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| Boilerpipe Text | Berne Convention
Berne Convention for the
Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
Map of parties to the Convention
Signed
9 September 1886
Location
Bern
, Switzerland
Effective
5 December 1887
Condition
3 months after exchange of ratifications
Parties
182
Depositary
Director General of the World Intellectual Property Organization
Languages
French (prevailing in case of differences in interpretation) and English, officially translated in Arabic, German, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish
Full text
Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
at
Wikisource
The
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
, usually known as the
Berne Convention
, was an international assembly held in 1886 in the Swiss city of
Bern
by ten European countries with the goal of agreeing on a set of legal principles for the protection of
original work
and
intellectual property
. They drafted and adopted a multi-party
contract
containing agreements for a uniform, border-crossing system that became known under the same name. Its rules have been updated many times since then.
[
1
]
[
2
]
The
treaty
provides authors, musicians, poets, painters, and other creators with the means to control how their works are used, by whom, and on what terms.
[
3
]
In some jurisdictions these types of rights are referred to as
copyright
; on the European continent they are generally referred to as
authors' rights
.
As of November 2022, the Berne Convention has been ratified by 182 states out of 195 countries in the world, most of which are also parties to the Paris Act of 1971.
[
4
]
[
5
]
The Berne Convention introduced the concept that protection exists the moment a work is "fixed", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, and its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work and to any
derivative works
, unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them or until the copyright expires. A creator need not
register
or "apply for" a copyright in countries adhering to the convention. It also enforces a requirement that countries recognize rights held by the citizens of all other parties to the convention. Foreign authors are given the same rights and privileges to copyrighted material as domestic authors in any country that ratified the convention. The countries to which the convention applies created a Union for the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works, known as the
Berne Union
.
The Berne Convention requires its parties to recognize the protection of works of authors from other parties to the convention at least as well as those of its own nationals. For example,
French authors' rights law
applies to anything published, distributed, performed, or in any other way accessible in France, regardless of where it was originally created, if the country of origin of that work is in the Berne Union.
[
citation needed
]
In addition to establishing a system of equal treatment that harmonised copyright amongst parties, the agreement also required member states to provide strong minimum standards for copyright law.
[
citation needed
]
Author's rights under the Berne Convention must be automatic; it is prohibited to require formal registration. However, when the United States joined the convention on 1 March 1989,
[
6
]
it continued to make
statutory damages
and
attorney's fees
only available for registered works.
However,
Moberg v. Leygues
(a 2009 decision of a Delaware Federal District Court) held that the protections of the Berne Convention are supposed to essentially be "frictionless", meaning no registration requirements can be imposed on a work from a different Berne member country. This means Berne member countries can require works originating in their own country to be registered and/or deposited, but cannot require these formalities of works from other Berne member countries.
[
7
]
Under Article 3, the protection of the Convention applies to nationals and residents of countries that are party to the convention, and to works first published or simultaneously published (under Article 3(4), "simultaneously" is defined as "within 30 days")
[
8
]
in a country that is party to the convention.
[
8
]
Under Article 4, it also applies to cinematic works by persons who have their headquarters or habitual residence in a party country, and to architectural works situated in a party country.
[
9
]
The Convention relies on the concept of "country of origin". Often determining the country of origin is straightforward: when a work is published in a party country and nowhere else, this is the country of origin. However, under Article 5(4), when a work is published "simultaneously" ("within 30 days")
[
8
]
in several party countries,
[
8
]
the country with the
shortest term
of protection is defined as the country of origin.
[
10
]
For works simultaneously published in a party country and one or more non-parties, the party country is the country of origin. For unpublished works or works first published in a non-party country (without publication within 30 days in a party country), the author's nationality usually provides the country of origin, if a national of a party country. (There are exceptions for cinematic and architectural works.)
[
10
]
In the Internet age, unrestricted publication online may be considered publication in every sufficiently internet-connected jurisdiction in the world. It is not clear what this may mean for determining "country of origin". In
Kernel v. Mosley
(2011), a U.S. court "concluded that a work created outside of the United States, uploaded in Australia and owned by a company registered in
Finland
was nonetheless a U.S. work by virtue of its being published online". However other U.S. courts in similar situations have reached different conclusions, e.g.
Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC
(2009).
[
11
]
The matter of determining the country of origin for digital publication remains a topic of controversy among law academics as well.
[
12
]
The Berne Convention states that all works except photographic and cinematographic shall be protected for at least 50 years after the author's death, but parties are free to provide longer
terms
,
[
13
]
as the
European Union
did with the 1993
Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection
. For photography, the Berne Convention sets a minimum term of 25 years from the year the photograph was created, and for cinematography the minimum is 50 years after first showing, or 50 years after creation if it has not been shown within 50 years after the creation. Countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide their own protection terms, and certain types of works (such as phonorecords and motion pictures) may be provided shorter terms.
[
citation needed
]
If the author is unknown because for example the author was deliberately anonymous or worked under a pseudonym, the Convention provides for a term of 50 years after publication ("after the work has been lawfully made available to the public"). However, if the identity of the author becomes known, the copyright term for known authors (50 years after death) applies.
[
13
]
Although the Berne Convention states that the legislation of the country where protective rights are claimed shall be applied, Article 7(8) states that "unless the legislation of that country otherwise provides, the term shall not exceed the term fixed in the country of origin of the work",
[
13
]
i.e., an author is normally not entitled a longer protection abroad than at home, even if the laws abroad give a longer term. This is commonly known as "the
rule of the shorter term
". Not all countries have accepted this rule.
As to works, protection must include "every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever the mode or form of its expression" (Article 2(1) of the convention).
Subject to certain allowed reservations, limitations or exceptions, the following are among the
rights
that must be recognized as exclusive rights of authorization:
the right to translate
,
the right to make adaptations and arrangements
of the work,
the right to perform in public
dramatic, dramatico-musical and musical works,
the right to recite
literary works in
public
,
the right to communicate to the public
the performance of such works,
the right to broadcast
(with the possibility that a Contracting State may provide for a mere right to equitable remuneration instead of a right of authorization),
the right to make reproductions
in any manner or form (with the possibility that a Contracting State may permit, in certain special cases, reproduction without authorization, provided that the reproduction does not conflict with the normal exploitation of the work and does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author; and the possibility that a Contracting State may provide, in the case of sound recordings of musical works, for a right to equitable remuneration),
the right to use the work as a basis for an audiovisual work
, and the right to reproduce, distribute, perform in public or communicate to the public that audiovisual work.
Exceptions and limitations
[
edit
]
The Berne Convention includes a number of specific exceptions, scattered in several provisions due to the historical reason of Berne negotiations.
[
citation needed
]
For example, Article 10(2) permits Berne members to provide for a "teaching exception" within their copyright statutes. The exception is limited to a use for illustration of the subject matter taught and it must be related to teaching activities.
[
14
]
In addition to specific exceptions, the Berne Convention establishes the "
three-step test
" in Article 9(2), which establishes a framework for member nations to develop their own national exceptions. The three-step test establishes three requirements: that the legislation be limited to certain (1) special cases; (2) that the exception does not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work, and (3) that the exception does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author.
[
citation needed
]
The Berne Convention does not expressly reference doctrines such as
fair use
or
fair dealing
, leading some critics of fair use to argue that fair use violates the Berne Convention.
[
15
]
[
16
]
However, the United States and other fair use nations argue that flexible standards such as fair use include the factors of the three-step test, and are therefore compliant. The WTO Panel has ruled that the standards are not incompatible.
[
17
]
The Berne Convention does not include the modern concept of
Internet safe harbors
, simply because Internet was not known as a technology at that time. The Agreed Statement of the parties to the
WIPO Copyright Treaty
of 1996 states that: "It is understood that the mere provision of physical facilities for enabling or making a communication does not in itself amount to communication within the meaning of this Treaty or the Berne Convention."
[
18
]
This language may mean that Internet service providers are not liable for the infringing communications of their users.
[
18
]
Since companies are using internet to publish
user generated content
, critics have argued that the Berne Convention is weak in protecting users and consumers from overbroad or harsh infringement claims, with virtually no other exceptions or limitations.
[
19
]
In fact, the
Marrakesh Copyright Exceptions Treaty for the Blind and Print-Disabled
was the first international treaty centered around the rights of users. Treaties featuring exceptions for libraries and educational institutions are also being discussed.
[
citation needed
]
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record
, from
Puck
, 1886, satirizes the ability of publishers to take works from one country and publish them in another without paying the original authors.
The Berne Convention was developed at the instigation of
Victor Hugo
[
20
]
of the
Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale
.
[
21
]
Thus it was influenced by the French "
rights of the author
" (
droits d'auteur
), which contrasts with the
Anglo-Saxon
concept of "copyright" which only dealt with economic concerns.
[
22
]
Before the Berne Convention, copyright legislation remained uncoordinated at an international level.
[
23
]
So for example a work published in the United Kingdom by a British national would be covered by copyright there but could be copied and sold by anyone in France. Dutch publisher
Albertus Willem Sijthoff
, who rose to prominence in the trade of translated books, wrote to Queen
Wilhelmina of the Netherlands
in 1899 in opposition to the convention over concerns that its international restrictions would stifle the Dutch print industry.
[
24
]
The Berne Convention followed in the footsteps of the
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property
of 1883, which in the same way had created a framework for international integration of the other types of intellectual property: patents, trademarks and
industrial designs
.
[
25
]
Like the Paris Convention, the Berne Convention set up a bureau to handle administrative tasks. In 1893 these two small bureaux merged and became the
United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property
(best known by its French acronym BIRPI), situated in Berne.
[
26
]
In 1960, BIRPI moved to
Geneva
, to be closer to the United Nations and other international organizations in that city.
[
27
]
In 1967 it became the
World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO), and in 1974 became an organization within the United Nations.
[
26
]
The Berne Convention was completed in Paris in 1886, revised in Berlin in 1908, completed in Berne in 1914, revised in Rome in 1928, in
Brussels
in 1948, in
Stockholm
in 1967 and in Paris in 1971, and was amended in 1979.
[
28
]
The
World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty
was adopted in 1996 to address the issues raised by information technology and the Internet, which were not addressed by the Berne Convention.
[
29
]
Adoption and implementation
[
edit
]
The first version of the Berne Convention treaty was signed on 9 September 1886, by Belgium, France, Germany, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia, and the United Kingdom.
[
30
]
They ratified it on 5 September 1887.
[
31
]
Although Britain ratified the convention in 1887, it did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
.
The United States
acceded
to the convention on 16 November 1988, and the convention entered into force for the United States on 1 March 1989.
[
32
]
[
31
]
The United States initially refused to become a party to the convention, since that would have required major changes in
its copyright law
, particularly with regard to
moral rights
, removal of the general requirement for registration of copyright works and elimination of mandatory copyright notice. This led first to the U.S. ratifying the
Buenos Aires Convention
(BAC) in 1910, and later the
Universal Copyright Convention
(UCC) in 1952 to accommodate the wishes of other countries.
With the WIPO's Berne revision on Paris 1971,
[
33
]
many other countries joined the treaty, as expressed by
Brazil
federal law of 1975.
[
34
]
On 1 March 1989, the U.S.
Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988
was enacted, and the U.S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty, making the United States a party to the Berne Convention,
[
35
]
and making the Universal Copyright Convention nearly obsolete.
[
36
]
Except for extremely technical points not relevant, with the accession of Nicaragua in 2000, every nation that is a member of the Buenos Aires Convention is also a member of Berne, and so the BAC has also become nearly obsolete and is essentially
deprecated
as well.
[
citation needed
]
Since almost all nations are members of the
World Trade Organization
, the
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS) requires non-members to accept almost all of the conditions of the Berne Convention.
As of November 2025, there are 182 states that are parties to the Berne Convention. This includes 178
UN member states
plus the
Cook Islands
, the
Holy See
and
Niue
.
Prospects for future reform
[
edit
]
The Berne Convention was intended to be revised regularly in order to keep pace with social and technological developments. It was revised seven times between its first iteration (in 1886) and 1971, but has seen no substantive revision since then.
[
37
]
That means its rules were decided before widespread adoption of digital technologies and the internet. In large part, this lengthy drought between revisions comes about because the Treaty gives each member state the right to veto any substantive change. The vast number of signatory countries, plus their very different development levels, makes it exceptionally difficult to update the convention to better reflect the realities of the digital world.
[
38
]
In 2018, Professor Sam Ricketson argued that anyone who thought that further revision would ever be realistic was "dreaming".
[
39
]
Berne members also cannot easily create new copyright treaties to address the digital world's realities, because the Berne Convention also prohibits treaties that are inconsistent with its precepts.
[
40
]
Legal academic Rebecca Giblin has argued that one reform avenue left to Berne members is to "take the front door out". The Berne Convention only requires member states to obey its rules for works published in other member states – not works published within its own borders. Thus member nations may lawfully introduce domestic copyright laws that have elements prohibited by Berne (such as registration formalities), so long as they only apply to their own authors. Giblin also argues that these should only be considered where the net benefit would be to benefit authors.
[
41
]
List of countries and regions that are not signatories to the Berne Convention
[
edit
]
[
6
]
Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988
Berne three-step test
Buenos Aires Convention
Droit de suite
List of parties to international copyright agreements
Copyright of official texts
Post-colonial copyright crisis
Public domain
Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations
Universal Copyright Convention
World Trade Organization Dispute 160
^
"WIPO - Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"
.
^
WEX Definitions Team.
"Berne Convention"
. Cornell Law School.
^
"Summary of the Berne Convention"
. World Intellectual Property Organization.
^
"WIPO Lex"
.
wipolex.wipo.int
. Retrieved
1 September
2021
.
^
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, Status on February 6, 2025
(PDF)
. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2020.
^
a
b
Circular 38A: International Copyright Relations of the United States
(PDF)
. U.S. Copyright Office. 2014. p. 2
. Retrieved
5 March
2015
.
^
Borderless Publications, the Berne Convention, and U.S. Copyright Formalities
, Jane C. Ginsburg, The Media Institute, 20 October 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
^
a
b
c
d
Berne Convention
[1]
Archived
23 May 2018 at the
Wayback Machine
.
^
Berne Convention
[2]
Archived
23 May 2018 at the
Wayback Machine
.
^
a
b
Berne Convention
[3]
Archived
23 May 2018 at the
Wayback Machine
.
^
Fitzgerald, Brian F., Shi, Sampsung Xiaoxiang, Foong, Cheryl, & Pappalardo, Kylie M. (2011), "
Country of Origin and Internet Publication : Applying the Berne Convention in the Digital Age
".
Journal of Intellectual Property
(NJIP) Maiden Edition, pp. 38–73.
^
See for example the columns of
Jane Ginsburg
:
Borderless Publications, the Berne Convention, and U.S. Copyright Formalities
Internet Publication and U.S. Copyright Imperialism
When a Work Debuts on the Internet, What Is its Country of Origin?
Part II
And the article
Chris Dombkowski,
SIMULTANEOUS INTERNET PUBLICATION AND THE BERNE CONVENTION
, SANTA CLARA COMPUTER & HIGH TECH. L.J., vol. 29, pp. 643–674
^
a
b
c
Berne Convention
Article 7
.
^
Drier, Thomas; Hugenholtz, P. Bernt (2016).
Concise European Copyright Law
(2 ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
^
Okediji, Ruth.
