and 48.11% voted in favour of remaining a member of the EU (Remain).[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC24forecast-62)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-63) After this result, Cameron resigned on 13 July 2016, with [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") becoming Prime Minister after a [leadership contest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2016 Conservative Party leadership election"). A [petition calling for a second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Referendum_Rules_triggering_a_2nd_EU_Referendum "EU Referendum Rules triggering a 2nd EU Referendum") attracted more than four million signatures,[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-64)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-65) but was rejected by the government on 9 July.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-66)
| Choice | Votes | % |
|---|---|---|
| **Leave the European Union** | **17,410,742** | **51\.89** |
| Remain a member of the European Union | 16,141,241 | 48\.11 |
| Valid votes | 33,551,983 | 99\.92 |
| Invalid or blank votes | 25,359 | 0\.08 |
| **Total votes** | **33,577,342** | **100\.00** |
| Registered voters/turnout | 46,500,001 | 72\.21 |
| Source: Electoral Commission[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-67) | | |
| National referendum results (excluding invalid votes) | |
|---|---|
| **Leave 17,410,742 (51.9%)** | Remain 16,141,241 (48.1%) |
| **âČ** 50% | |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_EU_referendum_2016_voting_regions_results.svg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_EU_referendum_2016_area_results_2-tone.svg)
Results by UK voting region (left) and by council district/unitary authority (GB) & UK Parliament constituency (NI) (right)
Leave
Remain
| Referendum results by United Kingdom regions | | | | | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Region | Electorate | Voter turnout, of eligible | Votes | Proportion of votes | Invalid votes | | | |
| Remain | Leave | Remain | Leave | | | | | |
| | [East Midlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Midlands "East Midlands") | 3,384,299 | 74\.2% | 1,033,036 | **1,475,479** | 41\.18% | **58\.82%** | 1,981 |
| | [East of England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_of_England "East of England") | 4,398,796 | 75\.7% | 1,448,616 | **1,880,367** | 43\.52% | **56\.48%** | 2,329 |
| | [Greater London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_London "Greater London") | 5,424,768 | 69\.7% | **2,263,519** | 1,513,232 | **59\.93%** | 40\.07% | 4,453 |
| | [North East England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_East_England "North East England") | 1,934,341 | 69\.3% | 562,595 | **778,103** | 41\.96% | **58\.04%** | 689 |
| | [North West England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_West_England "North West England") | 5,241,568 | 70\.0% | 1,699,020 | **1,966,925** | 46\.35% | **53\.65%** | 2,682 |
| | [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") | 1,260,955 | 62\.7% | **440,707** | 349,442 | **55\.78%** | 44\.22% | 374 |
| | [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") | 3,987,112 | 67\.2% | **1,661,191** | 1,018,322 | **62\.00%** | 38\.00% | 1,666 |
| | [South East England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_East_England "South East England") | 6,465,404 | 76\.8% | 2,391,718 | **2,567,965** | 48\.22% | **51\.78%** | 3,427 |
| | [South West England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_England "South West England") (inc [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar")) | 4,138,134 | 76\.7% | 1,503,019 | **1,669,711** | 47\.37% | **52\.63%** | 2,179 |
| | [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales "Wales") | 2,270,272 | 71\.7% | 772,347 | **854,572** | 47\.47% | **52\.53%** | 1,135 |
| | [West Midlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Midlands_\(region\) "West Midlands (region)") | 4,116,572 | 72\.0% | 1,207,175 | **1,755,687** | 40\.74% | **59\.26%** | 2,507 |
| | [Yorkshire and the Humber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_and_the_Humber "Yorkshire and the Humber") | 3,877,780 | 70\.7% | 1,158,298 | **1,580,937** | 42\.29% | **57\.71%** | 1,937 |
| Overall Total | | | | | | | | |
| | [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") | 46,500,001 | 72\.2% | 16,141,241 | **17,410,742** | 48\.11% | **51\.89%** | 25,359 |
| Referendum results by United Kingdom constituent countries & Gibraltar | | | | | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country | Electorate | Voter turnout, of eligible | Votes | Proportion of votes | Invalid votes | | | |
| Remain | Leave | Remain | Leave | | | | | |
| | [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England "England") | 38,981,662 | 73\.0% | 13,247,674 | **15,187,583** | 46\.59% | **53\.41%** | 22,157 |
| | [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") | 24,119 | 83\.7% | **19,322** | 823 | **95\.91%** | 4\.08% | 27 |
| | [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") | 1,260,955 | 62\.7% | **440,707** | 349,442 | **55\.78%** | 44\.22% | 384 |
| | [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") | 3,987,112 | 67\.2% | **1,661,191** | 1,018,322 | **62\.00%** | 38\.00% | 1,666 |
| | [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales "Wales") | 2,270,272 | 71\.7% | 772,347 | **854,572** | 47\.47% | **52\.53%** | 1,135 |
| Overall Total | | | | | | | | |
| | [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") | 46,500,001 | 72\.2% | 16,141,241 | **17,410,742** | 48\.11% | **51\.89%** | 25,359 |
### Voter demographics and trends
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: Voter demographics and trends")\]
Further information: [Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_the_vote_in_favour_of_Brexit "Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit")
A 2017 study published in the journal *[Economic Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Policy "Economic Policy")* showed that the Leave vote tended to be greater in areas which had lower incomes and high [unemployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment "Unemployment"), a strong tradition of [manufacturing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing "Manufacturing") employment, and in which the population had fewer [qualifications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualification_types_in_the_United_Kingdom "Qualification types in the United Kingdom"). It also tended to be greater where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Becker-Fetzer-Novy-68) Those in lower [social grades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRS_social_grade "NRS social grade") (especially the [working class](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class "Working class")) were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades (especially the [upper middle class](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_middle_class "Upper middle class")) more likely to vote Remain.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Becker-Fetzer-Novy-68)[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-69)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Hobolt-70) Studies found that the Leave vote tended to be higher in areas affected by economic decline,[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-71) high rates of suicides and drug-related deaths,[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-72) and [austerity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austerity "Austerity") reforms introduced in 2010.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-73)
Studies suggest that older people were more likely to vote Leave, and younger people more likely to vote Remain.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-74) According to Thomas Sampson, an economist at the [London School of Economics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics "London School of Economics"), "Older and less-educated voters were more likely to vote 'leave' \[...\] A majority of white voters wanted to leave, but only 33% of Asian voters and 27% of black voters chose leave. \[...\] Leaving the European Union received support from across the political spectrum \[...\] Voting to leave the European Union was strongly associated with holding socially conservative political beliefs, opposing cosmopolitanism, and thinking life in Britain is getting worse."[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Sampson-2017-75)
Polling conducted by YouGov supported these conclusions, showing that factors such as age, political party affiliation, education, and household income were the primary factors indicating how people would vote. For example, [Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") voters were 61% likely to vote leave, compared to Labour Party voters, who were 35% likely to vote leave. Age was one of the biggest factors affecting whether someone would vote leave, with 64% of people over the age of 65 likely to vote leave, whereas 18â24-year-olds were only 29% likely to vote leave. Education was another factor indicating voting likelihood: people with a [GCSE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCSE "GCSE") or lower level of education were 70% likely to vote leave, whereas university graduates were only 32% likely to vote leave. Household income was another important factor, with households earning less than ÂŁ20,000 62% likely to vote leave, compared to households earning ÂŁ60,000 or more, which were only 35% likely to vote leave.[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-76)
There were major variations in geographic support for each side. Scotland and Northern Ireland both returned majorities for remain, although these had a relatively small impact on the overall result as England has a much larger population. There were also significant regional differences within England, with most of London returning a majority remain vote, alongside urban centres in northern England such as [Manchester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester "Manchester") and [Liverpool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool"), which returned remain majorities of 60% and 58% respectively. Opposite trends appeared in industrial and [post-industrial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-industrial_economy "Post-industrial economy") areas of [Northern England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_England "Northern England"), with areas such as [North Lincolnshire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Lincolnshire "North Lincolnshire") and [South Tyneside](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Tyneside "South Tyneside") both heavily supporting leave.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-77)
Opinion polls found that Leave voters believed leaving the EU was "more likely to bring about a better immigration system, improved border controls, a fairer welfare system, better quality of life, and the ability to control our own laws", while Remain voters believed EU membership "would be better for the economy, international investment, and the UK's influence in the world." Polls found that the main reasons people voted Leave were "the principle that decisions about the UK should be taken in the UK", and that leaving "offered the best chance for the UK to regain control over immigration and its own borders." The main reason people voted Remain was that "the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy, jobs and prices."[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-78)
### Post-referendum investigations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: Post-referendum investigations")\]
See also: [European Union membership referendum § Investigations into campaigns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum#Investigations_into_campaigns "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum"), and [Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegations_of_unlawful_campaigning_in_the_2016_EU_referendum "Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum")
Following the referendum, a series of irregularities related to campaign spending were investigated by the [Electoral Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_Commission_\(United_Kingdom\) "Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)"), which subsequently issued a large number of fines. In February 2017, the main campaign group for the "Leave" vote, [Leave.EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave.EU "Leave.EU"), was fined ÂŁ50,000 for sending marketing messages without permission.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-79) In December 2017, the [Electoral Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_Commission_\(United_Kingdom\) "Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)") fined two pro-EU groups, the [Liberal Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_\(UK\) "Liberal Democrats (UK)") (ÂŁ18,000) and [Open Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Britain "Open Britain") (ÂŁ1,250), for breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-80) In May 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU ÂŁ70,000 for unlawfully overspending and inaccurately reporting loans from [Arron Banks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arron_Banks "Arron Banks") totalling ÂŁ6 million.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-81) Smaller fines were levelled against the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future and two trade union donors for inaccurate reporting.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-82) In July 2018 [Vote Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_Leave "Vote Leave") was fined ÂŁ61,000 for overspending, not declaring finances shared with [BeLeave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeLeave "BeLeave"), and failing to comply with investigators.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-83)
In November 2017, the Electoral Commission launched a probe into [claims that Russia had attempted to sway public opinion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum "Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum") over the referendum using social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-84)
In February 2019, the parliamentary [Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital,_Culture,_Media_and_Sport_Committee "Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee") called for an inquiry into "foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of data" in the Brexit vote.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-85)
In July 2020, [Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_and_Security_Committee_of_Parliament "Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament") published a [report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_and_Security_Committee_Russia_report "Intelligence and Security Committee Russia report") which accused the UK government of actively avoiding investigating whether Russia interfered with public opinion. The report did not pass judgement over whether Russian information operations had an impact on the result.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-86)
## Withdrawal process
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=14 "Edit section: Withdrawal process")\]
Further information: [Withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Withdrawal from the European Union")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg)
English [Wikisource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource "Wikisource") has original text related to this article:
**[Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Consolidated_version_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union/Title_VI:_Final_Provisions#Article_50 "s:en:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title VI: Final Provisions")**
Withdrawal from the European Union is governed by Article 50 of the [Treaty on European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_European_Union "Treaty on European Union"). It was originally drafted by [Lord Kerr of Kinlochard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Kerr_of_Kinlochard "Lord Kerr of Kinlochard"),[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-87) and introduced by the [Treaty of Lisbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon "Treaty of Lisbon") which entered into force in 2009.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-88) The article states that any member state can withdraw "in accordance with its own constitutional requirements" by notifying the [European Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Council "European Council") of its intention to do so.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-89) The notification triggers a two-year negotiation period, in which the EU must "negotiate and conclude an agreement with \[the leaving\] State, setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal, taking account of the framework for its future relationship with the \[European\] Union".[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-constunit-90) If no agreement is reached within the two years, the membership ends without an agreement, unless an extension is unanimously agreed among all EU states, including the withdrawing state.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-constunit-90) On the EU side, the agreement needs to be ratified by [qualified majority in the European Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_in_the_Council_of_the_European_Union "Voting in the Council of the European Union"), and by the European Parliament.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-constunit-90)
### Invocation of Article 50
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=15 "Edit section: Invocation of Article 50")\]
Main article: [United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prime_Minister%E2%80%99s_letter_to_Donald_Tusk_triggering_Article_50.pdf)
Letter from Theresa May invoking Article 50
The 2015 Referendum Act did not expressly require Article 50 to be invoked,[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-constunit-90) but prior to the referendum, the British government said it would respect the result.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-91) When Cameron resigned following the referendum, he said that it would be for the incoming prime minister to invoke Article 50.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC24forecast-62)[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-92) The new prime minister, [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May"), said she would wait until 2017 to invoke the article, in order to prepare for the negotiations.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-93) In October 2016, she said Britain would trigger Article 50 in March 2017,[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-94) and in December she gained the support of MPs for her timetable.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-95)
In January 2017, the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom "Supreme Court of the United Kingdom") ruled in [the Miller case](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller_and_Dos_Santos\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller and Dos Santos) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union") that government could only invoke Article 50 if authorised by an act of parliament to do so.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-96) The government subsequently introduced a bill for that purpose, and it was passed into law on 16 March as the [European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Notification_of_Withdrawal\)_Act_2017 "European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017").[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-97) On 29 March, [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") triggered Article 50 when [Tim Barrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Barrow "Tim Barrow"), the British ambassador to the EU, delivered the invocation letter to European Council President [Donald Tusk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Tusk "Donald Tusk"). This made 29 March 2019 the expected date that UK would leave EU.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-98)[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-99)
### 2017 UK general election
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=16 "Edit section: 2017 UK general election")\]
See also: [2017 United Kingdom general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2017UKElectionMap.svg)
A map presenting the results of the 2017 United Kingdom general election, by party of the MP elected from each constituency, with Conservatives in blue, Labour in red, and SNP in yellow
In April 2017, [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") called a [snap general election, held on 8 June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election"), in an attempt to "strengthen \[her\] hand" in the negotiations;[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-100) The Conservative Party, Labour and UKIP made manifesto pledges to implement the referendum, the Labour manifesto differing in its approach to Brexit negotiations, such as unilaterally offering permanent residence to EU immigrants.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-101)[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-102)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-103) The Liberal Democrat Party and the [Green Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_England_and_Wales "Green Party of England and Wales") manifestos proposed a policy of remaining in the EU via a [second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement").[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-104)[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-105)[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-106) The Scottish National Party (SNP) manifesto proposed a policy of waiting for the outcome of the Brexit negotiations and then holding a referendum on [Scottish independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_independence "Scottish independence").[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-107)[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-108)
The result produced an unexpected [hung parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_parliament "Hung parliament"), the governing Conservatives gained votes and remained the largest party but nevertheless lost seats and their majority in the House of Commons. Labour gained significantly on votes and seats, retaining its position as the second-largest party. The Liberal Democrats gained six seats despite a slight decrease in vote share compared with 2015. The Green Party kept its single MP while also losing national vote share. Losing votes and seats were the SNP, which lost 21 MPs, and UKIP, which suffered a â10.8% swing and lost its only MP. The [Democratic Unionist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Unionist_Party "Democratic Unionist Party") (DUP) and [Sinn FĂ©in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in "Sinn FĂ©in") also made gains in votes and seats.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-109)
On 26 June 2017, Conservatives and the DUP reached a [confidence and supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_and_supply "Confidence and supply") agreement whereby the DUP would back the Conservatives in key votes in the House of Commons over the course of the parliament. The agreement included additional funding of ÂŁ1 billion for Northern Ireland, highlighted mutual support for Brexit and national security, expressed commitment to the Good Friday Agreement, and indicated that policies such as the state pension triple lock and [Winter Fuel Payments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Fuel_Payment "Winter Fuel Payment") would be maintained.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-110)[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-111)
### UKâEU negotiations in 2017 and 2018
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=17 "Edit section: UKâEU negotiations in 2017 and 2018")\]
Main article: [Brexit negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations")
Prior to the negotiations, May said that the British government would not seek permanent [single market membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membership_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_the_European_Economic_Area "Membership of the United Kingdom in the European Economic Area"), would end ECJ jurisdiction, seek a new trade agreement, end [free movement of people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_movement_of_people "Free movement of people") and maintain the [Common Travel Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Travel_Area "Common Travel Area") with [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland "Ireland").[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-112) The EU had adopted its [negotiating directives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_negotiating_directives_for_Brexit "European Union negotiating directives for Brexit") in May,[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-113) and appointed [Michel Barnier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Barnier "Michel Barnier") as Chief Negotiator.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian-uk-caves-114) The EU wished to perform the negotiations in two phases: first the UK would agree to a financial commitment and to lifelong benefits for EU citizens in Britain, and then negotiations on a future relationship could begin.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-115) In the first phase, the member states would demand that the UK pay a "[divorce bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_divorce_bill "Brexit divorce bill")", initially estimated as amounting to ÂŁ52 billion.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-116) EU negotiators said that an agreement must be reached between UK and the EU by October 2018.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-brexitoct18-117)
Negotiations commenced on 19 June 2017.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian-uk-caves-114) Negotiating groups were established for three topics: the rights of EU citizens living in Britain and vice versa; Britain's outstanding financial obligations to the EU; and the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-118)[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-119)[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-120) In December 2017, a partial agreement was reached. It ensured that there would be no hard border in Ireland, protected the rights of UK citizens in the EU and of EU citizens in Britain, and estimated the financial settlement to be ÂŁ35â39 billion.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-121) May stressed that "Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed".[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-122) Following this partial agreement, EU leaders agreed to move on to the second phase in the negotiations: discussion of the future relationship, a transition period and a possible trade deal.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-123)
In March 2018, a 21-month transition period and the terms for it were provisionally agreed.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-124) In June 2018, Irish [Taoiseach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoiseach "Taoiseach") [Leo Varadkar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Varadkar "Leo Varadkar") said that there had been little progress on the [Irish border question](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_border_question "Irish border question")âon which the EU proposed a [backstop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop"), to come into effect if no overall trade deal had been reached by the end of the transition periodâand that it was unlikely that there would be a solution before October, when the whole deal was to be agreed.[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-125) In July 2018, the British government published the [Chequers plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chequers_plan "Chequers plan"), containing its aims for the future relationship that was to be determined in the negotiations. The plan sought to keep British access to the single market for goods, but not necessarily for services, while allowing for an independent [trade policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_policy "Trade policy").[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-126) The plan caused cabinet resignations, including those of [Brexit Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Secretary "Brexit Secretary") [David Davis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Davis_\(British_politician\) "David Davis (British politician)")[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-127) and [Foreign Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Secretary_\(United_Kingdom\) "Foreign Secretary (United Kingdom)") [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson").[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-S,_C,_S-128)
### May's agreement and failed ratification
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=18 "Edit section: May's agreement and failed ratification")\]
Main articles: [Brexit withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") and [Parliamentary votes on Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg)
English [Wikisource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource "Wikisource") has original text related to this article:
**[2018 Draft withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Draft_Agreement_on_the_Withdrawal_of_the_United_Kingdom_from_the_European_Union "s:en:Draft Agreement on the Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union")**
On 13 November 2018, UK and EU negotiators agreed the text of a draft withdrawal agreement,[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-129) and May secured her Cabinet's backing of the deal the following day,[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-130) though Brexit Secretary [Dominic Raab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic_Raab "Dominic Raab") resigned over "fatal flaws" in the agreement.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-131) It was expected that ratification in the British parliament would be difficult.[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_News-2019-132)[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Cook-2018-133)[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-134) On 25 November, all 27 leaders of the remaining EU countries endorsed the agreement.[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_News-2019-132)[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Cook-2018-133)
On 10 December 2018, the Prime Minister postponed the vote in the House of Commons on her Brexit deal. This came minutes after the [Prime Minister's Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister%27s_Office_\(United_Kingdom\) "Prime Minister's Office (United Kingdom)") confirmed the vote would be going ahead.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-135) Faced with the prospect of a defeat in the House of Commons, this option gave May more time to negotiate with Conservative [backbenchers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbencher "Backbencher") and the EU, even though they had ruled out further discussions.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-136) The decision was met with calls from many [Welsh Labour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Labour "Welsh Labour") MPs for a [motion of no confidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motions_of_no_confidence_in_the_United_Kingdom "Motions of no confidence in the United Kingdom") in the Government.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-137)
Also on 10 December 2018, the [European Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice "European Court of Justice") (ECJ) ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its notification of withdrawal, as long as it was still a member and had not agreed a withdrawal agreement. The decision to do so should be "unequivocal and unconditional" and "follow a democratic process".[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-138) If the British revoked their notification, they would remain a member of the EU under their current membership terms. The case was launched by Scottish politicians and referred to the ECJ by the Scottish [Court of Session](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Session "Court of Session").[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-139)
The [European Research Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Research_Group "European Research Group") (ERG), a research support group of Eurosceptic Conservative MPs, opposed the Prime Minister's proposed Withdrawal Agreement treaty. Its members objected strongly to the Withdrawal Agreement's inclusion of the [Irish backstop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop").[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-140)[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-141) ERG members also objected to the proposed ÂŁ39 billion financial settlement with the EU and stated that the agreement would result in the UK's agreement to continuing to follow EU regulations in major policy areas; and to the continuing jurisdiction of the ECJ over interpretation of the agreement and of European law still applicable to the UK.[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-142)[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-143)
On 15 January 2019, the House of Commons voted 432 to 202 against the deal, which was the largest majority ever against a United Kingdom government.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Brexit:_Theresa_May's_deal_is_voted_down_in_historic_Commons_defeat-144)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-145) Soon after, [a motion of no confidence in Her Majesty's Government was tabled by the opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_motion_of_no_confidence_in_the_May_ministry "2019 motion of no confidence in the May ministry"),[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-146) which was rejected by 325 votes to 306.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-147)
On 24 February, Prime Minister May proposed that the next vote on the withdrawal agreement would be on 12 March 2019, 17 days away from the Brexit date.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-148) On 12 March, the proposal was defeated by 391 votes to 242âa loss by 149 votes, down from 230 from when the deal had been proposed in January.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-149)
On 18 March 2019, the [Speaker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_\(United_Kingdom\) "Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)") informed the House of Commons that a third meaningful vote could be held only on a [motion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_\(parliamentary_procedure\) "Motion (parliamentary procedure)") that was significantly different from the previous one, citing parliamentary precedents going back to 1604.[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-150)
The Withdrawal Agreement was brought back to the House without the attached understandings on 29 March.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-151) The Government's motion of support for the Withdrawal Agreement was defeated by 344 votes to 286âa loss by 58 votes, down from 149 when the deal had been proposed on 12 March.[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-152)
### Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=19 "Edit section: Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement")\]
On 20 March 2019, the Prime Minister wrote to European Council President Tusk requesting that Brexit be postponed until 30 June 2019.[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-153) On 21 March 2019, May presented her case to a European Council summit meeting in Brussels. After May left the meeting, a discussion amongst the remaining EU leaders resulted in the rejection of 30 June date and offered instead a choice of two new alternative Brexit dates. On 22 March 2019, the extension options were agreed between the British government and the European Council.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-03-28a-154) The first alternative offered was that if MPs rejected May's deal in the next week, Brexit would be due to occur by 12 April 2019, with, or without, a dealâor alternatively another extension be asked for and a commitment to participate in the [2019 European Parliament elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election "2019 European Parliament election") given. The second alternative offered was that if MPs approved May's deal, Brexit would be due to occur on 22 May 2019. The later date was the day before the start of European Parliament elections.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_20190322-155) After the government deemed unwarranted the concerns over the legality of the proposed change (because it contained two possible exit dates) the previous day,[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-TWFY2019-03-26a-156) on 27 March 2019 both the Lords (without a vote)[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian2019-03-27a-157) and the Commons (by 441 to 105) approved the statutory instrument changing the exit date to 22 May 2019 if a withdrawal deal is approved, or 12 April 2019 if it is not.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-FT2019-03-27a-158) The amendment was then signed into law at 12:40 p.m. the next day.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-03-28a-154)
Following the failure of the British Parliament to approve the Withdrawal Agreement by 29 March, the UK was required to leave the EU on 12 April 2019. On 10 April 2019, late-night talks in Brussels resulted in a further extension, to 31 October 2019; [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") had again requested an extension only until 30 June. Under the terms of this new extension, if the Withdrawal Agreement were to be passed before October, Brexit would occur on the first day of the subsequent month. The UK would then be obligated to hold European Parliament elections in May or leave the EU on 1 June without a deal.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-159)[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-160)
In granting the Article 50 extensions, the EU adopted a stance of refusing to "reopen" (that is, renegotiate) the Withdrawal Agreement.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-161) After [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") became prime minister on 24 July 2019 and met with EU leaders, the EU changed its stance. On 17 October 2019, following "tunnel talks" between UK and EU,[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-162) a revised withdrawal agreement was agreed on negotiators level, and endorsed by the British government and the EU Commission.[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-163) The revised deal contained a new [Northern Ireland Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol"), as well as technical modifications to related articles.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Europa17oct19-9) In addition, the Political Declaration was also revised.[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-164) The revised deal and the political declaration was endorsed by the [European Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Council "European Council") later that day.[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-165) To come into effect, it needed to be ratified by the [European Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") and the [Parliament of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom").[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-166)
The British Parliament passed the [European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_\(No._2\)_Act_2019 "European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019"), which received [Royal Assent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Assent "Royal Assent") on 9 September 2019, obliging the Prime Minister to seek a third extension if no agreement has been reached at the next European Council meeting in October 2019.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-167) In order for such an extension to be granted if it is requested by the prime minister, it would be necessary for there to be unanimous agreement by all other heads of EU governments.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-168) On 28 October 2019, the third extension was agreed to by the EU, with a new withdrawal deadline of 31 January 2020.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-169) 'Exit day' in British law was then amended to this new date by statutory instrument on 30 October 2019.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-10-30a-170)
### 2019 UK general election
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=20 "Edit section: 2019 UK general election")\]
See also: [2019 United Kingdom general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2019UKElectionMap.svg)
Map for results of the [2019 general election in the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_general_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2019 general election in the United Kingdom"). Ultimately based upon data from the Boundary Commission. Colours are as below.
[Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)")
[Labour Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)")
[Scottish National Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_National_Party "Scottish National Party")
[Liberal Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_\(UK\) "Liberal Democrats (UK)")
[Democratic Unionist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Unionist_Party "Democratic Unionist Party")
[Sinn FĂ©in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in "Sinn FĂ©in")
[Social Democratic and Labour Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDLP "SDLP")
[Plaid Cymru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaid_Cymru "Plaid Cymru")
After Johnson was unable to induce Parliament to approve a revised version of the [withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_agreement "Withdrawal agreement") by the end of October, he chose to call for a [snap election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snap_election "Snap election"). Due to the fact three motions for an early general election under the [Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act_2011 "Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011") failed to achieve the necessary two-thirds super majority for it to pass so instead, in order to circumvent the existing law, the Government introduced an "[election bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Parliamentary_General_Election_Act_2019 "Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019")" which only needed a simple majority of MPs to vote in favour into the House of Commons which was passed by 438â20, setting the election date for Thursday 12 December.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-171) [Opinion polls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "Opinion polling for the 2019 United Kingdom general election") up to polling day showed a firm lead for the Conservatives against Labour throughout the campaign.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-172)
In the run-up to the general election on 12 December 2019 the Conservative Party pledged to leave the EU with the withdrawal agreement negotiated in October 2019. Labour promised to renegotiate aforementioned deal and hold a referendum, letting voters choose between the renegotiated deal and remain. The Liberal Democrats vowed to revoke Article 50, while the SNP intended to hold a second referendum, however, revoking Article 50 if the alternative was a no-deal exit. The DUP supported Brexit but would seek to change parts related to Northern Ireland it was dissatisfied with. [Plaid Cymru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaid_Cymru "Plaid Cymru") and the [Green Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_England_and_Wales "Green Party of England and Wales") backed a second referendum, believing the UK should stay in the EU. The [Brexit Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Party "Brexit Party") was the only major party running for election which wanted the UK to leave the EU without a deal.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-173)
The election produced a decisive result for Boris Johnson with the Conservatives winning 365 seats (gaining 47 seats) and an overall majority of 80 seats with Labour suffering their worst election defeat since 1935 after losing 60 seats to leave them with 202 seats and only a single seat in [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"). The Liberal Democrats won just 11 seats with their leader [Jo Swinson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo_Swinson "Jo Swinson") losing her own seat. The Scottish National Party won 48 seats after gaining 14 seats in Scotland.
The result broke the [deadlock in the UK Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") and ended the possibility of a [referendum being held on the withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement") and ensured that the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") would leave the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") on 31 January 2020.
