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Calculated Shard: 152 (from laksa058)

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curl -X POST \
  'http://laksa152.int.ahrefs:8124/' \
  -H 'Content-Type: text/plain' \
  -H 'X-ClickHouse-Database: crawler3' \
  -H 'Authorization: Basic YXBpOg==' \
  -d 'SELECT getAhrefsURLFromUnparsed(src_unparsed) AS found_url, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(download_stamp), 0) AS crawl_time, ifNull(toUnixTimestamp(props_url_first_seen), 0) AS first_indexed_time, download_http_code AS http_code, src_unparsed AS src_unparsed, src_root_hash AS src_root_hash, history_drop_reason AS history_drop_reason, meta_title AS meta_title, meta_descriptions AS meta_descriptions, attrs_boilerpipe_text AS attrs_boilerpipe_text, attrs_markdown AS attrs_markdown, attrs_readable_markdown AS attrs_readable_markdown, meta_canonical AS meta_canonical FROM crawler3.page_info_local FINAL PREWHERE (src_root_hash, src_unparsed) IN ((getAhrefsRootHashFromUnparsed(getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon\')), getAhrefsUnparsedNoserviceFromURL(\'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon\'))) FORMAT JSONEachRow'

Response:

{"found_url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon","crawl_time":1775389238,"first_indexed_time":1375988977,"http_code":200,"src_unparsed":"org,wikipedia!en,\/wiki\/Activated_carbon s443","src_root_hash":"17790707453426894952","history_drop_reason":null,"meta_title":"Activated carbon - Wikipedia","meta_descriptions":[],"attrs_boilerpipe_text":"\"Charcoal filter\" redirects here. For the Japanese rock band, see\nCharcoal Filter\n.\nActivated carbon\nActivated carbon\n, also called\nactivated charcoal\n, is a form of\ncarbon\ncommonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (\nactivated\n) to have small, low-volume pores that greatly increase the\nsurface area\n[\n1\n]\n[\n2\n]\navailable for\nadsorption\nor\nchemical reactions\n.\n[\n3\n]\n(Adsorption, not to be confused with\nabsorption\n, is a process where atoms or molecules adhere to a surface). The pores can be thought of as a microscopic \"sponge\" structure. Activation is analogous to making\npopcorn\nfrom dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high\nsurface-area-to-volume ratio\n.\nActivated\nis sometimes replaced by\nactive\n.\nBecause it is so porous on a microscopic scale, activated carbon has a surface area of over 3,000 square metres per gram (920,000 square feet per ounce),\n[\n1\n]\n[\n2\n]\n[\n4\n]\nas determined by gas absorption and its porosity can run 10ML\/day in terms of treated water per gram. Researchers at\nCornell University\nsynthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a\nBET\narea of 4,800 m\n2\n\/g (1,500,000 sq ft\/oz).\n[\n1\n]\nThis BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon. For charcoal, the equivalent figure before activation is about 2–5 square metres per gram (610–1,530 sq ft\/oz).\n[\n5\n]\n[\n6\n]\nA useful activation level may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties.\nActivated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks in addition to other agricultural wastes like olive stones, rice husks and nutshells which are being upcycled into activated carbon, diversifying feedstock supply. Waste from paper mills has been studied as a possible source of activated carbon.\n[\n7\n]\nThese bulk sources are converted into\ncharcoal\nbefore being activated. Using waste streams not only reduces landfill burden but also works to lower the overall carbon footprint as previously discarded waste is repurposed. When derived from\ncoal\n,\n[\n1\n]\n[\n2\n]\nit is referred to as\nactivated coal\n.\nActivated coke\nis derived from\ncoke\n. In activated-coke production, the raw coke (most commonly petroleum coke) is ground or pelletized, then \"activated\" via physical (steam or CO\n2\nat high temperature) or chemical (e.g., KOH or H\n3\nPO\n4\n) methods to introduce a porous network, yielding a high-surface-area adsorbent which is referred to as activated coal.\nActivated carbon is used in\nmethane\nand\nhydrogen\nstorage,\n[\n1\n]\n[\n2\n]\nair purification\n,\n[\n8\n]\ncapacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery,\ndecaffeination\n,\ngold purification\n,\nmetal extraction\n,\nwater purification\n,\nmedicine\n,\nsewage treatment\n,\nair filters\nin\nrespirators\n, filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of\nhydrogen chloride\n, edible electronics,\n[\n9\n]\nand many other applications. These multiuse applications make it a versatile form of carbon that is used daily in many industries.\nThere are many industrial applications of activated carbon and its other forms such as areas like metal extraction, water purification, sewage treatment, metal finishing and more. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions used for metal finishing plants. Expanding on electroplating, a variety of organic chemicals can be added to the plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. This is due to the passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up in the solutions can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal if run untreated by the filters. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level. Its installation costs may vary according to the volume of water it must process, however the average cost can be around USD 1 - 2 million. Additionally, these filters need replacing over time (typically 6–12 months depending on usage). The cost of replacing the carbon in the GAC filter form is about USD 0.05 - 0.1 per cubic meter of water that is treated in the plant.\nActivated charcoal for medical use\nActivated carbon is used to treat\npoisonings\nand\noverdoses\nfollowing oral\ningestion\n. Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat\ndiarrhea\n,\nindigestion\n, and\nflatulence\n. However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, is ordinarily medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of\nstrong acids\nor\nbases\n,\ncyanide\n,\niron\n,\nlithium\n,\narsenic\n,\nmethanol\n,\nethanol\n, or\nethylene glycol\n.\n[\n10\n]\nActivated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body.\n[\n11\n]\nIt is on the\nWorld Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines\n.\n[\n12\n]\nIncorrect application (e.g. into the\nlungs\n) results in\npulmonary aspiration\n, which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.\n[\n13\n]\nAnalytical chemistry\n[\nedit\n]\nActivated carbon, in 50%\nw\/w\ncombination with\ncelite\n, is used as stationary phase in low-pressure\nchromatographic\nseparation of\ncarbohydrates\n(mono-, di-, tri-\nsaccharides\n) using\nethanol\nsolutions (5–50%) as\nmobile phase\nin analytical or preparative protocols.\nActivated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral\nanticoagulants\n(DOACs) such as\ndabigatran\n,\napixaban\n,\nrivaroxaban\nand\nedoxaban\nfrom blood plasma samples.\n[\n14\n]\nFor this purpose it has been made into \"minitablets\", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants\n[\n15\n]\nthis allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs.\nActivated carbon is usually used in water filtration systems. In this illustration, the activated carbon is in the fourth level (counted from bottom).