"Toward an International Fair Use Doctrine"
.
Columbia Journal of Transnational Law
.
39
: 75
. Retrieved
3 August
2018
.
^
Travis, Hannibal (2008). "Opting Out of the Internet in the United States and the European Union: Copyright, Safe Harbors, and International Law".
Notre Dame Law Review, vol. 84, p. 383
. President and Trustees of Notre Dame University in South Bend, Indiana.
SSRN
1221642
.
^
See
United States – Section 110(5) of the U.S. Copyright Act
.
^
a
b
Travis, p. 373.
^
There Can Be No 'Balance' In The Entirely Unbalanced System Of Copyright
– Techdirt, Mike Masnick, 1 March 2012
^
"Quick Berne Convention Overview"
.
Laws.com
. 4 April 2015
. Retrieved
12 June
2018
.
^
Dutfield, Graham (2008).
Global Intellectual Property Law
. Edward Elger Pub. pp.
26–
27.
ISBN
978-1-843769422
.
^
Baldwin, Peter (2016).
The Copyright Wars: Three Centuries of Trans-Atlantic Battle
. Princeton University Press. p. 15.
ISBN
978-0-691169095
.
^
"A Brief History of Copyright"
.
Intellectual Property Rights Office
.
^
"The Netherlands and the Berne Convention"
.
The Publishers' circular and booksellers' record of British and foreign literature, Vol. 71
. Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 1899. p. 597
. Retrieved
29 August
2010
.
^
"Summary of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883)"
.
World Intellectual Property Organization
. Retrieved
30 June
2018
.
^
a
b
"WIPO - A Brief History"
.
World Intellectual Property Organization
. Retrieved
12 June
2018
.
^
Cook, Curtis (2002).
Patents, Profits & Power: How Intellectual Property Rules the Global Economy
. Kogan Page. p. 63.
ISBN
978-0-749442729
.
^
"Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"
.
World Intellectual Property Organization
. Archived from
the original
on 23 May 2018
. Retrieved
12 June
2018
.
^
"WIPO Copyright Treaty"
.
World Intellectual Property Organization
. Retrieved
12 June
2018
.
^
Solberg, Thorvald (1908).
Report of the Delegate of the United States to the International Conference for the Revision of the Berne Copyright Convention, Held at Berlin, Germany, 14 October to 14 November 1908
. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. p. 9.
^
a
b
"Contracting Parties > Berne Convention (Total Contracting Parties: 173)"
.
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization
. WIPO
. Retrieved
4 April
2017
.
^
"Treaties in Force – A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force on January 1, 2016"
(PDF)
.
www.state.gov
.
^
WIPO's "Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Paris Text 1971)",
http://zvon.org/law/r/bern.html
^
Brazilian's Federal Decree No. 75699 6 May 1975.
urn:lex:br:federal:decreto:1975;75699
^
Molotsky, Irvin (21 October 1988).
"Senate Approves Joining Copyright Convention"
.
The New York Times
. Retrieved
22 September
2011
.
^
Fishman, Stephen (2011).
The Copyright Handbook: What Every Writer Needs to Know
. Nolo Press. p. 332.
ISBN
978-1-4133-1617-9
.
OCLC
707200393
.
The UCC is not nearly as important as it used to be. Indeed, it's close to becoming obsolete
^
"Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"
.
World Intellectual Property Organisation
.
^
Ricketson, Sam (2018).
"The International Framework for the Protection of Authors: Bendable Boundaries and Immovable Obstacles"
.
Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts
.
41
: 341,
348–
352. Archived from
the original
on 25 December 2018
. Retrieved
29 July
2019
.
^
Ricketson, Sam (2018).
"The International Framework for the Protection of Authors: Bendable Boundaries and Immovable Obstacles"
.
Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts
.
41
: 341, 353 (2018) (citing iconic Australian film "The Castle"). Archived from
the original
on 25 December 2018
. Retrieved
29 July
2019
.
^
Berne Convention, Article 20.
^
Giblin, Rebecca (2019).
A Future of International Copyright? Berne and the Front Door Out
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
SSRN
3351460
.
English
Wikisource
has original text related to this article:
The full text of the
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on 28 September 1979)
(in English)
in the
WIPO Lex
database – official website of
WIPO
.
"Guide to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Paris text, 1971)"
(PDF)
.
WIPO
. Geneva: World Intellectual Property Organization. 1978.
WIPO-Administered Treaties
(in English)
in the
WIPO Lex
database – official website of
WIPO
.
The 1971 Berne Convention text
– fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
Texts of the various Berne Convention revisions:
1886 Berne Act
1896 Paris Additional Act
1908 Berlin Act
1914 Additional Protocol
1928 Rome Act
1948 Brussels Act
1967 Stockholm Act
1971 Paris Text |
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## Contents
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- [1\.1 Applicability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#Applicability)
- [1\.2 Country of origin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#Country_of_origin)
- [1\.3 Term of protection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#Term_of_protection)
- [1\.4 Minimum standards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#Minimum_standards)
- [1\.5 Exceptions and limitations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#Exceptions_and_limitations)
- [2 History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#History)
Toggle History subsection
- [2\.1 Adoption and implementation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#Adoption_and_implementation)
- [3 Prospects for future reform](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#Prospects_for_future_reform)
- [4 List of countries and regions that are not signatories to the Berne Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#List_of_countries_and_regions_that_are_not_signatories_to_the_Berne_Convention)
- [5 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#See_also)
- [6 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#References)
- [7 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#External_links)
Toggle the table of contents
# Berne Convention
42 languages
- [العربية](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86_%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D9%86%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9 "اتفاقية برن لحماية المصنفات الأدبية والفنية – Arabic")
- [Azərbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fd%C9%99bi_v%C9%99_inc%C9%99s%C9%99n%C9%99t_%C9%99s%C9%99rl%C9%99rinin_m%C3%BChafiz%C9%99si_haqq%C4%B1nda_Bern_Konvensiyas%C4%B1 "Ədəbi və incəsənət əsərlərinin mühafizəsi haqqında Bern Konvensiyası – Azerbaijani")
- [Български](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F "Бернска конвенция за закрила на литературните и художествените произведения – Bulgarian")
- [বাংলা](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8 "সাহিত্য এবং শিল্প বিষয়ক কর্মের সুরক্ষার জন্য বার্ন কনভেনশন – Bangla")
- [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernska_konvencija_o_za%C5%A1titi_knji%C5%BEevnih_i_umjetni%C4%8Dkih_djela "Bernska konvencija o zaštiti književnih i umjetničkih djela – Bosnian")
- [Català](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenci%C3%B3_de_Berna_per_a_la_Protecci%C3%B3_d%27Obres_Liter%C3%A0ries_i_Art%C3%ADstiques "Convenció de Berna per a la Protecció d'Obres Literàries i Artístiques – Catalan")
- [Čeština](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernsk%C3%A1_%C3%BAmluva_o_ochran%C4%9B_liter%C3%A1rn%C3%ADch_a_um%C4%9Bleck%C3%BDch_d%C4%9Bl "Bernská úmluva o ochraně literárních a uměleckých děl – Czech")
- [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernerkonventionen_\(ophavsret\) "Bernerkonventionen (ophavsret) – Danish")
- [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berner_%C3%9Cbereinkunft_zum_Schutz_von_Werken_der_Literatur_und_Kunst "Berner Übereinkunft zum Schutz von Werken der Literatur und Kunst – German")
- [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konvencio_de_Berno "Konvencio de Berno – Esperanto")
- [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenio_de_Berna_para_la_Protecci%C3%B3n_de_las_Obras_Literarias_y_Art%C3%ADsticas "Convenio de Berna para la Protección de las Obras Literarias y Artísticas – Spanish")
- [فارسی](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C "کنوانسیون برن برای حمایت از آثار ادبی و هنری – Persian")
- [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernin_sopimus_\(tekij%C3%A4noikeus\) "Bernin sopimus (tekijänoikeus) – Finnish")
- [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_de_Berne_pour_la_protection_des_%C5%93uvres_litt%C3%A9raires_et_artistiques "Convention de Berne pour la protection des œuvres littéraires et artistiques – French")
- [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenci%C3%B3n_de_Berna_para_a_protecci%C3%B3n_das_obras_literarias_e_art%C3%ADsticas "Convención de Berna para a protección das obras literarias e artísticas – Galician")
- [עברית](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%9F_%D7%9C%D7%94%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA "אמנת ברן להגנת יצירות ספרותיות ואמנותיות – Hebrew")
- [Հայերեն](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1_\(1886\) "Բեռնի կոնվենցիա (1886) – Armenian")
- [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konvensi_Bern_tentang_Perlindungan_Karya_Seni_dan_Sastra "Konvensi Bern tentang Perlindungan Karya Seni dan Sastra – Indonesian")
- [Íslenska](https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernars%C3%A1ttm%C3%A1li_til_verndar_b%C3%B3kmenntum_og_listaverkum "Bernarsáttmáli til verndar bókmenntum og listaverkum – Icelandic")
- [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenzione_di_Berna_per_la_protezione_delle_opere_letterarie_e_artistiche "Convenzione di Berna per la protezione delle opere letterarie e artistiche – Italian")
- [日本語](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E5%8F%8A%E3%81%B3%E7%BE%8E%E8%A1%93%E7%9A%84%E8%91%97%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9%E3%81%AE%E4%BF%9D%E8%AD%B7%E3%81%AB%E9%96%A2%E3%81%99%E3%82%8B%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8C%E6%9D%A1%E7%B4%84 "文学的及び美術的著作物の保護に関するベルヌ条約 – Japanese")
- [한국어](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%B8_%ED%98%91%EC%95%BD "베른 협약 – Korean")
- [Lietuvių](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berno_konvencija "Berno konvencija – Lithuanian")
- [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konvensyen_Berne_bagi_Perlindungan_Karya_Sastera_dan_Seni "Konvensyen Berne bagi Perlindungan Karya Sastera dan Seni – Malay")
- [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berner_Conventie_\(1886\) "Berner Conventie (1886) – Dutch")
- [Norsk bokmål](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernkonvensjonen_om_vern_av_litter%C3%A6re_og_kunstneriske_verk "Bernkonvensjonen om vern av litterære og kunstneriske verk – Norwegian Bokmål")
- [Occitan](https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convencion_de_B%C3%A8rna_per_la_Proteccion_de_las_%C3%92bras_Liter%C3%A0rias_e_Artisticas "Convencion de Bèrna per la Proteccion de las Òbras Literàrias e Artisticas – Occitan")
- [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konwencja_berne%C5%84ska_o_ochronie_dzie%C5%82_literackich_i_artystycznych "Konwencja berneńska o ochronie dzieł literackich i artystycznych – Polish")
- [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conven%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_Berna "Convenção de Berna – Portuguese")
- [Română](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conven%C8%9Bia_de_la_Berna "Convenția de la Berna – Romanian")
- [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1_%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%B8_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9 "Бернская конвенция об охране литературных и художественных произведений – Russian")
- [Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски](https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernska_konvencija "Bernska konvencija – Serbo-Croatian")
- [Slovenčina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernsk%C3%A1_dohoda_o_ochrane_liter%C3%A1rnych_a_umeleck%C3%BDch_diel "Bernská dohoda o ochrane literárnych a umeleckých diel – Slovak")
- [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0 "Бернска конвенција – Serbian")
- [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernkonventionen_f%C3%B6r_skydd_av_litter%C3%A4ra_och_konstn%C3%A4rliga_verk "Bernkonventionen för skydd av litterära och konstnärliga verk – Swedish")
- [ไทย](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99 "อนุสัญญาเบิร์น – Thai")
- [Türkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern_S%C3%B6zle%C5%9Fmesi "Bern Sözleşmesi – Turkish")
- [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%96_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%85_%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B2 "Бернська конвенція про охорону літературних і художніх творів – Ukrainian")
- [اردو](https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%86 "برن کنونشن – Urdu")
- [Vèneto](https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convension_de_Berna_par_%C5%82a_protesion_de_%C5%82e_%C3%B2pare_leter%C3%A0rie_e_art%C3%ACsteghe "Convension de Berna par ła protesion de łe òpare leteràrie e artìsteghe – Venetian")
- [Tiếng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4ng_%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_Bern "Công ước Bern – Vietnamese")
- [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E5%B0%94%E5%B0%BC%E4%BF%9D%E6%8A%A4%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6%E5%92%8C%E8%89%BA%E6%9C%AF%E4%BD%9C%E5%93%81%E5%85%AC%E7%BA%A6 "伯尔尼保护文学和艺术作品公约 – Chinese")
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
1886 international assembly and treaty
For other uses, see [Berne Convention (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_\(disambiguation\) "Berne Convention (disambiguation)").
| Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works | |
|---|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Berne_Convention_signatories.svg)Map of parties to the Convention | |
| Signed | 9 September 1886 |
| Location | [Bern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern "Bern"), Switzerland |
| Effective | 5 December 1887 |
| Condition | 3 months after exchange of ratifications |
| Parties | 182 |
| Depositary | Director General of the World Intellectual Property Organization |
| Languages | French (prevailing in case of differences in interpretation) and English, officially translated in Arabic, German, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish |
| Full text | |
|  [Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works "wikisource:Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works") at [Wikisource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource "Wikisource") | |
The **Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works**, usually known as the **Berne Convention**, was an international assembly held in 1886 in the Swiss city of [Bern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern "Bern") by ten European countries with the goal of agreeing on a set of legal principles for the protection of [original work](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Originality "Originality") and [intellectual property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property "Intellectual property"). They drafted and adopted a multi-party [contract](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract "Contract") containing agreements for a uniform, border-crossing system that became known under the same name. Its rules have been updated many times since then.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-2) The [treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty "Treaty") provides authors, musicians, poets, painters, and other creators with the means to control how their works are used, by whom, and on what terms.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-3) In some jurisdictions these types of rights are referred to as [copyright](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright "Copyright"); on the European continent they are generally referred to as [authors' rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authors%27_rights "Authors' rights").
As of November 2022, the Berne Convention has been ratified by 182 states out of 195 countries in the world, most of which are also parties to the Paris Act of 1971.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-5)
The Berne Convention introduced the concept that protection exists the moment a work is "fixed", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, and its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work and to any [derivative works](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_work "Derivative work"), unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them or until the copyright expires. A creator need not [register](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_registration "Copyright registration") or "apply for" a copyright in countries adhering to the convention. It also enforces a requirement that countries recognize rights held by the citizens of all other parties to the convention. Foreign authors are given the same rights and privileges to copyrighted material as domestic authors in any country that ratified the convention. The countries to which the convention applies created a Union for the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works, known as the *Berne Union*.
## Content
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Content")\]
The Berne Convention requires its parties to recognize the protection of works of authors from other parties to the convention at least as well as those of its own nationals. For example, [French authors' rights law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_France "Copyright law of France") applies to anything published, distributed, performed, or in any other way accessible in France, regardless of where it was originally created, if the country of origin of that work is in the Berne Union.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
In addition to establishing a system of equal treatment that harmonised copyright amongst parties, the agreement also required member states to provide strong minimum standards for copyright law.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
Author's rights under the Berne Convention must be automatic; it is prohibited to require formal registration. However, when the United States joined the convention on 1 March 1989,[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-usco38a-6) it continued to make [statutory damages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_damages_for_copyright_infringement "Statutory damages for copyright infringement") and [attorney's fees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attorney%27s_fees "Attorney's fees") only available for registered works.