### Ratification and departure
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=21 "Edit section: Ratification and departure")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Westminster_\(49470617471\).jpg)
[Foreign and Commonwealth Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office "Foreign and Commonwealth Office") illuminated in the colours of the [Union Jack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Jack "Union Jack") on 31 January 2020
Subsequently, the government introduced a bill to ratify the withdrawal agreement. It passed its second reading in the [House of Commons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom") in a 358â234 vote on 20 December 2019,[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-174) and became law on 23 January 2020 as the [European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020").[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-175)
The withdrawal agreement received the backing of the [constitutional committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_Constitutional_Affairs "European Parliament Committee on Constitutional Affairs") in the [European Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") on 23 January 2020, setting expectation that the entire parliament would approve it in a later vote.[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-176)[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-177)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-178) On the following day, [Ursula von der Leyen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursula_von_der_Leyen "Ursula von der Leyen") and [Charles Michel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Michel "Charles Michel") signed the withdrawal agreement in Brussels, and it was sent to London where [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") signed it.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian2020jan24-12) The European Parliament gave its consent to ratification on 29 January by 621 votes to 49.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-179)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-sparrow1-13) Immediately after voting approval, members of the European Parliament joined hands and sang *[Auld Lang Syne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_Lang_Syne "Auld Lang Syne")*.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-180) The [Council of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union "Council of the European Union") concluded EU ratification the following day.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-181) At 11 p.m. [GMT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT "GMT"), 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union ended, 47 years after it had joined.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-autogenerated1-14) As confirmed by the [Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union "Court of Justice of the European Union") in *EP v Préfet du Gers*,[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-182) all British nationals ceased to be Union citizens.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-183)
To commemorate the moment of Brexit, a countdown clock was projected onto 10 Downing Street with a recording of Big Ben chiming. In addition, there was a nearby party in [Parliament Square](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_Square "Parliament Square"), being led by Farage, sang "[God Save the Queen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Save_the_Queen "God Save the Queen")" at the moment of departure.[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-184) In Gibraltar, a flag ceremony was held as the EU flag was lowered to "[Ode to Joy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode_to_Joy "Ode to Joy")" and the [Commonwealth flag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_flag "Commonwealth flag") was raised to "God Save the Queen".[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-185)
### Transition period and final trade agreement
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=22 "Edit section: Transition period and final trade agreement")\]
Conservative party advertisement from early 2020 featuring [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") answering frequently searched for online Brexit-related questions
Following the British exit on 31 January 2020 the UK entered a Transition Period for the rest of 2020. Trade, travel and freedom of movement remain largely unchanged during this period.[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-transition-186)
The Withdrawal Agreement still applies after this date.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-eu-sues-wa-187) This agreement [provides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement#Northern_Ireland "Brexit withdrawal agreement") free access of goods between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, provided checks are made to goods entering Northern Ireland from the rest of the UK. The British Government attempted to back out of this commitment[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-specific-188) by passing the [Internal Market Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_Market_Bill "Internal Market Bill"): domestic legislation in the British Parliament. In September, Northern Ireland secretary [Brandon Lewis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon_Lewis "Brandon Lewis") said:
> I would say to my hon. Friend that yes, this does break international law in a very specific and limited way.[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-189)
leading to the resignation of [Sir Jonathan Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Jones_\(civil_servant\) "Jonathan Jones (civil servant)"), permanent secretary to the Government Legal Department[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-190) and [Lord Keen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Keen "Lord Keen"), the law officer for Scotland.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-191) The [European Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") started legal action.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-eu-sues-wa-187)
During the transition period, David Frost and Michel Barnier continued to [negotiate a permanent trade agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU "Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU").[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-192) On 24 December 2020 both parties announced that a deal had been reached.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-193) The deal was passed by both houses of the British parliament on 30 December and given Royal Assent in the early hours of the next day. In the House of Commons, the governing Conservatives and main opposition Labour voted in favour of the agreement whilst all other opposition parties voted against it.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-194) The transition period concluded under its terms the following evening.[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-195) After the UK said it would unilaterally extend a [grace period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol#Grace_period "Northern Ireland Protocol") limiting checks on trade between Northern Ireland and Great Britain, the [European Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") postponed setting a date to ratify the agreement.[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-196) The vote was later scheduled for 27 April when it passed with an overwhelming majority of votes.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-197)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-198)
There was a customs transitional arrangement in place until 1 July 2021. During this time period, traders importing standard goods from the EU to the UK could defer submitting their customs declarations and paying import duties to HMRC for up to six months. This arrangement simplified and avoided most import controls during the early months of the new situation and was designed to facilitate inward trade during the COVID-19 health crisis and to avoid major disruptions in domestic supply chains in the short term.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-199) Following reports that the border infrastructure was not ready, the UK government further postponed import checks from the EU to the UK until the end of the year in order to avoid supply issues during the ongoing Covid crisis.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-200) This was again followed by another delay of import controls, in a situation of truck driver shortages; the controls are scheduled to be phased in during 2022.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-201)
## United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=23 "Edit section: United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification")\]
### European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=24 "Edit section: European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018")\]
Main article: [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018")
In October 2016, Theresa May promised a "Great Repeal Bill", which would repeal the [European Communities Act 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_\(UK\) "European Communities Act 1972 (UK)") and restate in British law all enactments previously in force under EU law. Subsequently renamed the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill, it was introduced into the House of Commons on 13 July 2017.[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-202)
On 12 September 2017, the Bill passed its first vote and second reading by a margin of 326 votes to 290 votes in the House of Commons.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-203) The Bill was further amended on a series of votes in both Houses. After the Act became law on 26 June 2018, the European Council decided on 29 June to renew its call on member states and European Union institutions to step up their work on preparedness at all levels and for all outcomes.[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-204)
The Withdrawal Act fixed the period ending 21 January 2019 for the government to decide on how to proceed if the negotiations had not reached agreement in principle on both the withdrawal arrangements and the framework for the future relationship between the UK and EU; while, alternatively, making future ratification of the withdrawal agreement as a treaty between the UK and EU depend upon the prior enactment of another act of Parliament for approving the final terms of withdrawal when the [Brexit negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations") were completed. In any event, the Act did not alter the two-year period for negotiating allowed by Article 50 that ended at the latest on 29 March 2019 if the UK had not by then ratified a withdrawal agreement or agreed a prolongation of the negotiating period.[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-ExitDay01a-205)
The Withdrawal Act which became law in June 2018 allowed for various outcomes including no negotiated settlement. It authorises the government to bring into force, by [order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_instrument_\(UK\) "Statutory instrument (UK)") made under section 25, the provisions that fixed "exit day" and the repeal of the European Communities Act 1972 but exit day must be the same day and time as when the EU Treaties ceased to apply to the UK.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-206)
### Exit day
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=25 "Edit section: Exit day")\]
Exit day was the end of 31 January 2020 [CET](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_Time "Central European Time") (11.00 p.m. [GMT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT "GMT")).[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-10-30a-170) The [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018") (as amended by a British [Statutory Instrument](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_Instrument "Statutory Instrument") on 11 April 2019), in section 20 (1), defined 'exit day' as 11:00 p.m. on 31 October 2019.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-03-28a-154) Originally, 'exit day' was defined as 11:00 p.m. on 29 March 2019 GMT ([UTC+0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%2B0 "UTC+0")).[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-ExitDay01a-205)[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-reuters1-207)[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-208)
### Additional government bills
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=26 "Edit section: Additional government bills")\]
A report published in March 2017 by the [Institute for Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Government "Institute for Government") commented that, in addition to the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, primary and secondary legislation would be needed to cover the gaps in policy areas such as customs, immigration and agriculture.[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-209) The report also commented that the role of the devolved legislatures was unclear, and could cause problems, and that as many as 15 new additional Brexit Bills might be required, which would involve strict prioritisation and limiting Parliamentary time for in-depth examination of new legislation.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-210)
In 2016 and 2017, the House of Lords published a series of reports on Brexit-related subjects, including:
- [Brexit: the options for trade](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/72/72.pdf)
- [Brexit: UKâIrish relations](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/76/76.pdf)
- [Brexit: future UKâEU security and police cooperation](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/77/77.pdf)
- [Brexit: fisheries](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/78/78.pdf)
- [Brexit: environment and climate change](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/109/109.pdf)
- [Brexit: the Crown Dependencies](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/136/136.pdf)
- [Brexit: justice for families, individuals and businesses?](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/134/134.pdf)
- [Brexit: trade in non-financial services](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/135/135.pdf)
#### Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=27 "Edit section: Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018")\]
The [Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Safeguards_Act_2018 "Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018"), relating to withdrawal from Euratom, was presented to Parliament in October 2017. The act makes provision about nuclear safeguards, and for connected purposes. The Secretary of State may by regulations ("nuclear safeguards regulations") make provision for the purpose of â (a) ensuring that qualifying nuclear material, facilities or equipment are available only for use for civil activities (whether in the UK or elsewhere), or (b) giving effect to provisions of a relevant international agreement.[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-211)
#### European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=28 "Edit section: European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020")\]
Main article: [European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020")
The [European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020") makes legal provision for ratifying the [Brexit Withdrawal Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Withdrawal_Agreement "Brexit Withdrawal Agreement") and incorporating it into the domestic law of the United Kingdom.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-212) The bill was first introduced[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-213) by the government on 21 October 2019. This bill was not further debated and lapsed on 6 November when [parliament was dissolved](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_parliament "Dissolution of parliament") in preparation for the [2019 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election"). The bill was reintroduced immediately following the general election and was the first bill to be put before the [House of Commons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom") in the first session of the 58th Parliament,[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-214) with changes from the previous bill, by the re-elected government and was [read a first time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_\(legislature\) "Reading (legislature)") on 19 December, immediately after the first reading of the [Outlawries Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlawries_Bill "Outlawries Bill") and before the debate on the [Queen's Speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Opening_of_Parliament "State Opening of Parliament") began. The second reading took place on 20 December, and the third on 9 January 2020. This act was given [Royal Assent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Assent "Royal Assent") on 23 January 2020, nine days before the UK left the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union").
## Public opinion since the Brexit referendum
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=29 "Edit section: Public opinion since the Brexit referendum")\]
### Prior to 2020
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=30 "Edit section: Prior to 2020")\]
Further information: [Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016â2020)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_the_United_Kingdom%27s_membership_of_the_European_Union_\(2016%E2%80%932020\) "Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016â2020)")
Opinion polling overall showed an initial fall in support for Brexit from the referendum to late 2016, when responses were split evenly between support and opposition. Support rose again to a plurality, which held until the [2017 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election"). Since then, opinion polls tended to show a plurality of support for remaining in the EU or for the view that Brexit was a mistake, with the estimated margin increasing until a small decrease in 2019 (to 53% Remain: 47% Leave, as of October 2019[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit)).[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-OctoberPollOfPolls-215) This seems to be largely due to a preference for remaining in the EU among those who did not vote in 2016's referendum (an estimated 2.5 million of whom, as of October 2019[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit), were [too young to vote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_age#United_Kingdom "Voting age") at the time).[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-IndependentDemographics-216)[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-217) Other reasons suggested include slightly more Leave voters than Remain voters (14% and 12% of each, respectively, as of October 2019[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit))[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-218) changing how they would vote (particularly in [Labour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)") areas) and the deaths of older voters,[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-OctoberPollOfPolls-215) most of whom voted to leave the EU. One estimate of demographic changes (ignoring other effects) implies that had an EU referendum taken place in October 2019,[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit) there would have been between 800,000 and 900,000 fewer Leave voters and between 600,000 and 700,000 more Remain voters, resulting in a Remain majority.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-IndependentDemographics-216)
In March 2019, a [petition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoke_Article_50_and_remain_in_the_EU_petition "Revoke Article 50 and remain in the EU petition") submitted to the British Parliament petitions website, calling on the government to revoke Article 50 and stay in the EU, reached a record-level of more than 6.1 million signatures.[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-219)[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-220)
- Post-referendum opinion polling (2016â2020)
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brexit_post-referendum_polling_-_Right-Wrong.svg "Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU")
Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brexit_post-referendum_polling_-_Remain-Leave-Neither.svg "Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including \"Neither\" responses")
Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including "Neither" responses
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brexit_post-referendum_polling_-_Remain-Leave.svg "Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding \"Neither\" responses and normalised")
Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding "Neither" responses and normalised
### 2020âpresent
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=31 "Edit section: 2020âpresent")\]
Further information: [Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020âpresent)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_the_United_Kingdom_rejoining_the_European_Union_\(2020%E2%80%93present\) "Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020âpresent)")
[YouGov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouGov "YouGov") polling has shown a gradual but progressive decline in the public perception of the benefits of Brexit, with the overall margin of sentiment about the rightness of the Brexit decision declining from slightly positive in 2016 to â11% in 2022.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-221) A May 2022 poll showed that a majority of respondents who expressed an opinion thought that Brexit had gone either "badly" or "very badly".[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-222) A new study showed that since Brexit, citizens in other European nations were more against leaving the EU than they had been since 2016.[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-223) A January 2023 poll in the United Kingdom also reflected these numbers, with 54% of poll respondents who believed that the country was wrong to leave the European Union, while 35% of respondents believed it was the right decision.[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-224) An average of six polls conducted in June and July 2023 shows 58% of voters in favour of rejoining the EU with 42% of voters against rejoining the EU.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-225)
Since 2020, pollsters have asked respondents how they would vote in a potential second referendum to rejoin the EU.
As shown in the chart below, five and a half years after the United Kingdom left the European Union, opinions about Brexit and the option to rejoin the EU had changed significantly. After the first polls data was released shortly after the UK left the EU, both support for rejoining it or staying out of it declined over the course of 2020, with a noticeable increase of neutral opinions. However, after one year and a half, poll results were showing more support for rejoining EU than staying out of it, and rejoin support consistently increased over the next three years, going from below 40% in the spring of 2020 to surpassing Brexit support between August and September 2021 and rising to slightly below 50% in early 2024. On the other hand, support for staying out of the EU greatly dropped in 2022, falling below 40% in spring and never reaching this threshold again, and by summer 2023, pro-Brexit support reached its nadir, with only a third of votes in polls data supporting it. While the gap was reduced over the course of 2024, it became even wider in the first half of 2025 due to a second, sharper rise of popular support in favour of the return in the EU, while support in favour of staying out of it kept remaining poor, once again falling below the 35% threshold in the middle of the year. In between May and June 2025, pro-rejoin-EU support in polls data reached the 50% supermajority threshold and surpassed it in July.
In autumn 2025, UK Chancellor Rachel Reeves said the economic damage caused by Brexit had forced her to take action, including tax rises and spending cuts in the 2025 budget.[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-226)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opinion_polling_on_the_whether_the_United_Kingdom_should_rejoin_the_European_Union.svg)
A chart of showing polling since January 2020 on whether the United Kingdom should rejoin the European Union or not: rejoin support became more prevalent over Brexit support after one year and a half and kept increasing over time, reaching a supermajority in mid-2025, while support for staying out of the EU sharply dropped in 2022 and remained poor in the following years, failing to reach the threshold of 40% of support in polls since the spring of 2022.
## No-deal planning
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=32 "Edit section: No-deal planning")\]
See also: [No-deal Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-deal_Brexit "No-deal Brexit") and [Operation Yellowhammer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Yellowhammer "Operation Yellowhammer")
On 19 December 2018, the EU Commission revealed its "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in specific sectors, in respect of the UK leaving the EU "in 100 days' time."[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-227)
In the wake of the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union, the [Department for International Trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_International_Trade "Department for International Trade") (DIT) for reaching and extending trade agreements between the UK and non-EU states was created by Prime Minister May, shortly after she took office on 13 July 2016.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-csw_new_article-228) By 2017, it employed about 200 trade negotiators[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-economist2017-229) and was overseen by then [Secretary of State for International Trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_International_Trade "Secretary of State for International Trade") [Liam Fox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liam_Fox "Liam Fox"). In March 2019, the British government announced that it would cut many import tariffs to zero, in the event of a no-deal Brexit.[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-230) The [Confederation of British Industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_British_Industry "Confederation of British Industry") said the move would be a "sledgehammer for our economy",[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian2019mar13-231)[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-232)[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-233) and the [National Farmer's Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Farmers%27_Union_of_England_and_Wales "National Farmers' Union of England and Wales") was also highly critical.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-234) Additionally, the plan appeared to breach standard WTO rules.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-235)[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-236)[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-237)
On 2 June 2020, Chancellor of Germany [Angela Merkel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Merkel "Angela Merkel") stated that the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") must prepare for the possible failure of Brexit trade talks with the [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK "UK"). She added that negotiations were being accelerated to try and reach a deal that could be ratified by the end of the year. Her warning came as the deadline for extending talks passed, with negotiations expected to end on 31 December with or without a deal.[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-238)
## Litigation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=33 "Edit section: Litigation")\]
There has been litigation to explore the constitutional footings on which Brexit stands after *[R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union")* (simply known as the "Miller case") and the 2017 Notification Act:
- In *R. (Webster) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union*, a [divisional court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisional_court_\(England_and_Wales\) "Divisional court (England and Wales)") of [Gross LJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gross_\(judge\) "Peter Gross (judge)") and [Green MR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Green_\(judge\) "Nicholas Green (judge)") determined that the substantive decision to leave the EU that was notified on 29 March 2017 was in fact the executive decision of the Prime Minister using a statutory power of decision found to have been delegated to her by the Notification Act: this is confirmed by the [House of Commons Library](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_Library "House of Commons Library") commentary on the case.[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Miller-239) The case was appealed to the [Court of Appeal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_\(England_and_Wales\) "Court of Appeal (England and Wales)")[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-240) and paragraph 15 of the judgement, along with the citable nature of the decision were upheld. While the case was criticised academically by Robert Craig, who lectures in jurisprudence at the London School of Economics,[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-241) aspects of the case's analysis were supported by the [Supreme Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Supreme_Court "UK Supreme Court") in [Miller 2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_2 "Miller 2") at paragraph 57, which confirmed:
> ... that Parliament, and in particular the House of Commons as the democratically elected representatives of the people, has a right to have a voice in how that change comes about is indisputable.[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-242)
â Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (UKSC/2019/41)
- This confirmation that the decision was an executive act was part of the basis of [*R.* (*Wilson) v. Prime Minister*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Wilson\)_v_Prime_Minister "R (Wilson) v Prime Minister")[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-243) which allied this point with the concerns about the irregularities in the referendum. The High Court hearing was on 7 December 2018 before [Ouseley MJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_Ouseley "Duncan Ouseley")[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-244) and when judgement was given it was held that: courts' job was not to rule on irregularities in the 'leave' campaign as these were not questions of law; it was also said that the case was brought both too early and too late.[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Miller-239) Judgement in the Court of Appeal (before [Hickinbottom LJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Hickinbottom "Gary Hickinbottom") and [Haddon-Cave LJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Haddon-Cave "Charles Haddon-Cave")) before also went against the applicant.[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-245)
- Regarding the reversibility of a notification under Article 50, *Wightman and others v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union* was referred to the [Court of Justice of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union "Court of Justice of the European Union");[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-246) the UK government sought to block this referral, taking the matter on appeal to the Supreme Court, but was unsuccessful.[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-247) On 10 December 2018, the Court of Justice of the EU ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its Article 50 notification.[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-248)
## Impact
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=34 "Edit section: Impact")\]
"Impact of Brexit" redirects here. For predicted impact, see [Predicted impact of Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicted_impact_of_Brexit "Predicted impact of Brexit").
Many effects of Brexit depended on whether the UK left with a [withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_agreement "Withdrawal agreement"), or before an agreement was ratified (["no-deal" Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-deal_Brexit "No-deal Brexit")).[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-What_is_a_'no_deal'_Brexit?-249) In 2017, the *Financial Times* said that there were approximately 759 international agreements, spanning 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would no longer be a party to upon leaving the EU.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-FTAfter-250)
### Economic effects
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=35 "Edit section: Economic effects")\]
Main article: [Economic effects of Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_effects_of_Brexit "Economic effects of Brexit")
Economists speculated that Brexit would have a damaging impact on the economies of the UK and at least part of the EU27. In particular, there was a broad consensus among economists and in the economic literature that Brexit would likely reduce the UK's real per capita income in the medium and long term, and that the Brexit referendum itself would damage the economy.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Sampson-2017-75)[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Giles-2017-251)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-252) Studies found Brexit-induced uncertainty reduced British GDP, British national income, investment by business, employment, and British international trade from June 2016 onwards.[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-253)[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-254)[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-255)
A 2019 analysis found that British firms substantially increased [offshoring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshoring "Offshoring") to the EU after the Brexit referendum, whereas European firms reduced new investments in the UK.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-256)[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-257) The British government's Brexit analysis, leaked in January 2018, showed British economic growth would be stunted by 2â8% over the 15 years following Brexit, the amount depending on the leave scenario.[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-258)[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-259) Economists warned that London's future as an international financial centre depended on passport agreements with the EU.[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-260)[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-261) Pro-Brexit activists and politicians have argued for negotiating trade and migration agreements with the "[CANZUK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANZUK "CANZUK")" countriesâthose of [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada"), [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia"), [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") and the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom")[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-262)[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-263)âbut economists have said that trade deals with those countries would be far less valuable to the UK than EU membership.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-264)[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-265)[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-266) Studies projected that Brexit would exacerbate regional economic inequality in the UK, by hitting already-struggling regions the hardest.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-267)
On 11 January 2024, the London Mayor's Office released "*Mayor highlights Brexit damage to London economy*".[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-LMO-268) The release cites the independent report by Cambridge Econometrics that London has almost 300,000 fewer jobs, and nationwide two million fewer jobs as a direct consequence of Brexit.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-LMO-268) Brexit is recognised as a key contributor to the 2023 cost-of-living crisis, with the average citizen being nearly ÂŁ2,000 worse off, and the average Londoner nearly ÂŁ3,400 worse off in 2023 as a result of Brexit.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-LMO-268) In addition, UK real Gross Value Added was approximately ÂŁ140bn less in 2023 than it would have been had the UK remained in the Single Market.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-LMO-268)
In 2024, French customs considered Brexit, in the meantime, has reduced trade between the UK and the EU, but increased trade between China and the United Kingdom.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-269)
### Local and geographic effects
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=36 "Edit section: Local and geographic effects")\]
Main article: [Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Brexit_United_Kingdom_relations_with_the_European_Union "Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Border_on_Killeen_School_Road_-_geograph.org.uk_-_446719.jpg)
Border crossing at Killeen (near [Newry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newry "Newry") in [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland")), marked only by a speed limit in km/h (Northern Ireland uses mph.)
The potential [impact on the border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_and_the_Irish_border "Brexit and the Irish border") between [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") and the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") has been a contentious issue. Since 2005, [the border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_border "Republic of IrelandâUnited Kingdom border") had been essentially invisible.[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-270) After Brexit, it became the only UKâEU land border[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-271) (not counting the land borders that EU states Spain and Cyprus have with [British Overseas Territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories "British Overseas Territories")). All involved parties agreed a hard border should be avoided,[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-272) because it might compromise the [Good Friday Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement") that ended the [Northern Ireland conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_conflict "Northern Ireland conflict").[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-273)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-274)[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-275) To forestall this, the EU proposed a ["backstop agreement"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop") that would keep the UK in the Customs Union and keep Northern Ireland in some aspects of the Single Market until a lasting solution was found.[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_backstop-276) The UK Parliament rejected this proposal. After [further negotiations in autumn of 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations_in_2019 "Brexit negotiations in 2019"), an alternative model, the [Ireland/Northern Ireland Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol") was agreed between the UK and the EU. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is formally outside the EU single market, but [EU free movement of goods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Single_Market "European Single Market") rules and [EU Customs Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Customs_Union "EU Customs Union") rules still apply; this ensures there are no customs checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. In place of an Ireland/Northern Ireland land border, the protocol has created a *[de facto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto "De facto")* customs "[Irish Sea border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sea_border "Irish Sea border")" for goods from (but not to) Great Britain,[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-bbcNewDeal-277)[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-FTNewDeal-278) to the disquiet of prominent [Unionists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Unionism "Ulster Unionism").[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-279)
After the Brexit referendum, the [Scottish Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Government "Scottish Government") â led by the [Scottish National Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_National_Party "Scottish National Party") (SNP) â planned [another independence referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_second_Scottish_independence_referendum "Proposed second Scottish independence referendum") because Scotland voted to remain in the EU while England and Wales voted to leave.[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-280) It had suggested this before the Brexit referendum.[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-281) The [First Minister of Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland "First Minister of Scotland"), [Nicola Sturgeon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Sturgeon "Nicola Sturgeon"), requested a referendum be held before the UK's withdrawal,[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-282) but the British prime minister rejected this timing, but not the referendum itself.[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-283) At the referendum in 2014, 55% of voters had decided to remain in the UK, but the referendum on Britain's withdrawal from the EU was held in 2016, with 62% of Scottish voters against it. In March 2017, the Scottish Parliament voted in favour of holding another independence referendum. Sturgeon called for a "phased return" of an independent Scotland back to the EU.[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-284) In 2017, if Northern Ireland remained associated with the EU â for example, by remaining in the Customs Union â some analysts argued Scotland would also insist on special treatment.[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Brexit-Reuters-04122017-285) However, in that event, the only part of the United Kingdom which would receive unique treatment was Northern Ireland.[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-286)
On 21 March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the [Scottish Continuity Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union_\(Legal_Continuity\)_\(Scotland\)_Bill_2018 "UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal Continuity) (Scotland) Bill 2018").[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Herald_Scotland-287) This was passed due to stalling negotiations between the Scottish Government and the British Government on where powers within devolved policy areas should lie after Brexit. The Act allowed for all devolved policy areas to remain within the remit of the Scottish Parliament and reduced the executive power upon exit day that the UK Withdrawal Bill provides for Ministers of the Crown.[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-288) The bill was referred to the UK Supreme Court, which found that it could not come into force as the [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018"), which received royal assent between the Scottish Parliament passing its bill and the Supreme Court's judgement, designated itself under schedule 4 of the [Scotland Act 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998 "Scotland Act 1998") as unamendable by the Scottish Parliament.[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-289) The bill has therefore not received royal assent.[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-290)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gibraltar_Customs_side_of_the_Spain-Gibraltar_frontier,_Winston_Churchill_Avenue,_Gibraltar.jpg)
Cars crossing into [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") from [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain "Spain") clearing customs formalities. Gibraltar is outside the customs union, VAT area, and [Schengen Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schengen_Zone "Schengen Zone").
[Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar"), a [British Overseas Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Overseas_Territory "British Overseas Territory") bordering Spain, is [affected by Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_Brexit_on_Gibraltar "Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar") too. Spain asserts a [territorial claim on Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_of_Gibraltar "Status of Gibraltar"). After the referendum, Spain's Foreign Minister renewed calls for joint SpanishâBritish control.[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-291) In late 2018, the British and Spanish governments agreed that any dispute over Gibraltar would not affect Brexit negotiations,[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-292) and the British government agreed that UKâEU treaties made after Brexit would not automatically apply to Gibraltar.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-293) In December 2020, Spain and the UK reached an [agreement in principle on future arrangements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_Brexit_on_Gibraltar#Post-Brexit "Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar") for Brexit and invited the European Commission to formalise it as a treaty.
The French and British governments say they remain committed to the [Le Touquet Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Touquet_Agreement "Le Touquet Agreement"), which lets UK border checks be completed in France, and vice versa ([juxtaposed controls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juxtaposed_controls "Juxtaposed controls")).[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-French_border-294) The two governments signed the Sandhurst Treaty in January 2018, which will shorten the time taken to process [migrants attempting to reach the UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrants_around_Calais "Migrants around Calais") from [Calais](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calais "Calais"), from six months to one month. The UK also announced it will invest a further ÂŁ44.5 million on border security at the English Channel.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-French_border-294)
### Effects on the European Union
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=37 "Edit section: Effects on the European Union")\]
Main article: [Impact of Brexit on the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit_on_the_European_Union "Impact of Brexit on the European Union")
Brexit [caused the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit_on_the_European_Union "Impact of Brexit on the European Union") to lose its second-largest economy, its third-most populous country,[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-295) and the second-largest net contributor to the EU budget.[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-296)
The UK is no longer a shareholder in the [European Investment Bank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Investment_Bank "European Investment Bank"), where it had 16% of the shares.[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-297) The European Investment Bank's Board of Governors decided that the remaining member states would proportionally increase their capital subscriptions to maintain the same level of overall subscribed capital (EUR 243.3 billion).[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-298) As of March 2020, the subscribed capital of the EIB had increased by an additional EUR 5.5 billion, following the decision by two member states to increase their capital subscriptions ([Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland "Poland") and [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania "Romania")). The EIB's total subscribed capital thus amounted to EUR 248.8 billion. Brexit did not impact the EIB Group's AAA credit rating.[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-299)
Analyses indicated that the departure of the relatively economically liberal UK would reduce the ability of remaining economically liberal countries to block measures in the [Council of the EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_the_EU "Council of the EU").[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-300)[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-301) In 2019, ahead of Brexit, the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") and [European Banking Authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Banking_Authority "European Banking Authority") moved their headquarters from London to [Amsterdam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam") and [Paris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris "Paris"), respectively.[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-302)[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-303)[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-304)
### Sectorial effects
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=38 "Edit section: Sectorial effects")\]
#### Academia
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=39 "Edit section: Academia")\]
Brexit poses challenges to British academia and research, as the UK loses research funding from EU sources and sees a reduction in students from the EU. Academic institutions find it harder to hire researchers from the EU and British students will face greater difficulties with studying abroad in the EU.[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Mayhew-2017-305) The UK was a member of the [European Research Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Research_Area "European Research Area") and likely to wish to remain an associated member following Brexit.[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-306) The British government has guaranteed funding for research currently funded by EU.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-307)
#### Aviation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=40 "Edit section: Aviation")\]
By leaving the EU, the UK would leave the [European Common Aviation Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Common_Aviation_Area "European Common Aviation Area") (ECAA), a [single market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_market "Single market") in commercial air travel,[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Aviation-IFG-308) but could negotiate a number of different future relationships with the EU.[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Aviation-IFG-308) British airlines would still have permission to operate within the EU with no restrictions, and vice versa. The British government seeks continued participation in the [European Aviation Safety Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency "European Aviation Safety Agency") (EASA).[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Aviation-IFG-308) The UK has its own [air service agreements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_transport_agreement "Air transport agreement") with 111 countries, which permit flights to-and-from the country, and further 17 countries through its EU membership.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-309) These have since been replaced. Ferries will continue, but with obstacles such as customs checks.[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-atclogistics-310) New ferry departures between the Republic of Ireland and the European mainland have been established.[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-atclogistics-310) As of August 2020[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit), the government's [Goods Vehicle Movement Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goods_Vehicle_Movement_Service "Goods Vehicle Movement Service"), an IT system essential to post-Brexit goods movements, was still only in the early stages of beta testing, with four months to go before it is required to be in operation.[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-311)
#### Finance
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=41 "Edit section: Finance")\]
A 2025 report estimated that Brexit has caused a ÂŁ20 billion productivity decline in the UK financial sector, as major firms shifted staff and assets to EU cities such as Frankfurt and Paris. Policymakers are exploring measures to revive competitiveness outside the single market.[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-312)
#### Fishing
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=42 "Edit section: Fishing")\]
The UK has left the [Common Agricultural Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy "Common Agricultural Policy") (CAP),[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CAP_payments-313) which provides government financial support to farmers in the EU.[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CAP-314) Brexit allowed the UK to develop its own agriculture policy[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-UK_agriculture_policy-315) and the [Agriculture Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_Act_2020&action=edit&redlink=1 "Agriculture Act 2020 (page does not exist)") replaced the CAP with a new system.[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Agriculture_Act_2020-316) The UK also left the [Common Fisheries Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Fisheries_Policy "Common Fisheries Policy") (CFP)[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-fisheries_briefing-317) that lets all EU countries fish within 12 nautical miles of the British coast[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-318) and lets the EU set catch quotas.[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CFP_explainer-319) The combined EU fishing fleets landed about six million tonnes of fish per year, as of 2016,[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-320) about half of which were from British waters.[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-321) By leaving the CFP, the UK could develop its own fisheries policy.[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CFP_explainer-319) The UK did also leave the [London Fisheries Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Fisheries_Convention "London Fisheries Convention") that lets Irish, French, Belgian, Dutch and German vessels fish within six nautical miles of the UK's coast.[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-322)
#### Health Services
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=43 "Edit section: Health Services")\]
An early 2019 study found that Brexit would deplete the [National Health Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service "National Health Service") (NHS) workforce, create uncertainties regarding care for British nationals living in the EU, and put at risk access to vaccines, equipment, and medicines.[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-323) The [Department of Health and Social Care](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Social_Care "Department of Health and Social Care") has said it has taken steps to ensure the continuity of medical supplies after Brexit.[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-324) The number of non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS fell from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in April 2017.[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-325)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\]In June 2016, 58,702 NHS staff recorded a non-British EU nationality, and in June 2022, 70,735 NHS staff recorded an EU nationality. However, "to present this as the full story would be misleading, because there are over 57,000 more staff for whom nationality is known now than in 2016"[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-326)[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-327)
There was a concern that a disorderly Brexit might have compromised patients' access to vital medicines.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-328) Pharmaceutical organisations working with the Civil Service to keep medicine supplies available in the case of a no-deal Brexit had to sign 26 [Non-Disclosure Agreements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-disclosure_agreement "Non-disclosure agreement") (NDAs) to prevent them from giving the public information. The figures were given on 21 December 2018 after [Rushanara Ali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rushanara_Ali "Rushanara Ali") asked a parliamentary question.[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-329)
#### Immigration
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=44 "Edit section: Immigration")\]
Main article: [Modern immigration to the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom "Modern immigration to the United Kingdom")
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brexit_migration_chart.svg)
UK net migration before and after the withdrawal from the EU.
After Brexit, the UK is able to control immigration from the [European Economic Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Area "European Economic Area") (EU (except Ireland) and [EFTA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFTA "EFTA") countries),[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-330) as withdrawal ends UK participation in the EU's [freedom of movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_movement "Freedom of movement") principle â in both directions. The British government of the time proposed to replace it with a new system of immigration control. The government's 2018 [white paper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_paper "White paper") proposes a "skills-based immigration system" that prioritises skilled migrants. EU and EEA citizens already living in the UK can continue living there after Brexit by applying to the EU Settlement Scheme, which began in March 2019. Irish citizens will not have to apply to the scheme.[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-331)[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-332)[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-333) Studies estimate that Brexit and the end of free movement will likely result in a large decline in immigration from EEA countries to the UK.[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-immigration_decline-334)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-335) After Brexit, any foreigner wanting to work in the UK would need a work permit.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-336)[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-337)
Since the full implementation of Brexit, more [EU nationals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union "Member state of the European Union") are leaving the UK than moving to it.[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-338) After Brexit, the number of EU citizens who were refused entry to the UK increased fivefold.[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-339) Of the 1,218,000 immigrants who came to the UK in 2023, only 126,000 were citizens of EU member states.[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-bbc-23-05-2024-340) BBC reported that "In the 12 months to June 2023, net EU migration was -86,000, meaning more EU nationals left the UK than arrived".[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-bbc-23-05-2024-340)
#### Law and Security
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=45 "Edit section: Law and Security")\]
Under the [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018"), EU laws will no longer have [supremacy over](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_of_European_Union_law "Primacy of European Union law") British laws after Brexit.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-withdrawal_bill-341) To maintain continuity, the Act converts EU law into British law as "retained EU law". After Brexit, the British parliament (and the devolved legislatures) can decide which elements of that law to keep, amend or repeal.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-withdrawal_bill-341) Furthermore, British courts will no longer be bound by the judgments of the [EU Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Court_of_Justice "EU Court of Justice") after Brexit.