\nCarbon\nadsorption\nhas numerous applications in removing\npollutants\nfrom air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as:\nSpill cleanup\nGroundwater\nremediation\nDrinking water\nfiltration\n[\n16\n]\nWastewater treatment\n[\n17\n]\nAir purification\nVolatile organic compounds\ncapture from\npainting\n,\ndry cleaning\n,\ngasoline\ndispensing operations, and other processes\nVolatile organic compounds\nrecovery (SRU, Solvent Recovery Unit; SRP, Solvent Recovery Plant; SRS, Solvent Recovery System) from\nflexible packaging\n,\nconverting\n,\ncoating\n, and other processes.\n[\n18\n]\nDuring early implementation of the 1974\nSafe Drinking Water Act\nin the US,\nEPA\nofficials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. Because of its high cost, the so-called GAC rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in California. Hence, the agency set aside the rule.\n[\n19\n]\nActivated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. There are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved.\n[\n18\n]\nIn wastewater treatment, granulated activated carbon filters are implemented as an additional treatment step for removal of organic micropollutants such as pharmaceutical products,\n[\n17\n]\n[\n20\n]\nmany of which are not entirely removed in traditional wastewater treatment processes.\n[\n21\n]\nPollutants adsorb to the activated carbon granules and are then degraded by microorganisms on the filters.\n[\n22\n]\nActivated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air.\nBiomass waste-derived activated carbons were also successfully used for the removal of caffeine and paracetamol from water.\n[\n23\n]\nActivated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both\nlivestock production\nand wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant.\n[\n24\n]\nIn organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates.\n[\n25\n]\nIt is sometimes used as\nbiochar\n.\nDistilled alcoholic beverage purification\n[\nedit\n]\nActivated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter\nvodka\nand\nwhiskey\nof\norganic\nimpurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.\n[\n26\n]\nResearch is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store\nnatural gas\n[\n1\n]\n[\n2\n]\nand\nhydrogen gas\n.\n[\n1\n]\n[\n2\n]\nThe porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via\nVan der Waals forces\n. Some carbons have been able to achieve binding energies of 5–10 kJ per\nmol\n.\n[\n27\n]\nThe gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a\nhydrogen fuel cell\n. Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. The\nUnited States Department of Energy\nhas specified certain goals\n[\n28\n]\nto be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program,\n[\n1\n]\n[\n2\n]\nare continuing to conduct work in this field.\nFilters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove\noil\nvapors, odor, and other\nhydrocarbons\nfrom the air. The most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media.\nActivated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to nonradioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through.\nChemical purification\n[\nedit\n]\nActivated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities.\nFiltration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. The carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter.\n[\n29\n]\n[\n30\n]\nActivated carbon, often infused with sulfur\n[\n31\n]\nor iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from\ncoal-fired power stations\n, medical\nincinerators\n, and from\nnatural gas\nat the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use.\n[\n32\n]\nSince it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma.\n[\n33\n]\nIf the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling.\n[\ncitation needed\n]\nHowever, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule).\n[\ncitation needed\n]\nThis material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year.\n[\ncitation needed\n]\nThe problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered\n[\ncitation needed\n]\nand the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide (CO\n2\n).\nActivated, food-grade charcoal became a\nfood trend\nin 2016, being used as an\nadditive\nto impart a \"slightly smoky\" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases, and bagels.\n[\n34\n]\nPeople taking medication, including\nbirth control pills\nand\nantidepressants\n,\n[\n35\n]\nare advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring since it can render the medication ineffective.\n[\n36\n]\nActivated charcoal is used in smoking filters\n[\n37\n]\nas a way to reduce the tar content and other chemicals present in smoke, which is a result of combustion, wherein it has been found to reduce the toxicants from tobacco smoke, in particular the free radicals.\n[\n37\n]\nStructure of activated carbon\n[\nedit\n]\nThe structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. In a book published in 2006,\n[\n38\n]\nHarry Marsh\nand Francisco Rodríguez-Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration-corrected\ntransmission electron microscopy\nhas suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the\nfullerenes\n, with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings.\n[\n39\n]\n[\n40\n]\nActivated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow\npeat\n,\nwood\n,\ncoir\n,\nlignite\n,\ncoal\n, and\npetroleum pitch\n. It can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes:\nPhysical activation\n: The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gases, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes:\nCarbonization\n: Material with carbon content is\npyrolyzed\nat temperatures in the range 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as\nargon\nor\nnitrogen\nActivation\/oxidation\n: Raw material or\ncarbonized\nmaterial is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C. The activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a\nmuffle furnace\nat 450 °C in the presence of air.\n[\n32\n]\nChemical activation\n: The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an\nacid\n, strong\nbase\n,\n[\n1\n]\n[\n2\n]\nor a\nsalt\n[\n41\n]\n(\nphosphoric acid\n25%,\npotassium hydroxide\n5%,\nsodium hydroxide\n5%,\npotassium carbonate\n5%,\n[\n42\n]\ncalcium chloride\n25%, and\nzinc chloride\n25%). The carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.\n[\n43\n]\nThe Dutch company Norit\nNV\nis one of the largest producer of activated carbon in the world.\nHaycarb\n, a Sri Lankan coconut shell-based company, controls 16% of the global market share.\n[\n44\n]\nRegeneration & Sustainability\nAfter adsorption, spent granular activated carbon can often be regenerated rather than discarded. Thermal reactivation (heating in an inert or steam atmosphere at 800–900 °C) restores much of the pore structure but consumes significant energy, while chemical regeneration (e.g. with dilute acids or bases) can selectively remove fouling compounds under milder conditions. Emerging methods like microwave-assisted reactivation and bio-regeneration using fungi or bacteria show promise for lower-carbon footprints. Choosing the optimal regeneration route balances carbon lifespan, energy use and treatment costs, and helps minimize the volume of hazardous waste sent to landfill.