However, *Moberg v. Leygues* (a 2009 decision of a Delaware Federal District Court) held that the protections of the Berne Convention are supposed to essentially be "frictionless", meaning no registration requirements can be imposed on a work from a different Berne member country. This means Berne member countries can require works originating in their own country to be registered and/or deposited, but cannot require these formalities of works from other Berne member countries.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-7)
### Applicability
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Applicability")\]
Under Article 3, the protection of the Convention applies to nationals and residents of countries that are party to the convention, and to works first published or simultaneously published (under Article 3(4), "simultaneously" is defined as "within 30 days")[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article3-8) in a country that is party to the convention.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article3-8) Under Article 4, it also applies to cinematic works by persons who have their headquarters or habitual residence in a party country, and to architectural works situated in a party country.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-9)
### Country of origin
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: Country of origin")\]
The Convention relies on the concept of "country of origin". Often determining the country of origin is straightforward: when a work is published in a party country and nowhere else, this is the country of origin. However, under Article 5(4), when a work is published "simultaneously" ("within 30 days")[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article3-8) in several party countries,[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article3-8) the country with the [shortest term](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_shorter_term "Rule of shorter term") of protection is defined as the country of origin.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article5-10)
For works simultaneously published in a party country and one or more non-parties, the party country is the country of origin. For unpublished works or works first published in a non-party country (without publication within 30 days in a party country), the author's nationality usually provides the country of origin, if a national of a party country. (There are exceptions for cinematic and architectural works.)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article5-10)
In the Internet age, unrestricted publication online may be considered publication in every sufficiently internet-connected jurisdiction in the world. It is not clear what this may mean for determining "country of origin". In *[Kernel v. Mosley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbaland_plagiarism_controversy "Timbaland plagiarism controversy")* (2011), a U.S. court "concluded that a work created outside of the United States, uploaded in Australia and owned by a company registered in [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland "Finland") was nonetheless a U.S. work by virtue of its being published online". However other U.S. courts in similar situations have reached different conclusions, e.g. *[Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A5kan_Moberg_v._33T_LLC "Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC")* (2009).[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-11) The matter of determining the country of origin for digital publication remains a topic of controversy among law academics as well.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-12)
### Term of protection
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Term of protection")\]
The Berne Convention states that all works except photographic and cinematographic shall be protected for at least 50 years after the author's death, but parties are free to provide longer [terms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_term "Copyright term"),[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article7-13) as the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") did with the 1993 [Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Duration_Directive "Copyright Duration Directive"). For photography, the Berne Convention sets a minimum term of 25 years from the year the photograph was created, and for cinematography the minimum is 50 years after first showing, or 50 years after creation if it has not been shown within 50 years after the creation. Countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide their own protection terms, and certain types of works (such as phonorecords and motion pictures) may be provided shorter terms.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
If the author is unknown because for example the author was deliberately anonymous or worked under a pseudonym, the Convention provides for a term of 50 years after publication ("after the work has been lawfully made available to the public"). However, if the identity of the author becomes known, the copyright term for known authors (50 years after death) applies.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article7-13)
Although the Berne Convention states that the legislation of the country where protective rights are claimed shall be applied, Article 7(8) states that "unless the legislation of that country otherwise provides, the term shall not exceed the term fixed in the country of origin of the work",[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article7-13) i.e., an author is normally not entitled a longer protection abroad than at home, even if the laws abroad give a longer term. This is commonly known as "the [rule of the shorter term](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_the_shorter_term "Rule of the shorter term")". Not all countries have accepted this rule.
### Minimum standards
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Minimum standards")\]
As to works, protection must include "every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever the mode or form of its expression" (Article 2(1) of the convention).
Subject to certain allowed reservations, limitations or exceptions, the following are among the **rights** that must be recognized as exclusive rights of authorization:
- **the right to translate**,
- **the right to make adaptations and arrangements** of the work,
- **the right to perform in public** dramatic, dramatico-musical and musical works,
- **the right to recite** literary works in **public**,
- **the right to communicate to the public** the performance of such works,
- **the right to broadcast** (with the possibility that a Contracting State may provide for a mere right to equitable remuneration instead of a right of authorization),
- **the right to make reproductions** in any manner or form (with the possibility that a Contracting State may permit, in certain special cases, reproduction without authorization, provided that the reproduction does not conflict with the normal exploitation of the work and does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author; and the possibility that a Contracting State may provide, in the case of sound recordings of musical works, for a right to equitable remuneration),
- **the right to use the work as a basis for an audiovisual work**, and the right to reproduce, distribute, perform in public or communicate to the public that audiovisual work.
### Exceptions and limitations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Exceptions and limitations")\]
The Berne Convention includes a number of specific exceptions, scattered in several provisions due to the historical reason of Berne negotiations.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] For example, Article 10(2) permits Berne members to provide for a "teaching exception" within their copyright statutes. The exception is limited to a use for illustration of the subject matter taught and it must be related to teaching activities.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-14)
In addition to specific exceptions, the Berne Convention establishes the "[three-step test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-step_test "Three-step test")" in Article 9(2), which establishes a framework for member nations to develop their own national exceptions. The three-step test establishes three requirements: that the legislation be limited to certain (1) special cases; (2) that the exception does not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work, and (3) that the exception does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
The Berne Convention does not expressly reference doctrines such as [fair use](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_use "Fair use") or [fair dealing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_dealing "Fair dealing"), leading some critics of fair use to argue that fair use violates the Berne Convention.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-heinonline.org-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-16) However, the United States and other fair use nations argue that flexible standards such as fair use include the factors of the three-step test, and are therefore compliant. The WTO Panel has ruled that the standards are not incompatible.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-17)
The Berne Convention does not include the modern concept of *Internet safe harbors*, simply because Internet was not known as a technology at that time. The Agreed Statement of the parties to the [WIPO Copyright Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_Treaty "WIPO Copyright Treaty") of 1996 states that: "It is understood that the mere provision of physical facilities for enabling or making a communication does not in itself amount to communication within the meaning of this Treaty or the Berne Convention."[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Travis-18) This language may mean that Internet service providers are not liable for the infringing communications of their users.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Travis-18)
Since companies are using internet to publish [user generated content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_generated_content "User generated content"), critics have argued that the Berne Convention is weak in protecting users and consumers from overbroad or harsh infringement claims, with virtually no other exceptions or limitations.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-19) In fact, the [Marrakesh Copyright Exceptions Treaty for the Blind and Print-Disabled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakesh_VIP_Treaty "Marrakesh VIP Treaty") was the first international treaty centered around the rights of users. Treaties featuring exceptions for libraries and educational institutions are also being discussed.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
## History
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: History")\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg)
*The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record*, from *[Puck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puck_\(magazine\) "Puck (magazine)")*, 1886, satirizes the ability of publishers to take works from one country and publish them in another without paying the original authors.
The Berne Convention was developed at the instigation of [Victor Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Hugo "Victor Hugo")[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-20) of the [Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_Litt%C3%A9raire_et_Artistique_Internationale "Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale").[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-21) Thus it was influenced by the French "[rights of the author](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authors%27_rights "Authors' rights")" (*droits d'auteur*), which contrasts with the [Anglo-Saxon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Law "Common Law") concept of "copyright" which only dealt with economic concerns.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-22)
Before the Berne Convention, copyright legislation remained uncoordinated at an international level.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-23) So for example a work published in the United Kingdom by a British national would be covered by copyright there but could be copied and sold by anyone in France. Dutch publisher [Albertus Willem Sijthoff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertus_Willem_Sijthoff "Albertus Willem Sijthoff"), who rose to prominence in the trade of translated books, wrote to Queen [Wilhelmina of the Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelmina_of_the_Netherlands "Wilhelmina of the Netherlands") in 1899 in opposition to the convention over concerns that its international restrictions would stifle the Dutch print industry.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Publishers-Circular-1899-24)
The Berne Convention followed in the footsteps of the [Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property "Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property") of 1883, which in the same way had created a framework for international integration of the other types of intellectual property: patents, trademarks and [industrial designs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_design "Industrial design").[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-25)
Like the Paris Convention, the Berne Convention set up a bureau to handle administrative tasks. In 1893 these two small bureaux merged and became the [United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_International_Bureaux_for_the_Protection_of_Intellectual_Property "United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property") (best known by its French acronym BIRPI), situated in Berne.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-:0-26) In 1960, BIRPI moved to [Geneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva "Geneva"), to be closer to the United Nations and other international organizations in that city.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-27) In 1967 it became the [World Intellectual Property Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization "World Intellectual Property Organization") (WIPO), and in 1974 became an organization within the United Nations.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-:0-26)
The Berne Convention was completed in Paris in 1886, revised in Berlin in 1908, completed in Berne in 1914, revised in Rome in 1928, in [Brussels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels "Brussels") in 1948, in [Stockholm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm") in 1967 and in Paris in 1971, and was amended in 1979.[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-28)
The [World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_Treaty "WIPO Copyright Treaty") was adopted in 1996 to address the issues raised by information technology and the Internet, which were not addressed by the Berne Convention.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-29)
### Adoption and implementation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Adoption and implementation")\]
Main article: [List of parties to the Berne Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Berne_Convention "List of parties to the Berne Convention")
The first version of the Berne Convention treaty was signed on 9 September 1886, by Belgium, France, Germany, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia, and the United Kingdom.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-30) They ratified it on 5 September 1887.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Contracting_parties-31)
Although Britain ratified the convention in 1887, it did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the [Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright,_Designs_and_Patents_Act_1988 "Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988").
The United States [acceded](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratification "Ratification") to the convention on 16 November 1988, and the convention entered into force for the United States on 1 March 1989.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-32)[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Contracting_parties-31) The United States initially refused to become a party to the convention, since that would have required major changes in [its copyright law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_copyright_law "United States copyright law"), particularly with regard to [moral rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_rights_\(copyright_law\) "Moral rights (copyright law)"), removal of the general requirement for registration of copyright works and elimination of mandatory copyright notice. This led first to the U.S. ratifying the [Buenos Aires Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Convention "Buenos Aires Convention") (BAC) in 1910, and later the [Universal Copyright Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Copyright_Convention "Universal Copyright Convention") (UCC) in 1952 to accommodate the wishes of other countries. With the WIPO's Berne revision on Paris 1971,[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-berna1971-33) many other countries joined the treaty, as expressed by [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") federal law of 1975.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-br1975-34)
On 1 March 1989, the U.S. [Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988 "Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988") was enacted, and the U.S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty, making the United States a party to the Berne Convention,[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-NYT1988-35) and making the Universal Copyright Convention nearly obsolete.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-36) Except for extremely technical points not relevant, with the accession of Nicaragua in 2000, every nation that is a member of the Buenos Aires Convention is also a member of Berne, and so the BAC has also become nearly obsolete and is essentially [deprecated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprecated "Deprecated") as well.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
Since almost all nations are members of the [World Trade Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization"), the [Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") (TRIPS) requires non-members to accept almost all of the conditions of the Berne Convention.
As of November 2025, there are 182 states that are parties to the Berne Convention. This includes 178 [UN member states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations "Member states of the United Nations") plus the [Cook Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Islands "Cook Islands"), the [Holy See](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See "Holy See") and [Niue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niue "Niue").
## Prospects for future reform
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: Prospects for future reform")\]
The Berne Convention was intended to be revised regularly in order to keep pace with social and technological developments. It was revised seven times between its first iteration (in 1886) and 1971, but has seen no substantive revision since then.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-37) That means its rules were decided before widespread adoption of digital technologies and the internet. In large part, this lengthy drought between revisions comes about because the Treaty gives each member state the right to veto any substantive change. The vast number of signatory countries, plus their very different development levels, makes it exceptionally difficult to update the convention to better reflect the realities of the digital world.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-38) In 2018, Professor Sam Ricketson argued that anyone who thought that further revision would ever be realistic was "dreaming".[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-39)
Berne members also cannot easily create new copyright treaties to address the digital world's realities, because the Berne Convention also prohibits treaties that are inconsistent with its precepts.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-40)
Legal academic Rebecca Giblin has argued that one reform avenue left to Berne members is to "take the front door out". The Berne Convention only requires member states to obey its rules for works published in other member states – not works published within its own borders. Thus member nations may lawfully introduce domestic copyright laws that have elements prohibited by Berne (such as registration formalities), so long as they only apply to their own authors. Giblin also argues that these should only be considered where the net benefit would be to benefit authors.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-41)
## List of countries and regions that are not signatories to the Berne Convention
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: List of countries and regions that are not signatories to the Berne Convention")\]
[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-usco38a-6)
-  [Angola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola "Angola") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement"))
-  [Eritrea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrea "Eritrea")
-  [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") as observer)
-  [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") as observer)
-  [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") as observer)
-  [Kosovo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo "Kosovo")
-  [Marshall Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Islands "Marshall Islands")
-  [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement"))
-  [Palau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palau "Palau")
-  [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine "Palestine")
-  [Papua New Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement"))
-  [Seychelles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles "Seychelles") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement"))
-  [Sierra Leone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement"))
-  [Somalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia "Somalia") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") as observer)
-  [South Sudan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sudan "South Sudan") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") as observer)
-  [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") as  [Chinese Taipei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Taipei "Chinese Taipei"))
-  [Timor-Leste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timor-Leste "Timor-Leste") (but joined [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement"), and [Universal Copyright Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Copyright_Convention "Universal Copyright Convention") (Paris) as observer)
## See also
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: See also")\]
- [Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988 "Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988")
- [Berne three-step test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_three-step_test "Berne three-step test")
- [Buenos Aires Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Convention "Buenos Aires Convention")
- [Droit de suite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_de_suite "Droit de suite")
- [List of parties to international copyright agreements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_copyright_agreements "List of parties to international copyright agreements")
- [Copyright of official texts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_of_official_texts "Copyright of official texts")
- [Post-colonial copyright crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-colonial_copyright_crisis "Post-colonial copyright crisis")
- [Public domain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain "Public domain")
- [Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Performers,_Producers_of_Phonograms_and_Broadcasting_Organisations "Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations")
- [Universal Copyright Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Copyright_Convention "Universal Copyright Convention")
- [World Trade Organization Dispute 160](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization_Dispute_160 "World Trade Organization Dispute 160")
## References
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: References")\]
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-1)**
["WIPO - Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/).
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-2)**
WEX Definitions Team. ["Berne Convention"](https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/berne_convention). Cornell Law School.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-3)**
["Summary of the Berne Convention"](https://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/summary_berne.html). World Intellectual Property Organization.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-4)**
["WIPO Lex"](https://wipolex.wipo.int/en/treaties/textdetails/12800). *wipolex.wipo.int*. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-5)**
[*Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, Status on February 6, 2025*](https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/treaties/en/docs/pdf/berne.pdf) (PDF). World Intellectual Property Organization. 2020.
6. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-usco38a_6-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-usco38a_6-1)
[*Circular 38A: International Copyright Relations of the United States*](https://copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. 2014. p. 2. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-7)** *[Borderless Publications, the Berne Convention, and U.S. Copyright Formalities](https://www.mediainstitute.org/2009/10/20/borderless-publications-the-berne-convention-and-u-s-copyright-formalities/)*, Jane C. Ginsburg, The Media Institute, 20 October 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
8. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article3_8-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article3_8-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article3_8-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article3_8-3) Berne Convention [\[1\]](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P98_14701) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095521/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P98_14701) 23 May 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine").