Concerns were raised by European lawmakers, including [Michel Barnier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Barnier "Michel Barnier"), that Brexit might create security problems for the UK given that its law enforcement and counter-terrorism forces would no longer have access to the EU's security databases.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-342)
#### Trade
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=46 "Edit section: Trade")\]
Forecasts were made at the time of the referendum that Brexit would impose trade barriers, leading to a decline in trade between the United Kingdom and the European Union; however, after a dip in 2020 as result of worldwide lockdowns, by 2022 trade in both directions had risen to higher levels than before Brexit. Goods trade had fallen but was outweighed by an increase in professional services.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-343)
Some analysts have suggested that the severe [economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") has masked the economic impact of Brexit in 2021.[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-344) In December 2021, the *Financial Times* quoted a range of economists as saying that the economic impact of Brexit on the UK economy and living standards "appears to be negative but uncertain".[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-345) According to the [Office for Budget Responsibility](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_Budget_Responsibility "Office for Budget Responsibility"), the new trade agreement between the EU and UK could, over time, result in a 4% reduction in British productivity, compared with its level had the 2016 EU referendum gone the other way.[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-346)
#### Utilities
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=47 "Edit section: Utilities")\]
Brexit was widely described as a factor contributing to the [2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_United_Kingdom_natural_gas_supplier_crisis "2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis"), in which [panic buying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_United_Kingdom_fuel_supply_crisis "2021 United Kingdom fuel supply crisis") led to serious disruption of road fuel supplies across the UK, as it exacerbated the UK's shortage of [HGV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_goods_vehicle "Heavy goods vehicle") drivers.[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-347)[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-bbc-202107-348)[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-349) In a July 2021 report, the [Road Haulage Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_Haulage_Association "Road Haulage Association") estimated the UK faced a shortage of up to 100,000 truck drivers.[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-350)[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-351)[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-352)
## Cultural references
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=48 "Edit section: Cultural references")\]
Main article: [Brexit in popular culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_in_popular_culture "Brexit in popular culture")
Brexit has inspired many creative works, such as murals, sculptures, novels, plays, music, movies and video games. The response of British artists and writers to Brexit has in general been negative, reflecting a reported overwhelming percentage of people involved in Britain's [creative industries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_industries "Creative industries") voting against leaving the European Union.[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-353) Despite issues around immigration being central in the Brexit debate, British artists left the migrants' perspective largely unexplored. However, Brexit also inspired UK-based migrant artists to create new works and "claim agency over their representation within public spaces and create a platform for a new social imagination that can facilitate transnational and trans-local encounters, multicultural democratic spaces, sense of commonality, and solidarity."[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-354)
## See also
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=49 "Edit section: See also")\]
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone5white.png)[2010s portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:2010s "Portal:2010s")
- [European Union portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:European_Union "Portal:European Union")
- [Modern history portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Modern_history "Portal:Modern history")
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg)[Politics portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Politics "Portal:Politics")
- [United Kingdom portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom "Portal:United Kingdom")
- [2010s in United Kingdom political history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_United_Kingdom_political_history "2010s in United Kingdom political history")
- [2020s in United Kingdom political history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_United_Kingdom_political_history "2020s in United Kingdom political history")
- [Equivalence in financial services](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_in_financial_services "Equivalence in financial services") â EU assessment of third country financial regulations
- [Greek withdrawal from the eurozone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_withdrawal_from_the_eurozone "Greek withdrawal from the eurozone") (proposed)
- [International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") â Responses from other countries to the Brexit vote
- [Interpretation of EU Treaty law by European Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Factortame_Ltd\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport#House_of_Lords "R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport")
- [Multi-speed Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-speed_Europe "Multi-speed Europe") â Political idea
- [Opposition to Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_Brexit "Opposition to Brexit") â Opposition to the UK's withdrawal from the EU
- [Potential re-accession of the United Kingdom to the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_re-accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Union "Potential re-accession of the United Kingdom to the European Union")
- [Referendums related to the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendums_related_to_the_European_Union "Referendums related to the European Union")
- [United KingdomâEuropean Union relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93European_Union_relations "United KingdomâEuropean Union relations")
- [Withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Withdrawal from the European Union") (Legal basis)
- [Danish withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Danish withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)
- [Dutch withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Dutch withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)
- [Hungarian withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Hungarian withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)
- [Polish withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Polish withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)
- [Romanian withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Romanian withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)\*\* [Frexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frexit "Frexit") (French withdrawal from the European Union) (proposed)
## Notes
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=50 "Edit section: Notes")\]
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-2)** The UK also left the [European Atomic Energy Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Atomic_Energy_Community "European Atomic Energy Community") (EAEC or Euratom).
## References
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=51 "Edit section: References")\]
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-1)**
Hall, Damien (11 August 2017). ["'Breksit' or 'bregzit'? The question that divides a nation"](https://theconversation.com/breksit-or-bregzit-the-question-that-divides-a-nation-82278). *The Conversation*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190704035541/http://theconversation.com/breksit-or-bregzit-the-question-that-divides-a-nation-82278) from the original on 4 July 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-CouncilRatifies_3-0)**
["EU-UK trade and cooperation agreement: Council adopts decision on conclusion"](https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/04/29/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement-council-adopts-decision-on-conclusion/). *www.consilium.europa.eu*. 29 April 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210817064545/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/04/29/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement-council-adopts-decision-on-conclusion/) from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-4)**
Sparrow, Andrew (1 February 2020). ["Brexit day: end of an era as United Kingdom leaves EU â as it happened"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/31/brexit-day-britain-prepares-leave-eu-live-news-updates). *The Guardian*.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Bennett_5-0)**
Bennett, Asa (27 January 2020). ["How will the Brexit transition period work?"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/0/brexit-2020-transition-period/). *The Telegraph*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200128044559/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/0/brexit-2020-transition-period/) from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Edgington_6-0)**
Tom Edgington (31 January 2020). ["Brexit: What is the transition period?"](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50838994). *BBC News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200131215049/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50838994) from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-QAEC_7-0)**
["Questions and Answers on the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020"](https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_104). European Commission. 24 January 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200201003034/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_104) from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Parliament_UK_8-0)**
["House of Commons votes to seek Article 50 extension"](https://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2019/march/house-of-commons-to-vote-on-article-50-extension/). 14 March 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200307030308/https://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2019/march/house-of-commons-to-vote-on-article-50-extension/) from the original on 7 March 2020. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
8. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Europa17oct19_9-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Europa17oct19_9-1)
["Revised Withdrawal Agreement"](https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/revised_withdrawal_agreement_including_protocol_on_ireland_and_nothern_ireland.pdf) (PDF). European Commission. 17 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191017103006/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/revised_withdrawal_agreement_including_protocol_on_ireland_and_nothern_ireland.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-BBC_News_10-0)**
["New Brexit deal agreed, says Boris Johnson"](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50079385). *BBC News*. 17 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191213193556/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50079385) from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-11)**
Landler, Mark; Castle, Stephen (12 December 2019). ["Conservatives Win Commanding Majority in U.K. Vote: 'Brexit Will Happen'"](https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4?ocid=spartanntp). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. New York City. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191213060550/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4%3Focid%3Dspartanntp) from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019 â via [MSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN "MSN").
11. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Guardian2020jan24_12-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Guardian2020jan24_12-1)
Boffey, Daniel; Proctor, Kate (24 January 2020). ["Boris Johnson signs Brexit withdrawal agreement"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jan/24/sombre-eu-leaders-sign-brexit-withdrawal-agreement). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200124122448/https://amp.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jan/24/sombre-eu-leaders-sign-brexit-withdrawal-agreement) from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
12. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-sparrow1_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-sparrow1_13-1)
Sparrow, Andrew (30 January 2020). ["Brexit: MEPs approve withdrawal agreement after emotional debate and claims UK will return â live news"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/29/pmqs-boris-johnson-corbyn-warned-he-faces-first-commons-revolt-since-election-over-huawei-live-news). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200129232319/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/29/pmqs-boris-johnson-corbyn-warned-he-faces-first-commons-revolt-since-election-over-huawei-live-news) from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-autogenerated1_14-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-autogenerated1_14-1)
["Brexit: UK leaves the European Union"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314). *BBC News*. 1 February 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200314050137/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314) from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-15)**
["Brexit jargon: From backstop to no-deal, the key terms explained"](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/17/brexit-jargon-from-backstop-to-no-deal-the-key-terms-explained/). *Al Jazeera*. 17 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201108231048/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/17/brexit-jargon-from-backstop-to-no-deal-the-key-terms-explained/) from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-16)**
["Brexit: 12 key words you need to know"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-43470987). *BBC News*. 11 December 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210702223508/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-43470987) from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Lewis-Hargreave_17-0)**
Lewis-Hargreave, Sam (21 January 2019). ["Is 'Brexit' the Worst Political Portmanteau in History?"](https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/sam-lewishargreave/is-brexit-the-worst-polit_b_10615036.html). *[HuffPost UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HuffPost_UK "HuffPost UK")*. London. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230310155901/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/sam-lewishargreave/is-brexit-the-worst-polit_b_10615036.html) from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Tempest_18-0)**
Tempest, Matthew (10 January 2017). ["Oxford English Dictionary: The man who coined 'Brexit' first appeared on Euractiv blog"](https://www.euractiv.com/section/uk-europe/news/oxford-english-dictionary-the-man-who-coined-brexit/). *[Euractiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euractiv "Euractiv")*. Brussels. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191007143025/https://www.euractiv.com/section/uk-europe/news/oxford-english-dictionary-the-man-who-coined-brexit/) from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Davis_19-0)**
Davis, Lindsay (3 November 2016). ["'Brexit' tops the list of Collins Dictionary's 2016 words of the year"](https://mashable.com/article/brexit-word-of-the-year). [New York City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Mashable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashable "Mashable"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230225154143/https://mashable.com/article/brexit-word-of-the-year) from the original on 25 February 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Flood_20-0)**
Flood, Alison (2 November 2016). ["Brexit named word of the year, ahead of Trumpism and hygge"](https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/03/brexit-named-word-of-the-year-ahead-of-trumpism-and-hygge). *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*. London. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230227113232/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/03/brexit-named-word-of-the-year-ahead-of-trumpism-and-hygge) from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-21)**
["1967: De Gaulle says "non" to Britain â again"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/27/newsid_4187000/4187714.stm). *BBC News*. 27 November 1976. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190202044425/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/27/newsid_4187000/4187714.stm) from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-22)**
["Did Charles de Gaulle foresee Brexit?"](https://www.france24.com/en/20191013-did-charles-de-gaulle-foresee-brexit). *France 24*. 13 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230309014330/https://www.france24.com/en/20191013-did-charles-de-gaulle-foresee-brexit) from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-23)**
Ludlow, N. Piers (January 2015). ["Safeguarding British Identity or Betraying It? The Role of British 'Tradition' in the Parliamentary Great Debate on EC Membership, October 1971: Safeguarding British identity or betraying it?"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcms.12202). *JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies*. **53** (1): 18â34\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1111/jcms.12202](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjcms.12202). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0021-9886](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9886). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [145092199](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145092199). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220820132750/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcms.12202) from the original on 20 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-24)**
["Into Europe"](http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/tradeindustry/importexport/overview/europe/). Parliament of the United Kingdom. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190328231317/https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/tradeindustry/importexport/overview/europe/) from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-25)**
["English text of EU Accession Treaty 1972, Cmnd. 7463"](https://web.archive.org/web/20161221025512/http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1979/TS0018%20%281979%29%20CMND-7463%201972%2022%20JAN%2C%20BRUSSELS%3B%20TREATY%20CONCERNING%20ACCESSION%20OF%20DENMARK%20IRELAND%20NORWAY%20UK%20%26%20NI%20TO%20EEC%20%26%20EAEC_1.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1979/TS0018%20\(1979\)%20CMND-7463%201972%2022%20JAN,%20BRUSSELS%3B%20TREATY%20CONCERNING%20ACCESSION%20OF%20DENMARK%20IRELAND%20NORWAY%20UK%20&%20NI%20TO%20EEC%20&%20EAEC_1.pdf) (PDF) on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-26)**
["1973: Britain joins the EEC"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/1/newsid_2459000/2459167.stm). *BBC News*. 1 January 1973. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190114142111/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/1/newsid_2459000/2459167.stm) from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-27)**
May, Alex (1999). *Britain and Europe since 1945*. Seminar studies in history. Longmand. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-582-30778-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30778-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30778-0")
.
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-28)**
["BBC on this day â 26 â 1975: Labour votes to leave the EEC"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26/newsid_2503000/2503155.stm). *BBC*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181212151032/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26/newsid_2503000/2503155.stm) from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-29)** the [Shetland Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetland_Islands "Shetland Islands") and the [Outer Hebrides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Hebrides "Outer Hebrides")
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-30)**
Miller, Vaughne (13 July 2015). ["The 1974â75 UK Renegotiation of EEC Membership and Referendum"](https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7253/). *commonslibrary.parliament.uk* (Research briefing). House of Commons Library. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210305014515/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7253/) from the original on 5 March 2021.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-31)**
["Who Voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district level analysis"](http://www.trfetzer.com/who-voted-for-brexit/). Becker, Fetzer, Novy, University of Warwick. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190401145148/http://www.trfetzer.com/who-voted-for-brexit/) from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
31. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-foot_32-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-foot_32-1)
Vaidyanathan, Rajini (4 March 2010). ["Michael Foot: What did the "longest suicide note" say?"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8550425.stm). *BBC News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170902193702/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8550425.stm) from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-33)**
Bismarck, Dr Helene Von (4 May 2016). ["Margaret Thatcher: the critical architect of European integration"](https://ukandeu.ac.uk/margaret-thatcher-the-critical-architect-of-european-integration/). *UK in a changing Europe*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032223/https://ukandeu.ac.uk/margaret-thatcher-the-critical-architect-of-european-integration/) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-34)**
Dury, HĂ©lĂšne. ["Black Wednesday"](http://is.muni.cz/el/1456/podzim2011/MPF_AFIN/um/27608616/27608949/Black_Wednesday.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181001135346/https://is.muni.cz/el/1456/podzim2011/MPF_AFIN/um/27608616/27608949/Black_Wednesday.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-35)**
["EU treaties"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160913032647/http://europa.eu/european-union/eu-law/decision-making/treaties_en). Europa (web portal). Archived from [the original](https://europa.eu/european-union/eu-law/decision-making/treaties_en) on 13 September 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-36)**
["EUROPA The EU in brief"](http://europa.eu/about-eu/basic-information/about/index_en.htm). Europa (web portal). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160726054654/http://europa.eu/about-eu/basic-information/about/index_en.htm) from the original on 26 July 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-37)** Bogdanor also quotes [John Locke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke "John Locke")'s *[The Second Treatise of Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government "Two Treatises of Government")*: 'The Legislative cannot transfer the power of making laws to any other hands. For it being but a delegated power from the People, they who have it cannot pass it to others.' â Bogdanor, Vernon (8 June 1993). [Why the people should have a vote on Maastricht: The House of Lords must uphold democracy and insist on a referendum](https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/why-the-people-should-have-a-vote-on-maastricht-the-house-of-lords-must-uphold-democracy-and-insist-1490346.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190629035411/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/why-the-people-should-have-a-vote-on-maastricht-the-house-of-lords-must-uphold-democracy-and-insist-1490346.html) 29 June 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). *[The Independent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent")*.
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-38)** Bogdanor, Vernon (26 July 1993). [Futility of a House with no windows](https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/futility-of-a-house-with-no-windows-1487252.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190708155618/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/futility-of-a-house-with-no-windows-1487252.html) 8 July 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). *The Independent*.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-kuper20190620_39-0)**
Kuper, Simon (20 June 2019). ["How Oxford university shaped Brexit â and Britain's next prime minister"](https://www.ft.com/content/85fc694c-9222-11e9-b7ea-60e35ef678d2). *Financial Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190621101919/https://www.ft.com/content/85fc694c-9222-11e9-b7ea-60e35ef678d2) from the original on 21 June 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-40)**
Heath, Anthony; Jowell, Roger; Taylor, Bridget; Thomson, Katarina (1 January 1998). "Euroscepticism and the referendum party". *British Elections & Parties Review*. **8** (1): 95â110\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1080/13689889808413007](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13689889808413007). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1368-9886](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1368-9886).
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Elgot, Jessica; Elliott, Larry; Davis, Nicola (13 August 2016). ["Treasury to guarantee post-Brexit funding for EU-backed projects"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/aug/13/philip-hammond-treasury-to-guarantee-post-brexit-funding-for-eu-backed-projects). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170414164358/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/aug/13/philip-hammond-treasury-to-guarantee-post-brexit-funding-for-eu-backed-projects) from the original on 14 April 2017. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
307. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Aviation-IFG_308-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Aviation-IFG_308-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Aviation-IFG_308-2)
["Aviation and the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190930210000/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/european-common-aviation-area-brexit). Institute for Government. 10 September 2017. Archived from [the original](https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/european-common-aviation-area-brexit) on 30 September 2019.
308. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-309)**
["Flights to and from the UK if there's no Brexit deal"](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/flights-to-and-from-the-uk-if-theres-no-brexit-deal/flights-to-and-from-the-uk-if-theres-no-brexit-deal). *Government of the United Kingdom*. 24 September 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190210152535/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/flights-to-and-from-the-uk-if-theres-no-brexit-deal/flights-to-and-from-the-uk-if-theres-no-brexit-deal) from the original on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
309. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-atclogistics_310-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-atclogistics_310-1)
["Getting to Europe Post Brexit â The Impact on Ferry Companies"](https://www.atc-logistics.ie/getting-to-europe-post-brexit-the-impact-on-ferry-companies/). *Atc-logistics.ie*. 23 April 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190323004211/https://www.atc-logistics.ie/getting-to-europe-post-brexit-the-impact-on-ferry-companies/) from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
310. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-311)**
["U.K. Starts Research on Brexit Customs System Due in Four Months"](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-08-27/u-k-starts-research-on-brexit-customs-system-due-in-four-months). *Bloomberg.com*. 27 August 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
311. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-312)**
Partington, Richard (31 October 2025). ["'The money machine is misfiring': City blames Brexit for UK's ÂŁ20bn productivity headache"](https://www.theguardian.com/business/2025/oct/31/city-brexit-uk-productivity-eu-rachel-reeves-budget). *The Guardian*.
312. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-CAP_payments_313-0)**
Davis, Fergal; Finlay, Jonathan; Coe, Sarah (18 October 2019). ["Farm payments in a no-deal Brexit"](https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/farm-payments-in-a-no-deal-brexit/). *commonslibrary.parliament.uk*. House of Commons Library. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211121150326/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/farm-payments-in-a-no-deal-brexit/) from the original on 21 November 2021.
313. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-CAP_314-0)**
["Common Agricultural Policy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190906173554/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/common-agricultural-policy). [Institute for Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Government "Institute for Government"). 16 May 2017. Archived from [the original](https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/common-agricultural-policy) on 6 September 2019.
314. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-UK_agriculture_policy_315-0)**
Downing, Emma; Audickas, Lukas; Coe, Sarah (11 September 2018). ["Brexit: UK agriculture policy"](https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8218/). *commonslibrary.parliament.uk* (Research briefing). House of Commons Library. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210225001241/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8218/) from the original on 25 February 2021.
315. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Agriculture_Act_2020_316-0)**
["Agriculture Act 2020"](https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2020/21/contents/enacted).
316. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-fisheries_briefing_317-0)**
Ares, Elena (30 October 2019). ["Fisheries and Brexit"](https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8396/CBP-8396.pdf) (PDF). *researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk* (Briefing paper). House of Commons Library. p. 4. Number 8396. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211009121948/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8396/CBP-8396.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2021.
317. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-318)**
["Reality Check: How would Brexit affect the UK's fishing waters?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20191001015505/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36358016). *BBC News*. 31 May 2016. Archived from [the original](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36358016) on 1 October 2019.
318. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-CFP_explainer_319-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-CFP_explainer_319-1)
["Common Fisheries Policy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190518094241/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/common-fisheries-policy). Institute for Government. 17 February 2017. Archived from [the original](https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/common-fisheries-policy) on 18 May 2019.
319. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-320)**
["Main world producers (2007)"](http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/documentation/publications/pcp_en.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160812111024/http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/documentation/publications/pcp_en.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
320. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-321)**
Daniel Boffey (15 February 2017). ["UK fishermen may not win waters back after Brexit, EU memo reveals"](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/15/uk-fishermen-may-not-win-waters-back-after-brexit-eu-memo-reveals). *The Guardian*. London. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170702131533/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/15/uk-fishermen-may-not-win-waters-back-after-brexit-eu-memo-reveals) from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017. "Source: House of Lords, NAFC Marine Centre, University of the Highlands and Islands."
321. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-322)**
["UK to withdraw from international fishing arrangement"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190910072536/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-40471466). *BBC News*. 2 July 2017. Archived from [the original](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-40471466) on 10 September 2019.
322. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-323)**
McKee, Martin; Galsworthy, Mike; Stuckler, David; Jarman, Holly; Greer, Scott; Hervey, Tamara; Fahy, Nick (25 February 2019). ["How will Brexit affect health services in the UK? An updated evaluation"](http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/160321/3/Lancet%202019%20clean%20as%20submitted.pdf) (PDF). *The Lancet*. **393** (10174): 949â958\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1016/S0140-6736(19)30425-8](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2819%2930425-8). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0140-6736](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-6736). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [30819519](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30819519). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [72334219](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:72334219).
323. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-324)**
["Continuity of supplies"](https://web.archive.org/web/20191212005859/https://www.england.nhs.uk/eu-exit/medicines/). [NHS England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS_England "NHS England"). Archived from [the original](https://www.england.nhs.uk/eu-exit/medicines/) on 12 December 2019.
324. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-325)**
Siddique, Haroon (12 June 2017). ["96% drop in EU nurses registering to work in Britain since Brexit vote"](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/jun/12/96-drop-in-eu-nurses-registering-to-work-in-britain-since-brexit-vote). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190402084706/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/jun/12/96-drop-in-eu-nurses-registering-to-work-in-britain-since-brexit-vote) from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
325. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-326)**
Baker, Carl (22 November 2022). ["NHS staff from overseas: statistics"](https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7783/#:~:text=Between%20them%2C%20these%20staff%20hold,is%20correct%20at%20June%202022.). *commonslibrary.parliament.uk*.
326. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-327)**
["NHS Workforce Statistics â June 2022 (Including selected provisional statistics for July 2022)"](https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/nhs-workforce-statistics/june-2022). *NDRS*. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
327. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-328)**
Sarah Marsh (16 February 2018). ["Brexit deal delay could put NHS patients at risk, Tory MP warns"](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/feb/16/brexit-deal-delay-could-put-nhs-patients-risk-tory-mp-sarah-wollaston-warns). *The Guardian*.
328. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-329)**
Rajeev Syal (23 December 2018). ["Drug firms preparing for no-deal Brexit told to sign 'gagging orders'"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/dec/23/pharmaceutical-firms-preparing-no-deal-brexit-ordered-to-sign-ndas). *The Guardian*.
329. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-330)**
Owen, Joe; Jack, Maddy Thimont; Iacobov, Adela; Christensen, Elliott (8 March 2019). ["Managing migration after Brexit"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190929223849/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/publications/managing-migration-after-brexit). Institute for Government. Archived from [the original](https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/publications/managing-migration-after-brexit) on 29 September 2019.
330. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-331)**
["The post-Brexit immigration plans at a glance"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190726214731/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/dec/19/the-post-brexit-immigration-plans-at-a-glance). *The Guardian*. 19 December 2018. Archived from [the original](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/dec/19/the-post-brexit-immigration-plans-at-a-glance) on 26 July 2019.
331. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-332)**
Wilkins, Hannah; Macdonald, Melissa; Johnston, Neil; Kennedy, Steven; Hubble, Susan; Powell, Tom (25 February 2020). ["EU Settlement Scheme"](https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8584/). *commonslibrary.parliament.uk* (Research briefing). House of Commons Library. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210608103015/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8584/) from the original on 8 June 2021.
332. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-333)**
["Future skills-based immigration system: executive summary"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190929223835/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-uks-future-skills-based-immigration-system/future-skills-based-immigration-system-executive-summary). [Home Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Office "Home Office"). 19 December 2018. Archived from [the original](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-uks-future-skills-based-immigration-system/future-skills-based-immigration-system-executive-summary) on 29 September 2019.
333. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-immigration_decline_334-0)**
Forte, Giuseppe; Portes, Jonathan (1 May 2017). Macroeconomic Determinants of International Migration to the UK (Report). Rochester, NY. [SSRN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_\(identifier\) "SSRN (identifier)") [2979949](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2979949).
334. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-335)**
Portes, Jonathan (1 November 2016). "Immigration after Brexit". *National Institute Economic Review*. **238** (1): R13âR21. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/002795011623800111](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002795011623800111). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0027-9501](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-9501). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [157228784](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157228784).
335. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-336)**
["Brexit: What effect could leaving the European Union have on football transfers?"](https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/46038799). *BBC Sport*. 31 October 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190112051235/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/46038799) from the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
336. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-337)**
["How Brexit will affect Premier League football"](https://www.goal.com/en/news/how-brexit-will-affect-premier-league-football/cwp6p3hhmuxx119cm1syhwyi2). *Goal.com*. 22 March 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190112145957/https://www.goal.com/en/news/how-brexit-will-affect-premier-league-football/cwp6p3hhmuxx119cm1syhwyi2) from the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
337. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-338)**
["'Europeans are almost not coming to the UK any more'"](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/9/europeans-are-almost-not-coming-to-the-uk-any-more). *Al Jazeera*. 9 June 2023.
338. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-339)**
["Fivefold rise in number of EU citizens refused entry to UK since Brexit"](https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/25/fivefold-rise-number-eu-citizens-refused-entry-uk-since-brexit). *The Guardian*. 25 November 2023.
339. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-bbc-23-05-2024_340-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-bbc-23-05-2024_340-1)
["Migration: How many people come to the UK and how are the salary rules changing?"](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-48785695). *BBC News*. 23 May 2024.
340. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-withdrawal_bill_341-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-withdrawal_bill_341-1)
["Explanatory notes on the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190930205726/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/pdfs/ukpgaen_20180016_en.pdf) (PDF). [The Stationery Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stationery_Office "The Stationery Office"). pp. 4, 8. Archived from [the original](http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/pdfs/ukpgaen_20180016_en.pdf) (PDF) on 30 September 2019.
341. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-342)**
["Why Brexit may be good for terrorists and the Kremlin and bad for European security"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/why-brexit-may-be-good-for-terrorists-and-the-kremlin-and-bad-for-european-security/2018/12/24/b3ec2462-020a-11e9-958c-0a601226ff6b_story.html). *The Washington Post*. 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190115234413/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/why-brexit-may-be-good-for-terrorists-and-the-kremlin-and-bad-for-european-security/2018/12/24/b3ec2462-020a-11e9-958c-0a601226ff6b_story.html) from the original on 15 January 2019.
342. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-343)** [Total UK exports and imports (goods and services) by EU and non-EU, seasonally adjusted, current price](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1129069/uk-exports-and-imports-by-eu-and-non-eu-seasonally-adjusted-current-prices.ods) â UK trade in numbers: [Office for National Statistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics "Office for National Statistics")
343. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-344)**
Giles, Chris (1 July 2021). ["Covid pandemic masks Brexit impact on UK economy"](https://www.ft.com/content/fbb70741-34cc-4f54-a66b-a2e4b9445f5b). *Financial Times*. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
344. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-345)**
Giles, Chris (23 December 2021). ["Brexit one year on: the impact on the UK economy"](https://www.ft.com/content/c6ee4ce2-95b3-4d92-858f-c50566529b5e). *Financial Times*. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
345. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-346)**
["The initial impact of Brexit on UK trade with the EU"](https://obr.uk/box/the-initial-impact-of-brexit-on-uk-trade-with-the-eu/). *Office for Budget Responsibility*. 27 October 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
346. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-347)**
["Brexit has been a 'factor' in fuel crisis, Grant Shapps admits"](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-petrol-shortage-grant-shapps-b1928368.html). *The Independent*. 28 September 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
347. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-bbc-202107_348-0)**
["How serious is the shortage of lorry drivers?"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/57810729). *BBC News*. 14 July 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210929005239/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/57810729) from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
348. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-349)**
Waterfield, Bruno (29 September 2021). ["EU single market avoids supply problems"](https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/eu-single-market-avoids-supply-problems-petrol-lorry-drivers-ld5526lv6). *The Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210929042941/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/eu-single-market-avoids-supply-problems-petrol-lorry-drivers-ld5526lv6) from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2021.
349. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-350)**
["A Report on the Driver Shortage"](https://www.rha.uk.net/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ICI0C-FWmVo%3D) (PDF). *Road Haulage Association*. July 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220531230607/https://www.rha.uk.net/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ICI0C-FWmVo%3D) (PDF) from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
350. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-351)**
["UK warned visa plan to fix truck driver shortage will not solve crunch"](https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/uk-warned-visa-plan-fix-truck-driver-shortage-will-not-solve-crunch-2021-09-25/). Reuters. 26 September 2021.
351. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-352)**
["'Brexit made clear Eastern Europeans are not welcome in UK'"](https://www.dw.com/en/brexit-made-clear-eastern-europeans-are-not-welcome-in-uk/av-59410886). *Deutsche Welle*. 5 October 2021.
352. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-353)**
Jankowicz, Mia (20 March 2017). ["Britain's thriving art scene strangled by Brexit chaos"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180924114435/http://www.politics.co.uk/comment-analysis/2017/03/20/britain-s-thriving-art-scene-strangled-by-brexit-chaos). *Politics.co.uk*. Archived from [the original](http://www.politics.co.uk/comment-analysis/2017/03/20/britain-s-thriving-art-scene-strangled-by-brexit-chaos) on 24 September 2018.
353. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-354)**
Lech, K. (2020). ["Claiming Their Voice: Foreign Memories on the Post-Brexit Stage"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-39915-3_12). In Meerzon, Y.; Dean, D.; McNeil, D. (eds.). *Migration and Stereotypes in Performance and Culture*. Contemporary Performance InterActions. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 215â234\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1007/978-3-030-39915-3\_12](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-39915-3_12). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-3-030-39914-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-39914-6 "Special:BookSources/978-3-030-39914-6")
. [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [226721346](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226721346).
## Further reading
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=52 "Edit section: Further reading")\]
- Ansorg, Nadine; Haastrup, Toni (2016). ["Brexit Beyond the UK's Borders: What It Means for Africa"](https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publications/giga-focus/brexit-beyond-the-uk-s-borders-what-it-means-for-africa). *[German Institute for Global and Area Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Institute_for_Global_and_Area_Studies "German Institute for Global and Area Studies")*. GIGA Focus Afrika. **3**. Hamburg. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1862-3603](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1862-3603).
- [Barnier, Michel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Barnier "Michel Barnier") (2021). [*My secret Brexit diary: a glorious illusion*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OHNEEAAAQBAJ). Translated by Mackay, Robin. Cambridge, UK; Medford, MA: [Polity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity_\(publisher\) "Polity (publisher)"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-5095-5086-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-5086-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-5086-9")
.
- Clarke, Harold D.; [Goodwin, Matthew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Goodwin_\(author\) "Matt Goodwin (author)"); Whiteley, Paul (2017). *Brexit: Why Britain Voted to Leave the European Union*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-316-60504-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-60504-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-316-60504-2")
.
- Clarke, John; Newman, Janet (2 January 2017). "'People in this country have had enough of experts': Brexit and the paradoxes of populism". *Critical Policy Studies*. **11** (1): 101â116\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1080/19460171.2017.1282376](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F19460171.2017.1282376). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1946-0171](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1946-0171). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [152164548](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152164548).
- Culkin, Nigel; Simmons, Richard (2019). [*Tales of Brexits past and present: understanding the choices, threats and opportunities in our separation from the EU*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bjt8DwAAQBAJ). United Kingdom: Emerald Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78769-438-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78769-438-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78769-438-5")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1041899176](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1041899176).
- [Evans, Geoffrey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoff_Evans_\(political_scientist\) "Geoff Evans (political scientist)"); [Menon, Anand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anand_Menon "Anand Menon") (2017). [*Brexit and British politics*](https://books.google.com/books?id=syY-DwAAQBAJ). Cambridge, Grande; Bretagne Medford, MA: [Polity Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity_Press "Polity Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-5095-2385-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-2385-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-2385-6")
.