\nActivated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications.\nPowdered activated carbon (PAC)\n[\nedit\n]\nA\nmicrograph\nof activated charcoal (R 1) under\nbright field\nillumination on a\nlight microscope\n. Notice the\nfractal\n-like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. Each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, can have a surface area of several square centimetres. The entire image covers a region of approximately 1.1 by 0.7 mm, and the full resolution version is at a scale of 6.236 pixels\/\nμm\n.\nNormally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm).\nPowdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated\nmesh sieve\n. The\nASTM\nclassifies particles passing through an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high\nhead loss\nthat would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.\nGranular activated carbon (GAC)\n[\nedit\n]\nA\nmicrograph\nof activated charcoal\n(GAC)\nunder a\nscanning electron microscope\nGranular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for\nadsorption\nof gases, vapors and liquids, because these substances diffuse rapidly throughout the filters. Granulated carbons are used for\nair filtration\nand\nwater treatment\n, as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous-phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and\nhead loss\ncharacteristics.\nExtruded activated carbon (EAC)\n[\nedit\n]\nExtruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm.  These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor).\nBead activated carbon (BAC)\n[\nedit\n]\nBead activated carbon (BAC) is manufactured from carbonizing petroleum pitch and then activating it into uniform spheres in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. BAC typically exhibits a surface area in the range of 800–1 200 m\n2\n\/g, comparable to or exceeding many granular carbons, enhancing its capacity for dissolved organics. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration.\nPorous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as\niodine\nand\nsilver\n.\nCations\nsuch as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in\nair pollution\ncontrol especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and\naluminium hydroxide\n(Al(OH)\n3\n), a\nflocculating agent\n. Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of\nhydrogen sulfide\n(H\n2\nS) and\nthiols\n. Adsorption rates for H\n2\nS as high as 50% by weight have been reported.\n[\ncitation needed\n]\nPolymer coated carbon\n[\nedit\n]\nWoven activated carbon cloth\nThis is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible\npolymer\nto give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The typical film thickness ranges from 50 to 200 nm, which strikes a balance between preserving pore access and ensuring mechanical stability in the material. The resulting carbon is useful for\nhemoperfusion\n. Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood. In clinical trials, polymer-coated carbons have achieved over 80% removal of toxins such as bilirubin and certain drug metabolites in a single pass.\nThere is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for\ncarbon filtering\n. Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal (\nBET theory\n) surface area: 500–1500 m\n2\n\/g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm\n3\n\/g)\n[\ncitation needed\n]\n. Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications (\nsupercapacitors\n, odor absorbers,\nCBRN-defense\nindustry etc.).\nA gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m\n2\n(5,400 sq ft), with 3,000 m\n2\n(32,000 sq ft) being readily achievable.\n[\n2\n]\n[\n4\n]\n[\n45\n]\nCarbon\naerogels\n, while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications.\nUnder an\nelectron microscope\n, the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of\nporosity\n; there may be many areas where flat surfaces of\ngraphite\n-like material run parallel to each other,\n[\n2\n]\nseparated by only a few nanometres or so. These\nmicropores\nprovide superb conditions for\nadsorption\nto occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with\nnitrogen\ngas at 77\nK\nunder high\nvacuum\n, but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from\nsteam\nat 100 °C (212 °F) and a pressure of 1\/10,000 of an\natmosphere\n.\nJames Dewar\n, the scientist after whom the Dewar (\nvacuum flask\n) is named, spent much time in the early 20th century studying activated carbon, and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to gases.\n[\n46\n]\nIn this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut-based carbon was superior for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low temperatures.\nPhysically, activated carbon binds materials by\nvan der Waals force\n[\n43\n]\nor\nLondon dispersion force\n.\nActivated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including\nalcohols\n,\ndiols\n, strong\nacids\nand\nbases\n,\nmetals\nand most\ninorganics\n, such as\nlithium\n,\nsodium\n,\niron\n,\nlead\n,\narsenic\n,\nfluorine\n, and boric acid.\nActivated carbon can also adsorb\niodine\nvery well. The iodine capacity, mg\/g, (\nASTM\nD28 Standard Method test) may be used as an indication of total adsorption over the surface area of the testing material.\nCarbon monoxide however, is not very well adsorbed by activated carbon. This should be of particular concern to those using the material in filters for respirators, fume hoods, or other gas control systems because the gas is undetectable to the human senses, toxic to the metabolism, and neurotoxic which creates concern.\nSubstantial lists of the common industrial and agricultural gases adsorbed by activated carbon can be found online.\n[\n47\n]\nActivated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as\nhydrogen sulfide\n(H\n2\nS), ammonia (NH\n3\n), formaldehyde (HCOH),\nmercury\n(Hg) and radioactive\niodine-131\n(\n131\nI). This property is known as\nchemisorption\n.\nMany carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules.\nIodine number\nis the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance.\nIt is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation\n[\n48\n]\n) often reported in mg\/g (typical range 500–1200 mg\/g).\nIt is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 \nÅ\n, or up to 2 \nnm\n) by adsorption of iodine from solution.\n[\n49\n]\nIt is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m\n2\n\/g.\nIt is the standard measure for liquid-phase applications.\nIodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine\nadsorbed\nby one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i.e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water-treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the\nadsorbate\nmay affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application.\nSome carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules.\nMolasses number\nor molasses efficiency is a measure of the\nmesopore\ncontent of the activated carbon (greater than 20\nÅ\n, or larger than 2\nnm\n) by adsorption of molasses from solution.