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-9)** Berne Convention [\[2\]](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P105_16290) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095521/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P105_16290) 23 May 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine").
10. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article5_10-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article5_10-1) Berne Convention [\[3\]](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P109_16834) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095521/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P109_16834) 23 May 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine").
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-11)** Fitzgerald, Brian F., Shi, Sampsung Xiaoxiang, Foong, Cheryl, & Pappalardo, Kylie M. (2011), "[Country of Origin and Internet Publication : Applying the Berne Convention in the Digital Age](http://eprints.qut.edu.au/48050/)". *Journal of Intellectual Property* (NJIP) Maiden Edition, pp. 38–73.
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-12)**
See for example the columns of [Jane Ginsburg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Ginsburg "Jane Ginsburg"):
- [Borderless Publications, the Berne Convention, and U.S. Copyright Formalities](http://www.mediainstitute.org/IPI/2009/102009_BorderlessPublications.php)
- [Internet Publication and U.S. Copyright Imperialism](http://www.mediainstitute.org/IPI/2011/062811.php)
- [When a Work Debuts on the Internet, What Is its Country of Origin?](http://www.mediainstitute.org/IPI/2011/082911.php) [Part II](http://www.mediainstitute.org/IPI/2012/012312.php)
And the article
- Chris Dombkowski, [SIMULTANEOUS INTERNET PUBLICATION AND THE BERNE CONVENTION](http://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1571&context=chtlj), SANTA CLARA COMPUTER & HIGH TECH. L.J., vol. 29, pp. 643–674
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article7_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article7_13-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article7_13-2) Berne Convention [Article 7](http://zvon.org/law/r/bern.html#p~9).
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-14)**
Drier, Thomas; Hugenholtz, P. Bernt (2016). *Concise European Copyright Law* (2 ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-heinonline.org_15-0)**
Okediji, Ruth. ["Toward an International Fair Use Doctrine"](https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/cjtl39&div=9&id=&page=). *Columbia Journal of Transnational Law*. **39**: 75. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-16)**
Travis, Hannibal (2008). "Opting Out of the Internet in the United States and the European Union: Copyright, Safe Harbors, and International Law". *Notre Dame Law Review, vol. 84, p. 383*. President and Trustees of Notre Dame University in South Bend, Indiana. [SSRN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_\(identifier\) "SSRN (identifier)") [1221642](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1221642).
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-17)** See *United States – Section 110(5) of the U.S. Copyright Act*.
18. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Travis_18-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Travis_18-1) Travis, p. 373.
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-19)** [There Can Be No 'Balance' In The Entirely Unbalanced System Of Copyright](https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20120227/03453017886/there-can-be-no-balance-entirely-unbalanced-system-copyright.shtml) – Techdirt, Mike Masnick, 1 March 2012
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-20)**
["Quick Berne Convention Overview"](https://copyright.laws.com/international-copyright/berne/berne-convention-overview). *Laws.com*. 4 April 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-21)**
Dutfield, Graham (2008). *Global Intellectual Property Law*. Edward Elger Pub. pp. 26–27\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-843769422](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-843769422 "Special:BookSources/978-1-843769422")
.
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-22)**
Baldwin, Peter (2016). *The Copyright Wars: Three Centuries of Trans-Atlantic Battle*. Princeton University Press. p. 15. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-691169095](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691169095 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691169095")
.
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-23)**
["A Brief History of Copyright"](http://www.iprightsoffice.org/copyright_history/). *Intellectual Property Rights Office*.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Publishers-Circular-1899_24-0)**
["The Netherlands and the Berne Convention"](https://books.google.com/books?id=IGtNAAAAYAAJ&q=Albertus+Willem+Sijthoff&pg=PA597). *The Publishers' circular and booksellers' record of British and foreign literature, Vol. 71*. Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 1899. p. 597. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-25)**
["Summary of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883)"](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/summary_paris.html). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Retrieved 30 June 2018.
26. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-:0_26-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-:0_26-1)
["WIPO - A Brief History"](http://www.wipo.int/about-wipo/en/history.html). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-27)**
Cook, Curtis (2002). *Patents, Profits & Power: How Intellectual Property Rules the Global Economy*. Kogan Page. p. 63. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-749442729](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-749442729 "Special:BookSources/978-0-749442729")
.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-28)**
["Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095521/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Archived from [the original](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698) on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-29)**
["WIPO Copyright Treaty"](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=295166#P136_19843). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-30)**
Solberg, Thorvald (1908). *Report of the Delegate of the United States to the International Conference for the Revision of the Berne Copyright Convention, Held at Berlin, Germany, 14 October to 14 November 1908*. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. p. 9.
31. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Contracting_parties_31-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Contracting_parties_31-1)
["Contracting Parties \> Berne Convention (Total Contracting Parties: 173)"](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ShowResults.jsp?lang=en&treaty_id=15). *WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization*. WIPO. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-32)**
["Treaties in Force – A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force on January 1, 2016"](https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/264509.pdf) (PDF). *www.state.gov*.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-berna1971_33-0)** WIPO's "Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Paris Text 1971)", <http://zvon.org/law/r/bern.html>
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-br1975_34-0)** Brazilian's Federal Decree No. 75699 6 May 1975. [urn:lex:br:federal:decreto:1975;75699](http://www.lexml.gov.br/urn/urn:lex:br:federal:decreto:1975-05-06;75699)
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-NYT1988_35-0)**
Molotsky, Irvin (21 October 1988). ["Senate Approves Joining Copyright Convention"](https://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/21/arts/senate-approves-joining-copyright-convention.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-36)**
Fishman, Stephen (2011). *The Copyright Handbook: What Every Writer Needs to Know*. Nolo Press. p. 332. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4133-1617-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4133-1617-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4133-1617-9")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [707200393](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/707200393). "The UCC is not nearly as important as it used to be. Indeed, it's close to becoming obsolete"
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-37)**
["Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"](https://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698). *World Intellectual Property Organisation*.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-38)**
Ricketson, Sam (2018). ["The International Framework for the Protection of Authors: Bendable Boundaries and Immovable Obstacles"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181225113854/https://lawandarts.org/article/the-international-framework-for-the-protection-of-authors-bendable-boundaries-and-immovable-obstacles/). *Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts*. **41**: 341, 348–352\. Archived from [the original](https://lawandarts.org/article/the-international-framework-for-the-protection-of-authors-bendable-boundaries-and-immovable-obstacles/) on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-39)**
Ricketson, Sam (2018). ["The International Framework for the Protection of Authors: Bendable Boundaries and Immovable Obstacles"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181225113854/https://lawandarts.org/article/the-international-framework-for-the-protection-of-authors-bendable-boundaries-and-immovable-obstacles/). *Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts*. **41**: 341, 353 (2018) (citing iconic Australian film "The Castle"). Archived from [the original](https://lawandarts.org/article/the-international-framework-for-the-protection-of-authors-bendable-boundaries-and-immovable-obstacles/) on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-40)** Berne Convention, Article 20.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-41)**
Giblin, Rebecca (2019). *A Future of International Copyright? Berne and the Front Door Out*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [SSRN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_\(identifier\) "SSRN (identifier)") [3351460](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3351460).
## External links
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English [Wikisource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource "Wikisource") has original text related to this article:
**[Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works "s:en:Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works")**
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Berne Convention](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Berne_Convention "commons:Category:Berne Convention").
- The full text of the [Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on 28 September 1979)](http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/treaties/text.jsp?file_id=283698) (in English) in the [WIPO Lex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Lex "WIPO Lex") database – official website of [WIPO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO "WIPO").
- ["Guide to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Paris text, 1971)"](https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/copyright/615/wipo_pub_615.pdf) (PDF). *WIPO*. Geneva: World Intellectual Property Organization. 1978.
- [WIPO-Administered Treaties](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/) (in English) in the [WIPO Lex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Lex "WIPO Lex") database – official website of [WIPO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO "WIPO").
- [The 1971 Berne Convention text](http://zvon.org/law/r/bern.html) – fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
- Texts of the various Berne Convention revisions:
- [1886 Berne Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550015)
- [1896 Paris Additional Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550016)
- [1908 Berlin Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550017)
- [1914 Additional Protocol](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550018)
- [1928 Rome Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550019)
- [1948 Brussels Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550020)
- [1967 Stockholm Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550021)
- [1971 Paris Text](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550001)
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:WIPO-Administered_Treaties "Template:WIPO-Administered Treaties") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:WIPO-Administered_Treaties "Template talk:WIPO-Administered Treaties") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:WIPO-Administered_Treaties "Special:EditPage/Template:WIPO-Administered Treaties")[WIPO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization "World Intellectual Property Organization")\-Administered [Treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaties "Treaties") | |
|---|---|
| Intellectual Property protection treaties | [Beijing Treaty on Audiovisual Performances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_Treaty_on_Audiovisual_Performances "Beijing Treaty on Audiovisual Performances") [Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]() [Brussels Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels_Convention_Relating_to_the_Distribution_of_Programme-Carrying_Signals_Transmitted_by_Satellite "Brussels Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite") [Design Law Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Law_Treaty "Design Law Treaty") [Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madrid_Agreement_for_the_Repression_of_False_or_Deceptive_Indications_of_Source_on_Goods&action=edit&redlink=1 "Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods (page does not exist)") [Marrakesh VIP Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakesh_VIP_Treaty "Marrakesh VIP Treaty") [Nairobi Treaty on the Protection of the Olympic Symbol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairobi_Treaty_on_the_Protection_of_the_Olympic_Symbol "Nairobi Treaty on the Protection of the Olympic Symbol") [Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property "Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property") [Patent Law Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_Law_Treaty "Patent Law Treaty") [Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Phonograms_Convention "Geneva Phonograms Convention") [Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Performers,_Producers_of_Phonograms_and_Broadcasting_Organisations "Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations") [Washington Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Washington_Treaty_on_Intellectual_Property_in_Respect_of_Integrated_Circuits&action=edit&redlink=1 "Washington Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits (page does not exist)") [Trademark Law Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark_Law_Treaty_\(1994\) "Trademark Law Treaty (1994)") [Singapore Treaty on the Law of Trademarks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_Treaty_on_the_Law_of_Trademarks "Singapore Treaty on the Law of Trademarks") [WIPO Copyright Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_Treaty "WIPO Copyright Treaty") [WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Performances_and_Phonograms_Treaty "WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty") |
| Global protection system treaties | [Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest_Treaty_on_the_International_Recognition_of_the_Deposit_of_Microorganisms_for_the_Purposes_of_Patent_Procedure "Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure") [Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Agreement_Concerning_the_International_Deposit_of_Industrial_Designs "Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs") [Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon_Agreement_for_the_Protection_of_Appellations_of_Origin_and_their_International_Registration "Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration") [Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid_Agreement_Concerning_the_International_Registration_of_Marks "Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks") [Protocol Relating to the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_Relating_to_the_Madrid_Agreement_Concerning_the_International_Registration_of_Marks "Protocol Relating to the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks") [Patent Cooperation Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_Cooperation_Treaty "Patent Cooperation Treaty") |
| Treaties against biopiracy and misappropriation | [WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Treaty_on_Intellectual_Property,_Genetic_Resources_and_Associated_Traditional_Knowledge "WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge") |
| Classification treaties | [Locarno Agreement Establishing an International Classification for Industrial Designs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locarno_Agreement_Establishing_an_International_Classification_for_Industrial_Designs "Locarno Agreement Establishing an International Classification for Industrial Designs") [Nice Agreement Concerning the International Classification of Goods and Services for the Purposes of the Registration of Marks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_Agreement_Concerning_the_International_Classification_of_Goods_and_Services_for_the_Purposes_of_the_Registration_of_Marks "Nice Agreement Concerning the International Classification of Goods and Services for the Purposes of the Registration of Marks") [Strasbourg Agreement Concerning the International Patent Classification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasbourg_Agreement_Concerning_the_International_Patent_Classification "Strasbourg Agreement Concerning the International Patent Classification") [Vienna Agreement Establishing an International Classification of the Figurative Elements of Marks](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Agreement_Establishing_an_International_Classification_of_the_Figurative_Elements_of_Marks&action=edit&redlink=1 "Vienna Agreement Establishing an International Classification of the Figurative Elements of Marks (page does not exist)") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property_laws_of_the_European_Union "Template:Intellectual property laws of the European Union") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property_laws_of_the_European_Union "Template talk:Intellectual property laws of the European Union") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual_property_laws_of_the_European_Union "Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual property laws of the European Union")[Intellectual property laws](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property "Intellectual property") in the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") (EU) | |
|---|---|
| [Copyright](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_European_Union "Copyright law of the European Union") | |
| | |
| [Directives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_\(European_Union\) "Directive (European Union)") | [Computer Programs Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Programs_Directive "Computer Programs Directive") (1991) [Rental Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rental_Directive "Rental Directive") (1992) [Satellite and Cable Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_and_Cable_Directive "Satellite and Cable Directive") (1993) [Copyright Duration Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Duration_Directive "Copyright Duration Directive") (1993) [Database Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_Directive "Database Directive") (1996) [Conditional Access Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_Access_Directive "Conditional Access Directive") (1998) [Electronic Commerce Directive 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Commerce_Directive_2000 "Electronic Commerce Directive 2000") (2000) [Information Society Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Society_Directive "Information Society Directive") (2001) [Resale Rights Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resale_Rights_Directive "Resale Rights Directive") (2001) [Directive on the re-use of public sector information](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_on_the_re-use_of_public_sector_information "Directive on the re-use of public sector information") (2003) [Enforcement Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enforcement_Directive "Enforcement Directive") (2004) [Copyright Term Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Term_Directive "Copyright Term Directive") (2006) [Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_on_Copyright_in_the_Digital_Single_Market "Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market") (2019) [Customs Regulation 1383/2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs_Regulation_1383/2003 "Customs Regulation 1383/2003") (2003) |
| National laws | [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_France "Copyright law of France") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Germany "Copyright law of Germany") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ireland "Copyright law of Ireland") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Italy "Copyright law of Italy") [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Netherlands "Copyright law of the Netherlands") [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Poland "Copyright law of Poland") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Romania "Copyright law of Romania") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Spain "Copyright law of Spain") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sweden "Copyright law of Sweden") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_Kingdom "Copyright law of the United Kingdom") |
| [Trade mark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_mark_law_of_the_European_Union "Trade mark law of the European Union") | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_trade_mark_law "Irish trade mark law") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_trade_mark_law "United Kingdom trade mark law") [European Union trade mark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_trade_mark "European Union trade mark") [Trade Marks Directive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_Marks_Directive "Trade Marks Directive") (1988) [Société des Produits Nestlé S.A. v. Cadbury UK Limited](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Produits_Nestl%C3%A9_S.A._v._Cadbury_UK_Limited "Société des Produits Nestlé S.A. v. Cadbury UK Limited") |
| [Patent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_law_of_the_European_Union "Patent law of the European Union") | [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_patent_law "German patent law") [The Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_law_in_the_Netherlands "Patent law in the Netherlands") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_Romania "Intellectual property in Romania") [Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_on_the_legal_protection_of_biotechnological_inventions "Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions") (1998) [European patent law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_patent_law "European patent law") [Unified Patent Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Patent_Court "Unified Patent Court") [Unitary patent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_patent "Unitary patent") |
| [Designs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_design_rights_in_the_European_Union "Industrial design rights in the European Union") | [Hague Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Agreement_Concerning_the_International_Deposit_of_Industrial_Designs "Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs") (1999) [Directive on the legal protection of designs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_on_the_legal_protection_of_designs "Directive on the legal protection of designs") (1998) [Regulation on Community designs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_on_Community_designs "Regulation on Community designs") (2001) [European Union design](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_design "European Union design") |
| [Geographical indications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_indications_and_traditional_specialities_in_the_European_Union "Geographical indications and traditional specialities in the European Union") | [Protected designation of origin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_designation_of_origin "Protected designation of origin") [Traditional speciality guaranteed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_speciality_guaranteed "Traditional speciality guaranteed") |
| [Trade secrets](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trade_secrets_in_the_European_Union&action=edit&redlink=1 "Trade secrets in the European Union (page does not exist)") | [Directive on the Protection of Trade Secrets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_on_the_Protection_of_Trade_Secrets "Directive on the Protection of Trade Secrets") (2016) [German Law on the Protection of Trade Secrets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_on_the_Protection_of_Trade_Secrets "Law on the Protection of Trade Secrets") (2019) |