- [Freedland, Jonathan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Freedman "Jonathan Freedman") (26 September 2019). ["Fools Rush Out"](https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/09/26/fools-rush-out-boris-johnson-brexit/). *[The New York Review of Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books "The New York Review of Books")*. Vol. 66, no. 14. pp. 30, 32, 34â35\. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0028-7504](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-7504).
- Freedman, Lawrence D. (MayâJune 2020). ["Britain Adrift: The United Kingdom's Search for a Post-Brexit Role"](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-kingdom/2020-04-13/britain-adrift). *[Foreign Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs "Foreign Affairs")*. **99** (3): 118â130\. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0015-7120](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0015-7120).
- Hayton, Richard (February 2018). ["British conservatism after the vote for Brexit: The ideological legacy of David Cameron"](https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/122446/3/HAYTON%20British%20Conservatism%20after%20the%20vote%20for%20Brexit%20.pdf) (PDF). *[The British Journal of Politics and International Relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_British_Journal_of_Politics_and_International_Relations "The British Journal of Politics and International Relations")*. **20** (1): 223â238\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/1369148117737278](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1369148117737278). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1369-1481](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1369-1481).
- [Hobolt, Sara B.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Hobolt "Sara Hobolt") (20 October 2016). ["The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent"](https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67546/7/Hobolt_The%20Brexit%20vote%20a%20divided%20.pdf) (PDF). *[Journal of European Public Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_European_Public_Policy "Journal of European Public Policy")*. **23** (9): 1259â1277\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1080/13501763.2016.1225785](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13501763.2016.1225785). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1350-1763](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1350-1763). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [158006844](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158006844).
- Oliver, Timothy G. (2018). [*Understanding Brexit: a concise introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jERmDwAAQBAJ). Bristol: [Policy Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_Press "Policy Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4473-4639-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4473-4639-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4473-4639-5")
.
- [O'Rourke, Kevin H.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_O%27Rourke_\(economist\) "Kevin O'Rourke (economist)") (2019). [*A short history of Brexit: from brentry to backstop*](https://books.google.com/books?id=D4l7DwAAQBAJ). Pelican Books. London: [Pelican Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelican_Books "Pelican Books"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-241-39827-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-39827-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-241-39827-2")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1082905086](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1082905086).
- [O'Toole, Fintan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fintan_O%27Toole "Fintan O'Toole") (2018). [*Heroic failure: Brexit and the politics of pain*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lKufEAAAQBAJ). London: [Head of Zeus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_Zeus "Head of Zeus"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78954-098-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78954-098-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78954-098-7")
.
- Outhwaite, William (2017). [*Brexit: sociological responses*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fUE2DgAAQBAJ). Key issues in modern sociology. London, UK: Anthem Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78308-644-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78308-644-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78308-644-3")
.
- [Peers, Steve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Peers "Steve Peers") (2016). *The Brexit: The Legal Framework for Withdrawal from the EU or Renegotiation of EU Membership*. Oxford: [Hart Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_Publishing "Hart Publishing"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-84946-874-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84946-874-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-84946-874-9")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [917161408](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/917161408).
- [Rogers, Ivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Rogers "Ivan Rogers") (2019). [*9 Lessons in Brexit*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wQDuDwAAQBAJ). London: Short Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78072-399-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78072-399-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78072-399-0")
.
- Shaw, Martin (2022). *Political racism: Brexit and its aftermath*. Newcastle upon Tyne: Agenda Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78821-508-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78821-508-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78821-508-4")
.
- [Shipman, Tim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Shipman "Tim Shipman") (2016). [*All out war: the full story of how Brexit sank Britain's political class*](https://archive.org/details/alloutwarfullsto0000ship). London: [HarperCollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins "HarperCollins"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-00-821515-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-821515-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-00-821515-6")
.
- Shipman, Tim (2017). [*Fall out: a year of political mayhem*](https://archive.org/details/falloutyearofpol0000ship). London: [HarperCollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins "HarperCollins"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-00-826441-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-826441-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-00-826441-3")
.
On Brexit debates in 2017
## External links
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=53 "Edit section: External links")\]
**Brexit** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects "Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects")
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg)[Definitions](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Brexit "wikt:Brexit") from Wiktionary
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg)[Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Brexit "c:Category:Brexit") from Commons
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikinews-logo.svg)[News](https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Brexit "n:Special:Search/Brexit") from Wikinews
- [Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Brexit "q:Brexit") from Wikiquote
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg)[Texts](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Consolidated_version_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union/Title_VI:_Final_Provisions#Article_50 "s:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title VI: Final Provisions") from Wikisource
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg)[Resources](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Brexit "v:Brexit") from Wikiversity
- [Data](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7888194 "d:Q7888194") from Wikidata
- [Early Parliamentary General Election Bill 2019â20, Progress in Parliament](https://services.parliament.uk/bills/2019-20/earlyparliamentarygeneralelection.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191031224436/https://services.parliament.uk/Bills/2019-20/earlyparliamentarygeneralelection.html) 31 October 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")
- [British government's Brexit information](https://www.gov.uk/government/brexit)
- [British government's official negotiation documents](https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/article-50-and-negotiations-with-the-eu)
- [European Parliament â Brexit impact studies](http://www.europarl.europa.eu/unitedkingdom/en/brexitpublic/brexitstudies.html)
- [Brexit news on Eur-Lex website](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/content/news/Brexit-UK-withdrawal-from-the-eu.html)
- [*Legal Effect of the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland*, Attorney General's advice to Prime Minister, 13 November 2018](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/761852/05_December-_EU_Exit_Attorney_General_s_legal_advice_to_Cabinet_on_the_Withdrawal_Agreement_and_the_Protocol_on_Ireland-Northern_Ireland.pdf)
- [British government's *Explainer* (for the withdrawal agreement) 14 November 2018](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/756376/14_November_Explainer_for_the_agreement_on_the_withdrawal_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland_from_the_European_Union___1_.pdf)
- [House of Lords report analysing the proposed Withdrawal Agreement, 5 December 2018](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201719/ldselect/ldeucom/245/245.pdf)
- [EU's official negotiation documents](https://ec.europa.eu/commission/brexit-negotiations/negotiating-documents-article-50-negotiations-united-kingdom_en)
- [British Parliament â Brexit News](http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/european-union)
- [Reading list of post-EU Referendum publications by Parliament and the Devolved Assemblies](https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7912) â House of Commons Library
- [Record of Brexit-related business in the devolved legislatures](https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7815) (Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) â House of Commons Library
- [Gov.UK â Department for Exiting the European Union](https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-exiting-the-european-union)
- [BBC: "Brexit: What are the options?" (10 October 2016)](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-37507129)
- [BBC: "Brexit vote: What could happen next?" (17 December 2018)](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-46393399)
- [*The Brexit Papers*, Bar Council, December 2016](https://web.archive.org/web/20170510154849/http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/media/508513/the_brexit_papers.pdf)
- ["Plan for Britain: The government's negotiating objectives for exiting the EU": PM's speech delivered and published on 17 January 2017](https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-governments-negotiating-objectives-for-exiting-the-eu-pm-speech) â transcript of speech as delivered at Lancaster House, London
- [*The United Kingdom's exit from and new partnership with the European Union*, February 2017 ("White paper")](https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/588948/The_United_Kingdoms_exit_from_and_partnership_with_the_EU_Web.pdf)
- [Quotes about Brexit](http://quotes.euronews.com/topic/brexit) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171114185045/http://quotes.euronews.com/topic/brexit) 14 November 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") on [Euronews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euronews "Euronews")
- [European Council Brexit Guidelines](http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/04/29-euco-brexit-guidelines)
- ["The economic effects of the government's proposed Brexit deal"](https://www.niesr.ac.uk/sites/default/files/publications/NIESR%20Report%20Brexit%20-%202018-11-26.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201227153734/https://www.niesr.ac.uk/sites/default/files/publications/NIESR%20Report%20Brexit%20-%202018-11-26.pdf) 27 December 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")âNational Institute of Economic and Social Research, November 2018
- [How will Brexit affect the UK's manufacturing industry?](http://blogs.sussex.ac.uk/uktpo/2018/02/06/manufacturing-industry/) UK Trade Policy Observatory, February 2018
- [The real post-Brexit options](https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/2018-Ivan_Rogers-the_real_post-Brexit_options.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191019121828/https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/2018-Ivan_Rogers-the_real_post-Brexit_options.pdf) 19 October 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") Lecture by Ivan Rogers at the University of Glasgow, 23 May 2018
- ["What are the options for the UK's trading relationship with the EU after Brexit?"](https://ukandeu.ac.uk/explainers/what-are-the-options-for-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-the-eu-after-brexit/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191022134307/http://ukandeu.ac.uk/explainers/what-are-the-options-for-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-the-eu-after-brexit/) 22 October 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") UK in a Changing Europe, King's College London, December 2018
- ["Brexit phrasebook: a guide to the talks' key terms"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jun/19/brexit-phrasebook-a-guide-to-the-talks-key-terms)â*The Guardian*, 23 November 2018
- ["Lord Ashcroft: How the United Kingdom voted on EU referendum day â and why"](https://www.conservativehome.com/platform/2019/03/lord-ashcroft-how-the-united-kingdom-voted-on-eu-referendum-day-and-why.html) Conservative Home, 17 March 2019
- [Explanatory Memorandum for the *Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Consequential Provisions) Bill 2019* introduced by the Irish government in the legislature](https://www.dfa.ie/media/dfa/eu/brexit/keydocuments/Omnibus-Bill-Memo.pdf) ([Oireachtas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oireachtas "Oireachtas"))
- [EU Council decision, 22 March 2019, extending the negotiating period](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2019%3A080I%3AFULL&from=EN)
- Garrahan, Daniel (2022). [*The Brexit effect: how leaving the EU hit the UK*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wO2lWmgEK1Y). FT Film. Financial Times. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
- [Constitutional implications of the Withdrawal Agreement legislation](https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8805/CBP-8805.pdf) â House of Commons Library February 2020
### About court cases
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=54 "Edit section: About court cases")\]
- [Judgment](http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/5.html) of the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom "Supreme Court of the United Kingdom") in *[R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union")*
- [Judgment](http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&docid=208636&pageIndex=0&doclang=en&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=1085843) of the [European Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice "European Court of Justice") in the *Wightman* case: Right of unilateral revocation of the notification
- *[Wilson v Prime Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson_v_Prime_Minister "Wilson v Prime Minister")* (2018) [EWHC 3520 (Admin)](https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190116153032/https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf) 16 January 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")
- Ewan McGaughey ["Could Brexit be Void?"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09615768.2018.1555881) *King's Law Journal*, Volume 29, 2018, Issue 3
- [*UK withdrawal from the European Union: Legal and procedural issues*](http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/599352/EPRS_IDA\(2017\)599352_EN.pdf) European Parliamentary Research Service, March 2017
- Ronan McCrea. ["The legal issues of revoking the notification to leave the EU â but then notifying to leave again"](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2018/12/20/the-legal-issues-of-revoking-the-notification-to-leave-the-eu-but-then-notifying-to-leave-again/). London School of Economics, 20 December 2018
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Brexit_topics "Template:Brexit topics") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Brexit_topics "Template talk:Brexit topics") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Brexit_topics "Special:EditPage/Template:Brexit topics")[2016 UK European Union Membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") and [Brexit]() | |
|---|---|
| [Renegotiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_United_Kingdom_renegotiation_of_European_Union_membership "2015â2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership") [Referendum results](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_of_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Invocation of Article 50](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union") [Negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations") [Withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") [Northern Ireland protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_protocol "Northern Ireland protocol") [Trade negotiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU "Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU") [Trade and Cooperation Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement "EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement") [Windsor Framework](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Framework "Windsor Framework") [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Brexit "Timeline of Brexit") | |
| Referendum question | "[Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_Act_2015#Referendum_question "European Union Referendum Act 2015")" |
| Referendum legislation | [European Union Referendum Act 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_Act_2015 "European Union Referendum Act 2015") [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Referendum\)_Act_2016_\(Gibraltar\) "European Union (Referendum) Act 2016 (Gibraltar)") [European Union Referendum (Date of Referendum etc.) Regulations 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_\(Date_of_Referendum_etc.\)_Regulations_2016 "European Union Referendum (Date of Referendum etc.) Regulations 2016") [The European Union Referendum (Conduct) Regulations 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_European_Union_Referendum_\(Conduct\)_Regulations_2016 "The European Union Referendum (Conduct) Regulations 2016") |
| Background | |
| | |
| [Treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaties_of_the_European_Union "Treaties of the European Union") | [Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome "Treaty of Rome") [1972 Accession Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Accession_1972 "Treaty of Accession 1972") [Single European Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_European_Act "Single European Act") [Maastricht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty "Maastricht Treaty") [Amsterdam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Amsterdam "Treaty of Amsterdam") [Nice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nice "Treaty of Nice") [European Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_establishing_a_Constitution_for_Europe "Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe") [Lisbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon "Treaty of Lisbon") [UK opt-outs from EU legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_opt-outs_from_EU_legislation "United Kingdom opt-outs from EU legislation") |
| [Legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_relating_to_the_European_Communities_and_the_European_Union "Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom relating to the European Communities and the European Union") | [European Communities Act 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_\(UK\) "European Communities Act 1972 (UK)") Amendments: [1986](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_1986 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 1986") [1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_1993 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 1993") [1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_1998 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 1998") [2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_2002 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 2002") [2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Amendment\)_Act_2008 "European Union (Amendment) Act 2008") [2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Act_2011 "European Union Act 2011") [European Economic Area Act 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Area_Act_1993 "European Economic Area Act 1993") |
| Proposed bills | [European Union Bill 2004â05](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Bill_2004%E2%80%932005 "European Union Bill 2004â2005") [European Communities Act 1972 (Repeal) Bills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_\(Repeal\)_Bills "European Communities Act 1972 (Repeal) Bills") [European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013â14](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Referendum\)_Bill_2013%E2%80%9314 "European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013â14") |
| Elections | [2014 European Parliament election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") [2015 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election") |
| By-elections | [2014 Clacton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Clacton_by-election "2014 Clacton by-election") [2014 Heywood and Middleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Heywood_and_Middleton_by-election "2014 Heywood and Middleton by-election") [2014 Rochester and Strood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Rochester_and_Strood_by-election "2014 Rochester and Strood by-election") |
| Other | [UK accession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Communities "Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities") [1973 EC enlargement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_enlargement_of_the_European_Communities "1973 enlargement of the European Communities") [UK membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_membership_of_the_European_Union "United Kingdom membership of the European Union") [1975 EC membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum") [UK rebate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_rebate "UK rebate") [Bruges speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges_speech "Bruges speech") [No. No. No.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._No._No._\(Margaret_Thatcher\) "No. No. No. (Margaret Thatcher)") [Black Wednesday](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Wednesday "Black Wednesday") [EEA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Area "European Economic Area") [Maastricht Rebels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Rebels "Maastricht Rebels") *[The European Union: In or Out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_European_Union:_In_or_Out "The European Union: In or Out")* [Bloomberg speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_speech "Bloomberg speech") [Russian interference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum "Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum") [Balance of Competences Review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_Competences_Review "Balance of Competences Review") [2015â16 renegotiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_United_Kingdom_renegotiation_of_European_Union_membership "2015â2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership") [Euroscepticism in the UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism_in_the_United_Kingdom "Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom") |
| [Campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaigning_in_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Campaigning in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") | [Issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issues_in_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Issues in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Opinion polling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Endorsements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorsements_in_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Endorsements in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Project Fear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Fear "Project Fear") [Unlawful campaigning allegations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegations_of_unlawful_campaigning_in_the_2016_EU_referendum "Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum") *[Brexit: The Movie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit:_The_Movie "Brexit: The Movie")* [Pro-EU leaflet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-EU_leaflet "Pro-EU leaflet") [Breaking Point (UKIP poster)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaking_Point_\(UKIP_poster\) "Breaking Point (UKIP poster)") |
| Campaign organisations | |
| | |
| [Remain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_campaign_organisations_supporting_Remain_in_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "List of campaign organisations supporting Remain in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") | [Britain Stronger in Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain_Stronger_in_Europe "Britain Stronger in Europe") (official campaign) [Labour In for Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_In_for_Britain "Labour In for Britain") |
| Leave | [Vote Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_Leave "Vote Leave") (official campaign) [Vote Leave bus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_Leave_bus "Vote Leave bus") [Leave.EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave.EU "Leave.EU") [BeLeave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeLeave "BeLeave") [Grassroots Out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassroots_Out "Grassroots Out") [Labour Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Leave "Labour Leave") [Campaign for an Independent Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_for_an_Independent_Britain "Campaign for an Independent Britain") [The Freedom Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Freedom_Association "The Freedom Association") [Better Off Out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Better_Off_Out "Better Off Out") [Get Britain Out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Britain_Out "Get Britain Out") [Bruges Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges_Group_\(United_Kingdom\) "Bruges Group (United Kingdom)") |
| [Aftermath of referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") | |
| | |
| Political party leadership elections | Conservative [2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2016 Conservative Party leadership election") [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2019 Conservative Party leadership election") [Scottish, February 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_2020_Scottish_Conservatives_leadership_election "February 2020 Scottish Conservatives leadership election") [Labour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Labour_Party_leadership_election_\(UK\) "2016 Labour Party leadership election (UK)") [UKIP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%E2%80%93September_2016_UK_Independence_Party_leadership_election "JulyâSeptember 2016 UK Independence Party leadership election") |
| [Opposition to Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_Brexit "Opposition to Brexit") | [Proposed second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement") [People's Vote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Vote "People's Vote") [Petition to revoke Article 50](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoke_Article_50_and_remain_in_the_EU_petition "Revoke Article 50 and remain in the EU petition") [Led By Donkeys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led_By_Donkeys "Led By Donkeys") [Bollocks to Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bollocks_to_Brexit "Bollocks to Brexit") |
| Elections | [2017 local](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2017 United Kingdom local elections") [2017 general](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") [2018 local](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2018 United Kingdom local elections") [2019 local](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2019 United Kingdom local elections") [2019 European Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") [Brexit Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Party "Brexit Party") [2019 general](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election") |
| By-elections | [2016 Witney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Witney_by-election "2016 Witney by-election") [2016 Richmond Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Richmond_Park_by-election "2016 Richmond Park by-election") [2016 Sleaford and North Hykeham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Sleaford_and_North_Hykeham_by-election "2016 Sleaford and North Hykeham by-election") [2017 Copeland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Copeland_by-election "2017 Copeland by-election") [2017 Stoke-on-Trent Central](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Stoke-on-Trent_Central_by-election "2017 Stoke-on-Trent Central by-election") [2019 Peterborough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Peterborough_by-election "2019 Peterborough by-election") [2019 Brecon and Radnorshire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Brecon_and_Radnorshire_by-election "2019 Brecon and Radnorshire by-election") |
| Other | [International reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [March to Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_to_Leave "March to Leave") [Brexit Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Alliance "Brexit Alliance") [Blue Collar Conservativism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Collar_Conservativism "Blue Collar Conservativism") [Brexit Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Party "Brexit Party") [Independent Alliance for Reform](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Alliance_for_Reform "Independent Alliance for Reform") |
| Brexit process | [*Miller I* case](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union") [Invocation of Article 50](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union") [Negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations") [Brexit divorce bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_divorce_bill "Brexit divorce bill") [2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations_in_2017 "Brexit negotiations in 2017") [2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations_in_2018 "Brexit negotiations in 2018") [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations_in_2019 "Brexit negotiations in 2019") [Withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") [Parliamentary votes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") [No-deal Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-deal_Brexit "No-deal Brexit") [Operation Yellowhammer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Yellowhammer "Operation Yellowhammer") [Prorogation of Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_British_prorogation_controversy "2019 British prorogation controversy") [*Miller II / Cherry* case](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_The_Prime_Minister_and_Cherry_v_Advocate_General_for_Scotland "R (Miller) v The Prime Minister and Cherry v Advocate General for Scotland") [Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU "Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU") [Fish for finance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_for_finance "Fish for finance") [EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement "EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement") |
| [Impact of Brexit and potential effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit "Impact of Brexit") | |
| | |
| on Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland | [2024 Northern Ireland Executive formation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Northern_Ireland_Executive_formation "2024 Northern Ireland Executive formation") [Brexit and the Irish border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_and_the_Irish_border "Brexit and the Irish border") [Northern Ireland Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol") [proposed changes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol_Bill "Northern Ireland Protocol Bill") [Irish Sea border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sea_border "Irish Sea border") [Windsor Framework](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Framework "Windsor Framework") |
| Other | [on Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_Brexit_on_Gibraltar "Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar") [on the EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit_on_the_European_Union "Impact of Brexit on the European Union") [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_and_arrangements_for_science_and_technology "Brexit and arrangements for science and technology") [Economic effects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_effects_of_Brexit "Economic effects of Brexit") [EUâUK relations after Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Brexit_United_Kingdom_relations_with_the_European_Union "Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union") |
| Brexit legislation | |
| | |
| White papers | [Brexit plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_plan "Brexit plan") [Repeal Bill plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeal_Bill_plan "Repeal Bill plan") [Chequers plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chequers_plan "Chequers plan") [Brexit withdrawal agreement plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement_plan "Brexit withdrawal agreement plan") |
| Enacted | [Notification of Withdrawal Act 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Notification_of_Withdrawal\)_Act_2017 "European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017") [Withdrawal Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018") ([Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2019_\(Gibraltar\) "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019 (Gibraltar)")) [Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Safeguards_Act_2018 "Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018") [CooperâLetwin Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2019 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019") [Benn Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_\(No._2\)_Act_2019 "European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019") [Withdrawal Agreement Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020") ([Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020_\(Gibraltar\) "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 (Gibraltar)")) [Internal Market Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_Internal_Market_Act_2020 "United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020") [Future Relationship Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Future_Relationship\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Future Relationship) Act 2020") [UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Continuity) (Scotland) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union_\(Continuity\)_\(Scotland\)_Act_2020 "UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Continuity) (Scotland) Act 2020") [Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Act 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retained_EU_Law_\(Revocation_and_Reform\)_Act_2023 "Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Act 2023") |
| Proposed | [Terms of Withdrawal from EU (Referendum) Bills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terms_of_Withdrawal_from_EU_\(Referendum\)_Bills "Terms of Withdrawal from EU (Referendum) Bills") [UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal Continuity) (Scotland) Bill 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union_\(Legal_Continuity\)_\(Scotland\)_Bill_2018 "UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal Continuity) (Scotland) Bill 2018") [European Union Withdrawal Agreement (Public Vote) Bill 2017â19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Withdrawal_Agreement_\(Public_Vote\)_Bill_2017%E2%80%9319 "European Union Withdrawal Agreement (Public Vote) Bill 2017â19") |
| Related | [Brexit 50p coin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_50p_coin "Brexit 50p coin") [Change Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_Britain "Change Britain") [Change UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_UK "Change UK") [Chaos with Ed Miliband](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_with_Ed_Miliband "Chaos with Ed Miliband") [European Research Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Research_Group "European Research Group") "[Enemies of the People](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemies_of_the_People_\(headline\) "Enemies of the People (headline)")" [Leave Means Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_Means_Leave "Leave Means Leave") [Led By Donkeys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led_By_Donkeys "Led By Donkeys") [More United](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_United "More United") [Northern Future Forum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Future_Forum "Northern Future Forum") *[The New European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_European "The New European")* [Open Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Britain "Open Britain") [Proposed second Scottish independence referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_second_Scottish_independence_referendum "Proposed second Scottish independence referendum") [Reform UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_UK "Reform UK") [Rue du Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rue_du_Brexit "Rue du Brexit") [Terminology (Glossary)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Brexit_terms "Glossary of Brexit terms") [Tufton Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufton_Street "Tufton Street") [United Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Ireland "United Ireland") [Voting pencil conspiracy theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_pencil_conspiracy_theory "Voting pencil conspiracy theory") [Retained EU law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retained_EU_law_\(UK_Law\) "Retained EU law (UK Law)") [2017 Diane AbbottâDavid Davis controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Diane_Abbott%E2%80%93David_Davis_controversy "2017 Diane AbbottâDavid Davis controversy") |
| [Media depictions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_in_popular_culture "Brexit in popular culture") | *[Remainiacs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remainiacs "Remainiacs")* (2017) *[Postcards from the 48%](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcards_from_the_48%25 "Postcards from the 48%")* (2018) *[Not Tonight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_Tonight_\(video_game\) "Not Tonight (video game)")* (2018) *[Brexit: The Uncivil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit:_The_Uncivil_War "Brexit: The Uncivil War")* (2019) [@BorderIrish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BorderIrish "BorderIrish") (2018â2020) |
|  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Brexit "Category:Brexit") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:David_Cameron "Template:David Cameron") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:David_Cameron "Template talk:David Cameron") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:David_Cameron "Special:EditPage/Template:David Cameron")[David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") | | |
|---|---|---|
| [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom") (2010â2016) [Foreign Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Secretary_\(United_Kingdom\) "Foreign Secretary (United Kingdom)") (2023â2024) [Leader of the Opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_\(United_Kingdom\) "Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)") (2005â2010) [Leader of the Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leader_of_the_Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)") (2005â2016) [MP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_\(United_Kingdom\) "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)") for [Witney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witney_\(UK_Parliament_constituency\) "Witney (UK Parliament constituency)") (2001â2016) | | |
| [Premiership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premiership_of_David_Cameron "Premiership of David Cameron") | [CameronâClegg coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron%E2%80%93Clegg_coalition "CameronâClegg coalition") [Second Cameron ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Cameron_ministry "Second Cameron ministry") [2010 coalition negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_government_formation "2010 United Kingdom government formation") [ConservativeâLiberal Democrat coalition agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative%E2%80%93Liberal_Democrat_coalition_agreement "ConservativeâLiberal Democrat coalition agreement") [Nick Clegg's tenure as Deputy Prime Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Clegg%27s_tenure_as_Deputy_Prime_Minister "Nick Clegg's tenure as Deputy Prime Minister") [Chancellorship of George Osborne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellorship_of_George_Osborne "Chancellorship of George Osborne") [Austerity programme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_government_austerity_programme "United Kingdom government austerity programme") [2010 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2010_United_Kingdom_budget "June 2010 United Kingdom budget") [2011 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_budget "2011 United Kingdom budget") [2012 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_United_Kingdom_budget "2012 United Kingdom budget") [2013 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_United_Kingdom_budget "2013 United Kingdom budget") [2014 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_United_Kingdom_budget "2014 United Kingdom budget") [March 2015 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2015_United_Kingdom_budget "March 2015 United Kingdom budget") [July 2015 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_2015_United_Kingdom_budget "July 2015 United Kingdom budget") [2016 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_budget "2016 United Kingdom budget") [Theresa May's tenure as Home Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May%27s_tenure_as_Home_Secretary "Theresa May's tenure as Home Secretary") [Iain Duncan Smith's tenure as Work and Pensions Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iain_Duncan_Smith%27s_tenure_as_Work_and_Pensions_Secretary "Iain Duncan Smith's tenure as Work and Pensions Secretary") [Michael Gove's tenure as Education Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Gove%27s_tenure_as_Education_Secretary "Michael Gove's tenure as Education Secretary") [Jeremy Hunt's tenure as Health Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Hunt%27s_tenure_as_Health_Secretary "Jeremy Hunt's tenure as Health Secretary") [Big Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Society "Big Society") [Muscular liberalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscular_liberalism "Muscular liberalism") [Project Merlin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Merlin "Project Merlin") [Austerity programme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_government_austerity_programme "United Kingdom government austerity programme") [Cash for Access scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_United_Kingdom_cash_for_access_scandal "2012 United Kingdom cash for access scandal") [2012 cabinet reshuffle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_British_cabinet_reshuffle "2012 British cabinet reshuffle") [2014 cabinet reshuffle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_British_cabinet_reshuffle "2014 British cabinet reshuffle") [2016 EU referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") [Resignation Honours](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Prime_Minister%27s_Resignation_Honours "2016 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours") [Piggate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggate "Piggate") [2012 Ecuador diplomatic crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012-2013_Ecuador%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_diplomatic_crisis "2012-2013 EcuadorâUnited Kingdom diplomatic crisis") [International trips](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_prime_ministerial_trips_made_by_David_Cameron "List of international prime ministerial trips made by David Cameron") [State visit by Barack Obama to the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_visit_by_Barack_Obama_to_the_United_Kingdom "State visit by Barack Obama to the United Kingdom") | [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_Cameron_Official_Portrait_2023_\(cropped\).jpg) |
| Foreign Secretary | [November 2023 British cabinet reshuffle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_2023_British_cabinet_reshuffle "November 2023 British cabinet reshuffle") [International trips](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_trips_made_by_David_Cameron_as_Foreign_Secretary "List of international trips made by David Cameron as Foreign Secretary") | |
| Politics | [Political positions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_positions_of_David_Cameron "Political positions of David Cameron") [Shadow Cabinet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_David_Cameron "Shadow Cabinet of David Cameron") [Opposition frontbench](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_frontbench_of_David_Cameron "Opposition frontbench of David Cameron") [Witney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witney_\(UK_Parliament_constituency\) "Witney (UK Parliament constituency)") [The A-List](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_A-List "Conservative A-List") [Cameron Cutie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Cutie "Cameron Cutie") *[Our Society, Your Life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Society,_Your_Life "Our Society, Your Life")* [Greensill scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greensill_scandal "Greensill scandal") | |
| [Electoral history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_history_of_David_Cameron "Electoral history of David Cameron") | [2005 (party leadership)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2005 Conservative Party leadership election") [2006 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2006 United Kingdom local elections") [2007 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2007 United Kingdom local elections") [2008 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2008 United Kingdom local elections") [2009 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2009 United Kingdom local elections") [2009 (European)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2009 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") [2010 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2010 United Kingdom local elections") [2010 (general)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election "2010 United Kingdom general election") [2011 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2011 United Kingdom local elections") [2012 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2012 United Kingdom local elections") [2013 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2013 United Kingdom local elections") [2014 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2014 United Kingdom local elections") [2014 (European)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") [2015 (general)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election") [2015 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2015 United Kingdom local elections") [2016 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2016 United Kingdom local elections") | |
| [Family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_of_David_Cameron "Family of David Cameron") | [Samantha Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samantha_Cameron "Samantha Cameron") (wife) [Alexander Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Cameron_\(barrister\) "Alexander Cameron (barrister)") (brother) [Sir William Mount, 2nd Baronet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Mount,_2nd_Baronet "Sir William Mount, 2nd Baronet") (grandfather) | |
| Public image | [1987 Bullingdon Club photograph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_Bullingdon_Club_photograph "1987 Bullingdon Club photograph") [Notting Hill set](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notting_Hill_set "Notting Hill set") (2004) [Dave the Chameleon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_the_Chameleon "Dave the Chameleon") (2006) [WebCameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebCameron "WebCameron") (2006) *[Make Me a Tory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_Me_a_Tory "Make Me a Tory")* (2007) *[The Trial of Tony Blair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trial_of_Tony_Blair "The Trial of Tony Blair")* (2007) *[Headcases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headcases "Headcases")* (2008 TV series) *[When Boris Met Dave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Boris_Met_Dave "When Boris Met Dave")* (2009) *[The Cobra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cobra_\(novel\) "The Cobra (novel)")* (2010 novel) *Friends* (2010) *[Britain's Economy: Cameron and Clegg Face the Audience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain%27s_Economy:_Cameron_and_Clegg_Face_the_Audience "Britain's Economy: Cameron and Clegg Face the Audience")* (2010) [Chipping Norton set](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipping_Norton_set "Chipping Norton set") (2010) *[The Audience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Audience_\(2013_play\) "The Audience (2013 play)")* (2013 play) *[Coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_\(film\) "Coalition (film)")* (2015) *[Cameron's Coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron%27s_Coup "Cameron's Coup")* (2015) *[Call Me Dave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Me_Dave "Call Me Dave")* (2015) *[Newzoids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newzoids "Newzoids")* (2015â2016 TV series) *[Brexit: The Uncivil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit:_The_Uncivil_War "Brexit: The Uncivil War")* (2019) *[For the Record](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_the_Record_\(book\) "For the Record (book)")* (2019) | |
| **[â Gordon Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Brown "Gordon Brown")** **[Theresa May â](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May")**  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:David_Cameron "Category:David Cameron") | | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Theresa_May "Template:Theresa May") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Theresa_May "Template talk:Theresa May") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theresa_May "Special:EditPage/Template:Theresa May")[Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") | | |
|---|---|---|
| [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom") (2016â2019) [Leader of the Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leader_of_the_Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)") (2016â2019) [Home Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Secretary "Home Secretary") (2010â2016) [MP for Maidenhead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maidenhead_\(UK_Parliament_constituency\) "Maidenhead (UK Parliament constituency)") (1997â2024) | | |
| [Home Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May_as_Home_Secretary "Theresa May as Home Secretary") | [National Crime Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Crime_Agency "National Crime Agency") [Draft Communications Data Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft_Communications_Data_Bill "Draft Communications Data Bill") [Investigatory Powers Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigatory_Powers_Act_2016 "Investigatory Powers Act 2016") [Policing and Crime Bill 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policing_and_Crime_Act_2017 "Policing and Crime Act 2017") [Police and crime commissioners](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_and_crime_commissioners "Police and crime commissioners") [Home Office hostile environment policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Office_hostile_environment_policy "Home Office hostile environment policy") [Operation Yewtree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Yewtree "Operation Yewtree") [Murder of Jo Cox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Jo_Cox "Murder of Jo Cox") | [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theresa_May_official_portrait_\(cropped\).jpg) |