\nA high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600).  Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number.  Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%).\nThe European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number.\nMolasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space.\nTannins\nare a mixture of large and medium size molecules.\nCarbons with a combination of\nmacropores\nand\nmesopores\nadsorb tannins.\nThe ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm).\nSome carbons have a mesopore (20\nÅ\nto 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye\nmethylene blue\n.\nMethylene blue adsorption is reported in g\/100g (range 11–28 g\/100g).\n[\n50\n]\nSome carbons are evaluated based on the\ndechlorination\nhalf-life length, which measures the chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon.  The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.\n[\n51\n]\nThe solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg\/m\n3\n(125–130 lbs.\/cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg\/m\n3\n(25–31 lbs.\/cubic foot).\n[\n52\n]\nHigher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better-quality activated carbon.\nASTM D 2854 -09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon.\nHardness\/abrasion number\n[\nedit\n]\nIt is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition.\nIt is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces which would cause the material to be defective. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity) it is created for.\nAsh\nreduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e.g., coconut, wood, coal, etc.).\nThe metal oxides (Fe\n2\nO\n3\n) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid\/water-soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant\/algal growth.\nASTM\n(D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon.\nCarbon tetrachloride activity\n[\nedit\n]\nMeasurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated\ncarbon tetrachloride\nvapour.\nParticle size distribution\n[\nedit\n]\nThe finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits.\nHowever, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of 3.35–1.4 millimetres (0.132–0.055 in). Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon). Researchers at Cornell University synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a BET area of 4800 m2 g–1 and a total pore volume of 2.7 cm3 g–1.\n[\n1\n]\nThis BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon to date.\nModification of properties and reactivity\n[\nedit\n]\nAcid-base, oxidation-reduction and specific adsorption characteristics are strongly dependent on the composition of the surface functional groups.\n[\n53\n]\nThe surface of conventional activated carbon is reactive, capable of oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and oxygen\nplasma\n[\n54\n]\n[\n55\n]\n[\n56\n]\n[\n57\n]\n[\n58\n]\n[\n59\n]\n[\n60\n]\n[\n61\n]\nsteam,\n[\n62\n]\n[\n63\n]\n[\n64\n]\nand also\ncarbon dioxide\n[\n58\n]\nand\nozone\n.\n[\n65\n]\n[\n66\n]\n[\n67\n]\nOxidation in the liquid phase is caused by a wide range of reagents (HNO\n3\n, H\n2\nO\n2\n, KMnO\n4\n).\n[\n68\n]\n[\n69\n]\n[\n70\n]\nThrough the formation of a large number of basic and acidic groups on the surface of oxidized carbon to sorption and other properties can differ significantly from the unmodified forms.\n[\n53\n]\nActivated carbon can be nitrogenated by natural products or\npolymers\n[\n71\n]\n[\n72\n]\nor processing of carbon with nitrogenating\nreagents\n.\n[\n73\n]\n[\n74\n]\n[\n75\n]\nActivated carbon can interact with\nchlorine\n,\n[\n76\n]\n[\n77\n]\nbromine\n[\n78\n]\nand\nfluorine\n.\n[\n79\n]\nSurface of activated carbon, like other carbon materials can be fluoralkylated by treatment with (per)fluoropolyether peroxide\n[\n80\n]\nin a liquid phase, or with wide range of fluoroorganic substances by CVD-method.\n[\n81\n]\nSuch materials combine high hydrophobicity and chemical stability with electrical and thermal conductivity and can be used as electrode material for super capacitors.\n[\n82\n]\nSulfonic acid functional groups can be attached to activated carbon to give \"starbons\" which can be used to selectively catalyse the esterification of fatty acids.\n[\n83\n]\nFormation of such activated carbons from halogenated precursors gives a more effective catalyst which is thought to be a result of remaining halogens improving stability.\n[\n84\n]\nIt is reported about synthesis of activated carbon with chemically grafted superacid sites –CF\n2\nSO\n3\nH.\n[\n85\n]\nSome of the chemical properties of activated carbon have been attributed to presence of the surface active carbon\ndouble bond\n.\n[\n67\n]\n[\n86\n]\nThe\nPolyani adsorption theory\nis a popular method for analyzing adsorption of various organic substances to their surface.\nExamples of adsorption\n[\nedit\n]\nHeterogeneous catalysis\n[\nedit\n]\nThe most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid\ncatalyst\ninteracts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant\/s.  The adsorption of reactant\/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.\nReactivation and regeneration\n[\nedit\n]\nWorld's largest reactivation plant located in\nFeluy\n, Belgium.\nActivated carbon reactivation center in\nRoeselare\n, Belgium.\nThe reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the\nadsorptive capacity\nof saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface.\nThermal reactivation\n[\nedit\n]\nThe most common regeneration technique employed in industrial processes is thermal reactivation.\n[\n87\n]\nThe thermal regeneration process generally follows three steps:\n[\n88\n]\nAdsorbent drying at approximately 105 °C (221 °F)\nHigh temperature desorption and decomposition (500–900 °C (932–1,652 °F)) under an inert atmosphere\nResidual organic gasification by a non-oxidising gas (steam or carbon dioxide) at elevated temperatures (800 °C (1,470 °F))\nThe heat treatment stage utilises the\nexothermic\nnature of adsorption and results in desorption, partial\ncracking\nand\npolymerization\nof the adsorbed organics. The final step aims to remove charred organic residue formed in the porous structure in the previous stage and re-expose the porous carbon structure regenerating its original surface characteristics. After treatment the adsorption column can be reused. Per adsorption-thermal regeneration cycle between 5–15 wt% of the carbon bed is burnt off resulting in a loss of adsorptive capacity.\n[\n89\n]\nThermal regeneration is a high energy process due to the high required temperatures making it both an energetically and commercially expensive process.\n[\n88\n]\nPlants that rely on thermal regeneration of activated carbon have to be of a certain size before it is economically viable to have regeneration facilities onsite. As a result, it is common for smaller waste treatment sites to ship their activated carbon cores to specialised facilities for regeneration.