| Treaties | [Berne Convention]() [Lisbon Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon_Agreement_for_the_Protection_of_Appellations_of_Origin_and_their_International_Registration "Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration") [Madrid system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid_system "Madrid system") [Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property "Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property") [Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Performers,_Producers_of_Phonograms_and_Broadcasting_Organisations "Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations") [TRIPS Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") [WIPO Copyright Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_Treaty "WIPO Copyright Treaty") [WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Performances_and_Phonograms_Treaty "WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty") |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States "Template:Copyright law in the United States") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States "Template talk:Copyright law in the United States") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copyright_law_in_the_United_States "Special:EditPage/Template:Copyright law in the United States")[Copyright law of the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States "Copyright law of the United States") | |
|---|---|
| [17 U.S.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_17_of_the_United_States_Code "Title 17 of the United States Code") [Copyright Clause](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Clause "Copyright Clause") [United States Copyright Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office "United States Copyright Office") *[Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compendium_of_U.S._Copyright_Office_Practices "Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices")* [CARP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Arbitration_Royalty_Panel "Copyright Arbitration Royalty Panel") → [CRB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Royalty_Board "Copyright Royalty Board") [Copyright Catalog](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Catalog "Copyright Catalog") [Register of Copyrights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_of_Copyrights "Register of Copyrights") [Section 108 Study Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section_108_Study_Group "Section 108 Study Group") [Copyright status of works by the federal government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States "Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States") [by subnational governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_subnational_governments_of_the_United_States "Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States") [Public domain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain_in_the_United_States "Public domain in the United States") | |
| Statutes | |
| | |
| Pre-1976 | [Copyright Act of 1790](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1790 "Copyright Act of 1790") [Copyright Act of 1831](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1831 "Copyright Act of 1831") [Copyright Act of 1870](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1870 "Copyright Act of 1870") [International Copyright Act of 1891](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Copyright_Act_of_1891 "International Copyright Act of 1891") [Printing Act of 1895](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_Act_of_1895 "Printing Act of 1895") [Copyright Act of 1909](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1909 "Copyright Act of 1909") |
| 1970s | [Copyright Act of 1976](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976 "Copyright Act of 1976") |
| 1980s | [Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988 "Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988") |
| 1990s | [Visual Artists Rights Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Artists_Rights_Act "Visual Artists Rights Act") (1990) [Copyright Remedy Clarification Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Remedy_Clarification_Act "Copyright Remedy Clarification Act") (1990) [Copyright Renewal Act of 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Renewal_Act_of_1992 "Copyright Renewal Act of 1992") [Audio Home Recording Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Home_Recording_Act "Audio Home Recording Act") (1992) [Uruguay Round Agreements Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay_Round_Agreements_Act "Uruguay Round Agreements Act") (1994) [No Electronic Theft Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Electronic_Theft_Act "No Electronic Theft Act") (1994) [Copyright Term Extension Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act "Copyright Term Extension Act") (1998) [Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairness_in_Music_Licensing_Act_of_1998 "Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998") [Digital Millennium Copyright Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act "Digital Millennium Copyright Act") (1998) [Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_Copyright_Infringement_Liability_Limitation_Act "Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act") [WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_and_Performances_and_Phonograms_Treaties_Implementation_Act "WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act") |
| 2000s | [Family Entertainment and Copyright Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Entertainment_and_Copyright_Act "Family Entertainment and Copyright Act") (2005) |
| 2010s | [Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unlocking_Consumer_Choice_and_Wireless_Competition_Act "Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act") (2014) [Music Modernization Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Modernization_Act "Music Modernization Act") (2018) |
| 2020s | [CASE Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Alternative_in_Small-Claims_Enforcement_Act_of_2020 "Copyright Alternative in Small-Claims Enforcement Act of 2020") (2020) |
| Precedents and rulings | |
| | |
| [Supreme Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_copyright_case_law "List of United States Supreme Court copyright case law") | *[Wheaton v. Peters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheaton_v._Peters "Wheaton v. Peters")* (1834) *[Baker v. Selden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_v._Selden "Baker v. Selden")* (1879) *[Trade-Mark Cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade-Mark_Cases "Trade-Mark Cases")* (1879) *[Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrow-Giles_Lithographic_Co._v._Sarony "Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony")* (1884) *[Banks v. Manchester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banks_v._Manchester "Banks v. Manchester")* (1888) *[Callaghan v. Myers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callaghan_v._Myers "Callaghan v. Myers")* (1888) *[Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobbs-Merrill_Co._v._Straus "Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus")* (1908) *[White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-Smith_Music_Publishing_Co._v._Apollo_Co. "White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.")* (1908) *[Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_%26_Wilkins_Co._v._United_States "Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States")* (1975) *[Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Corp._of_America_v._Universal_City_Studios,_Inc. "Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.")* (1984) *[Feist v. Rural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feist_Publications,_Inc.,_v._Rural_Telephone_Service_Co. "Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.")* (1991) *[Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_v._Acuff-Rose_Music,_Inc. "Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.")* (1994) *[Quality King v. L'anza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_King_Distributors_Inc.,_v._L%27anza_Research_International_Inc. "Quality King Distributors Inc., v. L'anza Research International Inc.")* (1998) *[Eldred v. Ashcroft](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft "Eldred v. Ashcroft")* (2003) *[MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM_Studios,_Inc._v._Grokster,_Ltd. "MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.")* (2005) *[Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Omega, S. A.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costco_Wholesale_Corp._v._Omega,_S._A. "Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Omega, S. A.")* (2010) *[Golan v. Holder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golan_v._Holder "Golan v. Holder")* (2012) *[Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirtsaeng_v._John_Wiley_%26_Sons,_Inc. "Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.")* (2013) *[American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Cos.,_Inc._v._Aereo,_Inc. "American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.")* (2014) *[Star Athletica v. Varsity Brands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Athletica,_LLC_v._Varsity_Brands,_Inc. "Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands, Inc.")* (2017) *[Fourth Estate v. Wall-Street.com](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Estate_Public_Benefit_Corp._v._Wall-Street.com "Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com")* (2019) *[Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_v._Public.Resource.Org,_Inc. "Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.")* (2020) *[Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_LLC_v._Oracle_America,_Inc. "Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.")* (2021) *[Andy Warhol Foundation v. Goldsmith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol_Foundation_for_the_Visual_Arts,_Inc._v._Goldsmith "Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc. v. Goldsmith")* (2023) *[Cox Communications, Inc. v. Sony Music Entertainment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cox_Communications,_Inc._v._Sony_Music_Entertainment "Cox Communications, Inc. v. Sony Music Entertainment")* (2026) |
| Appeals courts | *[Berlin v. E.C. Publications, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_v._E.C._Publications,_Inc. "Berlin v. E.C. Publications, Inc.")* (2d Cir. 1964) *[Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roth_Greeting_Cards_v._United_Card_Co. "Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.")* (9th Cir. 1970) *[Eltra Corp. v. Ringer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eltra_Corp._v._Ringer "Eltra Corp. v. Ringer")* (4th Cir. 1978) *[Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_Productions_v._Air_Pirates "Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates")* (9th Cir. 1978) *[Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midway_Manufacturing_Co._v._Artic_International,_Inc. "Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.")* (7th Cir. 1983) *[Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Computer,_Inc._v._Franklin_Computer_Corp. "Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.")* (3d Cir. 1983) *[Fisher v. Dees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher_v._Dees "Fisher v. Dees")* (9th Cir. 1986) *[Whelan v. Jaslow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whelan_v._Jaslow "Whelan v. Jaslow")* (3d Cir. 1986) *[Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_Corp._v._Quaid_Software_Ltd. "Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd.")* (5th Cir. 1988) *[Rogers v. Koons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_v._Koons "Rogers v. Koons")* (2nd Cir. 1992) *[Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Associates_International,_Inc._v._Altai,_Inc. "Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.")* (2d Cir. 1992) *[American Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union_v._Texaco,_Inc. "American Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc.")* (2nd Cir. 1995) *[Dr. Seuss Enters., L.P. v. Penguin Books USA, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Seuss_Enters.,_L.P._v._Penguin_Books_USA,_Inc. "Dr. Seuss Enters., L.P. v. Penguin Books USA, Inc.")*(9th Cir. 1997) *[Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itar-Tass_Russian_News_Agency_v._Russian_Kurier,_Inc. "Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.")* (2d Cir. 1998) *[Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Computer_Entertainment,_Inc._v._Connectix_Corp. "Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp.")* (9th Cir. 2000) *[Nunez v. Caribbean Int'l News Corp.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunez_v._Caribbean_Int%27l_News_Corp. "Nunez v. Caribbean Int'l News Corp.")* (1st Cir. 2000) *[A\&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%26M_Records,_Inc._v._Napster,_Inc. "A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.")* (9th Cir. 2001) *[Veeck v. Southern Building Code Congress Int'l](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veeck_v._Southern_Building_Code_Congress_Int%27l "Veeck v. Southern Building Code Congress Int'l")* (5th Cir. 2002) *[Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_v._Arriba_Soft_Corp. "Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.")* (9th Cir. 2002 / 2003) *[In re Aimster Copyright Litigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_re_Aimster_Copyright_Litigation "In re Aimster Copyright Litigation")* (7th Cir. 2003) *[NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NXIVM_Corp._v._Ross_Institute "NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute")* (2d Cir. 2004) *[BMG Music v. Gonzalez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMG_Music_v._Gonzalez "BMG Music v. Gonzalez")* (7th Cir. 2005) *[Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley, Ltd.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Graham_Archives_v._Dorling_Kindersley,_Ltd. "Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley, Ltd.")* (2nd Cir. 2006) *[Blanch v. Koons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanch_v._Koons "Blanch v. Koons")* (2nd Cir. 2006) *[Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_10,_Inc._v._Amazon.com,_Inc. "Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.")* (9th Cir. 2006) *[Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon_Network,_LP_v._CSC_Holdings,_Inc. "Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc.")* (2nd Cir. 2008) *[Ahanchian v. Xenon Pictures, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahanchian_v._Xenon_Pictures,_Inc. "Ahanchian v. Xenon Pictures, Inc.")* (9th Cir. 2010) *[Penguin Group (USA) Inc. v. American Buddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Group_\(USA\)_Inc._v._American_Buddha "Penguin Group (USA) Inc. v. American Buddha")* (2d Cir. 2011) *[Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monge_v._Maya_Magazines,_Inc. "Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc.")* (9th Cir. 2012) *[Viacom International, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viacom_International,_Inc._v._YouTube,_Inc. "Viacom International, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.")* (2d Cir. 2012) *[Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seltzer_v._Green_Day,_Inc "Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc")* (9th Cir. 2013) *[Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authors_Guild,_Inc._v._Google,_Inc. "Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.")* (2d Cir. 2015) *[Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenz_v._Universal_Music_Corp. "Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.")* (9th Cir. 2015) *[Naruto v. Slater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkey_selfie_copyright_dispute "Monkey selfie copyright dispute")* (9th Cir. 2018) |
| Lower courts | *[Folsom v. Marsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folsom_v._Marsh "Folsom v. Marsh")* (C.C.D. Mass. 1841) *[Elektra Records Co. v. Gem Electronic Distributors, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektra_Records_Co._v._Gem_Electronic_Distributors,_Inc. "Elektra Records Co. v. Gem Electronic Distributors, Inc.")* (E.D.N.Y. 1973) *[Broderbund Software Inc. v. Unison World, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broderbund_Software_Inc._v._Unison_World,_Inc. "Broderbund Software Inc. v. Unison World, Inc.")* (N.D. Cal. 1986) *[Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playboy_Enterprises,_Inc._v._Frena "Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena")* (M.D. Fla. 1993) *[Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeman_Art_Library_v._Corel_Corp. "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.")* (S.D.N.Y. 1999) *[RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealNetworks,_Inc._v._Streambox,_Inc. "RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc.")* (W.D. Wash. 2000) *[Mannion v. Coors Brewing Co.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannion_v._Coors_Brewing_Co. "Mannion v. Coors Brewing Co.")* (S.D.N.Y. 2005) *[Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arista_Records_LLC_v._Lime_Group_LLC "Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC")* (S.D.N.Y. 2010) *[Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol_Records,_LLC_v._ReDigi_Inc. "Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc.")* (S.D.N.Y. 2013) *[Equals Three, LLC v. Jukin Media, Inc.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equals_Three,_LLC_v._Jukin_Media,_Inc. "Equals Three, LLC v. Jukin Media, Inc.")* (C.D. Cal. 2015) *[Hachette v. Internet Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hachette_v._Internet_Archive "Hachette v. Internet Archive")* (S.D.N.Y. 2023) *[Universal Music Group v. Internet Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Music_Group_v._Internet_Archive "Universal Music Group v. Internet Archive")* (S.D.N.Y. 2023) |
| [Berne Convention]() [Uruguay Round](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay_Round "Uruguay Round") [Don't Copy That Floppy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Copy_That_Floppy "Don't Copy That Floppy") [Home Recording Rights Coalition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Recording_Rights_Coalition "Home Recording Rights Coalition") *[Nimmer on Copyright](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimmer_on_Copyright "Nimmer on Copyright")* "[You Wouldn't Steal a Car](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Wouldn%27t_Steal_a_Car "You Wouldn't Steal a Car")" | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Copyright_law_by_country "Template:Copyright law by country") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Copyright_law_by_country "Template talk:Copyright law by country") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copyright_law_by_country "Special:EditPage/Template:Copyright law by country")Copyright law by country | |
|---|---|
| [Copyright acts by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copyright_acts "List of copyright acts") [Copyright case law by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copyright_case_law "List of copyright case law") [Copyright duration by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copyright_duration_by_country "List of copyright duration by country") [International copyright treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_copyright_treaties "International copyright treaties") [by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_copyright_agreements "List of parties to international copyright agreements") [related rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_treaties_protecting_rights_related_to_copyright "List of parties to international treaties protecting rights related to copyright") [Rule of the shorter term](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_the_shorter_term "Rule of the shorter term") | |
| Africa | [Benin](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_Benin&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright law of Benin (page does not exist)") \[[fr](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_au_B%C3%A9nin "fr:Droit d'auteur au Bénin")\] [Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Burundi "Copyright law of Burundi") [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Cameroon "Copyright law of Cameroon") [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ghana "Copyright law of Ghana") [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Egypt "Copyright law of Egypt") [Ivory Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Ivory Coast (page does not exist)") \[[fr](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_en_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire "fr:Droit d'auteur en Côte d'Ivoire")\] [Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Madagascar&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Madagascar (page does not exist)") \[[fr](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_%C3%A0_Madagascar "fr:Droit d'auteur à Madagascar")\] [Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Morocco&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Morocco (page does not exist)") \[[fr](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droits_d%27auteur_et_droits_voisins_au_Maroc "fr:Droits d'auteur et droits voisins au Maroc")\] [Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Mozambique (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5 "ru:Авторское право в Мозамбике")\] [Senegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Senegal "Copyright law of Senegal") \[[fr](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_\(S%C3%A9n%C3%A9gal\) "fr:Droit d'auteur (Sénégal)")\] [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_South_Africa "Copyright law of South Africa") |
| Americas | [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Argentina "Copyright law of Argentina") [Bermuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_in_Bermuda "Copyright in Bermuda") [Bolivia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Bolivia "Copyright law of Bolivia") [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Brazil "Copyright law of Brazil") [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Canada "Copyright law of Canada") [Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Chile "Copyright law of Chile") [Dominican Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_in_the_Dominican_Republic "Copyright in the Dominican Republic") [Ecuador](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Ecuador (page does not exist)") \[[es](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_de_autor_en_Ecuador "es:Derecho de autor en Ecuador")\] [El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_El_Salvador "Copyright law of El Salvador") [Honduras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Honduras "Copyright law of Honduras") [Panama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Panama "Copyright law of Panama") [Peru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Peru "Copyright law of Peru") [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States "Copyright law of the United States") [Uruguay](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Uruguay&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Uruguay (page does not exist)") \[[es](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_de_autor_en_Uruguay "es:Derecho de autor en Uruguay")\] [Venezuela](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Venezuela "Copyright law of Venezuela") |
| Asia | [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan_and_copyright_issues "Afghanistan and copyright issues") [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Azerbaijan "Copyright law of Azerbaijan") [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Bangladesh "Copyright law of Bangladesh") [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_China "Copyright law of China") [Hong Kong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Hong_Kong "Copyright law of Hong Kong") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_India "Copyright law of India") [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Indonesia "Copyright law of Indonesia") [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_in_Iran "Copyright in Iran") [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Israel&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Israel (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5 "ru:Авторское право в Израиле")\] [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Japan "Copyright law of Japan") [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Jordan "Copyright law of Jordan") [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Kazakhstan "Copyright law of Kazakhstan") [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5 "ru:Авторское право в Кыргызстане")\] [North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_North_Korea "Copyright law of North Korea") [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_South_Korea "Copyright law of South Korea") [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Lebanon&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Lebanon (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5 "ru:Авторское право в Ливане")\] [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Malaysia "Copyright law of Malaysia") [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Mongolia&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Mongolia (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8 "ru:Авторское право в Монголии")\] [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Myanmar "Copyright law of Myanmar") [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Nepal "Copyright law of Nepal") [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Oman "Copyright law of Oman") [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Pakistan "Copyright law of Pakistan") [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Philippines "Copyright law of the Philippines") [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Saudi_Arabia "Copyright law of Saudi Arabia") [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sri_Lanka "Copyright law of Sri Lanka") [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Syria "Copyright law of Syria") [Tajikistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Tajikistan "Copyright law of Tajikistan") [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Thailand "Copyright law of Thailand") [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)") \[[de](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_\(Vereinigte_Arabische_Emirate\) "de:Urheberrecht (Vereinigte Arabische Emirate)")\] [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Uzbekistan&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Uzbekistan (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%A3%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5 "ru:Авторское право в Узбекистане")\] |