| [Premiership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premiership_of_Theresa_May "Premiership of Theresa May") | [First ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_May_ministry "First May ministry") [Second ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_May_ministry "Second May ministry") [ConservativeâDUP agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative%E2%80%93DUP_agreement "ConservativeâDUP agreement") [list of resignations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departures_from_the_second_May_ministry "List of departures from the second May ministry") [2018 cabinet reshuffle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_British_cabinet_reshuffle "2018 British cabinet reshuffle") [2018 Conservative Party vote of no confidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Conservative_Party_leadership_election#12_December_confidence_vote "2019 Conservative Party leadership election") [International trips](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_prime_ministerial_trips_made_by_Theresa_May "List of international prime ministerial trips made by Theresa May") [Boris Johnson as Foreign Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson_as_Foreign_Secretary "Boris Johnson as Foreign Secretary") [Jeremy Hunt's tenure as Health Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Hunt%27s_tenure_as_Health_Secretary "Jeremy Hunt's tenure as Health Secretary") [Brexit]() [Article 50 invocation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union") [negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations") [European Union (Withdrawal) Bill 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018") [Chequers plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chequers_plan "Chequers plan") [Irish backstop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop") [Brexit withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") [meaningful vote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") [European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020") [vote of confidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_vote_of_confidence_in_the_May_ministry "2019 vote of confidence in the May ministry") [Windrush scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windrush_scandal "Windrush scandal") [2019 state visit by Donald Trump to the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_state_visit_by_Donald_Trump_to_the_United_Kingdom "2019 state visit by Donald Trump to the United Kingdom") [Resignation Honours](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Prime_Minister%27s_Resignation_Honours "2019 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours") | |
| Politics | [Electoral history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Theresa_May "Electoral history of Theresa May") [Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") [One-nation conservatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-nation_conservatism "One-nation conservatism") | |
| Elections | [2016 (party leadership)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2016 Conservative Party leadership election") [2017 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2017 United Kingdom local elections") [2017 (general)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") [2018 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2018 United Kingdom local elections") [2019 (local)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2019 United Kingdom local elections") [2019 (European)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom") | |
| Family | [Philip May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_May "Philip May") (husband) | |
| Slogans | "[Strong and stable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_and_stable "Strong and stable")" "[Brexit means Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_means_Brexit "Brexit means Brexit")" | |
| See also | "[Running through fields of wheat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Running_through_fields_of_wheat "Running through fields of wheat")" *[The Abuse of Power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Abuse_of_Power "The Abuse of Power")* | |
| **[â David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron")** **[Boris Johnson â](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson")**  [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Theresa_May "Category:Theresa May") | | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Boris_Johnson "Template:Boris Johnson") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Boris_Johnson "Template talk:Boris Johnson") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Boris_Johnson "Special:EditPage/Template:Boris Johnson")[Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") | |
|---|---|
| [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom") (2019â2022) MP for [Uxbridge and South Ruislip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uxbridge_and_South_Ruislip_\(UK_Parliament_constituency\) "Uxbridge and South Ruislip (UK Parliament constituency)") (2015â2023) [Mayor of London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_London "Mayor of London") (2008â2016) | |
| [Premiership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premiership_of_Boris_Johnson "Premiership of Boris Johnson") | |
| | |
| [First ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Johnson_ministry "First Johnson ministry") | [2019 Conservative Party leadership election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2019 Conservative Party leadership election") [2019 G7 summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45th_G7_summit "45th G7 summit") [Prorogation controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_British_prorogation_controversy "2019 British prorogation controversy") [Suspension of rebel Conservative MPs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_suspension_of_rebel_Conservative_MPs "2019 suspension of rebel Conservative MPs") |
| [Second ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Johnson_ministry "Second Johnson ministry") | [Chancellorship of Rishi Sunak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellorship_of_Rishi_Sunak "Chancellorship of Rishi Sunak") [2020 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_Kingdom_budget "2020 United Kingdom budget") [March 2021 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_2021_United_Kingdom_budget "March 2021 United Kingdom budget") [October 2021 budget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_2021_United_Kingdom_budget "October 2021 United Kingdom budget") [List of departures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departures_from_the_second_Johnson_ministry "List of departures from the second Johnson ministry") [2020 cabinet reshuffle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_British_cabinet_reshuffle "2020 British cabinet reshuffle") [2021 cabinet reshuffle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_British_cabinet_reshuffle "2021 British cabinet reshuffle") [EU withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020") [Northern Ireland Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol") [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") [government response](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic "British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic") [lockdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_lockdown_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom") [vaccinations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccination_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 vaccination in the United Kingdom") [contracts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_contracts_in_the_United_Kingdom "COVID-19 contracts in the United Kingdom") [controversies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversies_regarding_COVID-19_contracts_in_the_United_Kingdom "Controversies regarding COVID-19 contracts in the United Kingdom") [Dominic Cummings scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic_Cummings_scandal "Dominic Cummings scandal") [Partygate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partygate "Partygate") [Commons Privileges Committee investigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commons_Privileges_Committee_investigation_into_Boris_Johnson "Commons Privileges Committee investigation into Boris Johnson") [Downing Street refurbishment controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downing_Street_refurbishment_controversy "Downing Street refurbishment controversy") [2021 State Opening of Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_State_Opening_of_Parliament "2021 State Opening of Parliament") [2021 G7 summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/47th_G7_summit "47th G7 summit") [New Atlantic Charter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Atlantic_Charter "New Atlantic Charter") [Evacuations from Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Pitting "Operation Pitting") [COP26](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COP26 "COP26") [Irish Sea Bridge feasibility study](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sea_Bridge "Irish Sea Bridge") [Owen Paterson scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen_Paterson_scandal "Owen Paterson scandal") [Parliamentary second jobs controversy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_parliamentary_second_jobs_controversy "United Kingdom parliamentary second jobs controversy") [Levelling-up policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelling-up_policy_of_the_British_government "Levelling-up policy of the British government") [Growth deals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_deal "Growth deal") [White Paper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelling_Up_White_Paper "Levelling Up White Paper") [Great British Railways](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_British_Railways "Great British Railways") [Integrated Rail Plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Rail_Plan_for_the_North_and_Midlands "Integrated Rail Plan for the North and Midlands") [Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU "Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU") [Trade and Cooperation Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement "EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement") [Cost of living crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_cost-of-living_crisis "United Kingdom cost-of-living crisis") [Rwanda asylum plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda_asylum_plan "Rwanda asylum plan") [Murder of David Amess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_David_Amess "Murder of David Amess") [War in Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "United Kingdom and the Russian invasion of Ukraine") [2022 State Opening of Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_State_Opening_of_Parliament "2022 State Opening of Parliament") [2022 Conservative Party confidence vote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_vote_of_confidence_in_the_Conservative_Party_leadership_of_Boris_Johnson "2022 vote of confidence in the Conservative Party leadership of Boris Johnson") [2022 G7 summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/48th_G7_summit "48th G7 summit") [Chris Pincher scandal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Pincher_scandal "Chris Pincher scandal") [July 2022 government crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_2022_United_Kingdom_government_crisis "July 2022 United Kingdom government crisis") [2022 cabinet reshuffle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_2022_British_cabinet_reshuffle "July 2022 British cabinet reshuffle") [2022 vote of confidence in the Johnson ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_vote_of_confidence_in_the_Johnson_ministry "2022 vote of confidence in the Johnson ministry") [Conservative Party leadership election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%E2%80%93September_2022_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "JulyâSeptember 2022 Conservative Party leadership election") [Resignation Honours](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Prime_Minister%27s_Resignation_Honours_\(Boris_Johnson\) "2022 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours (Boris Johnson)") |
| [Mayoralty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayoralty_of_Boris_Johnson "Mayoralty of Boris Johnson") | ["Boris Island"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Britannia_Airport "London Britannia Airport") ["Boris Bikes"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santander_Cycles "Santander Cycles") [New Routemaster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Routemaster "New Routemaster") [2011 London riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_England_riots "2011 England riots") [London Cable Car](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Cable_Car "London Cable Car") [2012 Summer Olympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics "2012 Summer Olympics") [2012 Summer Paralympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Paralympics "2012 Summer Paralympics") [Garden Bridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_Bridge "Garden Bridge") [Night Tube](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_Tube "Night Tube") [Jennifer Arcuri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Arcuri "Jennifer Arcuri") |
| Other offices held | [Leader of the Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leader_of_the_Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)") (2019â2022) [Commonwealth Chair-in-Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Chair-in-Office "Commonwealth Chair-in-Office") (2019â2022) [Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson_as_Foreign_Secretary "Boris Johnson as Foreign Secretary") (2016â2018) [Shadow Minister for Higher Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_Minister_for_Higher_Education "Shadow Minister for Higher Education") (2005â2007) [Shadow Minister for the Arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_Minister_for_the_Arts "Shadow Minister for the Arts") (2004) MP for [Henley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henley_\(UK_Parliament_constituency\) "Henley (UK Parliament constituency)") (2001â2008) |
| [Elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Boris_Johnson "Electoral history of Boris Johnson") | [2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_London_mayoral_election "2008 London mayoral election") (Mayoral) [2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_London_mayoral_election "2012 London mayoral election") (Mayoral) [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election") (General) [2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2021 United Kingdom local elections") (Local) [2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_United_Kingdom_local_elections "2022 United Kingdom local elections") (Local) |
| Books | |
| | |
| By Johnson | *[Friends, Voters, Countrymen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends,_Voters,_Countrymen "Friends, Voters, Countrymen")* (2002) *[Seventy-Two Virgins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventy-Two_Virgins "Seventy-Two Virgins")* (2004) *[The Dream of Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dream_of_Rome "The Dream of Rome")* (2006) *[The Churchill Factor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Churchill_Factor "The Churchill Factor")* (2014) *[Unleashed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unleashed_\(memoir\) "Unleashed (memoir)")* (2024) |
| About Johnson | *[Boris: The Rise of Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris:_The_Rise_of_Boris_Johnson "Boris: The Rise of Boris Johnson")* (2006) *[Boris v. Ken](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_v._Ken "Boris v. Ken")* (2008) |
| [Public image](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_image_of_Boris_Johnson "Public image of Boris Johnson") | |
| | |
| Cultural depictions | *[Headcases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headcases "Headcases")* (2008) *[When Boris Met Dave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Boris_Met_Dave "When Boris Met Dave")* (2009) *[Newzoids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newzoids "Newzoids")* (2015â2016) *[South Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Members_Only_\(South_Park\) "Members Only (South Park)")* (2016) *[Brexit: The Uncivil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit:_The_Uncivil_War "Brexit: The Uncivil War")* (2019) "[Vossi Bop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vossi_Bop "Vossi Bop")" (2019) "[Boris Johnson Is a Fucking Cunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson_Is_a_Fucking_Cunt "Boris Johnson Is a Fucking Cunt")" (2020) "[Can't Stop Christmas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can%27t_Stop_Christmas "Can't Stop Christmas")" (2020) *[Spitting Image](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitting_Image_\(2020_TV_series\) "Spitting Image (2020 TV series)")* (2020â2021) "[Boris Johnson Is Still a Fucking Cunt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson_Is_Still_a_Fucking_Cunt "Boris Johnson Is Still a Fucking Cunt")" (2021) *[This England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_England_\(TV_series\) "This England (TV series)")* (2022) *[DSP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSP_\(film\) "DSP (film)")* (2022) *[Partygate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partygate_\(TV_drama\) "Partygate (TV drama)")* (2023) |
| Family | [Allegra Mostyn-Owen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegra_Mostyn-Owen "Allegra Mostyn-Owen") (first wife) [Marina Wheeler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Wheeler "Marina Wheeler") (second wife) [Carrie Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrie_Johnson "Carrie Johnson") (third wife) Lara Johnson-Wheeler (daughter) [Dilyn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilyn "Dilyn") (dog) [Stanley Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Johnson_\(writer\) "Stanley Johnson (writer)") (father) [Charlotte Fawcett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Johnson_Wahl "Charlotte Johnson Wahl") (mother) [Rachel Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Johnson "Rachel Johnson") (sister) [Jo Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo_Johnson "Jo Johnson") (brother) [Edmund Fawcett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Fawcett "Edmund Fawcett") (uncle) [James Fawcett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Fawcett "James Fawcett") (grandfather) [Ali Kemal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Kemal "Ali Kemal") (great-grandfather) [Elias Avery Lowe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_Avery_Lowe "Elias Avery Lowe") (great-grandfather) [H. T. Lowe-Porter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Tracy_Lowe-Porter "Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter") (great-grandmother) |
| â **[Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May")** **[Liz Truss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_Truss "Liz Truss")** â â [Ken Livingstone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Livingstone "Ken Livingstone") [Sadiq Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadiq_Khan "Sadiq Khan") â | |
| [Authority control databases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control "Help:Authority control") [](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7888194#identifiers "Edit this at Wikidata") | |
|---|---|
| International | [GND](https://d-nb.info/gnd/1109778066) |
| National | [United States](https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2017003454) [France](https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb17123335x) [BnF data](https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb17123335x) [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph949446&CON_LNG=ENG) [Latvia](https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000311302&P_CON_LNG=ENG) [Israel](https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007377769605171) |
| Other | [IdRef](https://www.idref.fr/200582151) [Yale LUX](https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/d06b6be5-443f-42c6-b0bb-fddb1ebf6a8a) |
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Brexit
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| Readable Markdown | [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Location_map_of_the_United_Kingdom_and_the_European_Union.svg)
The United Kingdom in orange; the European Union (27 member states) in blue: a representation of the result of Brexit
**Brexit** (;[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-1) a [portmanteau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portmanteau "Portmanteau") of "Britain" and "Exit") was the [withdrawal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Withdrawal from the European Union") of the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") (UK) from the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") (EU).
Brexit took place at 23:00 [GMT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT "GMT") on 31 January 2020 (00:00 1 February 2020 [CET](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_Time "Central European Time")).[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-2) The UK, which joined the EU precursor, the [European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") (EC), on 1 January 1973, is the only member state to have withdrawn, although previously the territories of [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria "Algeria") ceased to be part of the EC following its independence from the member state France in 1962 and [Greenland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland "Greenland") (part of the [Kingdom of Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Denmark "Kingdom of Denmark")) left the EC in 1985. Following Brexit, [EU law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_law "EU law") and the [Court of Justice of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union "Court of Justice of the European Union") no longer have [primacy over British law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_of_European_Union_law "Primacy of European Union law") but the UK remains bound by obligations in treaties it has with other countries around the world, including many with EU member states and with the EU itself. The [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018") retains relevant EU law as [domestic law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom "Law of the United Kingdom"), which the UK can amend or repeal.
The EU and its institutions developed gradually after their establishment. Throughout the period of British membership, [Eurosceptic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism_in_the_United_Kingdom "Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom") groups had existed in the UK, opposing aspects of the EU and its predecessors. The [Labour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)") prime minister [Harold Wilson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Wilson "Harold Wilson")'s pro-EC government held [a referendum on continued EC membership in 1975](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum"), in which 67.2% voted to stay. Despite growing political opposition by a minority of UK politicians to further [European integration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_integration "European integration") aimed at "[ever closer union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ever_closer_union "Ever closer union")" between 1975â2016, from factions of the [Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") in the 1980sâ2000s, no further referendums on the issue were held.
By the mid-2010s, the growing popularity of the [UK Independence Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Independence_Party "UK Independence Party") (UKIP), as well as pressure from Eurosceptics within his own party, persuaded the Conservative prime minister [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") to promise a referendum on British membership of the EU if his government was re-elected. Following the [2015 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election"), which produced a small but unexpected majority for the governing Conservative Party, the promised [referendum on continued EU membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") was held on 23 June 2016. Supporters of the [Remain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain_Stronger_in_Europe "Britain Stronger in Europe") campaign included then-prime minister David Cameron, the future prime ministers [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May"), [Liz Truss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_Truss "Liz Truss"), and [Sir Keir Starmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Keir_Starmer "Sir Keir Starmer"), and the exâprime ministers [John Major](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Major "John Major"), [Tony Blair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair "Tony Blair"), and [Gordon Brown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Brown "Gordon Brown"); supporters of the [Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_Leave "Vote Leave") campaign included the future prime ministers [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") and [Rishi Sunak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishi_Sunak "Rishi Sunak"). The electorate voted to Leave the EU by a slight margin, with a 51.9% share of the vote, all regions of [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England "England") and [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales "Wales") except [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_London "Greater London") voting in favour of Brexit, and [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") voting to remain. The result led to Cameron's sudden resignation, his replacement by former Home Secretary Theresa May, and four years of negotiations with the EU over the terms of departure and future relations, completed under a [Boris Johnson-led government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Johnson_ministry "First Johnson ministry"), with the Conservative Party in office.
The negotiation was both politically challenging and deeply divisive, leading to two snap general elections in [2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") and [2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election"). One proposal under the [second May ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_May_ministry "Second May ministry") was overwhelmingly rejected by the [UK Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Parliament "UK Parliament"), causing great uncertainty and leading to postponement of the withdrawal date to avoid a [no-deal Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-deal_Brexit "No-deal Brexit"). The UK officially left the European Union on 31 January 2020 after a withdrawal deal was passed by Parliament, but continued to participate in many EU institutions (including the single market and customs union) during an [eleven-month transition period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Brexit withdrawal agreement") during which it was hoped that details of the post-Brexit relationship could be agreed and implemented. [Trade deal negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU "Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU") continued within days of the scheduled end of the transition period, and the [EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement "EUâUK Trade and Cooperation Agreement") was signed on 30 December 2020. The effects of Brexit in the UK are in part determined by the cooperation agreement, which [provisionally applied](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_application_\(treaty\) "Provisional application (treaty)") from 1 January 2021, until it formally came into force on 1 May 2021.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CouncilRatifies-3)
Following a UK-wide [referendum on 23 June 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum"), in which 51.89 per cent voted in favour of leaving the EU and 48.11 per cent voted to remain a member state, [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") resigned as prime minister. On 29 March 2017, the new [British government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government "British government") led by [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") chose to formally notify the EU of the country's intention to withdraw from the EU in two years, despite there being no agreement among UK politicians on objectives for post-Brexit relations with the EU. The withdrawal, originally scheduled for 29 March 2019, was subsequently delayed by the [deadlock in the British parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") after the [June 2017 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election"), which resulted in a [hung parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_parliament "Hung parliament") in which the [Conservatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") lost their majority but remained the largest party. This deadlock eventually led to three extensions of the [UK's Article 50 process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_invocation_of_Article_50_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union "United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union").
The deadlock was resolved after a [subsequent general election was held in December 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election"). In that election, Conservatives who campaigned in support of a "hard-brexit" withdrawal agreement led by [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") won an overall majority of 80 seats. After the December 2019 election, the British parliament finally ratified the [withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_agreement "Withdrawal agreement") with the [European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020"). The UK left the EU at the end of 31 January 2020 [CET](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_Time "Central European Time") (11 p.m. [GMT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT "GMT")).[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-4) This began a transition period that ended on 31 December 2020 CET (11 p.m. GMT), during which the UK and EU negotiated their future relationship.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Bennett-5) During the transition, the UK remained subject to [EU law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_law "EU law") and remained part of the [European Union Customs Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union "European Union Customs Union") and the [European single market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_single_market "European single market"). However, it was no longer part of the EU's political bodies or institutions.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Edgington-6)[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-QAEC-7)
The withdrawal had been advocated by mostly right-wing and conservative [hard Eurosceptics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism#Hard_Euroscepticism "Euroscepticism") and opposed by [pro-Europeanists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-Europeanists "Pro-Europeanists") mostly from the rest of the political spectrum. [In 1973, the UK joined](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Communities "Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities") the [European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") (EC) â principally the [European Economic Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Community "European Economic Community") (EEC) â and its continued membership was endorsed in the [1975 membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum"). In the 1970s and 1980s, withdrawal from the EC was advocated mainly by the political left, e.g. in the [Labour Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)")'s 1983 election manifesto. The 1992 [Maastricht Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty "Maastricht Treaty"), which founded the EU, was [ratified by the British parliament in 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_\(Amendment\)_Act_1993 "European Communities (Amendment) Act 1993") but was not put to a referendum. The Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party led [a rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Rebels "Maastricht Rebels") over the ratification of the treaty and, with the [UK Independence Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Independence_Party "UK Independence Party") (UKIP) and the cross-party [People's Pledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Pledge "People's Pledge") campaign, then led a collective campaign, particularly after the [Treaty of Lisbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon "Treaty of Lisbon") was also ratified by the [European Union (Amendment) Act 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Amendment\)_Act_2008 "European Union (Amendment) Act 2008") without being put to a referendum following a previous promise to hold [a referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Bill_2004%E2%80%932005 "European Union Bill 2004â2005") on ratifying the abandoned [European Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Constitution "European Constitution"), which was never held. After promising to hold a second membership referendum if his government was elected, Conservative prime minister David Cameron held this referendum in 2016. Cameron, who had campaigned to remain, resigned after the result and was succeeded by [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May").
On 29 March 2017, the British government formally began the withdrawal process by invoking Article 50 of the [Treaty on European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_European_Union "Treaty on European Union") with [permission from Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Notification_of_Withdrawal\)_Act_2017 "European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017"). May called [a snap general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") in June 2017, which resulted in a Conservative minority government [supported](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_and_supply "Confidence and supply") by the [Democratic Unionist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Unionist_Party "Democratic Unionist Party") (DUP). UKâEU withdrawal negotiations began later that month. The UK negotiated to leave the EU customs union and single market. This resulted in the November 2018 [withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_agreement "Withdrawal agreement"), but the British parliament [voted against ratifying it](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") three times. The Labour Party wanted any agreement to maintain a customs union, while many Conservatives opposed the agreement's [financial settlement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_divorce_bill "Brexit divorce bill"), as well as the "[Irish backstop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop")" designed to prevent border controls between [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") and the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland"). The [Liberal Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_\(UK\) "Liberal Democrats (UK)"), [Scottish National Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_National_Party "Scottish National Party") (SNP), and others sought to reverse Brexit through [a proposed second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement").
On 14 March 2019, the British parliament voted for May to ask the EU to delay Brexit until June, and then later October.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Parliament_UK-8) Having failed to get her agreement approved, May resigned as prime minister in July and was succeeded by [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson"). He sought to replace parts of the agreement and vowed to leave the EU by the new deadline. On 17 October 2019, the British government and the EU agreed on a revised withdrawal agreement, with new arrangements for Northern Ireland.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Europa17oct19-9)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_News-10) Parliament approved the agreement for further scrutiny, but rejected passing it into law before the 31 October deadline, and forced the government (through the "[Benn Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benn_Act "Benn Act")") to ask for a third Brexit delay. [An early general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election") was then held on 12 December. The Conservatives won a large majority in that election, with Johnson declaring that the UK would leave the EU in early 2020.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-11) The withdrawal agreement was ratified by the UK on 23 January and by the EU on 30 January; it came into force on 31 January 2020.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian2020jan24-12)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-sparrow1-13)[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-autogenerated1-14)
## Terminology and etymology
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Terminology and etymology")\]
Following the referendum of 23 June 2016, many new pieces of Brexit-related [jargon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon "Jargon") entered popular use.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-15)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-16) The word *[Brexit](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Brexit "wiktionary:Brexit")* is a portmanteau of the phrase "British exit".[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Lewis-Hargreave-17) According to the *[Oxford English Dictionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary "Oxford English Dictionary")*, the term was coined in a blog post on the website [Euractiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euractiv "Euractiv") by Peter Wilding, director of European policy at [BSkyB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSkyB "BSkyB"), on 15 May 2012.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Tempest-18) Wilding coined *Brexit* to refer to the end of the UK's membership of the EU; by 2016, usage of the word had increased by 3,400% in one year.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Davis-19) On 2 November 2016, the *[Collins English Dictionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary "Collins English Dictionary")* selected *Brexit* as the [word of the year](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_of_the_year#Collins_English_Dictionary "Word of the year") for 2016.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Flood-20)
## Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inner_Six_and_Outer_Seven.svg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EC09-1973_European_Community_map.svg)
When the UK first joined the [European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") (along with [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") and [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland")) on 1 January 1973 it was one of just nine member states that made up the bloc at the time.
EC Members
The "[Inner Six](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Six "Inner Six")" European countries signed the [Treaty of Paris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_\(1951\) "Treaty of Paris (1951)") in 1951, establishing the [European Coal and Steel Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community "European Coal and Steel Community") (ECSC). The 1955 [Messina Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messina_Conference "Messina Conference") deemed that the ECSC was a success, and resolved to extend the concept further, thereby leading to the 1957 [Treaties of Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaties_of_Rome "Treaties of Rome") establishing the [European Economic Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Community "European Economic Community") (EEC) and the [European Atomic Energy Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Atomic_Energy_Community "European Atomic Energy Community") (Euratom). In [1967](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merger_Treaty "Merger Treaty"), these became known as the European Communities (EC). The UK attempted to join in 1963 and 1967, but these applications were vetoed by the [president of France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_France "President of France"), [Charles de Gaulle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle "Charles de Gaulle"), who feared the UK would be a [Trojan Horse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Horse "Trojan Horse") for US influence.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-21)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-22)
Some time after de Gaulle resigned in 1969, the UK successfully applied for [European Communities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities "European Communities") (EC) membership. Membership of the then EEC was thoroughly discussed at the long debate in the [House of Commons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom") in October 1971. It led to the decisive vote in favour of membership by 356 to 244. As historian Piers Ludlow observed, the 1971 parliamentary debate was of high quality and considered all issues. The British were not "misled and persuaded to accept membership in a narrow commercial entity without being aware that the EEC was a political project liable to develop in the future".[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-23) The [Conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") prime minister [Edward Heath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Heath "Edward Heath") signed the [Treaty of Accession](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Accession_1972 "Treaty of Accession 1972") in 1972.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-24) Parliament passed the [European Communities Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_\(UK\) "European Communities Act 1972 (UK)") later that year[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-25) and the UK joined [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") and the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") in [becoming a member](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Communities "Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities") on 1 January 1973, without referendum.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-26)
During the 1970s and 1980s, the [Labour Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)") was the more Eurosceptic of the two major parties, and the Conservatives the more Europhile. Labour won the [February 1974 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election "February 1974 United Kingdom general election") without a majority and then contested the subsequent [October 1974 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election "October 1974 United Kingdom general election") with a commitment to renegotiate Britain's terms of membership of the EC, believing them to be unfavourable, and then hold a [referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum "Referendum") on whether to remain in the EC on the new terms.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-27) Labour again won the election (this time with a small majority), and in 1975 the UK held its [first ever national referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum"), asking whether the UK should remain in the EC. Despite significant division within the ruling Labour Party,[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-28) all major political parties and the mainstream press supported continuing membership of the EC. On 5 June 1975, 67.2% of the electorate and all but two[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-29) British counties and regions voted to stay in;[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-30) support for the UK to leave the EC in 1975 appears unrelated to the support for Leave in the 2016 referendum.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-31)
In 1979, the UK secured its first [opt-out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opt-outs_in_the_European_Union "Opt-outs in the European Union"), although the expression was not contemporary; it was the only EEC country not to take part in the [European Monetary System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Monetary_System "European Monetary System").
The Labour Party campaigned in the [1983 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_United_Kingdom_general_election "1983 United Kingdom general election") on a commitment to withdraw from the EC without a referendum.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-foot-32) Following their heavy defeat in that election, Labour changed its policy.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-foot-32) In 1985, the [second Margaret Thatcher government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Thatcher_ministry "Second Thatcher ministry") ratified the [Single European Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_European_Act "Single European Act")âthe first major revision to the [Treaty of Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome "Treaty of Rome")âwithout a referendum.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-33)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum,_1975_compared_to_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum,_2016.svg)
Comparison of results of 1975 and 2016 referendums
In October 1990, under pressure from senior ministers and despite Thatcher's deep reservations, the UK joined the [European Exchange Rate Mechanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Exchange_Rate_Mechanism "European Exchange Rate Mechanism") (ERM), with the [pound sterling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sterling "Pound sterling") pegged to the [deutschmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutschmark "Deutschmark"). Thatcher resigned as prime minister the following month, amid Conservative Party divisions arising partly from her increasingly Eurosceptic views. The UK was forced to withdraw from the ERM on [Black Wednesday](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Wednesday "Black Wednesday") in September 1992, after the pound sterling came under pressure from [currency speculation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency_speculation "Currency speculation").[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-34) Italy left the same month, but would soon rejoin on a different band. The UK did not seek re-entry and remained outside the ERM.
On 1 November 1993, after the UK and the other eleven member states had ratified, the EC became the EU under the Maastricht Treaty[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-35) compromise between member states seeking deeper integration and those wishing to retain greater national control in the [economic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_union "Economic union") and [political union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_union "Political union").[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-36) [Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"), [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France"), and the Republic of Ireland held referendums to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. In accordance with [Constitution of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom "Constitution of the United Kingdom"), specifically that of [parliamentary sovereignty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty "Parliamentary sovereignty"), ratification in the UK was not subject to approval by referendum. Despite this, British constitutional historian [Vernon Bogdanor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon_Bogdanor "Vernon Bogdanor") wrote that there was "a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum" because although MPs are entrusted with legislative power by the electorate, they are not given authority to transfer that power (the UK's previous three referendums all concerned this). Further, as the ratification of the treaty was in the manifestos of the three major political parties, voters opposed to ratification had limited options for expressing this. For Bogdanor, while the ratification by the House of Commons might be legal, it would not be legitimateâwhich requires popular consent. The way in which the treaty was ratified, he judged, was "likely to have fundamental consequences both for British politics and for Britain's relationship with the \[EC\]."[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-37)[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-38)
### Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom and the role of the EU leadership
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom and the role of the EU leadership")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Margaret_Thatcher_\(1983\).jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigel_Farage_\(45718080574\)_\(cropped\).jpg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_Cameron_official.jpg)
Thatcher, who had previously supported the common market and the Single European Act, in the [Bruges speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges_speech "Bruges speech") of 1988 warned against "a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". She influenced [Daniel Hannan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Hannan "Daniel Hannan"), who in 1990 founded the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain; "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the campaign for Brexit", the *[Financial Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")* later wrote.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-kuper20190620-39)
The vote to approve the [Maastricht Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty "Maastricht Treaty") in 1993 triggered a strong Eurosceptic response, splitting the [Conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") Party and leading to many past supporters forming alternative Eurosceptic parties. This included Sir [James Goldsmith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Goldsmith "James Goldsmith") forming the [Referendum Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum_Party "Referendum Party") in 1994 to contest the [1997 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_United_Kingdom_general_election "1997 United Kingdom general election") on a platform of providing a referendum on the UK's relationship with the EU.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-40)
#### Role of the EU leadership
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Role of the EU leadership")\]
Perceptions of EU leadership during major crises significantly contributed to Euroscepticism in the UK. During the eurozone debt crisis, strict austerity measures were imposed as a condition for bailouts, with EU member states, including the UK, asked to contribute to bailout plans. Critics argued that such policies disproportionately served the interests of leading EU nations, particularly Germany, and undermined national sovereignty.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-41)
Similarly, during the 2015 migration crisis, Chancellor [Angela Merkel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Merkel "Angela Merkel")'s decision to open EU borders and her request that member states share the burden of accommodating refugees sparked significant backlash. Many in the UK viewed this as an imposition of obligations without adequate consultation, reinforcing Eurosceptic narratives.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-42)
Populist parties such as [UKIP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKIP "UKIP") exploited these perceptions, linking EU leadership to broader fears of a loss of British sovereignty. Campaign rhetoric often employed nationalist sentiments and portrayed the EU as disproportionately influenced by certain member states.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-43)
#### Electoral success and the 2016 referendum
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Electoral success and the 2016 referendum")\]
UKIP's electoral success, driven by its anti-EU campaigns, culminated in significant gains during the [2014 European elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom"), where it became the largest UK party with 27.5% of the vote.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-44) This success put pressure on the ruling [Conservative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") Party, ultimately leading to Prime Minister [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron")'s decision to hold the [2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum").