\n[\n90\n]\nOther regeneration techniques\n[\nedit\n]\nCurrent concerns with the high energy\/cost nature of thermal regeneration of activated carbon has encouraged research into alternative regeneration methods to reduce the environmental impact of such processes. Though several of the regeneration techniques cited have remained areas of purely academic research, some alternatives to thermal regeneration systems have been employed in industry. Current alternative regeneration methods are:\nTSA (thermal swing adsorption) and\/or PSA (\npressure swing adsorption\n) processes: through\nconvection (heat transfer)\nusing\nsteam\n,\n[\n91\n]\n\"hot\"\ninert gas\n(typically heated\nnitrogen\n(150–250 °C (302–482 °F))),\n[\n92\n]\nor\nvacuum\n(T+VSA or TVSA, combining TSA and VSA processes)\n[\n93\n]\nin situ\nregeneration\nMWR (\nmicrowave\nregeneration)\n[\n94\n]\nChemical and solvent regeneration\n[\n95\n]\nChemical and thermal regeneration\n[\n96\n]\nMicrobial regeneration\n[\n97\n]\nElectrochemical regeneration\n[\n98\n]\nUltrasonic regeneration\n[\n99\n]\nWet air oxidation\n[\n100\n]\nActivated charcoal cleanse\nBiochar\nBamboo charcoal\nBinchōtan\nBone char\nCarbon filtering\nCarbocatalysis\nConjugated microporous polymer\nHydrogen storage\nKværner process\nOnboard refueling vapor recovery\n^\na\nb\nc\nd\ne\nf\ng\nh\ni\nj\nChalmpes N, Ochonma P, Tantis I, Alsmaeil AW, Assafa TE, Tathacharya M, Srivastava M, Gadikota G, Bourlinos AB, Steriotis T, Giannelis EP (2024-12-10).\n\"Ultrahigh Surface Area Nanoporous Carbons Synthesized via Hypergolic and Activation Reactions for Enhanced CO\n2\nCapacity and Volumetric Energy Density\"\n.\nACS Nano\n.\n18\n(49):\n33491–\n33504.\nBibcode\n:\n2024ACSNa..1833491C\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1021\/acsnano.4c10531\n.\nISSN\n \n1936-0851\n.\nPMID\n \n39576877\n.\n^\na\nb\nc\nd\ne\nf\ng\nh\ni\nj\nSoo Y, Chada N, Beckner M, Romanos J, Burress J, Pfeifer P (2013-03-20).\n\"Adsorbed Methane Film Properties in Nanoporous Carbon Monoliths\"\n.\nBulletin of the American Physical Society\n.\n58\n(1). 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Retrieved\n2014-03-13\n.\n^\nMianowski A, Owczarek M, Marecka A (24 May 2007). \"Surface Area of Activated Carbon Determined by the Iodine Adsorption Number\".\nEnergy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects\n.\n29\n(9):\n839–\n850.\ndoi\n:\n10.1080\/00908310500430901\n.\nS2CID\n \n95043547\n.\n^\nSpencer W, Ibana D, Singh P, Nikoloski AN (January 2024).\n\"Effect of Surface Area, Particle Size and Acid Washing on the Quality of Activated Carbon Derived from Lower Rank Coal by KOH Activation\"\n.\nSustainability\n.\n16\n(14): 5876.\nBibcode\n:\n2024Sust...16.5876S\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.3390\/su16145876\n.\nISSN\n \n2071-1050\n.\n^\nDivens J.\n\"Adsorption of methylene blue onto activated carbon\"\n.\nwww.nepjol.info\n. Journal of the Institute of Engineering, 2016, 12(1)169-174 TUTA\/IOE\/PCU Printed in Nepal.\nArchived\nfrom the original on July 1, 2024\n. Retrieved\nMarch 10,\n2022\n.\n^\n\"Dechlorination of water through activated carbon technology | Desotec\"\n.\nwww.desotec.com\n.\nArchived\nfrom the original on 2024-07-01\n. Retrieved\n2022-02-11\n.\n^\nTIGG Corporation.\nGranular activated carbon selection\nArchived\n2012-09-12 at the\nWayback Machine\n. Published 2012-05-8, retrieved 2012-09-21.\n^\na\nb\nPhilippe Serp, José Luis Figueiredo, Carbon Materials for Catalysis, Wiley, – 2009, – 550 p.\n^\nGómez-Serrano V, Piriz-Almeida FN, Durán-Valle CJ, Pastor-Villegas J (1999). \"Formation of oxygen structures by air activation. A study by FT-IR spectroscopy\".\nCarbon\n.\n37\n(10):\n1517–\n1528.\nBibcode\n:\n1999Carbo..37.1517G\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/S0008-6223(99)00025-1\n.\n^\nMachnikowski J., Kaczmarska H., Gerus-Piasecka I., Diez M.A., Alvarez R., Garcia R. (2002). \"Structural modification of coal-tar pitch fractions during mild oxidation – relevance to carbonization behavior\".\nCarbon\n.\n40\n(11):\n1937–\n1947.\nBibcode\n:\n2002Carbo..40.1937M\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/s0008-6223(02)00029-5\n.\n^\nPetrov N., Budinova T., Razvigorova M., Ekinci E., Yardim F., Minkova V. (2000). \"Preparation and characterization of carbon adsorbents from furfural\".\nCarbon\n.\n38\n(15):\n2069–\n2075.\nBibcode\n:\n2000Carbo..38.2069P\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/s0008-6223(00)00063-4\n.\n^\nGarcia A.B., Martinez-Alonso A., Leon C. A., Tascon J.M.D. (1998). \"Modification of the surface properties of an activated carbon by oxygen plasma treatment\".\nFuel\n.\n77\n(1):\n613–\n624.\nBibcode\n:\n1998Fuel...77..613G\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/S0016-2361(97)00111-7\n.\n^\na\nb\nSaha B., Tai M.H., Streat M. (2001). \"Study of activated carbon after oxidation and subsequent treatment characterization\".\nProcess Safety and Environmental Protection\n.\n79\n(4):\n211–\n217.\nBibcode\n:\n2001PSEP...79..211S\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1205\/095758201750362253\n.\n^\nPolovina M., Babic B., Kaluderovic B., Dekanski A. (1997). \"Surface characterization of oxidized activated carbon cloth\".\nCarbon\n.\n35\n(8):\n1047–\n1052.\nBibcode\n:\n1997Carbo..35.1047P\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/s0008-6223(97)00057-2\n.\n^\nFanning P.E., Vannice M.A. (1993). \"A DRIFTS study of the formation of surface groups on carbon by oxidation\".\nCarbon\n.\n31\n(5):\n721–\n730.\nBibcode\n:\n1993Carbo..31..721F\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/0008-6223(93)90009-y\n.\n^\nYoussef A.M., Abdelbary E.M., Samra S.E., Dowidar A.M. (1991). \"Surface-properties of carbons obtained from polyvinyl-chloride\".\nInd. J. Chem. A\n.\n30\n(10):\n839–\n843.\n^\nArriagada R., Garcia R., Molina-Sabio M., Rodriguez-Reinoso F. (1997). \"Effect of steam activation on the porosity and chemical nature of activated carbons from Eucalyptus globulus and peach stones\".\nMicroporous Mat\n.\n8\n(\n3–\n4):\n123–\n130.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/s0927-6513(96)00078-8\n.\n^\nMolina-Sabio M., Gonzalez M.T., Rodriguez-Reinoso F., Sepulveda-Escribano A. (1996). \"Effect of steam and carbon dioxide activation in the micropore size distribution of activated carbon\".\nCarbon\n.\n34\n(4):\n505–\n509.\nBibcode\n:\n1996Carbo..34..505M\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/0008-6223(96)00006-1\n.\n^\nBradley RH, Sutherland I, Sheng E (1996). \"Carbon surface: Area, porosity, chemistry, and energy\".\nJournal of Colloid and Interface Science\n.\n179\n(2):\n561–\n569.\nBibcode\n:\n1996JCIS..179..561B\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1006\/jcis.1996.0250\n.\n^\nSutherland I., Sheng E., Braley R.H., Freakley P.K. (1996). \"Effects of ozone oxidation on carbon black surfaces\".\nJ. Mater. Sci\n.\n31\n(21):\n5651–\n5655.\nBibcode\n:\n1996JMatS..31.5651S\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1007\/bf01160810\n.\nS2CID\n \n97055178\n.\n^\nRivera-Utrilla J, Sanchez-Polo M (2002). \"The role of dispersive and electrostatic interactions in the aqueous phase adsorption of naphthalenesulphonic acids on ozone-treated activated carbons\".\nCarbon\n.\n40\n(14):\n2685–\n2691.\nBibcode\n:\n2002Carbo..40.2685R\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/s0008-6223(02)00182-3\n.\n^\na\nb\nValdés H, Sánchez-Polo M, Rivera-Utrilla J, Zaror CA (2002).\n\"Effect of Ozone Treatment on Surface Properties of Activated Carbon\"\n.\nLangmuir\n.