| Europe | |
| | |
| [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_European_Union "Copyright law of the European Union") | [Austria](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_law_of_Austria&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright law of Austria (page does not exist)") \[[de](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_\(%C3%96sterreich\) "de:Urheberrecht (Österreich)")\] [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Belgium (page does not exist)") \[[fr](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_d%27auteur_en_Belgique "fr:Droit d'auteur en Belgique")\] [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_France "Copyright law of France") [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Germany "Copyright law of Germany") [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Greece "Copyright law of Greece") [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ireland "Copyright law of Ireland") [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Italy "Copyright law of Italy") [Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Latvia&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Latvia (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B8 "ru:Авторское право в Латвии")\] [Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Lithuania&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Lithuania (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5 "ru:Авторское право в Литве")\] [Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Luxembourg&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Luxembourg (page does not exist)") \[[de](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheberrecht_\(Luxemburg\) "de:Urheberrecht (Luxemburg)")\] [Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Netherlands "Copyright law of the Netherlands") [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Poland "Copyright law of Poland") [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Romania "Copyright law of Romania") [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Spain "Copyright law of Spain") [Sweden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sweden "Copyright law of Sweden") |
| Other countries | [Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Albania "Copyright law of Albania") [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Armenia&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Armenia (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8 "ru:Авторское право в Армении")\] [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Belarus&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Belarus (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8 "ru:Авторское право в Белоруссии")\] [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Georgia "Copyright law of Georgia") [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Kazakhstan "Copyright law of Kazakhstan") [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1 "Copyright in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)") \[[ru](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B8 "ru:Авторское право в Киргизии")\] [Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Moldova "Copyright law of Moldova") [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Russia "Copyright law of Russia") [USSR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Soviet_Union "Copyright law of the Soviet Union") [Russian Federation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Russian_Federation "Copyright law of the Russian Federation") [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Serbia "Copyright law of Serbia") [Switzerland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Switzerland "Copyright law of Switzerland") [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Turkey "Copyright law of Turkey") [Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_in_Ukraine "Copyright in Ukraine") [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_Kingdom "Copyright law of the United Kingdom") |
| Oceania | [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Australia "Copyright law of Australia") [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_New_Zealand "Copyright law of New Zealand") |
| [Category:Copyright law by country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Copyright_law_by_country "Category:Copyright law by country") | |
| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Victor_Hugo "Template:Victor Hugo") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Victor_Hugo "Template talk:Victor Hugo") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Victor_Hugo "Special:EditPage/Template:Victor Hugo")[Victor Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Hugo "Victor Hugo") | |
|---|---|
| Novels | *[Hans of Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_of_Iceland "Hans of Iceland")* (1823) *[Bug-Jargal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bug-Jargal "Bug-Jargal")* (1826) *[The Last Day of a Condemned Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Day_of_a_Condemned_Man "The Last Day of a Condemned Man")* (1829) *[The Hunchback of Notre-Dame](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre-Dame "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame")* (1831) *[Les Misérables](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables "Les Misérables")* (1862) *[Toilers of the Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilers_of_the_Sea "Toilers of the Sea")* (1866) *[The Man Who Laughs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Laughs "The Man Who Laughs")* (1869) *[Ninety-Three](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninety-Three "Ninety-Three")* (1874) |
| Plays | *[Irtamène](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irtam%C3%A8ne&action=edit&redlink=1 "Irtamène (page does not exist)")* (1816) *[Inez de Castro](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inez_de_Castro_\(melodrama\)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Inez de Castro (melodrama) (page does not exist)")* (1818; published in 1863) *[Cromwell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromwell_\(play\) "Cromwell (play)")* (1827) *[Amy Robsart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Robsart_\(play\) "Amy Robsart (play)")* (1828) *[Hernani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hernani_\(drama\) "Hernani (drama)")* (1830) *[Marion de Lorme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_de_Lorme_\(Hugo\) "Marion de Lorme (Hugo)")* (1831) *[Le roi s'amuse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_roi_s%27amuse "Le roi s'amuse")* (1832) *[Lucrezia Borgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucrezia_Borgia_\(play\) "Lucrezia Borgia (play)")* (1833) *[Marie Tudor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Tudor "Marie Tudor")* (1833) *[Angelo, Tyrant of Padua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo,_Tyrant_of_Padua "Angelo, Tyrant of Padua")* (1835) *[Ruy Blas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruy_Blas "Ruy Blas")* (1838) *[Les Burgraves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Burgraves "Les Burgraves")* (1843) *[Torquemada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torquemada_\(play\) "Torquemada (play)")* (1882) |
| Librettos | *[La Esmeralda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Esmeralda_\(opera\) "La Esmeralda (opera)")* (1836) |
| Short stories | "[Claude Gueux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Gueux "Claude Gueux")" (1834) |
| Poetry collections | *[Odes et poésies diverses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odes_et_po%C3%A9sies_diverses "Odes et poésies diverses")* (1822) *[Nouvelles Odes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nouvelles_Odes "Nouvelles Odes")* (1824) *[Odes et Ballades](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odes_et_Ballades "Odes et Ballades")* (1828) *[Les Orientales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Orientales "Les Orientales")* (1829) *[Les Feuilles d'automne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Feuilles_d%27automne "Les Feuilles d'automne")* (1831) *[Les Chants du crépuscule](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Les_Chants_du_cr%C3%A9puscule&action=edit&redlink=1 "Les Chants du crépuscule (page does not exist)")* (1835) *[Les Voix intérieures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Voix_int%C3%A9rieures "Les Voix intérieures")* (1837) *[Les Rayons et les Ombres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Rayons_et_les_Ombres "Les Rayons et les Ombres")* (1840) *[Les Châtiments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Ch%C3%A2timents "Les Châtiments")* (1853) *[Les Contemplations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Contemplations "Les Contemplations")* (1856) *[La Légende des siècles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_L%C3%A9gende_des_si%C3%A8cles "La Légende des siècles")* (Part One 1859) *[Les Chansons des rues et des bois](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Les_Chansons_des_rues_et_des_bois&action=edit&redlink=1 "Les Chansons des rues et des bois (page does not exist)")* (1865) *[L'Année terrible](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_terrible "L'Année terrible")* (1872) *[L'Art d'être grand-père](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_d%27%C3%AAtre_grand-p%C3%A8re "L'Art d'être grand-père")* (1877) *[La Légende des siècles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_L%C3%A9gende_des_si%C3%A8cles "La Légende des siècles")* (Part Two 1877) *[Le Pape](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Pape "Le Pape")* (1878) *[La Pitié suprême](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Piti%C3%A9_supr%C3%AAme "La Pitié suprême")* (1879) *[L'Âne](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L%27%C3%82ne&action=edit&redlink=1 "L'Âne (page does not exist)")* (1880) *[Les Quatre Vents de l'esprit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Les_Quatre_Vents_de_l%27esprit&action=edit&redlink=1 "Les Quatre Vents de l'esprit (page does not exist)")* (1881) Final part of *[La Légende des siècles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_L%C3%A9gende_des_si%C3%A8cles "La Légende des siècles")* (1883) *[La Fin de Satan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fin_de_Satan "La Fin de Satan")* (1886) *[Dieu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieu "Dieu")* (1891, 1941) *[Toute la Lyre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toute_la_Lyre "Toute la Lyre")* (1888, 1893, 1897, 1935-1937) *[Les Années funestes](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Les_Ann%C3%A9es_funestes&action=edit&redlink=1 "Les Années funestes (page does not exist)")* (1898) *[Dernière Gerbe](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Derni%C3%A8re_Gerbe&action=edit&redlink=1 "Dernière Gerbe (page does not exist)")* (1902, 1941) *[Océan, Tas de pierres](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oc%C3%A9an,_Tas_de_pierres&action=edit&redlink=1 "Océan, Tas de pierres (page does not exist)")* (1942) *[Le Verso de la page](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Le_Verso_de_la_page&action=edit&redlink=1 "Le Verso de la page (page does not exist)")* (1960) *Œuvres d'enfance et de jeunesse, 1814-20* ([juvenilia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenilia "Juvenilia"), 1964) |
| Other writings | *[Le Rhin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Rhin "Le Rhin")* (1842) *[Napoléon le Petit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_le_Petit "Napoléon le Petit")* (1852 pamphlet) *[William Shakespeare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare_\(essay\) "William Shakespeare (essay)")* (1864 essay) *[Actes et Paroles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actes_et_Paroles "Actes et Paroles")* (1875) *[The History of a Crime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_a_Crime "The History of a Crime")* (1877) *[Religions et religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religions_et_religion "Religions et religion")* (1880) |
| Family | [Léopoldine Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9opoldine_Hugo "Léopoldine Hugo") (daughter) [Charles Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hugo_\(writer\) "Charles Hugo (writer)") (son) [François-Victor Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Victor_Hugo "François-Victor Hugo") (son) [Adèle Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad%C3%A8le_Hugo "Adèle Hugo") (daughter) [Jeanne Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanne_Hugo "Jeanne Hugo") (granddaughter) [Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_L%C3%A9opold_Sigisbert_Hugo "Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo") (father) |
| Others | [Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_Litt%C3%A9raire_et_Artistique_Internationale "Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale") [Berne Convention]() [Hauteville House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauteville_House "Hauteville House") [Maison de Victor Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maison_de_Victor_Hugo "Maison de Victor Hugo") [Juliette Drouet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliette_Drouet "Juliette Drouet") [Avenue Victor-Hugo (Paris)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avenue_Victor-Hugo_\(Paris\) "Avenue Victor-Hugo (Paris)") *[Bust of Victor Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bust_of_Victor_Hugo "Bust of Victor Hugo")* *[La Soeur de la reine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Soeur_de_la_reine "La Soeur de la reine")* [Hugo (crater)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_\(crater\) "Hugo (crater)") |
| | |
|---|---|
| [Authority control databases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control "Help:Authority control"): National [](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q217398#identifiers "Edit this at Wikidata") | [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=unn20221155596&CON_LNG=ENG) [2](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=unn20221155597&CON_LNG=ENG) |
Retrieved from "<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&oldid=1346240550>"
[Categories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category "Help:Category"):
- [World Intellectual Property Organization treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:World_Intellectual_Property_Organization_treaties "Category:World Intellectual Property Organization treaties")
- [Intellectual property law of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_law_of_the_European_Union "Category:Intellectual property law of the European Union")
- [Copyright treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Copyright_treaties "Category:Copyright treaties")
- [1886 treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:1886_treaties "Category:1886 treaties")
- [Treaties entered into force in 1887](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Treaties_entered_into_force_in_1887 "Category:Treaties entered into force in 1887")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Afghanistan "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Afghanistan")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Albania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Albania "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Albania")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Algeria "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Algeria")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Andorra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Andorra "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Andorra")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Antigua and Barbuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Antigua and Barbuda")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Argentina "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Argentina")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Armenia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Armenia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Australia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Australia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the First Austrian Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_First_Austrian_Republic "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the First Austrian Republic")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Azerbaijan "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Azerbaijan")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Bahamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Bahamas "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Bahamas")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Bahrain "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Bahrain")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Bangladesh "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Bangladesh")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Barbados](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Barbados "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Barbados")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Belarus "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Belarus")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Belgium "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Belgium")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Belize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Belize "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Belize")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Republic of Dahomey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Republic_of_Dahomey "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Republic of Dahomey")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Bhutan "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Bhutan")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Bolivia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Bolivia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Bolivia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Botswana "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Botswana")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the First Brazilian Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_First_Brazilian_Republic "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the First Brazilian Republic")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Brunei "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Brunei")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Kingdom of Bulgaria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Kingdom_of_Bulgaria "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Kingdom of Bulgaria")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Burkina Faso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Burkina_Faso "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Burkina Faso")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Burundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Burundi "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Burundi")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Cameroon "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Cameroon")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Cambodia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Cambodia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Canada "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Canada")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Cape Verde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Cape_Verde "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Cape Verde")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Central African Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Central_African_Republic "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Central African Republic")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Chad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Chad "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Chad")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Chile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Chile "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Chile")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the People's Republic of China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the People's Republic of China")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the United States of Colombia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_United_States_of_Colombia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the United States of Colombia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Comoros](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Comoros "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Comoros")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo_\(L%C3%A9opoldville\) "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Republic of the Congo")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Cook Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Cook_Islands "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Cook Islands")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Costa Rica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Costa_Rica "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Costa Rica")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Ivory Coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Ivory_Coast "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Ivory Coast")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Croatia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Croatia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Croatia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Cuba "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Cuba")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Cyprus "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Cyprus")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Czech Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Czech_Republic "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Czech Republic")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Czechoslovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Czechoslovakia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Czechoslovakia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Denmark "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Denmark")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Djibouti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Djibouti "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Djibouti")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Dominican Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Dominican_Republic "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Dominican Republic")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Dominica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Dominica "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Dominica")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Ecuador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Ecuador "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Ecuador")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Egypt "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Egypt")