By linking perceived EU leadership overreach to concerns about sovereignty, Eurosceptic parties and media shaped public opinion in the UK, contributing to the referendum outcome.
### Opinion polls 1977â2015
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Opinion polls 1977â2015")\]
Both pro- and anti-EU views had majority support at different times from 1977 to 2015.[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Mortimore-45) In the [EC membership referendum of 1975](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum "1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum"), two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. Over the decades of UK-EU membership, Euroscepticism existed on both the left and right of British politics.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-46)[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Foster-47)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-48)
According to a statistical analysis published in April 2016 by Professor [John Curtice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Curtice "John Curtice") of [Strathclyde University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strathclyde_University "Strathclyde University"), surveys showed an increase in Euroscepticism (a wish to leave the EU or stay in the EU and try to reduce the EU's powers) from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. The BSA survey for the period of JulyâNovember 2015 showed that 60% backed the option to continue as a member and 30% backed withdrawal.[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-49)
## 2016 EU membership referendum
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: 2016 EU membership referendum")\]
### Negotiations for membership reform
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: Negotiations for membership reform")\]
In 2012, Prime Minister [David Cameron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cameron "David Cameron") initially rejected calls for a referendum on the UK's EU membership,[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-50) but then suggested the possibility of a future referendum to endorse his proposed renegotiation of Britain's relationship with the rest of the EU.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-51) According to the [BBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC "BBC"), "The prime minister acknowledged the need to ensure the UK's \[renegotiated\] position within the \[EU\] had 'the full-hearted support of the British people' but they needed to show 'tactical and strategic patience'."[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-52) On 23 January 2013, under pressure from many of his MPs and from the rise of UKIP, Cameron promised in his [Bloomberg speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_speech "Bloomberg speech") that a Conservative government would hold an in-or-out referendum on EU membership before the end of 2017, on a renegotiated package, if elected in the [7 May 2015 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election").[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-53) This was included in the Conservative Party manifesto for the election.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-54)[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-55)
The [Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") won the election with a majority. Soon afterwards, the [European Union Referendum Act 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Referendum_Act_2015 "European Union Referendum Act 2015") was introduced into [Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom") to enable the referendum. Cameron favoured remaining in a reformed EU, and sought to renegotiate on four key points: protection of the single market for non-eurozone countries, reduction of "red tape", exempting Britain from "ever-closer union", and restricting immigration from the rest of the EU.[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_News_Nov_2015-56)
In December 2015, opinion polls showed a clear majority in favour of remaining in the EU; they also showed support would drop if Cameron did not negotiate adequate safeguards\[*[definition needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify "Wikipedia:Please clarify")*\] for non-eurozone member states, and restrictions on benefits for non-UK EU citizens.[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-57)
The outcome of the renegotiations was revealed in February 2016. Some limits to in-work benefits for new EU immigrants were agreed, but before they could be applied, a member state such as the UK would have to get permission from the [European Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") and then from the [European Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Council "European Council"), which is composed of the heads of government of every member state.[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-FF1-58)
In a speech to the House of Commons on 22 February 2016, Cameron announced a referendum date of 23 June 2016, and commented on the renegotiation settlement.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Hansard_22_February_2016_Column_21-25-59) He spoke of an intention to trigger the Article 50 process immediately following a Leave vote and of the "two-year time period to negotiate the arrangements for exit."[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-60)
After the original wording for the referendum question was challenged,[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Three_years_since_the_Brexit_vote,_meet_the_man_behind_Leave_and_Remain-61) the government agreed to change the official referendum question to "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?"
In the referendum 51.89% voted in favour of leaving the EU (Leave), and 48.11% voted in favour of remaining a member of the EU (Remain).[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC24forecast-62)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-63) After this result, Cameron resigned on 13 July 2016, with [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") becoming Prime Minister after a [leadership contest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Conservative_Party_leadership_election "2016 Conservative Party leadership election"). A [petition calling for a second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Referendum_Rules_triggering_a_2nd_EU_Referendum "EU Referendum Rules triggering a 2nd EU Referendum") attracted more than four million signatures,[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-64)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-65) but was rejected by the government on 9 July.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-66)
| Choice | Votes | % |
|---|---|---|
| **Leave the European Union** | **17,410,742** | **51\.89** |
| Remain a member of the European Union | 16,141,241 | 48\.11 |
| Valid votes | 33,551,983 | 99\.92 |
| Invalid or blank votes | 25,359 | 0\.08 |
| **Total votes** | **33,577,342** | **100\.00** |
| Registered voters/turnout | 46,500,001 | 72\.21 |
| Source: Electoral Commission[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-67) | | |
| National referendum results (excluding invalid votes) | |
|---|---|
| **Leave 17,410,742 (51.9%)** | Remain 16,141,241 (48.1%) |
| **âČ** 50% | |
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_EU_referendum_2016_voting_regions_results.svg)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_EU_referendum_2016_area_results_2-tone.svg)
Results by UK voting region (left) and by council district/unitary authority (GB) & UK Parliament constituency (NI) (right)
Leave
Remain
| Referendum results by United Kingdom regions | | | | | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Region | Electorate | Voter turnout, of eligible | Votes | Proportion of votes | Invalid votes | | | |
| Remain | Leave | Remain | Leave | | | | | |
| | [East Midlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Midlands "East Midlands") | 3,384,299 | 74\.2% | 1,033,036 | **1,475,479** | 41\.18% | **58\.82%** | 1,981 |
| | [East of England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_of_England "East of England") | 4,398,796 | 75\.7% | 1,448,616 | **1,880,367** | 43\.52% | **56\.48%** | 2,329 |
| | [Greater London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_London "Greater London") | 5,424,768 | 69\.7% | **2,263,519** | 1,513,232 | **59\.93%** | 40\.07% | 4,453 |
| | [North East England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_East_England "North East England") | 1,934,341 | 69\.3% | 562,595 | **778,103** | 41\.96% | **58\.04%** | 689 |
| | [North West England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_West_England "North West England") | 5,241,568 | 70\.0% | 1,699,020 | **1,966,925** | 46\.35% | **53\.65%** | 2,682 |
| | [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") | 1,260,955 | 62\.7% | **440,707** | 349,442 | **55\.78%** | 44\.22% | 374 |
| | [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") | 3,987,112 | 67\.2% | **1,661,191** | 1,018,322 | **62\.00%** | 38\.00% | 1,666 |
| | [South East England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_East_England "South East England") | 6,465,404 | 76\.8% | 2,391,718 | **2,567,965** | 48\.22% | **51\.78%** | 3,427 |
| | [South West England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_England "South West England") (inc [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar")) | 4,138,134 | 76\.7% | 1,503,019 | **1,669,711** | 47\.37% | **52\.63%** | 2,179 |
| | [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales "Wales") | 2,270,272 | 71\.7% | 772,347 | **854,572** | 47\.47% | **52\.53%** | 1,135 |
| | [West Midlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Midlands_\(region\) "West Midlands (region)") | 4,116,572 | 72\.0% | 1,207,175 | **1,755,687** | 40\.74% | **59\.26%** | 2,507 |
| | [Yorkshire and the Humber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_and_the_Humber "Yorkshire and the Humber") | 3,877,780 | 70\.7% | 1,158,298 | **1,580,937** | 42\.29% | **57\.71%** | 1,937 |
| Overall Total | | | | | | | | |
| | [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") | 46,500,001 | 72\.2% | 16,141,241 | **17,410,742** | 48\.11% | **51\.89%** | 25,359 |
| Referendum results by United Kingdom constituent countries & Gibraltar | | | | | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country | Electorate | Voter turnout, of eligible | Votes | Proportion of votes | Invalid votes | | | |
| Remain | Leave | Remain | Leave | | | | | |
| | [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England "England") | 38,981,662 | 73\.0% | 13,247,674 | **15,187,583** | 46\.59% | **53\.41%** | 22,157 |
| | [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") | 24,119 | 83\.7% | **19,322** | 823 | **95\.91%** | 4\.08% | 27 |
| | [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") | 1,260,955 | 62\.7% | **440,707** | 349,442 | **55\.78%** | 44\.22% | 384 |
| | [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") | 3,987,112 | 67\.2% | **1,661,191** | 1,018,322 | **62\.00%** | 38\.00% | 1,666 |
| | [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales "Wales") | 2,270,272 | 71\.7% | 772,347 | **854,572** | 47\.47% | **52\.53%** | 1,135 |
| Overall Total | | | | | | | | |
| | [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") | 46,500,001 | 72\.2% | 16,141,241 | **17,410,742** | 48\.11% | **51\.89%** | 25,359 |
### Voter demographics and trends
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: Voter demographics and trends")\]
A 2017 study published in the journal *[Economic Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Policy "Economic Policy")* showed that the Leave vote tended to be greater in areas which had lower incomes and high [unemployment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment "Unemployment"), a strong tradition of [manufacturing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing "Manufacturing") employment, and in which the population had fewer [qualifications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualification_types_in_the_United_Kingdom "Qualification types in the United Kingdom"). It also tended to be greater where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Becker-Fetzer-Novy-68) Those in lower [social grades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRS_social_grade "NRS social grade") (especially the [working class](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class "Working class")) were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades (especially the [upper middle class](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_middle_class "Upper middle class")) more likely to vote Remain.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Becker-Fetzer-Novy-68)[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-69)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Hobolt-70) Studies found that the Leave vote tended to be higher in areas affected by economic decline,[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-71) high rates of suicides and drug-related deaths,[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-72) and [austerity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austerity "Austerity") reforms introduced in 2010.[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-73)
Studies suggest that older people were more likely to vote Leave, and younger people more likely to vote Remain.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-74) According to Thomas Sampson, an economist at the [London School of Economics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics "London School of Economics"), "Older and less-educated voters were more likely to vote 'leave' \[...\] A majority of white voters wanted to leave, but only 33% of Asian voters and 27% of black voters chose leave. \[...\] Leaving the European Union received support from across the political spectrum \[...\] Voting to leave the European Union was strongly associated with holding socially conservative political beliefs, opposing cosmopolitanism, and thinking life in Britain is getting worse."[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Sampson-2017-75)
Polling conducted by YouGov supported these conclusions, showing that factors such as age, political party affiliation, education, and household income were the primary factors indicating how people would vote. For example, [Conservative Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_\(UK\) "Conservative Party (UK)") voters were 61% likely to vote leave, compared to Labour Party voters, who were 35% likely to vote leave. Age was one of the biggest factors affecting whether someone would vote leave, with 64% of people over the age of 65 likely to vote leave, whereas 18â24-year-olds were only 29% likely to vote leave. Education was another factor indicating voting likelihood: people with a [GCSE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCSE "GCSE") or lower level of education were 70% likely to vote leave, whereas university graduates were only 32% likely to vote leave. Household income was another important factor, with households earning less than ÂŁ20,000 62% likely to vote leave, compared to households earning ÂŁ60,000 or more, which were only 35% likely to vote leave.[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-76)
There were major variations in geographic support for each side. Scotland and Northern Ireland both returned majorities for remain, although these had a relatively small impact on the overall result as England has a much larger population. There were also significant regional differences within England, with most of London returning a majority remain vote, alongside urban centres in northern England such as [Manchester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester "Manchester") and [Liverpool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool"), which returned remain majorities of 60% and 58% respectively. Opposite trends appeared in industrial and [post-industrial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-industrial_economy "Post-industrial economy") areas of [Northern England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_England "Northern England"), with areas such as [North Lincolnshire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Lincolnshire "North Lincolnshire") and [South Tyneside](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Tyneside "South Tyneside") both heavily supporting leave.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-77)
Opinion polls found that Leave voters believed leaving the EU was "more likely to bring about a better immigration system, improved border controls, a fairer welfare system, better quality of life, and the ability to control our own laws", while Remain voters believed EU membership "would be better for the economy, international investment, and the UK's influence in the world." Polls found that the main reasons people voted Leave were "the principle that decisions about the UK should be taken in the UK", and that leaving "offered the best chance for the UK to regain control over immigration and its own borders." The main reason people voted Remain was that "the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy, jobs and prices."[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-78)
### Post-referendum investigations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: Post-referendum investigations")\]
Following the referendum, a series of irregularities related to campaign spending were investigated by the [Electoral Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_Commission_\(United_Kingdom\) "Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)"), which subsequently issued a large number of fines. In February 2017, the main campaign group for the "Leave" vote, [Leave.EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave.EU "Leave.EU"), was fined ÂŁ50,000 for sending marketing messages without permission.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-79) In December 2017, the [Electoral Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_Commission_\(United_Kingdom\) "Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)") fined two pro-EU groups, the [Liberal Democrats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_\(UK\) "Liberal Democrats (UK)") (ÂŁ18,000) and [Open Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Britain "Open Britain") (ÂŁ1,250), for breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-80) In May 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU ÂŁ70,000 for unlawfully overspending and inaccurately reporting loans from [Arron Banks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arron_Banks "Arron Banks") totalling ÂŁ6 million.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-81) Smaller fines were levelled against the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future and two trade union donors for inaccurate reporting.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-82) In July 2018 [Vote Leave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_Leave "Vote Leave") was fined ÂŁ61,000 for overspending, not declaring finances shared with [BeLeave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeLeave "BeLeave"), and failing to comply with investigators.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-83)
In November 2017, the Electoral Commission launched a probe into [claims that Russia had attempted to sway public opinion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum "Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum") over the referendum using social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-84)
In February 2019, the parliamentary [Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital,_Culture,_Media_and_Sport_Committee "Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee") called for an inquiry into "foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of data" in the Brexit vote.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-85)
In July 2020, [Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_and_Security_Committee_of_Parliament "Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament") published a [report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_and_Security_Committee_Russia_report "Intelligence and Security Committee Russia report") which accused the UK government of actively avoiding investigating whether Russia interfered with public opinion. The report did not pass judgement over whether Russian information operations had an impact on the result.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-86)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg)
English [Wikisource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource "Wikisource") has original text related to this article:
Withdrawal from the European Union is governed by Article 50 of the [Treaty on European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_European_Union "Treaty on European Union"). It was originally drafted by [Lord Kerr of Kinlochard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Kerr_of_Kinlochard "Lord Kerr of Kinlochard"),[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-87) and introduced by the [Treaty of Lisbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon "Treaty of Lisbon") which entered into force in 2009.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-88) The article states that any member state can withdraw "in accordance with its own constitutional requirements" by notifying the [European Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Council "European Council") of its intention to do so.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-89) The notification triggers a two-year negotiation period, in which the EU must "negotiate and conclude an agreement with \[the leaving\] State, setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal, taking account of the framework for its future relationship with the \[European\] Union".[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-constunit-90) If no agreement is reached within the two years, the membership ends without an agreement, unless an extension is unanimously agreed among all EU states, including the withdrawing state.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-constunit-90) On the EU side, the agreement needs to be ratified by [qualified majority in the European Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_in_the_Council_of_the_European_Union "Voting in the Council of the European Union"), and by the European Parliament.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-constunit-90)
### Invocation of Article 50
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=15 "Edit section: Invocation of Article 50")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prime_Minister%E2%80%99s_letter_to_Donald_Tusk_triggering_Article_50.pdf)
Letter from Theresa May invoking Article 50
The 2015 Referendum Act did not expressly require Article 50 to be invoked,[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-constunit-90) but prior to the referendum, the British government said it would respect the result.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-91) When Cameron resigned following the referendum, he said that it would be for the incoming prime minister to invoke Article 50.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC24forecast-62)[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-92) The new prime minister, [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May"), said she would wait until 2017 to invoke the article, in order to prepare for the negotiations.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-93) In October 2016, she said Britain would trigger Article 50 in March 2017,[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-94) and in December she gained the support of MPs for her timetable.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-95)
In January 2017, the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom "Supreme Court of the United Kingdom") ruled in [the Miller case](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller_and_Dos_Santos\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller and Dos Santos) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union") that government could only invoke Article 50 if authorised by an act of parliament to do so.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-96) The government subsequently introduced a bill for that purpose, and it was passed into law on 16 March as the [European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Notification_of_Withdrawal\)_Act_2017 "European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017").[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-97) On 29 March, [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") triggered Article 50 when [Tim Barrow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Barrow "Tim Barrow"), the British ambassador to the EU, delivered the invocation letter to European Council President [Donald Tusk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Tusk "Donald Tusk"). This made 29 March 2019 the expected date that UK would leave EU.[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-98)[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-99)
### 2017 UK general election
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=16 "Edit section: 2017 UK general election")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2017UKElectionMap.svg)
A map presenting the results of the 2017 United Kingdom general election, by party of the MP elected from each constituency, with Conservatives in blue, Labour in red, and SNP in yellow
In April 2017, [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") called a [snap general election, held on 8 June](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election"), in an attempt to "strengthen \[her\] hand" in the negotiations;[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-100) The Conservative Party, Labour and UKIP made manifesto pledges to implement the referendum, the Labour manifesto differing in its approach to Brexit negotiations, such as unilaterally offering permanent residence to EU immigrants.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-101)[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-102)[\[102\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-103) The Liberal Democrat Party and the [Green Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_England_and_Wales "Green Party of England and Wales") manifestos proposed a policy of remaining in the EU via a [second referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement").[\[103\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-104)[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-105)[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-106) The Scottish National Party (SNP) manifesto proposed a policy of waiting for the outcome of the Brexit negotiations and then holding a referendum on [Scottish independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_independence "Scottish independence").[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-107)[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-108)
The result produced an unexpected [hung parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_parliament "Hung parliament"), the governing Conservatives gained votes and remained the largest party but nevertheless lost seats and their majority in the House of Commons. Labour gained significantly on votes and seats, retaining its position as the second-largest party. The Liberal Democrats gained six seats despite a slight decrease in vote share compared with 2015. The Green Party kept its single MP while also losing national vote share. Losing votes and seats were the SNP, which lost 21 MPs, and UKIP, which suffered a â10.8% swing and lost its only MP. The [Democratic Unionist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Unionist_Party "Democratic Unionist Party") (DUP) and [Sinn FĂ©in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in "Sinn FĂ©in") also made gains in votes and seats.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-109)
On 26 June 2017, Conservatives and the DUP reached a [confidence and supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_and_supply "Confidence and supply") agreement whereby the DUP would back the Conservatives in key votes in the House of Commons over the course of the parliament. The agreement included additional funding of ÂŁ1 billion for Northern Ireland, highlighted mutual support for Brexit and national security, expressed commitment to the Good Friday Agreement, and indicated that policies such as the state pension triple lock and [Winter Fuel Payments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Fuel_Payment "Winter Fuel Payment") would be maintained.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-110)[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-111)
### UKâEU negotiations in 2017 and 2018
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=17 "Edit section: UKâEU negotiations in 2017 and 2018")\]
Prior to the negotiations, May said that the British government would not seek permanent [single market membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membership_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_the_European_Economic_Area "Membership of the United Kingdom in the European Economic Area"), would end ECJ jurisdiction, seek a new trade agreement, end [free movement of people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_movement_of_people "Free movement of people") and maintain the [Common Travel Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Travel_Area "Common Travel Area") with [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland "Ireland").[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-112) The EU had adopted its [negotiating directives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_negotiating_directives_for_Brexit "European Union negotiating directives for Brexit") in May,[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-113) and appointed [Michel Barnier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Barnier "Michel Barnier") as Chief Negotiator.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian-uk-caves-114) The EU wished to perform the negotiations in two phases: first the UK would agree to a financial commitment and to lifelong benefits for EU citizens in Britain, and then negotiations on a future relationship could begin.[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-115) In the first phase, the member states would demand that the UK pay a "[divorce bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_divorce_bill "Brexit divorce bill")", initially estimated as amounting to ÂŁ52 billion.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-116) EU negotiators said that an agreement must be reached between UK and the EU by October 2018.[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-brexitoct18-117)
Negotiations commenced on 19 June 2017.[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian-uk-caves-114) Negotiating groups were established for three topics: the rights of EU citizens living in Britain and vice versa; Britain's outstanding financial obligations to the EU; and the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-118)[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-119)[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-120) In December 2017, a partial agreement was reached. It ensured that there would be no hard border in Ireland, protected the rights of UK citizens in the EU and of EU citizens in Britain, and estimated the financial settlement to be ÂŁ35â39 billion.[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-121) May stressed that "Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed".[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-122) Following this partial agreement, EU leaders agreed to move on to the second phase in the negotiations: discussion of the future relationship, a transition period and a possible trade deal.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-123)
In March 2018, a 21-month transition period and the terms for it were provisionally agreed.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-124) In June 2018, Irish [Taoiseach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoiseach "Taoiseach") [Leo Varadkar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Varadkar "Leo Varadkar") said that there had been little progress on the [Irish border question](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_border_question "Irish border question")âon which the EU proposed a [backstop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop"), to come into effect if no overall trade deal had been reached by the end of the transition periodâand that it was unlikely that there would be a solution before October, when the whole deal was to be agreed.[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-125) In July 2018, the British government published the [Chequers plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chequers_plan "Chequers plan"), containing its aims for the future relationship that was to be determined in the negotiations. The plan sought to keep British access to the single market for goods, but not necessarily for services, while allowing for an independent [trade policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_policy "Trade policy").[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-126) The plan caused cabinet resignations, including those of [Brexit Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Secretary "Brexit Secretary") [David Davis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Davis_\(British_politician\) "David Davis (British politician)")[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-127) and [Foreign Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Secretary_\(United_Kingdom\) "Foreign Secretary (United Kingdom)") [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson").[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-S,_C,_S-128)
### May's agreement and failed ratification
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=18 "Edit section: May's agreement and failed ratification")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg)
English [Wikisource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource "Wikisource") has original text related to this article:
On 13 November 2018, UK and EU negotiators agreed the text of a draft withdrawal agreement,[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-129) and May secured her Cabinet's backing of the deal the following day,[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-130) though Brexit Secretary [Dominic Raab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic_Raab "Dominic Raab") resigned over "fatal flaws" in the agreement.[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-131) It was expected that ratification in the British parliament would be difficult.[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_News-2019-132)[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Cook-2018-133)[\[133\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-134) On 25 November, all 27 leaders of the remaining EU countries endorsed the agreement.[\[131\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_News-2019-132)[\[132\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Cook-2018-133)
On 10 December 2018, the Prime Minister postponed the vote in the House of Commons on her Brexit deal. This came minutes after the [Prime Minister's Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister%27s_Office_\(United_Kingdom\) "Prime Minister's Office (United Kingdom)") confirmed the vote would be going ahead.[\[134\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-135) Faced with the prospect of a defeat in the House of Commons, this option gave May more time to negotiate with Conservative [backbenchers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbencher "Backbencher") and the EU, even though they had ruled out further discussions.[\[135\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-136) The decision was met with calls from many [Welsh Labour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Labour "Welsh Labour") MPs for a [motion of no confidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motions_of_no_confidence_in_the_United_Kingdom "Motions of no confidence in the United Kingdom") in the Government.[\[136\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-137)
Also on 10 December 2018, the [European Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice "European Court of Justice") (ECJ) ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its notification of withdrawal, as long as it was still a member and had not agreed a withdrawal agreement. The decision to do so should be "unequivocal and unconditional" and "follow a democratic process".[\[137\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-138) If the British revoked their notification, they would remain a member of the EU under their current membership terms. The case was launched by Scottish politicians and referred to the ECJ by the Scottish [Court of Session](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Session "Court of Session").[\[138\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-139)
The [European Research Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Research_Group "European Research Group") (ERG), a research support group of Eurosceptic Conservative MPs, opposed the Prime Minister's proposed Withdrawal Agreement treaty. Its members objected strongly to the Withdrawal Agreement's inclusion of the [Irish backstop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop").[\[139\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-140)[\[140\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-141) ERG members also objected to the proposed ÂŁ39 billion financial settlement with the EU and stated that the agreement would result in the UK's agreement to continuing to follow EU regulations in major policy areas; and to the continuing jurisdiction of the ECJ over interpretation of the agreement and of European law still applicable to the UK.[\[141\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-142)[\[142\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-143)
On 15 January 2019, the House of Commons voted 432 to 202 against the deal, which was the largest majority ever against a United Kingdom government.[\[143\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Brexit:_Theresa_May's_deal_is_voted_down_in_historic_Commons_defeat-144)[\[144\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-145) Soon after, [a motion of no confidence in Her Majesty's Government was tabled by the opposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_motion_of_no_confidence_in_the_May_ministry "2019 motion of no confidence in the May ministry"),[\[145\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-146) which was rejected by 325 votes to 306.[\[146\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-147)
On 24 February, Prime Minister May proposed that the next vote on the withdrawal agreement would be on 12 March 2019, 17 days away from the Brexit date.[\[147\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-148) On 12 March, the proposal was defeated by 391 votes to 242âa loss by 149 votes, down from 230 from when the deal had been proposed in January.[\[148\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-149)
On 18 March 2019, the [Speaker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_\(United_Kingdom\) "Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)") informed the House of Commons that a third meaningful vote could be held only on a [motion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_\(parliamentary_procedure\) "Motion (parliamentary procedure)") that was significantly different from the previous one, citing parliamentary precedents going back to 1604.[\[149\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-150)
The Withdrawal Agreement was brought back to the House without the attached understandings on 29 March.[\[150\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-151) The Government's motion of support for the Withdrawal Agreement was defeated by 344 votes to 286âa loss by 58 votes, down from 149 when the deal had been proposed on 12 March.[\[151\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-152)
### Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=19 "Edit section: Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement")\]
On 20 March 2019, the Prime Minister wrote to European Council President Tusk requesting that Brexit be postponed until 30 June 2019.[\[152\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-153) On 21 March 2019, May presented her case to a European Council summit meeting in Brussels. After May left the meeting, a discussion amongst the remaining EU leaders resulted in the rejection of 30 June date and offered instead a choice of two new alternative Brexit dates. On 22 March 2019, the extension options were agreed between the British government and the European Council.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-03-28a-154) The first alternative offered was that if MPs rejected May's deal in the next week, Brexit would be due to occur by 12 April 2019, with, or without, a dealâor alternatively another extension be asked for and a commitment to participate in the [2019 European Parliament elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election "2019 European Parliament election") given. The second alternative offered was that if MPs approved May's deal, Brexit would be due to occur on 22 May 2019. The later date was the day before the start of European Parliament elections.[\[154\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_20190322-155) After the government deemed unwarranted the concerns over the legality of the proposed change (because it contained two possible exit dates) the previous day,[\[155\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-TWFY2019-03-26a-156) on 27 March 2019 both the Lords (without a vote)[\[156\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian2019-03-27a-157) and the Commons (by 441 to 105) approved the statutory instrument changing the exit date to 22 May 2019 if a withdrawal deal is approved, or 12 April 2019 if it is not.[\[157\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-FT2019-03-27a-158) The amendment was then signed into law at 12:40 p.m. the next day.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-03-28a-154)
Following the failure of the British Parliament to approve the Withdrawal Agreement by 29 March, the UK was required to leave the EU on 12 April 2019. On 10 April 2019, late-night talks in Brussels resulted in a further extension, to 31 October 2019; [Theresa May](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") had again requested an extension only until 30 June. Under the terms of this new extension, if the Withdrawal Agreement were to be passed before October, Brexit would occur on the first day of the subsequent month. The UK would then be obligated to hold European Parliament elections in May or leave the EU on 1 June without a deal.[\[158\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-159)[\[159\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-160)
In granting the Article 50 extensions, the EU adopted a stance of refusing to "reopen" (that is, renegotiate) the Withdrawal Agreement.[\[160\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-161) After [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") became prime minister on 24 July 2019 and met with EU leaders, the EU changed its stance. On 17 October 2019, following "tunnel talks" between UK and EU,[\[161\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-162) a revised withdrawal agreement was agreed on negotiators level, and endorsed by the British government and the EU Commission.[\[162\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-163) The revised deal contained a new [Northern Ireland Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol"), as well as technical modifications to related articles.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Europa17oct19-9) In addition, the Political Declaration was also revised.[\[163\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-164) The revised deal and the political declaration was endorsed by the [European Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Council "European Council") later that day.[\[164\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-165) To come into effect, it needed to be ratified by the [European Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") and the [Parliament of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom").[\[165\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-166)
The British Parliament passed the [European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_\(No._2\)_Act_2019 "European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019"), which received [Royal Assent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Assent "Royal Assent") on 9 September 2019, obliging the Prime Minister to seek a third extension if no agreement has been reached at the next European Council meeting in October 2019.[\[166\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-167) In order for such an extension to be granted if it is requested by the prime minister, it would be necessary for there to be unanimous agreement by all other heads of EU governments.[\[167\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-168) On 28 October 2019, the third extension was agreed to by the EU, with a new withdrawal deadline of 31 January 2020.[\[168\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-169) 'Exit day' in British law was then amended to this new date by statutory instrument on 30 October 2019.[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-10-30a-170)
### 2019 UK general election
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=20 "Edit section: 2019 UK general election")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2019UKElectionMap.svg)
Map for results of the [2019 general election in the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_general_election_in_the_United_Kingdom "2019 general election in the United Kingdom"). Ultimately based upon data from the Boundary Commission. Colours are as below.
After Johnson was unable to induce Parliament to approve a revised version of the [withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_agreement "Withdrawal agreement") by the end of October, he chose to call for a [snap election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snap_election "Snap election"). Due to the fact three motions for an early general election under the [Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-term_Parliaments_Act_2011 "Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011") failed to achieve the necessary two-thirds super majority for it to pass so instead, in order to circumvent the existing law, the Government introduced an "[election bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Parliamentary_General_Election_Act_2019 "Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019")" which only needed a simple majority of MPs to vote in favour into the House of Commons which was passed by 438â20, setting the election date for Thursday 12 December.[\[170\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-171) [Opinion polls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "Opinion polling for the 2019 United Kingdom general election") up to polling day showed a firm lead for the Conservatives against Labour throughout the campaign.[\[171\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-172)
In the run-up to the general election on 12 December 2019 the Conservative Party pledged to leave the EU with the withdrawal agreement negotiated in October 2019. Labour promised to renegotiate aforementioned deal and hold a referendum, letting voters choose between the renegotiated deal and remain. The Liberal Democrats vowed to revoke Article 50, while the SNP intended to hold a second referendum, however, revoking Article 50 if the alternative was a no-deal exit. The DUP supported Brexit but would seek to change parts related to Northern Ireland it was dissatisfied with. [Plaid Cymru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaid_Cymru "Plaid Cymru") and the [Green Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_England_and_Wales "Green Party of England and Wales") backed a second referendum, believing the UK should stay in the EU. The [Brexit Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Party "Brexit Party") was the only major party running for election which wanted the UK to leave the EU without a deal.[\[172\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-173)
The election produced a decisive result for Boris Johnson with the Conservatives winning 365 seats (gaining 47 seats) and an overall majority of 80 seats with Labour suffering their worst election defeat since 1935 after losing 60 seats to leave them with 202 seats and only a single seat in [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"). The Liberal Democrats won just 11 seats with their leader [Jo Swinson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo_Swinson "Jo Swinson") losing her own seat. The Scottish National Party won 48 seats after gaining 14 seats in Scotland.
The result broke the [deadlock in the UK Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_votes_on_Brexit "Parliamentary votes on Brexit") and ended the possibility of a [referendum being held on the withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_referendum_on_the_Brexit_withdrawal_agreement "Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement") and ensured that the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") would leave the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") on 31 January 2020.
### Ratification and departure
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=21 "Edit section: Ratification and departure")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Westminster_\(49470617471\).jpg)
[Foreign and Commonwealth Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office "Foreign and Commonwealth Office") illuminated in the colours of the [Union Jack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Jack "Union Jack") on 31 January 2020
Subsequently, the government introduced a bill to ratify the withdrawal agreement. It passed its second reading in the [House of Commons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom") in a 358â234 vote on 20 December 2019,[\[173\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-174) and became law on 23 January 2020 as the [European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020").[\[174\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-175)
The withdrawal agreement received the backing of the [constitutional committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_Constitutional_Affairs "European Parliament Committee on Constitutional Affairs") in the [European Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") on 23 January 2020, setting expectation that the entire parliament would approve it in a later vote.[\[175\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-176)[\[176\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-177)[\[177\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-178) On the following day, [Ursula von der Leyen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursula_von_der_Leyen "Ursula von der Leyen") and [Charles Michel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Michel "Charles Michel") signed the withdrawal agreement in Brussels, and it was sent to London where [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") signed it.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian2020jan24-12) The European Parliament gave its consent to ratification on 29 January by 621 votes to 49.[\[178\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-179)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-sparrow1-13) Immediately after voting approval, members of the European Parliament joined hands and sang *[Auld Lang Syne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_Lang_Syne "Auld Lang Syne")*.[\[179\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-180) The [Council of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union "Council of the European Union") concluded EU ratification the following day.[\[180\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-181) At 11 p.m. [GMT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT "GMT"), 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union ended, 47 years after it had joined.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-autogenerated1-14) As confirmed by the [Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union "Court of Justice of the European Union") in *EP v Préfet du Gers*,[\[181\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-182) all British nationals ceased to be Union citizens.[\[182\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-183)
To commemorate the moment of Brexit, a countdown clock was projected onto 10 Downing Street with a recording of Big Ben chiming. In addition, there was a nearby party in [Parliament Square](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_Square "Parliament Square"), being led by Farage, sang "[God Save the Queen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Save_the_Queen "God Save the Queen")" at the moment of departure.[\[183\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-184) In Gibraltar, a flag ceremony was held as the EU flag was lowered to "[Ode to Joy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode_to_Joy "Ode to Joy")" and the [Commonwealth flag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_flag "Commonwealth flag") was raised to "God Save the Queen".[\[184\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-185)
### Transition period and final trade agreement
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=22 "Edit section: Transition period and final trade agreement")\]
Conservative party advertisement from early 2020 featuring [Boris Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson "Boris Johnson") answering frequently searched for online Brexit-related questions
Following the British exit on 31 January 2020 the UK entered a Transition Period for the rest of 2020. Trade, travel and freedom of movement remain largely unchanged during this period.[\[185\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-transition-186)
The Withdrawal Agreement still applies after this date.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-eu-sues-wa-187) This agreement [provides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_withdrawal_agreement#Northern_Ireland "Brexit withdrawal agreement") free access of goods between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, provided checks are made to goods entering Northern Ireland from the rest of the UK. The British Government attempted to back out of this commitment[\[187\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-specific-188) by passing the [Internal Market Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_Market_Bill "Internal Market Bill"): domestic legislation in the British Parliament. In September, Northern Ireland secretary [Brandon Lewis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon_Lewis "Brandon Lewis") said:
> I would say to my hon. Friend that yes, this does break international law in a very specific and limited way.[\[188\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-189)
leading to the resignation of [Sir Jonathan Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Jones_\(civil_servant\) "Jonathan Jones (civil servant)"), permanent secretary to the Government Legal Department[\[189\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-190) and [Lord Keen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Keen "Lord Keen"), the law officer for Scotland.[\[190\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-191) The [European Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") started legal action.[\[186\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-eu-sues-wa-187)
During the transition period, David Frost and Michel Barnier continued to [negotiate a permanent trade agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_negotiation_between_the_UK_and_the_EU "Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU").[\[191\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-192) On 24 December 2020 both parties announced that a deal had been reached.[\[192\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-193) The deal was passed by both houses of the British parliament on 30 December and given Royal Assent in the early hours of the next day. In the House of Commons, the governing Conservatives and main opposition Labour voted in favour of the agreement whilst all other opposition parties voted against it.[\[193\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-194) The transition period concluded under its terms the following evening.[\[194\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-195) After the UK said it would unilaterally extend a [grace period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol#Grace_period "Northern Ireland Protocol") limiting checks on trade between Northern Ireland and Great Britain, the [European Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") postponed setting a date to ratify the agreement.[\[195\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-196) The vote was later scheduled for 27 April when it passed with an overwhelming majority of votes.[\[196\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-197)[\[197\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-198)
There was a customs transitional arrangement in place until 1 July 2021. During this time period, traders importing standard goods from the EU to the UK could defer submitting their customs declarations and paying import duties to HMRC for up to six months. This arrangement simplified and avoided most import controls during the early months of the new situation and was designed to facilitate inward trade during the COVID-19 health crisis and to avoid major disruptions in domestic supply chains in the short term.[\[198\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-199) Following reports that the border infrastructure was not ready, the UK government further postponed import checks from the EU to the UK until the end of the year in order to avoid supply issues during the ongoing Covid crisis.[\[199\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-200) This was again followed by another delay of import controls, in a situation of truck driver shortages; the controls are scheduled to be phased in during 2022.[\[200\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-201)
## United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=23 "Edit section: United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification")\]
### European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=24 "Edit section: European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018")\]
In October 2016, Theresa May promised a "Great Repeal Bill", which would repeal the [European Communities Act 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communities_Act_1972_\(UK\) "European Communities Act 1972 (UK)") and restate in British law all enactments previously in force under EU law. Subsequently renamed the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill, it was introduced into the House of Commons on 13 July 2017.[\[201\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-202)
On 12 September 2017, the Bill passed its first vote and second reading by a margin of 326 votes to 290 votes in the House of Commons.[\[202\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-203) The Bill was further amended on a series of votes in both Houses. After the Act became law on 26 June 2018, the European Council decided on 29 June to renew its call on member states and European Union institutions to step up their work on preparedness at all levels and for all outcomes.[\[203\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-204)
The Withdrawal Act fixed the period ending 21 January 2019 for the government to decide on how to proceed if the negotiations had not reached agreement in principle on both the withdrawal arrangements and the framework for the future relationship between the UK and EU; while, alternatively, making future ratification of the withdrawal agreement as a treaty between the UK and EU depend upon the prior enactment of another act of Parliament for approving the final terms of withdrawal when the [Brexit negotiations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations "Brexit negotiations") were completed. In any event, the Act did not alter the two-year period for negotiating allowed by Article 50 that ended at the latest on 29 March 2019 if the UK had not by then ratified a withdrawal agreement or agreed a prolongation of the negotiating period.[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-ExitDay01a-205)
The Withdrawal Act which became law in June 2018 allowed for various outcomes including no negotiated settlement. It authorises the government to bring into force, by [order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_instrument_\(UK\) "Statutory instrument (UK)") made under section 25, the provisions that fixed "exit day" and the repeal of the European Communities Act 1972 but exit day must be the same day and time as when the EU Treaties ceased to apply to the UK.[\[205\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-206)
Exit day was the end of 31 January 2020 [CET](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_Time "Central European Time") (11.00 p.m. [GMT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT "GMT")).[\[169\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-10-30a-170) The [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018") (as amended by a British [Statutory Instrument](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_Instrument "Statutory Instrument") on 11 April 2019), in section 20 (1), defined 'exit day' as 11:00 p.m. on 31 October 2019.[\[153\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-SI2019-03-28a-154) Originally, 'exit day' was defined as 11:00 p.m. on 29 March 2019 GMT ([UTC+0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%2B0 "UTC+0")).[\[204\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-ExitDay01a-205)[\[206\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-reuters1-207)[\[207\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-208)
### Additional government bills
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=26 "Edit section: Additional government bills")\]
A report published in March 2017 by the [Institute for Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Government "Institute for Government") commented that, in addition to the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, primary and secondary legislation would be needed to cover the gaps in policy areas such as customs, immigration and agriculture.[\[208\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-209) The report also commented that the role of the devolved legislatures was unclear, and could cause problems, and that as many as 15 new additional Brexit Bills might be required, which would involve strict prioritisation and limiting Parliamentary time for in-depth examination of new legislation.[\[209\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-210)
In 2016 and 2017, the House of Lords published a series of reports on Brexit-related subjects, including:
- [Brexit: the options for trade](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/72/72.pdf)
- [Brexit: UKâIrish relations](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/76/76.pdf)
- [Brexit: future UKâEU security and police cooperation](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/77/77.pdf)
- [Brexit: fisheries](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/78/78.pdf)
- [Brexit: environment and climate change](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/109/109.pdf)
- [Brexit: the Crown Dependencies](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/136/136.pdf)
- [Brexit: justice for families, individuals and businesses?](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/134/134.pdf)
- [Brexit: trade in non-financial services](https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldeucom/135/135.pdf)
#### Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=27 "Edit section: Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018")\]
The [Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Safeguards_Act_2018 "Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018"), relating to withdrawal from Euratom, was presented to Parliament in October 2017. The act makes provision about nuclear safeguards, and for connected purposes. The Secretary of State may by regulations ("nuclear safeguards regulations") make provision for the purpose of â (a) ensuring that qualifying nuclear material, facilities or equipment are available only for use for civil activities (whether in the UK or elsewhere), or (b) giving effect to provisions of a relevant international agreement.[\[210\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-211)
#### European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=28 "Edit section: European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020")\]
The [European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal_Agreement\)_Act_2020 "European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020") makes legal provision for ratifying the [Brexit Withdrawal Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Withdrawal_Agreement "Brexit Withdrawal Agreement") and incorporating it into the domestic law of the United Kingdom.[\[211\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-212) The bill was first introduced[\[212\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-213) by the government on 21 October 2019. This bill was not further debated and lapsed on 6 November when [parliament was dissolved](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_parliament "Dissolution of parliament") in preparation for the [2019 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election"). The bill was reintroduced immediately following the general election and was the first bill to be put before the [House of Commons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom") in the first session of the 58th Parliament,[\[213\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-214) with changes from the previous bill, by the re-elected government and was [read a first time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_\(legislature\) "Reading (legislature)") on 19 December, immediately after the first reading of the [Outlawries Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlawries_Bill "Outlawries Bill") and before the debate on the [Queen's Speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Opening_of_Parliament "State Opening of Parliament") began. The second reading took place on 20 December, and the third on 9 January 2020. This act was given [Royal Assent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Assent "Royal Assent") on 23 January 2020, nine days before the UK left the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union").
## Public opinion since the Brexit referendum
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=29 "Edit section: Public opinion since the Brexit referendum")\]
Opinion polling overall showed an initial fall in support for Brexit from the referendum to late 2016, when responses were split evenly between support and opposition. Support rose again to a plurality, which held until the [2017 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election"). Since then, opinion polls tended to show a plurality of support for remaining in the EU or for the view that Brexit was a mistake, with the estimated margin increasing until a small decrease in 2019 (to 53% Remain: 47% Leave, as of October 2019).[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-OctoberPollOfPolls-215) This seems to be largely due to a preference for remaining in the EU among those who did not vote in 2016's referendum (an estimated 2.5 million of whom, as of October 2019, were [too young to vote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_age#United_Kingdom "Voting age") at the time).[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-IndependentDemographics-216)[\[216\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-217) Other reasons suggested include slightly more Leave voters than Remain voters (14% and 12% of each, respectively, as of October 2019)[\[217\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-218) changing how they would vote (particularly in [Labour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_\(UK\) "Labour Party (UK)") areas) and the deaths of older voters,[\[214\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-OctoberPollOfPolls-215) most of whom voted to leave the EU. One estimate of demographic changes (ignoring other effects) implies that had an EU referendum taken place in October 2019, there would have been between 800,000 and 900,000 fewer Leave voters and between 600,000 and 700,000 more Remain voters, resulting in a Remain majority.[\[215\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-IndependentDemographics-216)
In March 2019, a [petition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoke_Article_50_and_remain_in_the_EU_petition "Revoke Article 50 and remain in the EU petition") submitted to the British Parliament petitions website, calling on the government to revoke Article 50 and stay in the EU, reached a record-level of more than 6.1 million signatures.[\[218\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-219)[\[219\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-220)
- Post-referendum opinion polling (2016â2020)
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brexit_post-referendum_polling_-_Right-Wrong.svg "Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU")
Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brexit_post-referendum_polling_-_Remain-Leave-Neither.svg "Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including \"Neither\" responses")
Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including "Neither" responses
- [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brexit_post-referendum_polling_-_Remain-Leave.svg "Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding \"Neither\" responses and normalised")
Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding "Neither" responses and normalised
[YouGov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouGov "YouGov") polling has shown a gradual but progressive decline in the public perception of the benefits of Brexit, with the overall margin of sentiment about the rightness of the Brexit decision declining from slightly positive in 2016 to â11% in 2022.[\[220\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-221) A May 2022 poll showed that a majority of respondents who expressed an opinion thought that Brexit had gone either "badly" or "very badly".[\[221\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-222) A new study showed that since Brexit, citizens in other European nations were more against leaving the EU than they had been since 2016.[\[222\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-223) A January 2023 poll in the United Kingdom also reflected these numbers, with 54% of poll respondents who believed that the country was wrong to leave the European Union, while 35% of respondents believed it was the right decision.[\[223\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-224) An average of six polls conducted in June and July 2023 shows 58% of voters in favour of rejoining the EU with 42% of voters against rejoining the EU.[\[224\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-225)
Since 2020, pollsters have asked respondents how they would vote in a potential second referendum to rejoin the EU.
As shown in the chart below, five and a half years after the United Kingdom left the European Union, opinions about Brexit and the option to rejoin the EU had changed significantly. After the first polls data was released shortly after the UK left the EU, both support for rejoining it or staying out of it declined over the course of 2020, with a noticeable increase of neutral opinions. However, after one year and a half, poll results were showing more support for rejoining EU than staying out of it, and rejoin support consistently increased over the next three years, going from below 40% in the spring of 2020 to surpassing Brexit support between August and September 2021 and rising to slightly below 50% in early 2024. On the other hand, support for staying out of the EU greatly dropped in 2022, falling below 40% in spring and never reaching this threshold again, and by summer 2023, pro-Brexit support reached its nadir, with only a third of votes in polls data supporting it. While the gap was reduced over the course of 2024, it became even wider in the first half of 2025 due to a second, sharper rise of popular support in favour of the return in the EU, while support in favour of staying out of it kept remaining poor, once again falling below the 35% threshold in the middle of the year. In between May and June 2025, pro-rejoin-EU support in polls data reached the 50% supermajority threshold and surpassed it in July.
In autumn 2025, UK Chancellor Rachel Reeves said the economic damage caused by Brexit had forced her to take action, including tax rises and spending cuts in the 2025 budget.[\[225\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-226)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opinion_polling_on_the_whether_the_United_Kingdom_should_rejoin_the_European_Union.svg)
A chart of showing polling since January 2020 on whether the United Kingdom should rejoin the European Union or not: rejoin support became more prevalent over Brexit support after one year and a half and kept increasing over time, reaching a supermajority in mid-2025, while support for staying out of the EU sharply dropped in 2022 and remained poor in the following years, failing to reach the threshold of 40% of support in polls since the spring of 2022.
On 19 December 2018, the EU Commission revealed its "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in specific sectors, in respect of the UK leaving the EU "in 100 days' time."[\[226\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-227)
In the wake of the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union, the [Department for International Trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_International_Trade "Department for International Trade") (DIT) for reaching and extending trade agreements between the UK and non-EU states was created by Prime Minister May, shortly after she took office on 13 July 2016.[\[227\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-csw_new_article-228) By 2017, it employed about 200 trade negotiators[\[228\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-economist2017-229) and was overseen by then [Secretary of State for International Trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_International_Trade "Secretary of State for International Trade") [Liam Fox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liam_Fox "Liam Fox"). In March 2019, the British government announced that it would cut many import tariffs to zero, in the event of a no-deal Brexit.[\[229\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-230) The [Confederation of British Industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_British_Industry "Confederation of British Industry") said the move would be a "sledgehammer for our economy",[\[230\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Guardian2019mar13-231)[\[231\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-232)[\[232\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-233) and the [National Farmer's Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Farmers%27_Union_of_England_and_Wales "National Farmers' Union of England and Wales") was also highly critical.[\[233\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-234) Additionally, the plan appeared to breach standard WTO rules.[\[234\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-235)[\[235\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-236)[\[236\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-237)
On 2 June 2020, Chancellor of Germany [Angela Merkel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Merkel "Angela Merkel") stated that the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") must prepare for the possible failure of Brexit trade talks with the [UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK "UK"). She added that negotiations were being accelerated to try and reach a deal that could be ratified by the end of the year. Her warning came as the deadline for extending talks passed, with negotiations expected to end on 31 December with or without a deal.[\[237\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-238)
There has been litigation to explore the constitutional footings on which Brexit stands after *[R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union")* (simply known as the "Miller case") and the 2017 Notification Act:
- In *R. (Webster) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union*, a [divisional court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisional_court_\(England_and_Wales\) "Divisional court (England and Wales)") of [Gross LJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gross_\(judge\) "Peter Gross (judge)") and [Green MR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Green_\(judge\) "Nicholas Green (judge)") determined that the substantive decision to leave the EU that was notified on 29 March 2017 was in fact the executive decision of the Prime Minister using a statutory power of decision found to have been delegated to her by the Notification Act: this is confirmed by the [House of Commons Library](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_Library "House of Commons Library") commentary on the case.[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Miller-239) The case was appealed to the [Court of Appeal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_\(England_and_Wales\) "Court of Appeal (England and Wales)")[\[239\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-240) and paragraph 15 of the judgement, along with the citable nature of the decision were upheld. While the case was criticised academically by Robert Craig, who lectures in jurisprudence at the London School of Economics,[\[240\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-241) aspects of the case's analysis were supported by the [Supreme Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Supreme_Court "UK Supreme Court") in [Miller 2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_2 "Miller 2") at paragraph 57, which confirmed:
> ... that Parliament, and in particular the House of Commons as the democratically elected representatives of the people, has a right to have a voice in how that change comes about is indisputable.[\[241\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-242)
â Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (UKSC/2019/41)
- This confirmation that the decision was an executive act was part of the basis of [*R.* (*Wilson) v. Prime Minister*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Wilson\)_v_Prime_Minister "R (Wilson) v Prime Minister")[\[242\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-243) which allied this point with the concerns about the irregularities in the referendum. The High Court hearing was on 7 December 2018 before [Ouseley MJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_Ouseley "Duncan Ouseley")[\[243\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-244) and when judgement was given it was held that: courts' job was not to rule on irregularities in the 'leave' campaign as these were not questions of law; it was also said that the case was brought both too early and too late.[\[238\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Miller-239) Judgement in the Court of Appeal (before [Hickinbottom LJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Hickinbottom "Gary Hickinbottom") and [Haddon-Cave LJ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Haddon-Cave "Charles Haddon-Cave")) before also went against the applicant.[\[244\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-245)
- Regarding the reversibility of a notification under Article 50, *Wightman and others v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union* was referred to the [Court of Justice of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union "Court of Justice of the European Union");[\[245\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-246) the UK government sought to block this referral, taking the matter on appeal to the Supreme Court, but was unsuccessful.[\[246\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-247) On 10 December 2018, the Court of Justice of the EU ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its Article 50 notification.[\[247\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-248)
Many effects of Brexit depended on whether the UK left with a [withdrawal agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_agreement "Withdrawal agreement"), or before an agreement was ratified (["no-deal" Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-deal_Brexit "No-deal Brexit")).[\[248\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-What_is_a_'no_deal'_Brexit?-249) In 2017, the *Financial Times* said that there were approximately 759 international agreements, spanning 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would no longer be a party to upon leaving the EU.[\[249\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-FTAfter-250)
Economists speculated that Brexit would have a damaging impact on the economies of the UK and at least part of the EU27. In particular, there was a broad consensus among economists and in the economic literature that Brexit would likely reduce the UK's real per capita income in the medium and long term, and that the Brexit referendum itself would damage the economy.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Sampson-2017-75)[\[250\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Giles-2017-251)[\[251\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-252) Studies found Brexit-induced uncertainty reduced British GDP, British national income, investment by business, employment, and British international trade from June 2016 onwards.[\[252\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-253)[\[253\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-254)[\[254\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-255)
A 2019 analysis found that British firms substantially increased [offshoring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshoring "Offshoring") to the EU after the Brexit referendum, whereas European firms reduced new investments in the UK.[\[255\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-256)[\[256\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-257) The British government's Brexit analysis, leaked in January 2018, showed British economic growth would be stunted by 2â8% over the 15 years following Brexit, the amount depending on the leave scenario.[\[257\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-258)[\[258\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-259) Economists warned that London's future as an international financial centre depended on passport agreements with the EU.[\[259\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-260)[\[260\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-261) Pro-Brexit activists and politicians have argued for negotiating trade and migration agreements with the "[CANZUK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANZUK "CANZUK")" countriesâthose of [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada"), [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia"), [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") and the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom")[\[261\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-262)[\[262\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-263)âbut economists have said that trade deals with those countries would be far less valuable to the UK than EU membership.[\[263\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-264)[\[264\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-265)[\[265\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-266) Studies projected that Brexit would exacerbate regional economic inequality in the UK, by hitting already-struggling regions the hardest.[\[266\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-267)
On 11 January 2024, the London Mayor's Office released "*Mayor highlights Brexit damage to London economy*".[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-LMO-268) The release cites the independent report by Cambridge Econometrics that London has almost 300,000 fewer jobs, and nationwide two million fewer jobs as a direct consequence of Brexit.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-LMO-268) Brexit is recognised as a key contributor to the 2023 cost-of-living crisis, with the average citizen being nearly ÂŁ2,000 worse off, and the average Londoner nearly ÂŁ3,400 worse off in 2023 as a result of Brexit.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-LMO-268) In addition, UK real Gross Value Added was approximately ÂŁ140bn less in 2023 than it would have been had the UK remained in the Single Market.[\[267\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-LMO-268)
In 2024, French customs considered Brexit, in the meantime, has reduced trade between the UK and the EU, but increased trade between China and the United Kingdom.[\[268\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-269)
### Local and geographic effects
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=36 "Edit section: Local and geographic effects")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Border_on_Killeen_School_Road_-_geograph.org.uk_-_446719.jpg)
Border crossing at Killeen (near [Newry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newry "Newry") in [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland")), marked only by a speed limit in km/h (Northern Ireland uses mph.)
The potential [impact on the border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_and_the_Irish_border "Brexit and the Irish border") between [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") and the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") has been a contentious issue. Since 2005, [the border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_border "Republic of IrelandâUnited Kingdom border") had been essentially invisible.[\[269\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-270) After Brexit, it became the only UKâEU land border[\[270\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-271) (not counting the land borders that EU states Spain and Cyprus have with [British Overseas Territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories "British Overseas Territories")). All involved parties agreed a hard border should be avoided,[\[271\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-272) because it might compromise the [Good Friday Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement") that ended the [Northern Ireland conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_conflict "Northern Ireland conflict").[\[272\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-273)[\[273\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-274)[\[274\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-275) To forestall this, the EU proposed a ["backstop agreement"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_backstop "Irish backstop") that would keep the UK in the Customs Union and keep Northern Ireland in some aspects of the Single Market until a lasting solution was found.[\[275\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-BBC_backstop-276) The UK Parliament rejected this proposal. After [further negotiations in autumn of 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_negotiations_in_2019 "Brexit negotiations in 2019"), an alternative model, the [Ireland/Northern Ireland Protocol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Protocol "Northern Ireland Protocol") was agreed between the UK and the EU. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is formally outside the EU single market, but [EU free movement of goods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Single_Market "European Single Market") rules and [EU Customs Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Customs_Union "EU Customs Union") rules still apply; this ensures there are no customs checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. In place of an Ireland/Northern Ireland land border, the protocol has created a *[de facto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto "De facto")* customs "[Irish Sea border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sea_border "Irish Sea border")" for goods from (but not to) Great Britain,[\[276\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-bbcNewDeal-277)[\[277\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-FTNewDeal-278) to the disquiet of prominent [Unionists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Unionism "Ulster Unionism").[\[278\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-279)
After the Brexit referendum, the [Scottish Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Government "Scottish Government") â led by the [Scottish National Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_National_Party "Scottish National Party") (SNP) â planned [another independence referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_second_Scottish_independence_referendum "Proposed second Scottish independence referendum") because Scotland voted to remain in the EU while England and Wales voted to leave.[\[279\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-280) It had suggested this before the Brexit referendum.[\[280\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-281) The [First Minister of Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland "First Minister of Scotland"), [Nicola Sturgeon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Sturgeon "Nicola Sturgeon"), requested a referendum be held before the UK's withdrawal,[\[281\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-282) but the British prime minister rejected this timing, but not the referendum itself.[\[282\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-283) At the referendum in 2014, 55% of voters had decided to remain in the UK, but the referendum on Britain's withdrawal from the EU was held in 2016, with 62% of Scottish voters against it. In March 2017, the Scottish Parliament voted in favour of holding another independence referendum. Sturgeon called for a "phased return" of an independent Scotland back to the EU.[\[283\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-284) In 2017, if Northern Ireland remained associated with the EU â for example, by remaining in the Customs Union â some analysts argued Scotland would also insist on special treatment.[\[284\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Brexit-Reuters-04122017-285) However, in that event, the only part of the United Kingdom which would receive unique treatment was Northern Ireland.[\[285\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-286)
On 21 March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the [Scottish Continuity Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union_\(Legal_Continuity\)_\(Scotland\)_Bill_2018 "UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal Continuity) (Scotland) Bill 2018").[\[286\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Herald_Scotland-287) This was passed due to stalling negotiations between the Scottish Government and the British Government on where powers within devolved policy areas should lie after Brexit. The Act allowed for all devolved policy areas to remain within the remit of the Scottish Parliament and reduced the executive power upon exit day that the UK Withdrawal Bill provides for Ministers of the Crown.[\[287\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-288) The bill was referred to the UK Supreme Court, which found that it could not come into force as the [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018"), which received royal assent between the Scottish Parliament passing its bill and the Supreme Court's judgement, designated itself under schedule 4 of the [Scotland Act 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland_Act_1998 "Scotland Act 1998") as unamendable by the Scottish Parliament.[\[288\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-289) The bill has therefore not received royal assent.[\[289\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-290)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gibraltar_Customs_side_of_the_Spain-Gibraltar_frontier,_Winston_Churchill_Avenue,_Gibraltar.jpg)
Cars crossing into [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") from [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain "Spain") clearing customs formalities. Gibraltar is outside the customs union, VAT area, and [Schengen Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schengen_Zone "Schengen Zone").
[Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar"), a [British Overseas Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Overseas_Territory "British Overseas Territory") bordering Spain, is [affected by Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_Brexit_on_Gibraltar "Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar") too. Spain asserts a [territorial claim on Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_of_Gibraltar "Status of Gibraltar"). After the referendum, Spain's Foreign Minister renewed calls for joint SpanishâBritish control.[\[290\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-291) In late 2018, the British and Spanish governments agreed that any dispute over Gibraltar would not affect Brexit negotiations,[\[291\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-292) and the British government agreed that UKâEU treaties made after Brexit would not automatically apply to Gibraltar.[\[292\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-293) In December 2020, Spain and the UK reached an [agreement in principle on future arrangements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_Brexit_on_Gibraltar#Post-Brexit "Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar") for Brexit and invited the European Commission to formalise it as a treaty.
The French and British governments say they remain committed to the [Le Touquet Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Touquet_Agreement "Le Touquet Agreement"), which lets UK border checks be completed in France, and vice versa ([juxtaposed controls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juxtaposed_controls "Juxtaposed controls")).[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-French_border-294) The two governments signed the Sandhurst Treaty in January 2018, which will shorten the time taken to process [migrants attempting to reach the UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrants_around_Calais "Migrants around Calais") from [Calais](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calais "Calais"), from six months to one month. The UK also announced it will invest a further ÂŁ44.5 million on border security at the English Channel.[\[293\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-French_border-294)
### Effects on the European Union
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=37 "Edit section: Effects on the European Union")\]
Brexit [caused the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Brexit_on_the_European_Union "Impact of Brexit on the European Union") to lose its second-largest economy, its third-most populous country,[\[294\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-295) and the second-largest net contributor to the EU budget.[\[295\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-296)
The UK is no longer a shareholder in the [European Investment Bank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Investment_Bank "European Investment Bank"), where it had 16% of the shares.[\[296\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-297) The European Investment Bank's Board of Governors decided that the remaining member states would proportionally increase their capital subscriptions to maintain the same level of overall subscribed capital (EUR 243.3 billion).[\[297\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-298) As of March 2020, the subscribed capital of the EIB had increased by an additional EUR 5.5 billion, following the decision by two member states to increase their capital subscriptions ([Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland "Poland") and [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania "Romania")). The EIB's total subscribed capital thus amounted to EUR 248.8 billion. Brexit did not impact the EIB Group's AAA credit rating.[\[298\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-299)
Analyses indicated that the departure of the relatively economically liberal UK would reduce the ability of remaining economically liberal countries to block measures in the [Council of the EU](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_the_EU "Council of the EU").[\[299\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-300)[\[300\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-301) In 2019, ahead of Brexit, the [European Medicines Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency "European Medicines Agency") and [European Banking Authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Banking_Authority "European Banking Authority") moved their headquarters from London to [Amsterdam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam") and [Paris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris "Paris"), respectively.[\[301\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-302)[\[302\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-303)[\[303\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-304)
Brexit poses challenges to British academia and research, as the UK loses research funding from EU sources and sees a reduction in students from the EU. Academic institutions find it harder to hire researchers from the EU and British students will face greater difficulties with studying abroad in the EU.[\[304\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Mayhew-2017-305) The UK was a member of the [European Research Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Research_Area "European Research Area") and likely to wish to remain an associated member following Brexit.[\[305\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-306) The British government has guaranteed funding for research currently funded by EU.[\[306\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-307)
By leaving the EU, the UK would leave the [European Common Aviation Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Common_Aviation_Area "European Common Aviation Area") (ECAA), a [single market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_market "Single market") in commercial air travel,[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Aviation-IFG-308) but could negotiate a number of different future relationships with the EU.[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Aviation-IFG-308) British airlines would still have permission to operate within the EU with no restrictions, and vice versa. The British government seeks continued participation in the [European Aviation Safety Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency "European Aviation Safety Agency") (EASA).[\[307\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Aviation-IFG-308) The UK has its own [air service agreements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_transport_agreement "Air transport agreement") with 111 countries, which permit flights to-and-from the country, and further 17 countries through its EU membership.[\[308\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-309) These have since been replaced. Ferries will continue, but with obstacles such as customs checks.[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-atclogistics-310) New ferry departures between the Republic of Ireland and the European mainland have been established.[\[309\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-atclogistics-310) As of August 2020, the government's [Goods Vehicle Movement Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goods_Vehicle_Movement_Service "Goods Vehicle Movement Service"), an IT system essential to post-Brexit goods movements, was still only in the early stages of beta testing, with four months to go before it is required to be in operation.[\[310\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-311)
A 2025 report estimated that Brexit has caused a ÂŁ20 billion productivity decline in the UK financial sector, as major firms shifted staff and assets to EU cities such as Frankfurt and Paris. Policymakers are exploring measures to revive competitiveness outside the single market.[\[311\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-312)
The UK has left the [Common Agricultural Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy "Common Agricultural Policy") (CAP),[\[312\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CAP_payments-313) which provides government financial support to farmers in the EU.[\[313\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CAP-314) Brexit allowed the UK to develop its own agriculture policy[\[314\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-UK_agriculture_policy-315) and the [Agriculture Act 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_Act_2020&action=edit&redlink=1 "Agriculture Act 2020 (page does not exist)") replaced the CAP with a new system.[\[315\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-Agriculture_Act_2020-316) The UK also left the [Common Fisheries Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Fisheries_Policy "Common Fisheries Policy") (CFP)[\[316\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-fisheries_briefing-317) that lets all EU countries fish within 12 nautical miles of the British coast[\[317\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-318) and lets the EU set catch quotas.[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CFP_explainer-319) The combined EU fishing fleets landed about six million tonnes of fish per year, as of 2016,[\[319\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-320) about half of which were from British waters.[\[320\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-321) By leaving the CFP, the UK could develop its own fisheries policy.[\[318\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-CFP_explainer-319) The UK did also leave the [London Fisheries Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Fisheries_Convention "London Fisheries Convention") that lets Irish, French, Belgian, Dutch and German vessels fish within six nautical miles of the UK's coast.[\[321\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-322)
An early 2019 study found that Brexit would deplete the [National Health Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service "National Health Service") (NHS) workforce, create uncertainties regarding care for British nationals living in the EU, and put at risk access to vaccines, equipment, and medicines.[\[322\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-323) The [Department of Health and Social Care](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Social_Care "Department of Health and Social Care") has said it has taken steps to ensure the continuity of medical supplies after Brexit.[\[323\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-324) The number of non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS fell from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in April 2017.[\[324\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-325)\[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*\]In June 2016, 58,702 NHS staff recorded a non-British EU nationality, and in June 2022, 70,735 NHS staff recorded an EU nationality. However, "to present this as the full story would be misleading, because there are over 57,000 more staff for whom nationality is known now than in 2016"[\[325\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-326)[\[326\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-327)
There was a concern that a disorderly Brexit might have compromised patients' access to vital medicines.[\[327\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-328) Pharmaceutical organisations working with the Civil Service to keep medicine supplies available in the case of a no-deal Brexit had to sign 26 [Non-Disclosure Agreements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-disclosure_agreement "Non-disclosure agreement") (NDAs) to prevent them from giving the public information. The figures were given on 21 December 2018 after [Rushanara Ali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rushanara_Ali "Rushanara Ali") asked a parliamentary question.[\[328\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-329)
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brexit_migration_chart.svg)
UK net migration before and after the withdrawal from the EU.