- [Intellectual property treaties of El Salvador](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_El_Salvador "Category:Intellectual property treaties of El Salvador")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Equatorial Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Equatorial_Guinea "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Equatorial Guinea")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Estonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Estonia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Estonia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Fiji "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Fiji")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Finland "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Finland")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the French Third Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_French_Third_Republic "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the French Third Republic")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Gabon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Gabon "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Gabon")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Gambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Gambia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Gambia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Georgia (country)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Georgia_\(country\) "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Georgia (country)")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the German Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_German_Empire "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the German Empire")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Ghana "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Ghana")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Kingdom of Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Kingdom_of_Greece "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Kingdom of Greece")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Grenada "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Grenada")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Guatemala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Guatemala "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Guatemala")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Guinea "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Guinea")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Guinea-Bissau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Guinea-Bissau "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Guinea-Bissau")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Guyana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Guyana "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Guyana")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Haiti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Haiti "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Haiti")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Honduras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Honduras "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Honduras")
- [Intellectual property treaties extended to Hong Kong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_extended_to_Hong_Kong "Category:Intellectual property treaties extended to Hong Kong")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hungary_\(1920%E2%80%931946\) "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Iceland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Iceland "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Iceland")
- [Intellectual property treaties of British India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_British_India "Category:Intellectual property treaties of British India")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Indonesia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Indonesia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Irish Free State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Irish_Free_State "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Irish Free State")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Israel "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Israel")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_\(1861%E2%80%931946\) "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Jamaica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Jamaica "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Jamaica")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Empire of Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Empire_of_Japan "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Empire of Japan")
- [Intellectual property treaties extended to Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_extended_to_Jersey "Category:Intellectual property treaties extended to Jersey")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Jordan "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Jordan")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Kazakhstan "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Kazakhstan")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Kenya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Kenya "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Kenya")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Kiribati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Kiribati "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Kiribati")
- [Intellectual property treaties of North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_North_Korea "Category:Intellectual property treaties of North Korea")
- [Intellectual property treaties of South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_South_Korea "Category:Intellectual property treaties of South Korea")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Kuwait "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Kuwait")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Kyrgyzstan "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Kyrgyzstan")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Laos "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Laos")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Latvia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Latvia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Latvia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Lebanon "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Lebanon")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Lesotho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Lesotho "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Lesotho")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Liberia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Liberia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Liechtenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Liechtenstein "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Liechtenstein")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Lithuania "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Lithuania")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Luxembourg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Luxembourg "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Luxembourg")
- [Intellectual property treaties extended to Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_extended_to_Macau "Category:Intellectual property treaties extended to Macau")
- [Intellectual property treaties of North Macedonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_North_Macedonia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of North Macedonia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Madagascar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Madagascar "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Madagascar")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Malawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Malawi "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Malawi")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Malaysia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Malaysia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Maldives "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Maldives")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Mali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Mali "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Mali")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Malta "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Malta")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Mauritania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Mauritania "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Mauritania")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Mauritius "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Mauritius")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Mexico "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Mexico")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the Federated States of Micronesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Federated States of Micronesia")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Moldova](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Moldova "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Moldova")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Monaco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Monaco "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Monaco")
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- [Intellectual property treaties of Morocco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Morocco "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Morocco")
- [Intellectual property treaties of Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_Mozambique "Category:Intellectual property treaties of Mozambique")
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- [Intellectual property treaties of the Republic of the Sudan (1985–2011)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Republic_of_the_Sudan_\(1985%E2%80%932011\) "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Republic of the Sudan (1985–2011)")
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- [Intellectual property treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_United_Kingdom_\(1801%E2%80%931922\) "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)")
- [Intellectual property treaties of the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_United_States "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the United States")
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- [Intellectual property treaties of the Holy See](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_treaties_of_the_Holy_See "Category:Intellectual property treaties of the Holy See")
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Berne Convention
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| Readable Markdown | | Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works | |
|---|---|
| [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Berne_Convention_signatories.svg)Map of parties to the Convention | |
| Signed | 9 September 1886 |
| Location | [Bern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern "Bern"), Switzerland |
| Effective | 5 December 1887 |
| Condition | 3 months after exchange of ratifications |
| Parties | 182 |
| Depositary | Director General of the World Intellectual Property Organization |
| Languages | French (prevailing in case of differences in interpretation) and English, officially translated in Arabic, German, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish |
| Full text | |
|  [Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works "wikisource:Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works") at [Wikisource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource "Wikisource") | |
The **Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works**, usually known as the **Berne Convention**, was an international assembly held in 1886 in the Swiss city of [Bern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern "Bern") by ten European countries with the goal of agreeing on a set of legal principles for the protection of [original work](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Originality "Originality") and [intellectual property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property "Intellectual property"). They drafted and adopted a multi-party [contract](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract "Contract") containing agreements for a uniform, border-crossing system that became known under the same name. Its rules have been updated many times since then.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-2) The [treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty "Treaty") provides authors, musicians, poets, painters, and other creators with the means to control how their works are used, by whom, and on what terms.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-3) In some jurisdictions these types of rights are referred to as [copyright](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright "Copyright"); on the European continent they are generally referred to as [authors' rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authors%27_rights "Authors' rights").
As of November 2022, the Berne Convention has been ratified by 182 states out of 195 countries in the world, most of which are also parties to the Paris Act of 1971.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-5)
The Berne Convention introduced the concept that protection exists the moment a work is "fixed", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, and its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work and to any [derivative works](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_work "Derivative work"), unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them or until the copyright expires. A creator need not [register](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_registration "Copyright registration") or "apply for" a copyright in countries adhering to the convention. It also enforces a requirement that countries recognize rights held by the citizens of all other parties to the convention. Foreign authors are given the same rights and privileges to copyrighted material as domestic authors in any country that ratified the convention. The countries to which the convention applies created a Union for the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works, known as the *Berne Union*.
The Berne Convention requires its parties to recognize the protection of works of authors from other parties to the convention at least as well as those of its own nationals. For example, [French authors' rights law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law_of_France "Copyright law of France") applies to anything published, distributed, performed, or in any other way accessible in France, regardless of where it was originally created, if the country of origin of that work is in the Berne Union.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
In addition to establishing a system of equal treatment that harmonised copyright amongst parties, the agreement also required member states to provide strong minimum standards for copyright law.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
Author's rights under the Berne Convention must be automatic; it is prohibited to require formal registration. However, when the United States joined the convention on 1 March 1989,[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-usco38a-6) it continued to make [statutory damages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_damages_for_copyright_infringement "Statutory damages for copyright infringement") and [attorney's fees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attorney%27s_fees "Attorney's fees") only available for registered works.
However, *Moberg v. Leygues* (a 2009 decision of a Delaware Federal District Court) held that the protections of the Berne Convention are supposed to essentially be "frictionless", meaning no registration requirements can be imposed on a work from a different Berne member country. This means Berne member countries can require works originating in their own country to be registered and/or deposited, but cannot require these formalities of works from other Berne member countries.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-7)
Under Article 3, the protection of the Convention applies to nationals and residents of countries that are party to the convention, and to works first published or simultaneously published (under Article 3(4), "simultaneously" is defined as "within 30 days")[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article3-8) in a country that is party to the convention.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article3-8) Under Article 4, it also applies to cinematic works by persons who have their headquarters or habitual residence in a party country, and to architectural works situated in a party country.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-9)
The Convention relies on the concept of "country of origin". Often determining the country of origin is straightforward: when a work is published in a party country and nowhere else, this is the country of origin. However, under Article 5(4), when a work is published "simultaneously" ("within 30 days")[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article3-8) in several party countries,[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article3-8) the country with the [shortest term](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_shorter_term "Rule of shorter term") of protection is defined as the country of origin.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article5-10)
For works simultaneously published in a party country and one or more non-parties, the party country is the country of origin. For unpublished works or works first published in a non-party country (without publication within 30 days in a party country), the author's nationality usually provides the country of origin, if a national of a party country. (There are exceptions for cinematic and architectural works.)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article5-10)
In the Internet age, unrestricted publication online may be considered publication in every sufficiently internet-connected jurisdiction in the world. It is not clear what this may mean for determining "country of origin". In *[Kernel v. Mosley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbaland_plagiarism_controversy "Timbaland plagiarism controversy")* (2011), a U.S. court "concluded that a work created outside of the United States, uploaded in Australia and owned by a company registered in [Finland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland "Finland") was nonetheless a U.S. work by virtue of its being published online". However other U.S. courts in similar situations have reached different conclusions, e.g. *[Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A5kan_Moberg_v._33T_LLC "Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC")* (2009).[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-11) The matter of determining the country of origin for digital publication remains a topic of controversy among law academics as well.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-12)
The Berne Convention states that all works except photographic and cinematographic shall be protected for at least 50 years after the author's death, but parties are free to provide longer [terms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_term "Copyright term"),[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article7-13) as the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") did with the 1993 [Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Duration_Directive "Copyright Duration Directive"). For photography, the Berne Convention sets a minimum term of 25 years from the year the photograph was created, and for cinematography the minimum is 50 years after first showing, or 50 years after creation if it has not been shown within 50 years after the creation. Countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide their own protection terms, and certain types of works (such as phonorecords and motion pictures) may be provided shorter terms.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
If the author is unknown because for example the author was deliberately anonymous or worked under a pseudonym, the Convention provides for a term of 50 years after publication ("after the work has been lawfully made available to the public"). However, if the identity of the author becomes known, the copyright term for known authors (50 years after death) applies.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article7-13)
Although the Berne Convention states that the legislation of the country where protective rights are claimed shall be applied, Article 7(8) states that "unless the legislation of that country otherwise provides, the term shall not exceed the term fixed in the country of origin of the work",[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Article7-13) i.e., an author is normally not entitled a longer protection abroad than at home, even if the laws abroad give a longer term. This is commonly known as "the [rule of the shorter term](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_the_shorter_term "Rule of the shorter term")". Not all countries have accepted this rule.
As to works, protection must include "every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever the mode or form of its expression" (Article 2(1) of the convention).
Subject to certain allowed reservations, limitations or exceptions, the following are among the **rights** that must be recognized as exclusive rights of authorization:
- **the right to translate**,
- **the right to make adaptations and arrangements** of the work,
- **the right to perform in public** dramatic, dramatico-musical and musical works,
- **the right to recite** literary works in **public**,
- **the right to communicate to the public** the performance of such works,
- **the right to broadcast** (with the possibility that a Contracting State may provide for a mere right to equitable remuneration instead of a right of authorization),
- **the right to make reproductions** in any manner or form (with the possibility that a Contracting State may permit, in certain special cases, reproduction without authorization, provided that the reproduction does not conflict with the normal exploitation of the work and does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author; and the possibility that a Contracting State may provide, in the case of sound recordings of musical works, for a right to equitable remuneration),
- **the right to use the work as a basis for an audiovisual work**, and the right to reproduce, distribute, perform in public or communicate to the public that audiovisual work.
### Exceptions and limitations
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Exceptions and limitations")\]
The Berne Convention includes a number of specific exceptions, scattered in several provisions due to the historical reason of Berne negotiations.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\] For example, Article 10(2) permits Berne members to provide for a "teaching exception" within their copyright statutes. The exception is limited to a use for illustration of the subject matter taught and it must be related to teaching activities.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-14)
In addition to specific exceptions, the Berne Convention establishes the "[three-step test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-step_test "Three-step test")" in Article 9(2), which establishes a framework for member nations to develop their own national exceptions. The three-step test establishes three requirements: that the legislation be limited to certain (1) special cases; (2) that the exception does not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work, and (3) that the exception does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
The Berne Convention does not expressly reference doctrines such as [fair use](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_use "Fair use") or [fair dealing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_dealing "Fair dealing"), leading some critics of fair use to argue that fair use violates the Berne Convention.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-heinonline.org-15)[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-16) However, the United States and other fair use nations argue that flexible standards such as fair use include the factors of the three-step test, and are therefore compliant. The WTO Panel has ruled that the standards are not incompatible.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-17)
The Berne Convention does not include the modern concept of *Internet safe harbors*, simply because Internet was not known as a technology at that time. The Agreed Statement of the parties to the [WIPO Copyright Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_Treaty "WIPO Copyright Treaty") of 1996 states that: "It is understood that the mere provision of physical facilities for enabling or making a communication does not in itself amount to communication within the meaning of this Treaty or the Berne Convention."[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Travis-18) This language may mean that Internet service providers are not liable for the infringing communications of their users.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Travis-18)
Since companies are using internet to publish [user generated content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_generated_content "User generated content"), critics have argued that the Berne Convention is weak in protecting users and consumers from overbroad or harsh infringement claims, with virtually no other exceptions or limitations.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-19) In fact, the [Marrakesh Copyright Exceptions Treaty for the Blind and Print-Disabled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakesh_VIP_Treaty "Marrakesh VIP Treaty") was the first international treaty centered around the rights of users. Treaties featuring exceptions for libraries and educational institutions are also being discussed.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Ferdinand_Keppler_-_The_Pirate_Publisher_-_Puck_Magazine_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg)
*The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record*, from *[Puck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puck_\(magazine\) "Puck (magazine)")*, 1886, satirizes the ability of publishers to take works from one country and publish them in another without paying the original authors.