After Brexit, the UK is able to control immigration from the [European Economic Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Area "European Economic Area") (EU (except Ireland) and [EFTA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFTA "EFTA") countries),[\[329\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-330) as withdrawal ends UK participation in the EU's [freedom of movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_movement "Freedom of movement") principle â in both directions. The British government of the time proposed to replace it with a new system of immigration control. The government's 2018 [white paper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_paper "White paper") proposes a "skills-based immigration system" that prioritises skilled migrants. EU and EEA citizens already living in the UK can continue living there after Brexit by applying to the EU Settlement Scheme, which began in March 2019. Irish citizens will not have to apply to the scheme.[\[330\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-331)[\[331\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-332)[\[332\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-333) Studies estimate that Brexit and the end of free movement will likely result in a large decline in immigration from EEA countries to the UK.[\[333\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-immigration_decline-334)[\[334\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-335) After Brexit, any foreigner wanting to work in the UK would need a work permit.[\[335\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-336)[\[336\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-337)
Since the full implementation of Brexit, more [EU nationals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union "Member state of the European Union") are leaving the UK than moving to it.[\[337\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-338) After Brexit, the number of EU citizens who were refused entry to the UK increased fivefold.[\[338\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-339) Of the 1,218,000 immigrants who came to the UK in 2023, only 126,000 were citizens of EU member states.[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-bbc-23-05-2024-340) BBC reported that "In the 12 months to June 2023, net EU migration was -86,000, meaning more EU nationals left the UK than arrived".[\[339\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-bbc-23-05-2024-340)
Under the [European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_\(Withdrawal\)_Act_2018 "European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018"), EU laws will no longer have [supremacy over](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_of_European_Union_law "Primacy of European Union law") British laws after Brexit.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-withdrawal_bill-341) To maintain continuity, the Act converts EU law into British law as "retained EU law". After Brexit, the British parliament (and the devolved legislatures) can decide which elements of that law to keep, amend or repeal.[\[340\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-withdrawal_bill-341) Furthermore, British courts will no longer be bound by the judgments of the [EU Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Court_of_Justice "EU Court of Justice") after Brexit.
Concerns were raised by European lawmakers, including [Michel Barnier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Barnier "Michel Barnier"), that Brexit might create security problems for the UK given that its law enforcement and counter-terrorism forces would no longer have access to the EU's security databases.[\[341\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-342)
Forecasts were made at the time of the referendum that Brexit would impose trade barriers, leading to a decline in trade between the United Kingdom and the European Union; however, after a dip in 2020 as result of worldwide lockdowns, by 2022 trade in both directions had risen to higher levels than before Brexit. Goods trade had fallen but was outweighed by an increase in professional services.[\[342\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-343)
Some analysts have suggested that the severe [economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom") has masked the economic impact of Brexit in 2021.[\[343\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-344) In December 2021, the *Financial Times* quoted a range of economists as saying that the economic impact of Brexit on the UK economy and living standards "appears to be negative but uncertain".[\[344\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-345) According to the [Office for Budget Responsibility](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_Budget_Responsibility "Office for Budget Responsibility"), the new trade agreement between the EU and UK could, over time, result in a 4% reduction in British productivity, compared with its level had the 2016 EU referendum gone the other way.[\[345\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-346)
Brexit was widely described as a factor contributing to the [2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_United_Kingdom_natural_gas_supplier_crisis "2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis"), in which [panic buying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_United_Kingdom_fuel_supply_crisis "2021 United Kingdom fuel supply crisis") led to serious disruption of road fuel supplies across the UK, as it exacerbated the UK's shortage of [HGV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_goods_vehicle "Heavy goods vehicle") drivers.[\[346\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-347)[\[347\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-bbc-202107-348)[\[348\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-349) In a July 2021 report, the [Road Haulage Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_Haulage_Association "Road Haulage Association") estimated the UK faced a shortage of up to 100,000 truck drivers.[\[349\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-350)[\[350\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-351)[\[351\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-352)
## Cultural references
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brexit&action=edit§ion=48 "Edit section: Cultural references")\]
Brexit has inspired many creative works, such as murals, sculptures, novels, plays, music, movies and video games. The response of British artists and writers to Brexit has in general been negative, reflecting a reported overwhelming percentage of people involved in Britain's [creative industries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_industries "Creative industries") voting against leaving the European Union.[\[352\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-353) Despite issues around immigration being central in the Brexit debate, British artists left the migrants' perspective largely unexplored. However, Brexit also inspired UK-based migrant artists to create new works and "claim agency over their representation within public spaces and create a platform for a new social imagination that can facilitate transnational and trans-local encounters, multicultural democratic spaces, sense of commonality, and solidarity."[\[353\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_note-354)
- [2010s in United Kingdom political history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_United_Kingdom_political_history "2010s in United Kingdom political history")
- [2020s in United Kingdom political history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_United_Kingdom_political_history "2020s in United Kingdom political history")
- [Equivalence in financial services](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_in_financial_services "Equivalence in financial services") â EU assessment of third country financial regulations
- [Greek withdrawal from the eurozone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_withdrawal_from_the_eurozone "Greek withdrawal from the eurozone") (proposed)
- [International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") â Responses from other countries to the Brexit vote
- [Interpretation of EU Treaty law by European Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Factortame_Ltd\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport#House_of_Lords "R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport")
- [Multi-speed Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-speed_Europe "Multi-speed Europe") â Political idea
- [Opposition to Brexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_Brexit "Opposition to Brexit") â Opposition to the UK's withdrawal from the EU
- [Potential re-accession of the United Kingdom to the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_re-accession_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_European_Union "Potential re-accession of the United Kingdom to the European Union")
- [Referendums related to the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendums_related_to_the_European_Union "Referendums related to the European Union")
- [United KingdomâEuropean Union relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93European_Union_relations "United KingdomâEuropean Union relations")
- [Withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Withdrawal from the European Union") (Legal basis)
- [Danish withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Danish withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)
- [Dutch withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Dutch withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)
- [Hungarian withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Hungarian withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)
- [Polish withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Polish withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)
- [Romanian withdrawal from the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "Romanian withdrawal from the European Union") (proposed)\*\* [Frexit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frexit "Frexit") (French withdrawal from the European Union) (proposed)
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-2)** The UK also left the [European Atomic Energy Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Atomic_Energy_Community "European Atomic Energy Community") (EAEC or Euratom).
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-1)**
Hall, Damien (11 August 2017). ["'Breksit' or 'bregzit'? The question that divides a nation"](https://theconversation.com/breksit-or-bregzit-the-question-that-divides-a-nation-82278). *The Conversation*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190704035541/http://theconversation.com/breksit-or-bregzit-the-question-that-divides-a-nation-82278) from the original on 4 July 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-CouncilRatifies_3-0)**
["EU-UK trade and cooperation agreement: Council adopts decision on conclusion"](https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/04/29/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement-council-adopts-decision-on-conclusion/). *www.consilium.europa.eu*. 29 April 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210817064545/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/04/29/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement-council-adopts-decision-on-conclusion/) from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-4)**
Sparrow, Andrew (1 February 2020). ["Brexit day: end of an era as United Kingdom leaves EU â as it happened"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/31/brexit-day-britain-prepares-leave-eu-live-news-updates). *The Guardian*.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Bennett_5-0)**
Bennett, Asa (27 January 2020). ["How will the Brexit transition period work?"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/0/brexit-2020-transition-period/). *The Telegraph*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200128044559/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/0/brexit-2020-transition-period/) from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Edgington_6-0)**
Tom Edgington (31 January 2020). ["Brexit: What is the transition period?"](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50838994). *BBC News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200131215049/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50838994) from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
6. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-QAEC_7-0)**
["Questions and Answers on the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020"](https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_104). European Commission. 24 January 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200201003034/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_104) from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Parliament_UK_8-0)**
["House of Commons votes to seek Article 50 extension"](https://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2019/march/house-of-commons-to-vote-on-article-50-extension/). 14 March 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200307030308/https://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2019/march/house-of-commons-to-vote-on-article-50-extension/) from the original on 7 March 2020. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
8. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Europa17oct19_9-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Europa17oct19_9-1)
["Revised Withdrawal Agreement"](https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/revised_withdrawal_agreement_including_protocol_on_ireland_and_nothern_ireland.pdf) (PDF). European Commission. 17 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191017103006/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/revised_withdrawal_agreement_including_protocol_on_ireland_and_nothern_ireland.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-BBC_News_10-0)**
["New Brexit deal agreed, says Boris Johnson"](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50079385). *BBC News*. 17 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191213193556/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50079385) from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
10. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-11)**
Landler, Mark; Castle, Stephen (12 December 2019). ["Conservatives Win Commanding Majority in U.K. Vote: 'Brexit Will Happen'"](https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4?ocid=spartanntp). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. New York City. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191213060550/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/conservatives-headed-for-commanding-majority-in-uk-vote-brexit-will-happen/ar-AAK4vR4%3Focid%3Dspartanntp) from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019 â via [MSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN "MSN").
11. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Guardian2020jan24_12-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Guardian2020jan24_12-1)
Boffey, Daniel; Proctor, Kate (24 January 2020). ["Boris Johnson signs Brexit withdrawal agreement"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jan/24/sombre-eu-leaders-sign-brexit-withdrawal-agreement). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200124122448/https://amp.theguardian.com/politics/2020/jan/24/sombre-eu-leaders-sign-brexit-withdrawal-agreement) from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
12. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-sparrow1_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-sparrow1_13-1)
Sparrow, Andrew (30 January 2020). ["Brexit: MEPs approve withdrawal agreement after emotional debate and claims UK will return â live news"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/29/pmqs-boris-johnson-corbyn-warned-he-faces-first-commons-revolt-since-election-over-huawei-live-news). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200129232319/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2020/jan/29/pmqs-boris-johnson-corbyn-warned-he-faces-first-commons-revolt-since-election-over-huawei-live-news) from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-autogenerated1_14-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-autogenerated1_14-1)
["Brexit: UK leaves the European Union"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314). *BBC News*. 1 February 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200314050137/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314) from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-15)**
["Brexit jargon: From backstop to no-deal, the key terms explained"](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/17/brexit-jargon-from-backstop-to-no-deal-the-key-terms-explained/). *Al Jazeera*. 17 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201108231048/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/17/brexit-jargon-from-backstop-to-no-deal-the-key-terms-explained/) from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-16)**
["Brexit: 12 key words you need to know"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-43470987). *BBC News*. 11 December 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210702223508/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-43470987) from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Lewis-Hargreave_17-0)**
Lewis-Hargreave, Sam (21 January 2019). ["Is 'Brexit' the Worst Political Portmanteau in History?"](https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/sam-lewishargreave/is-brexit-the-worst-polit_b_10615036.html). *[HuffPost UK](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HuffPost_UK "HuffPost UK")*. London. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230310155901/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/sam-lewishargreave/is-brexit-the-worst-polit_b_10615036.html) from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Tempest_18-0)**
Tempest, Matthew (10 January 2017). ["Oxford English Dictionary: The man who coined 'Brexit' first appeared on Euractiv blog"](https://www.euractiv.com/section/uk-europe/news/oxford-english-dictionary-the-man-who-coined-brexit/). *[Euractiv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euractiv "Euractiv")*. Brussels. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191007143025/https://www.euractiv.com/section/uk-europe/news/oxford-english-dictionary-the-man-who-coined-brexit/) from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Davis_19-0)**
Davis, Lindsay (3 November 2016). ["'Brexit' tops the list of Collins Dictionary's 2016 words of the year"](https://mashable.com/article/brexit-word-of-the-year). [New York City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): [Mashable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashable "Mashable"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230225154143/https://mashable.com/article/brexit-word-of-the-year) from the original on 25 February 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Flood_20-0)**
Flood, Alison (2 November 2016). ["Brexit named word of the year, ahead of Trumpism and hygge"](https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/03/brexit-named-word-of-the-year-ahead-of-trumpism-and-hygge). *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*. London. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230227113232/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/03/brexit-named-word-of-the-year-ahead-of-trumpism-and-hygge) from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-21)**
["1967: De Gaulle says "non" to Britain â again"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/27/newsid_4187000/4187714.stm). *BBC News*. 27 November 1976. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190202044425/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/27/newsid_4187000/4187714.stm) from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-22)**
["Did Charles de Gaulle foresee Brexit?"](https://www.france24.com/en/20191013-did-charles-de-gaulle-foresee-brexit). *France 24*. 13 October 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230309014330/https://www.france24.com/en/20191013-did-charles-de-gaulle-foresee-brexit) from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-23)**
Ludlow, N. Piers (January 2015). ["Safeguarding British Identity or Betraying It? The Role of British 'Tradition' in the Parliamentary Great Debate on EC Membership, October 1971: Safeguarding British identity or betraying it?"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcms.12202). *JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies*. **53** (1): 18â34\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1111/jcms.12202](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjcms.12202). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0021-9886](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9886). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [145092199](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145092199). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220820132750/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcms.12202) from the original on 20 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-24)**
["Into Europe"](http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/tradeindustry/importexport/overview/europe/). Parliament of the United Kingdom. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190328231317/https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/tradeindustry/importexport/overview/europe/) from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-25)**
["English text of EU Accession Treaty 1972, Cmnd. 7463"](https://web.archive.org/web/20161221025512/http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1979/TS0018%20%281979%29%20CMND-7463%201972%2022%20JAN%2C%20BRUSSELS%3B%20TREATY%20CONCERNING%20ACCESSION%20OF%20DENMARK%20IRELAND%20NORWAY%20UK%20%26%20NI%20TO%20EEC%20%26%20EAEC_1.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1979/TS0018%20\(1979\)%20CMND-7463%201972%2022%20JAN,%20BRUSSELS%3B%20TREATY%20CONCERNING%20ACCESSION%20OF%20DENMARK%20IRELAND%20NORWAY%20UK%20&%20NI%20TO%20EEC%20&%20EAEC_1.pdf) (PDF) on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-26)**
["1973: Britain joins the EEC"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/1/newsid_2459000/2459167.stm). *BBC News*. 1 January 1973. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190114142111/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/1/newsid_2459000/2459167.stm) from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-27)**
May, Alex (1999). *Britain and Europe since 1945*. Seminar studies in history. Longmand. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-582-30778-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30778-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30778-0")
.
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-28)**
["BBC on this day â 26 â 1975: Labour votes to leave the EEC"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26/newsid_2503000/2503155.stm). *BBC*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181212151032/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26/newsid_2503000/2503155.stm) from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-29)** the [Shetland Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetland_Islands "Shetland Islands") and the [Outer Hebrides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Hebrides "Outer Hebrides")
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-30)**
Miller, Vaughne (13 July 2015). ["The 1974â75 UK Renegotiation of EEC Membership and Referendum"](https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7253/). *commonslibrary.parliament.uk* (Research briefing). House of Commons Library. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210305014515/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7253/) from the original on 5 March 2021.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-31)**
["Who Voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district level analysis"](http://www.trfetzer.com/who-voted-for-brexit/). Becker, Fetzer, Novy, University of Warwick. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190401145148/http://www.trfetzer.com/who-voted-for-brexit/) from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
31. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-foot_32-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-foot_32-1)
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32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-33)**
Bismarck, Dr Helene Von (4 May 2016). ["Margaret Thatcher: the critical architect of European integration"](https://ukandeu.ac.uk/margaret-thatcher-the-critical-architect-of-european-integration/). *UK in a changing Europe*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032223/https://ukandeu.ac.uk/margaret-thatcher-the-critical-architect-of-european-integration/) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-34)**
Dury, HĂ©lĂšne. ["Black Wednesday"](http://is.muni.cz/el/1456/podzim2011/MPF_AFIN/um/27608616/27608949/Black_Wednesday.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181001135346/https://is.muni.cz/el/1456/podzim2011/MPF_AFIN/um/27608616/27608949/Black_Wednesday.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-35)**
["EU treaties"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160913032647/http://europa.eu/european-union/eu-law/decision-making/treaties_en). Europa (web portal). Archived from [the original](https://europa.eu/european-union/eu-law/decision-making/treaties_en) on 13 September 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-36)**
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36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-37)** Bogdanor also quotes [John Locke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke "John Locke")'s *[The Second Treatise of Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government "Two Treatises of Government")*: 'The Legislative cannot transfer the power of making laws to any other hands. For it being but a delegated power from the People, they who have it cannot pass it to others.' â Bogdanor, Vernon (8 June 1993). [Why the people should have a vote on Maastricht: The House of Lords must uphold democracy and insist on a referendum](https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/why-the-people-should-have-a-vote-on-maastricht-the-house-of-lords-must-uphold-democracy-and-insist-1490346.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190629035411/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/why-the-people-should-have-a-vote-on-maastricht-the-house-of-lords-must-uphold-democracy-and-insist-1490346.html) 29 June 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). *[The Independent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent")*.
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-38)** Bogdanor, Vernon (26 July 1993). [Futility of a House with no windows](https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/futility-of-a-house-with-no-windows-1487252.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190708155618/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/futility-of-a-house-with-no-windows-1487252.html) 8 July 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine"). *The Independent*.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-kuper20190620_39-0)**
Kuper, Simon (20 June 2019). ["How Oxford university shaped Brexit â and Britain's next prime minister"](https://www.ft.com/content/85fc694c-9222-11e9-b7ea-60e35ef678d2). *Financial Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190621101919/https://www.ft.com/content/85fc694c-9222-11e9-b7ea-60e35ef678d2) from the original on 21 June 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-40)**
Heath, Anthony; Jowell, Roger; Taylor, Bridget; Thomson, Katarina (1 January 1998). "Euroscepticism and the referendum party". *British Elections & Parties Review*. **8** (1): 95â110\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1080/13689889808413007](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13689889808413007). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1368-9886](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1368-9886).
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-41)**
Ian Traynor (31 March 2013). ["Is Germany too powerful for Europe?"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/31/is-germany-too-powerful-for-europe). *The Guardian*. Retrieved 2 January 2025.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-42)**
Peter Ammon (2020). ["Perceptions of German Power in British Eurosceptic Discourse"](https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/13019). *Revue Lisa/Lisa E-Journal. LittĂ©ratures, Histoire des IdĂ©es, Images, SociĂ©tĂ©s du Monde Anglophone â Literature, History of Ideas, Images and Societies of the English-Speaking World* (19ân51). Lisa e-journal. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.4000/lisa.13019](https://doi.org/10.4000%2Flisa.13019). Retrieved 2 January 2025.
42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-43)**
LSE Brexit Blog (4 January 2019). ["From Euroscepticism to outright populism: The evolution of British tabloids"](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2019/01/04/from-euroscepticism-to-outright-populism-the-evolution-of-british-tabloids/). *LSE BREXIT*.
43. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-44)**
["European elections 2014: UKIP tops British vote"](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-27567744). BBC. 26 May 2014.
44. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Mortimore_45-0)**
Mortimore, Roger. ["Polling history: 40 years of British views on "in or out" of Europe"](https://theconversation.com/polling-history-40-years-of-british-views-on-in-or-out-of-europe-61250). *The Conversation*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190403145856/https://theconversation.com/polling-history-40-years-of-british-views-on-in-or-out-of-europe-61250) from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
45. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-46)** Gifford, Chris. *The Making of Eurosceptic Britain*. Ashgate Publishing, 2014. pp. 55, 68
46. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit#cite_ref-Foster_47-0)** Foster, Anthony. *Euroscepticism in Contemporary British Politics: Opposition to Europe in the Conservative and Labour Parties since 1945*. Routledge, 2003. pp. 68â69
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- [Freedland, Jonathan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Freedman "Jonathan Freedman") (26 September 2019). ["Fools Rush Out"](https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/09/26/fools-rush-out-boris-johnson-brexit/). *[The New York Review of Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books "The New York Review of Books")*. Vol. 66, no. 14. pp. 30, 32, 34â35\. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0028-7504](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-7504).
- Freedman, Lawrence D. (MayâJune 2020). ["Britain Adrift: The United Kingdom's Search for a Post-Brexit Role"](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-kingdom/2020-04-13/britain-adrift). *[Foreign Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs "Foreign Affairs")*. **99** (3): 118â130\. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0015-7120](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0015-7120).
- Hayton, Richard (February 2018). ["British conservatism after the vote for Brexit: The ideological legacy of David Cameron"](https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/122446/3/HAYTON%20British%20Conservatism%20after%20the%20vote%20for%20Brexit%20.pdf) (PDF). *[The British Journal of Politics and International Relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_British_Journal_of_Politics_and_International_Relations "The British Journal of Politics and International Relations")*. **20** (1): 223â238\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1177/1369148117737278](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1369148117737278). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1369-1481](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1369-1481).
- [Hobolt, Sara B.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Hobolt "Sara Hobolt") (20 October 2016). ["The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent"](https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67546/7/Hobolt_The%20Brexit%20vote%20a%20divided%20.pdf) (PDF). *[Journal of European Public Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_European_Public_Policy "Journal of European Public Policy")*. **23** (9): 1259â1277\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10\.1080/13501763.2016.1225785](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13501763.2016.1225785). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [1350-1763](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1350-1763). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [158006844](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158006844).
- Oliver, Timothy G. (2018). [*Understanding Brexit: a concise introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jERmDwAAQBAJ). Bristol: [Policy Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_Press "Policy Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4473-4639-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4473-4639-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4473-4639-5")
.
- [O'Rourke, Kevin H.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_O%27Rourke_\(economist\) "Kevin O'Rourke (economist)") (2019). [*A short history of Brexit: from brentry to backstop*](https://books.google.com/books?id=D4l7DwAAQBAJ). Pelican Books. London: [Pelican Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelican_Books "Pelican Books"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-241-39827-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-39827-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-241-39827-2")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1082905086](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1082905086).
- [O'Toole, Fintan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fintan_O%27Toole "Fintan O'Toole") (2018). [*Heroic failure: Brexit and the politics of pain*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lKufEAAAQBAJ). London: [Head of Zeus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_Zeus "Head of Zeus"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78954-098-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78954-098-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78954-098-7")
.
- Outhwaite, William (2017). [*Brexit: sociological responses*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fUE2DgAAQBAJ). Key issues in modern sociology. London, UK: Anthem Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78308-644-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78308-644-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78308-644-3")
.
- [Peers, Steve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Peers "Steve Peers") (2016). *The Brexit: The Legal Framework for Withdrawal from the EU or Renegotiation of EU Membership*. Oxford: [Hart Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_Publishing "Hart Publishing"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-84946-874-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84946-874-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-84946-874-9")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [917161408](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/917161408).
- [Rogers, Ivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Rogers "Ivan Rogers") (2019). [*9 Lessons in Brexit*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wQDuDwAAQBAJ). London: Short Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78072-399-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78072-399-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78072-399-0")
.
- Shaw, Martin (2022). *Political racism: Brexit and its aftermath*. Newcastle upon Tyne: Agenda Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-78821-508-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78821-508-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78821-508-4")
.
- [Shipman, Tim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Shipman "Tim Shipman") (2016). [*All out war: the full story of how Brexit sank Britain's political class*](https://archive.org/details/alloutwarfullsto0000ship). London: [HarperCollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins "HarperCollins"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-00-821515-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-821515-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-00-821515-6")
.
- Shipman, Tim (2017). [*Fall out: a year of political mayhem*](https://archive.org/details/falloutyearofpol0000ship). London: [HarperCollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins "HarperCollins"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-00-826441-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-826441-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-00-826441-3")
.
On Brexit debates in 2017
- [Early Parliamentary General Election Bill 2019â20, Progress in Parliament](https://services.parliament.uk/bills/2019-20/earlyparliamentarygeneralelection.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191031224436/https://services.parliament.uk/Bills/2019-20/earlyparliamentarygeneralelection.html) 31 October 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")
- [British government's Brexit information](https://www.gov.uk/government/brexit)
- [British government's official negotiation documents](https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/article-50-and-negotiations-with-the-eu)
- [European Parliament â Brexit impact studies](http://www.europarl.europa.eu/unitedkingdom/en/brexitpublic/brexitstudies.html)
- [Brexit news on Eur-Lex website](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/content/news/Brexit-UK-withdrawal-from-the-eu.html)
- [*Legal Effect of the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland*, Attorney General's advice to Prime Minister, 13 November 2018](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/761852/05_December-_EU_Exit_Attorney_General_s_legal_advice_to_Cabinet_on_the_Withdrawal_Agreement_and_the_Protocol_on_Ireland-Northern_Ireland.pdf)
- [British government's *Explainer* (for the withdrawal agreement) 14 November 2018](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/756376/14_November_Explainer_for_the_agreement_on_the_withdrawal_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland_from_the_European_Union___1_.pdf)
- [House of Lords report analysing the proposed Withdrawal Agreement, 5 December 2018](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201719/ldselect/ldeucom/245/245.pdf)
- [EU's official negotiation documents](https://ec.europa.eu/commission/brexit-negotiations/negotiating-documents-article-50-negotiations-united-kingdom_en)
- [British Parliament â Brexit News](http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/european-union)
- [Reading list of post-EU Referendum publications by Parliament and the Devolved Assemblies](https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7912) â House of Commons Library
- [Record of Brexit-related business in the devolved legislatures](https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7815) (Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) â House of Commons Library
- [Gov.UK â Department for Exiting the European Union](https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-exiting-the-european-union)
- [BBC: "Brexit: What are the options?" (10 October 2016)](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-37507129)
- [BBC: "Brexit vote: What could happen next?" (17 December 2018)](https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-46393399)
- [*The Brexit Papers*, Bar Council, December 2016](https://web.archive.org/web/20170510154849/http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/media/508513/the_brexit_papers.pdf)
- ["Plan for Britain: The government's negotiating objectives for exiting the EU": PM's speech delivered and published on 17 January 2017](https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-governments-negotiating-objectives-for-exiting-the-eu-pm-speech) â transcript of speech as delivered at Lancaster House, London
- [*The United Kingdom's exit from and new partnership with the European Union*, February 2017 ("White paper")](https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/588948/The_United_Kingdoms_exit_from_and_partnership_with_the_EU_Web.pdf)
- [Quotes about Brexit](http://quotes.euronews.com/topic/brexit) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171114185045/http://quotes.euronews.com/topic/brexit) 14 November 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") on [Euronews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euronews "Euronews")
- [European Council Brexit Guidelines](http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/04/29-euco-brexit-guidelines)
- ["The economic effects of the government's proposed Brexit deal"](https://www.niesr.ac.uk/sites/default/files/publications/NIESR%20Report%20Brexit%20-%202018-11-26.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201227153734/https://www.niesr.ac.uk/sites/default/files/publications/NIESR%20Report%20Brexit%20-%202018-11-26.pdf) 27 December 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")âNational Institute of Economic and Social Research, November 2018
- [How will Brexit affect the UK's manufacturing industry?](http://blogs.sussex.ac.uk/uktpo/2018/02/06/manufacturing-industry/) UK Trade Policy Observatory, February 2018
- [The real post-Brexit options](https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/2018-Ivan_Rogers-the_real_post-Brexit_options.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191019121828/https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/2018-Ivan_Rogers-the_real_post-Brexit_options.pdf) 19 October 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") Lecture by Ivan Rogers at the University of Glasgow, 23 May 2018
- ["What are the options for the UK's trading relationship with the EU after Brexit?"](https://ukandeu.ac.uk/explainers/what-are-the-options-for-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-the-eu-after-brexit/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191022134307/http://ukandeu.ac.uk/explainers/what-are-the-options-for-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-the-eu-after-brexit/) 22 October 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") UK in a Changing Europe, King's College London, December 2018
- ["Brexit phrasebook: a guide to the talks' key terms"](https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jun/19/brexit-phrasebook-a-guide-to-the-talks-key-terms)â*The Guardian*, 23 November 2018
- ["Lord Ashcroft: How the United Kingdom voted on EU referendum day â and why"](https://www.conservativehome.com/platform/2019/03/lord-ashcroft-how-the-united-kingdom-voted-on-eu-referendum-day-and-why.html) Conservative Home, 17 March 2019
- [Explanatory Memorandum for the *Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Consequential Provisions) Bill 2019* introduced by the Irish government in the legislature](https://www.dfa.ie/media/dfa/eu/brexit/keydocuments/Omnibus-Bill-Memo.pdf) ([Oireachtas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oireachtas "Oireachtas"))
- [EU Council decision, 22 March 2019, extending the negotiating period](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2019%3A080I%3AFULL&from=EN)
- Garrahan, Daniel (2022). [*The Brexit effect: how leaving the EU hit the UK*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wO2lWmgEK1Y). FT Film. Financial Times. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
- [Constitutional implications of the Withdrawal Agreement legislation](https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8805/CBP-8805.pdf) â House of Commons Library February 2020
- [Judgment](http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/5.html) of the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom "Supreme Court of the United Kingdom") in *[R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_\(Miller\)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Exiting_the_European_Union "R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union")*
- [Judgment](http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&docid=208636&pageIndex=0&doclang=en&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=1085843) of the [European Court of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice "European Court of Justice") in the *Wightman* case: Right of unilateral revocation of the notification
- *[Wilson v Prime Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson_v_Prime_Minister "Wilson v Prime Minister")* (2018) [EWHC 3520 (Admin)](https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190116153032/https://www.ukineuchallenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/260395-Judgment-10.12.2018-Version-for-publication.pdf) 16 January 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")
- Ewan McGaughey ["Could Brexit be Void?"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09615768.2018.1555881) *King's Law Journal*, Volume 29, 2018, Issue 3
- [*UK withdrawal from the European Union: Legal and procedural issues*](http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/599352/EPRS_IDA\(2017\)599352_EN.pdf) European Parliamentary Research Service, March 2017
- Ronan McCrea. ["The legal issues of revoking the notification to leave the EU â but then notifying to leave again"](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/brexit/2018/12/20/the-legal-issues-of-revoking-the-notification-to-leave-the-eu-but-then-notifying-to-leave-again/). London School of Economics, 20 December 2018 |
| Shard | 152 (laksa) |
| Root Hash | 17790707453426894952 |
| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/Brexit s443 |