The Berne Convention was developed at the instigation of [Victor Hugo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Hugo "Victor Hugo")[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-20) of the [Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_Litt%C3%A9raire_et_Artistique_Internationale "Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale").[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-21) Thus it was influenced by the French "[rights of the author](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authors%27_rights "Authors' rights")" (*droits d'auteur*), which contrasts with the [Anglo-Saxon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Law "Common Law") concept of "copyright" which only dealt with economic concerns.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-22)
Before the Berne Convention, copyright legislation remained uncoordinated at an international level.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-23) So for example a work published in the United Kingdom by a British national would be covered by copyright there but could be copied and sold by anyone in France. Dutch publisher [Albertus Willem Sijthoff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertus_Willem_Sijthoff "Albertus Willem Sijthoff"), who rose to prominence in the trade of translated books, wrote to Queen [Wilhelmina of the Netherlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelmina_of_the_Netherlands "Wilhelmina of the Netherlands") in 1899 in opposition to the convention over concerns that its international restrictions would stifle the Dutch print industry.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Publishers-Circular-1899-24)
The Berne Convention followed in the footsteps of the [Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property "Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property") of 1883, which in the same way had created a framework for international integration of the other types of intellectual property: patents, trademarks and [industrial designs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_design "Industrial design").[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-25)
Like the Paris Convention, the Berne Convention set up a bureau to handle administrative tasks. In 1893 these two small bureaux merged and became the [United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_International_Bureaux_for_the_Protection_of_Intellectual_Property "United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property") (best known by its French acronym BIRPI), situated in Berne.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-:0-26) In 1960, BIRPI moved to [Geneva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva "Geneva"), to be closer to the United Nations and other international organizations in that city.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-27) In 1967 it became the [World Intellectual Property Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization "World Intellectual Property Organization") (WIPO), and in 1974 became an organization within the United Nations.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-:0-26)
The Berne Convention was completed in Paris in 1886, revised in Berlin in 1908, completed in Berne in 1914, revised in Rome in 1928, in [Brussels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels "Brussels") in 1948, in [Stockholm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm") in 1967 and in Paris in 1971, and was amended in 1979.[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-28)
The [World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_Treaty "WIPO Copyright Treaty") was adopted in 1996 to address the issues raised by information technology and the Internet, which were not addressed by the Berne Convention.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-29)
### Adoption and implementation
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Adoption and implementation")\]
The first version of the Berne Convention treaty was signed on 9 September 1886, by Belgium, France, Germany, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia, and the United Kingdom.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-30) They ratified it on 5 September 1887.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Contracting_parties-31)
Although Britain ratified the convention in 1887, it did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the [Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright,_Designs_and_Patents_Act_1988 "Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988").
The United States [acceded](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratification "Ratification") to the convention on 16 November 1988, and the convention entered into force for the United States on 1 March 1989.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-32)[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-Contracting_parties-31) The United States initially refused to become a party to the convention, since that would have required major changes in [its copyright law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_copyright_law "United States copyright law"), particularly with regard to [moral rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_rights_\(copyright_law\) "Moral rights (copyright law)"), removal of the general requirement for registration of copyright works and elimination of mandatory copyright notice. This led first to the U.S. ratifying the [Buenos Aires Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Convention "Buenos Aires Convention") (BAC) in 1910, and later the [Universal Copyright Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Copyright_Convention "Universal Copyright Convention") (UCC) in 1952 to accommodate the wishes of other countries. With the WIPO's Berne revision on Paris 1971,[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-berna1971-33) many other countries joined the treaty, as expressed by [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") federal law of 1975.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-br1975-34)
On 1 March 1989, the U.S. [Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988 "Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988") was enacted, and the U.S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty, making the United States a party to the Berne Convention,[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-NYT1988-35) and making the Universal Copyright Convention nearly obsolete.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-36) Except for extremely technical points not relevant, with the accession of Nicaragua in 2000, every nation that is a member of the Buenos Aires Convention is also a member of Berne, and so the BAC has also become nearly obsolete and is essentially [deprecated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprecated "Deprecated") as well.\[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*\]
Since almost all nations are members of the [World Trade Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization"), the [Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement "TRIPS Agreement") (TRIPS) requires non-members to accept almost all of the conditions of the Berne Convention.
As of November 2025, there are 182 states that are parties to the Berne Convention. This includes 178 [UN member states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations "Member states of the United Nations") plus the [Cook Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Islands "Cook Islands"), the [Holy See](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See "Holy See") and [Niue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niue "Niue").
## Prospects for future reform
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: Prospects for future reform")\]
The Berne Convention was intended to be revised regularly in order to keep pace with social and technological developments. It was revised seven times between its first iteration (in 1886) and 1971, but has seen no substantive revision since then.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-37) That means its rules were decided before widespread adoption of digital technologies and the internet. In large part, this lengthy drought between revisions comes about because the Treaty gives each member state the right to veto any substantive change. The vast number of signatory countries, plus their very different development levels, makes it exceptionally difficult to update the convention to better reflect the realities of the digital world.[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-38) In 2018, Professor Sam Ricketson argued that anyone who thought that further revision would ever be realistic was "dreaming".[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-39)
Berne members also cannot easily create new copyright treaties to address the digital world's realities, because the Berne Convention also prohibits treaties that are inconsistent with its precepts.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-40)
Legal academic Rebecca Giblin has argued that one reform avenue left to Berne members is to "take the front door out". The Berne Convention only requires member states to obey its rules for works published in other member states – not works published within its own borders. Thus member nations may lawfully introduce domestic copyright laws that have elements prohibited by Berne (such as registration formalities), so long as they only apply to their own authors. Giblin also argues that these should only be considered where the net benefit would be to benefit authors.[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-41)
## List of countries and regions that are not signatories to the Berne Convention
\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berne_Convention&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: List of countries and regions that are not signatories to the Berne Convention")\]
[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_note-usco38a-6)
- [Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988 "Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988")
- [Berne three-step test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_three-step_test "Berne three-step test")
- [Buenos Aires Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Convention "Buenos Aires Convention")
- [Droit de suite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_de_suite "Droit de suite")
- [List of parties to international copyright agreements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_international_copyright_agreements "List of parties to international copyright agreements")
- [Copyright of official texts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_of_official_texts "Copyright of official texts")
- [Post-colonial copyright crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-colonial_copyright_crisis "Post-colonial copyright crisis")
- [Public domain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain "Public domain")
- [Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Performers,_Producers_of_Phonograms_and_Broadcasting_Organisations "Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations")
- [Universal Copyright Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Copyright_Convention "Universal Copyright Convention")
- [World Trade Organization Dispute 160](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization_Dispute_160 "World Trade Organization Dispute 160")
1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-1)**
["WIPO - Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/).
2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-2)**
WEX Definitions Team. ["Berne Convention"](https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/berne_convention). Cornell Law School.
3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-3)**
["Summary of the Berne Convention"](https://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/summary_berne.html). World Intellectual Property Organization.
4. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-4)**
["WIPO Lex"](https://wipolex.wipo.int/en/treaties/textdetails/12800). *wipolex.wipo.int*. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-5)**
[*Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, Status on February 6, 2025*](https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/treaties/en/docs/pdf/berne.pdf) (PDF). World Intellectual Property Organization. 2020.
6. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-usco38a_6-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-usco38a_6-1)
[*Circular 38A: International Copyright Relations of the United States*](https://copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Copyright Office. 2014. p. 2. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
7. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-7)** *[Borderless Publications, the Berne Convention, and U.S. Copyright Formalities](https://www.mediainstitute.org/2009/10/20/borderless-publications-the-berne-convention-and-u-s-copyright-formalities/)*, Jane C. Ginsburg, The Media Institute, 20 October 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
8. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article3_8-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article3_8-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article3_8-2) [***d***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article3_8-3) Berne Convention [\[1\]](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P98_14701) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095521/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P98_14701) 23 May 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine").
9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-9)** Berne Convention [\[2\]](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P105_16290) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095521/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P105_16290) 23 May 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine").
10. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article5_10-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article5_10-1) Berne Convention [\[3\]](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P109_16834) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095521/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698#P109_16834) 23 May 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine").
11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-11)** Fitzgerald, Brian F., Shi, Sampsung Xiaoxiang, Foong, Cheryl, & Pappalardo, Kylie M. (2011), "[Country of Origin and Internet Publication : Applying the Berne Convention in the Digital Age](http://eprints.qut.edu.au/48050/)". *Journal of Intellectual Property* (NJIP) Maiden Edition, pp. 38–73.
12. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-12)**
See for example the columns of [Jane Ginsburg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Ginsburg "Jane Ginsburg"):
- [Borderless Publications, the Berne Convention, and U.S. Copyright Formalities](http://www.mediainstitute.org/IPI/2009/102009_BorderlessPublications.php)
- [Internet Publication and U.S. Copyright Imperialism](http://www.mediainstitute.org/IPI/2011/062811.php)
- [When a Work Debuts on the Internet, What Is its Country of Origin?](http://www.mediainstitute.org/IPI/2011/082911.php) [Part II](http://www.mediainstitute.org/IPI/2012/012312.php)
And the article
- Chris Dombkowski, [SIMULTANEOUS INTERNET PUBLICATION AND THE BERNE CONVENTION](http://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1571&context=chtlj), SANTA CLARA COMPUTER & HIGH TECH. L.J., vol. 29, pp. 643–674
13. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article7_13-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article7_13-1) [***c***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Article7_13-2) Berne Convention [Article 7](http://zvon.org/law/r/bern.html#p~9).
14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-14)**
Drier, Thomas; Hugenholtz, P. Bernt (2016). *Concise European Copyright Law* (2 ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-heinonline.org_15-0)**
Okediji, Ruth. ["Toward an International Fair Use Doctrine"](https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/cjtl39&div=9&id=&page=). *Columbia Journal of Transnational Law*. **39**: 75. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-16)**
Travis, Hannibal (2008). "Opting Out of the Internet in the United States and the European Union: Copyright, Safe Harbors, and International Law". *Notre Dame Law Review, vol. 84, p. 383*. President and Trustees of Notre Dame University in South Bend, Indiana. [SSRN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_\(identifier\) "SSRN (identifier)") [1221642](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1221642).
17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-17)** See *United States – Section 110(5) of the U.S. Copyright Act*.
18. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Travis_18-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Travis_18-1) Travis, p. 373.
19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-19)** [There Can Be No 'Balance' In The Entirely Unbalanced System Of Copyright](https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20120227/03453017886/there-can-be-no-balance-entirely-unbalanced-system-copyright.shtml) – Techdirt, Mike Masnick, 1 March 2012
20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-20)**
["Quick Berne Convention Overview"](https://copyright.laws.com/international-copyright/berne/berne-convention-overview). *Laws.com*. 4 April 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-21)**
Dutfield, Graham (2008). *Global Intellectual Property Law*. Edward Elger Pub. pp. 26–27\. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-843769422](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-843769422 "Special:BookSources/978-1-843769422")
.
22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-22)**
Baldwin, Peter (2016). *The Copyright Wars: Three Centuries of Trans-Atlantic Battle*. Princeton University Press. p. 15. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-691169095](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691169095 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691169095")
.
23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-23)**
["A Brief History of Copyright"](http://www.iprightsoffice.org/copyright_history/). *Intellectual Property Rights Office*.
24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Publishers-Circular-1899_24-0)**
["The Netherlands and the Berne Convention"](https://books.google.com/books?id=IGtNAAAAYAAJ&q=Albertus+Willem+Sijthoff&pg=PA597). *The Publishers' circular and booksellers' record of British and foreign literature, Vol. 71*. Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 1899. p. 597. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-25)**
["Summary of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883)"](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/summary_paris.html). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Retrieved 30 June 2018.
26. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-:0_26-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-:0_26-1)
["WIPO - A Brief History"](http://www.wipo.int/about-wipo/en/history.html). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-27)**
Cook, Curtis (2002). *Patents, Profits & Power: How Intellectual Property Rules the Global Economy*. Kogan Page. p. 63. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-0-749442729](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-749442729 "Special:BookSources/978-0-749442729")
.
28. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-28)**
["Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180523095521/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Archived from [the original](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698) on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-29)**
["WIPO Copyright Treaty"](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=295166#P136_19843). *World Intellectual Property Organization*. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-30)**
Solberg, Thorvald (1908). *Report of the Delegate of the United States to the International Conference for the Revision of the Berne Copyright Convention, Held at Berlin, Germany, 14 October to 14 November 1908*. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. p. 9.
31. ^ [***a***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Contracting_parties_31-0) [***b***](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-Contracting_parties_31-1)
["Contracting Parties \> Berne Convention (Total Contracting Parties: 173)"](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ShowResults.jsp?lang=en&treaty_id=15). *WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization*. WIPO. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-32)**
["Treaties in Force – A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force on January 1, 2016"](https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/264509.pdf) (PDF). *www.state.gov*.
33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-berna1971_33-0)** WIPO's "Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Paris Text 1971)", <http://zvon.org/law/r/bern.html>
34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-br1975_34-0)** Brazilian's Federal Decree No. 75699 6 May 1975. [urn:lex:br:federal:decreto:1975;75699](http://www.lexml.gov.br/urn/urn:lex:br:federal:decreto:1975-05-06;75699)
35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-NYT1988_35-0)**
Molotsky, Irvin (21 October 1988). ["Senate Approves Joining Copyright Convention"](https://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/21/arts/senate-approves-joining-copyright-convention.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
36. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-36)**
Fishman, Stephen (2011). *The Copyright Handbook: What Every Writer Needs to Know*. Nolo Press. p. 332. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)")
[978-1-4133-1617-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4133-1617-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4133-1617-9")
. [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [707200393](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/707200393). "The UCC is not nearly as important as it used to be. Indeed, it's close to becoming obsolete"
37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-37)**
["Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works"](https://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/text.jsp?file_id=283698). *World Intellectual Property Organisation*.
38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-38)**
Ricketson, Sam (2018). ["The International Framework for the Protection of Authors: Bendable Boundaries and Immovable Obstacles"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181225113854/https://lawandarts.org/article/the-international-framework-for-the-protection-of-authors-bendable-boundaries-and-immovable-obstacles/). *Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts*. **41**: 341, 348–352\. Archived from [the original](https://lawandarts.org/article/the-international-framework-for-the-protection-of-authors-bendable-boundaries-and-immovable-obstacles/) on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-39)**
Ricketson, Sam (2018). ["The International Framework for the Protection of Authors: Bendable Boundaries and Immovable Obstacles"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181225113854/https://lawandarts.org/article/the-international-framework-for-the-protection-of-authors-bendable-boundaries-and-immovable-obstacles/). *Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts*. **41**: 341, 353 (2018) (citing iconic Australian film "The Castle"). Archived from [the original](https://lawandarts.org/article/the-international-framework-for-the-protection-of-authors-bendable-boundaries-and-immovable-obstacles/) on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-40)** Berne Convention, Article 20.
41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention#cite_ref-41)**
Giblin, Rebecca (2019). *A Future of International Copyright? Berne and the Front Door Out*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [SSRN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_\(identifier\) "SSRN (identifier)") [3351460](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3351460).
[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg)
English [Wikisource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource "Wikisource") has original text related to this article:
- The full text of the [Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on 28 September 1979)](http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/treaties/text.jsp?file_id=283698) (in English) in the [WIPO Lex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Lex "WIPO Lex") database – official website of [WIPO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO "WIPO").
- ["Guide to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Paris text, 1971)"](https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/copyright/615/wipo_pub_615.pdf) (PDF). *WIPO*. Geneva: World Intellectual Property Organization. 1978.
- [WIPO-Administered Treaties](http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/) (in English) in the [WIPO Lex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO_Lex "WIPO Lex") database – official website of [WIPO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO "WIPO").
- [The 1971 Berne Convention text](http://zvon.org/law/r/bern.html) – fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
- Texts of the various Berne Convention revisions:
- [1886 Berne Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550015)
- [1896 Paris Additional Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550016)
- [1908 Berlin Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550017)
- [1914 Additional Protocol](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550018)
- [1928 Rome Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550019)
- [1948 Brussels Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550020)
- [1967 Stockholm Act](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550021)
- [1971 Paris Text](http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/15550001) |
| Shard | 152 (laksa) |
| Root Hash | 17790707453426894952 |
| Unparsed URL | org,wikipedia!en,/wiki/Berne_Convention s443 |