\n18\n(6):\n2111–\n2116.\ndoi\n:\n10.1021\/la010920a\n.\nhdl\n:\n10533\/173367\n.\n^\nPradhan B.K., Sandle N.K. (1999). \"Effect of different oxidizing agent treatments on the surface properties of activated carbons\".\nCarbon\n.\n37\n(8):\n1323–\n1332.\nBibcode\n:\n1999Carbo..37.1323P\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/s0008-6223(98)00328-5\n.\n^\nAcedo-Ramos M., Gomez-Serrano V., Valenzuella-Calahorro C., Lopez-Peinado A.J. (1993). \"Oxydation of activated carbon in liquid phase. Study by FT-IR\".\nSpectroscopy Letters\n.\n26\n(6):\n1117–\n1137.\nBibcode\n:\n1993SpecL..26.1117A\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1080\/00387019308011598\n.\n^\nGomez-Serrano V., Acedo-Ramos M., Lopez-Peinado A.J., Valenzuela-Calahorro C. (1991). \"Stability towards heating and outgassing of activated carbon oxidized in the liquid-phase\".\nThermochimica Acta\n.\n176\n:\n129–\n140.\nBibcode\n:\n1991TcAc..176..129G\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/0040-6031(91)80268-n\n.\n^\nStőhr B., Boehm H.P., Schlőgl R. (1991). \"Enhancement of the catalytic activity of activated carbons in oxidation reactions by termal treatment with ammonia or hydrogen cyanide and observation of a superoxide species as a possible intermediate\".\nCarbon\n.\n29\n(6):\n707–\n720.\nBibcode\n:\n1991Carbo..29..707S\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/0008-6223(91)90006-5\n.\n^\nBiniak S., Szymański G., Siedlewski J., Światkowski A. (1997). \"The characterizaíion of activated carbons with oxygen and nitrogen surface groups\".\nCarbon\n.\n35\n(12):\n1799–\n1810.\nBibcode\n:\n1997Carbo..35.1799B\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/s0008-6223(97)00096-1\n.\n^\nBoudou J.P., Chehimi M., Broniek E., Siemieniewska T., Bimer J. (2003).\n\"Adsorption of H2S or SO2 on an activated carbon cloth modified by ammonia treatment\"\n(PDF)\n.\nCarbon\n.\n41\n(10):\n1999–\n2007.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/s0008-6223(03)00210-0\n.\nS2CID\n \n53137987\n.\nArchived\n(PDF)\nfrom the original on 2019-04-28\n. Retrieved\n2019-07-06\n.\n^\nSano H., Ogawa H. (1975). \"Preparation and application nitrogen containing active carbons\".\nOsaka Kogyo Gijutsu Shirenjo\n.\n26\n(5):\n2084–\n2086.\n^\nRadkevich VZ, Senko TL, Wilson K, Grishenko LM, Zaderko AN, Diyuk VY (2008). \"The influence of surface functionalization of activated carbon on palladium dispersion and catalytic activity in hydrogen oxidation\".\nApplied Catalysis A: General\n.\n335\n(2):\n241–\n251.\nBibcode\n:\n2008AppCA.335..241R\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/j.apcata.2007.11.029\n.\n^\nEvans MJ, Halliop E, Liang S, MacDonald JA (1998). \"The effect of chlorination on surface properties of activated carbon\".\nCarbon\n.\n36\n(11):\n1677–\n1682.\nBibcode\n:\n1998Carbo..36.1677E\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/S0008-6223(98)00165-1\n.\n^\nPapirer EN, Lacroix R, Donnet JB, Nansé GR, Fioux P (1995). \"XPS study of the halogenation of carbon black—Part 2. Chlorination\".\nCarbon\n.\n33\n(1):\n63–\n72.\nBibcode\n:\n1995Carbo..33...63P\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/0008-6223(94)00111-C\n.\n^\nPapirer E, Lacroix R, Donnet JB, Nanse G, Fioux P (1994). \"XPS Study of the halogenation of carbon black-part 1. Bromination\".\nCarbon\n.\n32\n(7):\n1341–\n1358.\nBibcode\n:\n1994Carbo..32.1341P\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/0008-6223(94)90121-X\n.\n^\nNansé G, Papirer E, Fioux P, Moguet F, Tressaud A (1997). \"Fluorination of carbon blacks: An X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study: III. Fluorination of different carbon blacks with gaseous fluorine at temperatures below 100 °C influence of the morphology, structure and physico-chemical characteristics of the carbon black on the fluorine fixation\".\nCarbon\n.\n35\n(4):\n515–\n528.\nBibcode\n:\n1997Carbo..35..515N\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/S0008-6223(97)00003-1\n.\n^\nUS 8648217\n, \"Modification of carbonaceous materials\", issued 2008-08-04\n^\nUS 10000382\n, \"Method for carbon materials surface modification by the fluorocarbons and derivatives\", issued 2015-11-03\n^\nZaderko AN, Shvets RY, Grygorchak II, Afonin S, Diyuk VE, Mariychuk RT, Boldyrieva OY, Kaňuchová M, Lisnyak VV (2018-11-20). \"Fluoroalkylated Nanoporous Carbons: Testing as a Supercapacitor Electrode\".\nApplied Surface Science\n.\n470\n:\n882–\n892.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/j.apsusc.2018.11.141\n.\nISSN\n \n0169-4332\n.\nS2CID\n \n105746451\n.\n^\nAldana-Pérez A, Lartundo-Rojas L, Gómez R, Niño-Gómez ME (2012). \"Sulfonic groups anchored on mesoporous carbon Starbons-300 and its use for the esterification of oleic acid\".\nFuel\n.\n100\n:\n128–\n138.\nBibcode\n:\n2012Fuel..100..128A\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/j.fuel.2012.02.025\n.\n^\nDiyuk VE, Zaderko AN, Grishchenko LM, Yatsymyrskiy AV, Lisnyak VV (2012).\n\"Efficient carbon-based acid catalysts for the propan-2-ol dehydration\"\n.\nCatalysis Communications\n.\n27\n:\n33–\n37.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/j.catcom.2012.06.018\n.\n^\n\"WO18194533 Method for Chemical Modification of Fluorinated Carbons With Sulfur-Containing Substance\"\n.\npatentscope.wipo.int\n.\nArchived\nfrom the original on 2018-11-24\n. Retrieved\n2018-11-24\n.\n^\nBudarin VL, Clark JH, Tavener SJ, Wilson K (2004). \"Chemical reactions of double bonds in activated carbon: Microwave and bromination methods\".\nChemical Communications\n(23):\n2736–\n7.\ndoi\n:\n10.1039\/B411222A\n.\nPMID\n \n15568092\n.\n^\nBagreev A, Rhaman, H., Bandosz, T. J (2001). \"Thermal regeneration of a spent activated carbon adsorbent previously used as hydrogen sulfide adsorbent\".\nCarbon\n.\n39\n(9):\n1319–\n1326.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/S0008-6223(00)00266-9\n.\n^\na\nb\nSabio E, Gonzalez, E., Gonzalez, J. F., Gonzalez-Garcia, C. M., Ramiro, A., Ganan, J (2004). \"Thermal regeneration of activated carbon saturated with p-nitrophenol\".\nCarbon\n.\n42\n(11):\n2285–\n2293.\nBibcode\n:\n2004Carbo..42.2285S\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/j.carbon.2004.05.007\n.\n^\nMiguel GS, Lambert SD, Graham NJ (2001). \"The regeneration of field spent granular activated carbons\".\nWater Research\n.\n35\n(11):\n2740–\n2748.\nBibcode\n:\n2001WatRe..35.2740S\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/S0043-1354(00)00549-2\n.\nPMID\n \n11456174\n.\n^\nAlvarez PM, Beltrán FJ, Gómez-Serrano V, Jaramillo J, Rodríguez EM (2004). \"Comparison between thermal and ozone regenerations of spent activated carbon exhausted with phenol\".\nWater Research\n.\n38\n(8):\n2155–\n2165.\nBibcode\n:\n2004WatRe..38.2155A\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/j.watres.2004.01.030\n.\nPMID\n \n15087197\n.\n^\n\"activated carbon | steam | regeneration\"\n.\nDEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A\n.\nArchived\nfrom the original on 2025-02-15\n. Retrieved\n2025-02-23\n.\n^\n\"activated carbon | inert gas | nitrogen | regeneration\"\n.\nDEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A\n.\nArchived\nfrom the original on 2025-02-15\n. Retrieved\n2025-02-23\n.\n^\n\"activated carbon | vacuum | regeneration\"\n.\nDEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A\n.\nArchived\nfrom the original on 2025-02-23\n. Retrieved\n2025-02-23\n.\n^\nCherbański R (2018). \"Regeneration of granular activated carbon loaded with toluene – Comparison of microwave and conductive heating at the same active powers\".\nChemical Engineering and Processing - Process Intensification\n.\n123\n(January 2018):\n148–\n157.\nBibcode\n:\n2018CEPPI.123..148C\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/j.cep.2017.11.008\n.\n^\nMartin RJ, Wj, N (1997). \"The repeated exhaustion and chemical regeneration of activated carbon\".\nWater Research\n.\n21\n(8):\n961–\n965.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/S0043-1354(87)80014-3\n.\n^\nDidenko T, Lau A, Purohit AL, Feng J, Pinkard B, Ateia M, Novosselov IV.\n\"Regeneration of PFAS-laden Granular Activated Carbon in Modified Supercritical CO2 Extraction\"\n.\nChemRxiv\n.\n2024\n(0719).\ndoi\n:\n10.26434\/chemrxiv-2024-b1rvv-v2\n.\n^\nAizpuru A, Malhautier L, Roux JC, Fanlo JL (2003). \"Biofiltration of a mixture of volatile organic compounds on granular activated carbon\".\nBiotechnology and Bioengineering\n.\n83\n(4):\n479–\n488.\nBibcode\n:\n2003BiotB..83..479A\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1002\/bit.10691\n.\nPMID\n \n12800142\n.\nS2CID\n \n9980413\n.\n^\nNarbaitz RM, Karimi-Jashni A (2009).\n\"Electrochemical regeneration of granular activated carbons loaded with phenol and natural organic matter\"\n.\nEnvironmental Technology\n.\n30\n(1):\n27–\n36.\nBibcode\n:\n2009EnvTe..30...27N\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1080\/09593330802422803\n.\nPMID\n \n19213463\n.\n^\nLim JL, Okada M (2005). \"Regeneration of granular activated carbon using ultrasound\".\nUltrasonic-Sono-Chemistry\n.\n12\n(4):\n277–\n285.\nBibcode\n:\n2005UltS...12..277L\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2004.02.003\n.\nPMID\n \n15501710\n.\n^\nShende RV, Mahajani VV (2002). \"Wet oxidative regeneration of activated carbon loaded with reactive dye\".\nWaste Management\n.\n22\n(1):\n73–\n83.\nBibcode\n:\n2002WaMan..22...73S\n.\ndoi\n:\n10.1016\/S0956-053X(01)00022-8\n.\nPMID\n \n11942707\n.\n\"Imaging the atomic structure of activated carbon\"\n–\nJournal of Physics: Condensed Matter\n\"How Does Activated Carbon Work?\"\nat\nSlate\n\"Worshiping the False Idols of Wellness\"\non activated charcoal as a useless wellness practice at the\nNew York Times","attrs_markdown":"[Jump to content](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#bodyContent)\n\nMain menu\n\nMain menu\n\nmove to sidebar\n\nhide\n\nNavigation\n\n- [Main page](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Main_Page \"Visit the main page [z]\")\n- [Contents](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Contents \"Guides to browsing Wikipedia\")\n- [Current events](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Current_events \"Articles related to current events\")\n- [Random article](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:Random \"Visit a randomly selected article [x]\")\n- [About Wikipedia](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:About \"Learn about Wikipedia and how it works\")\n- [Contact us](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Contact_us \"How to contact Wikipedia\")\n\nContribute\n\n- [Help](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:Contents \"Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia\")\n- [Learn to edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:Introduction \"Learn how to edit Wikipedia\")\n- [Community portal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Community_portal \"The hub for editors\")\n- [Recent changes](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:RecentChanges \"A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]\")\n- [Upload file](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard \"Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia\")\n- [Special pages](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:SpecialPages \"A list of all special pages [q]\")\n\n[![](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/static\/images\/icons\/enwiki-25.svg) ![Wikipedia](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/static\/images\/mobile\/copyright\/wikipedia-wordmark-en-25.svg) ![The Free Encyclopedia](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/static\/images\/mobile\/copyright\/wikipedia-tagline-en-25.svg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Main_Page)\n\n[Search](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:Search \"Search Wikipedia [f]\")\n\nAppearance\n\n- [Donate](https:\/\/donate.wikimedia.org\/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en)\n- [Create account](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Activated+carbon \"You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory\")\n- [Log in](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Activated+carbon \"You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]\")\n\nPersonal tools\n\n- [Donate](https:\/\/donate.wikimedia.org\/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en)\n- [Create account](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Activated+carbon \"You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory\")\n- [Log in](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Activated+carbon \"You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]\")\n\n## Contents\nmove to sidebar\n\nhide\n\n- [(Top)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon)\n- [1 Uses](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Uses)\n  Toggle Uses subsection\n  - [1\\.1 Industrial](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Industrial)\n  - [1\\.2 Medical](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Medical)\n  - [1\\.3 Analytical chemistry](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Analytical_chemistry)\n  - [1\\.4 Environmental](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Environmental)\n  - [1\\.5 Agricultural](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Agricultural)\n  - [1\\.6 Distilled alcoholic beverage purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Distilled_alcoholic_beverage_purification)\n  - [1\\.7 Fuel storage](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Fuel_storage)\n  - [1\\.8 Gas purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Gas_purification)\n  - [1\\.9 Chemical purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Chemical_purification)\n  - [1\\.10 Mercury scrubbing](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Mercury_scrubbing)\n  - [1\\.11 Food additive](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Food_additive)\n  - [1\\.12 Smoking filtration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Smoking_filtration)\n- [2 Structure of activated carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Structure_of_activated_carbon)\n- [3 Production](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Production)\n- [4 Classification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Classification)\n  Toggle Classification subsection\n  - [4\\.1 Powdered activated carbon (PAC)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Powdered_activated_carbon_\\(PAC\\))\n  - [4\\.2 Granular activated carbon (GAC)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Granular_activated_carbon_\\(GAC\\))\n  - [4\\.3 Extruded activated carbon (EAC)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Extruded_activated_carbon_\\(EAC\\))\n  - [4\\.4 Bead activated carbon (BAC)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Bead_activated_carbon_\\(BAC\\))\n  - [4\\.5 Impregnated carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Impregnated_carbon)\n  - [4\\.6 Polymer coated carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Polymer_coated_carbon)\n  - [4\\.7 Woven carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Woven_carbon)\n- [5 Properties](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Properties)\n  Toggle Properties subsection\n  - [5\\.1 Iodine number](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Iodine_number)\n  - [5\\.2 Molasses](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Molasses)\n  - [5\\.3 Tannin](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Tannin)\n  - [5\\.4 Methylene blue](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Methylene_blue)\n  - [5\\.5 Dechlorination](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Dechlorination)\n  - [5\\.6 Apparent density](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Apparent_density)\n  - [5\\.7 Hardness\/abrasion number](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Hardness\/abrasion_number)\n  - [5\\.8 Ash content](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Ash_content)\n  - [5\\.9 Carbon tetrachloride activity](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Carbon_tetrachloride_activity)\n  - [5\\.10 Particle size distribution](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Particle_size_distribution)\n- [6 Modification of properties and reactivity](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Modification_of_properties_and_reactivity)\n- [7 Examples of adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Examples_of_adsorption)\n  Toggle Examples of adsorption subsection\n  - [7\\.1 Heterogeneous catalysis](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Heterogeneous_catalysis)\n- [8 Reactivation and regeneration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Reactivation_and_regeneration)\n  Toggle Reactivation and regeneration subsection\n  - [8\\.1 Thermal reactivation](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Thermal_reactivation)\n  - [8\\.2 Other regeneration techniques](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#Other_regeneration_techniques)\n- [9 See also](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#See_also)\n- [10 References](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#References)\n- [11 External links](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#External_links)\n\nToggle the table of contents\n\n# Activated carbon\n49 languages\n\n- [العربية](https:\/\/ar.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B7 \"كربون نشط – Arabic\")\n- [Беларуская (тарашкевіца)](https:\/\/be-tarask.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C \"Актываваны вугаль – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)\")\n- [Беларуская](https:\/\/be.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C \"Актывіраваны вугаль – Belarusian\")\n- [Български](https:\/\/bg.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD \"Активен въглен – Bulgarian\")\n- [Bosanski](https:\/\/bs.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktivni_ugalj \"Aktivni ugalj – Bosnian\")\n- [Català](https:\/\/ca.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carb%C3%B3_actiu \"Carbó actiu – Catalan\")\n- [Čeština](https:\/\/cs.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktivn%C3%AD_uhl%C3%AD \"Aktivní uhlí – Czech\")\n- [Чӑвашла](https:\/\/cv.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%C4%95_%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BC%D1%80%C4%83%D0%BA \"Активациленĕ кăмрăк – Chuvash\")\n- [Deutsch](https:\/\/de.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktivkohle \"Aktivkohle – German\")\n- [Ελληνικά](https:\/\/el.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%CE%95%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%82 \"Ενεργός άνθρακας – Greek\")\n- [Español](https:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carb%C3%B3n_activado \"Carbón activado – Spanish\")\n- [Eesti](https:\/\/et.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktiivs%C3%BCsi \"Aktiivsüsi – Estonian\")\n- [Euskara](https:\/\/eu.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ikatz_aktibatu \"Ikatz aktibatu – Basque\")\n- [فارسی](https:\/\/fa.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84 \"کربن فعال – Persian\")\n- [Suomi](https:\/\/fi.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktiivihiili \"Aktiivihiili – Finnish\")\n- [Français](https:\/\/fr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charbon_actif \"Charbon actif – French\")\n- [Gaeilge](https:\/\/ga.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gualach_gn%C3%ADomhachtaithe \"Gualach gníomhachtaithe – Irish\")\n- [ગુજરાતી](https:\/\/gu.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF_%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AC%E0%AA%A8 \"સક્રિય કાર્બન – Gujarati\")\n- [עברית](https:\/\/he.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D7%A4%D7%97%D7%9D_%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9C \"פחם פעיל – Hebrew\")\n- [हिन्दी](https:\/\/hi.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8 \"सक्रियित कार्बन – Hindi\")\n- [Hrvatski](https:\/\/hr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktivni_ugljen \"Aktivni ugljen – Croatian\")\n- [Magyar](https:\/\/hu.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Akt%C3%ADv_sz%C3%A9n \"Aktív szén – Hungarian\")\n- [Հայերեն](https:\/\/hy.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D4%B1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%81%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE_%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AD \"Ակտիվացրած ածուխ – Armenian\")\n- [Bahasa Indonesia](https:\/\/id.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karbon_aktif \"Karbon aktif – Indonesian\")\n- [Italiano](https:\/\/it.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbone_attivo \"Carbone attivo – Italian\")\n- [日本語](https:\/\/ja.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E6%B4%BB%E6%80%A7%E7%82%AD \"活性炭 – Japanese\")\n- [Қазақша](https:\/\/kk.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80 \"Белсендірілген көмір – Kazakh\")\n- [ಕನ್ನಡ](https:\/\/kn.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2 \"ಸಕ್ರಿಯ ಇಂಗಾಲ – Kannada\")\n- [한국어](https:\/\/ko.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%ED%99%9C%EC%84%B1%ED%83%84 \"활성탄 – Korean\")\n- [Latviešu](https:\/\/lv.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Akt%C4%ABv%C4%81_ogle \"Aktīvā ogle – Latvian\")\n- [Македонски](https:\/\/mk.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD \"Активен јаглен – Macedonian\")\n- [Bahasa Melayu](https:\/\/ms.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karbon_aktif \"Karbon aktif – Malay\")\n- [Nederlands](https:\/\/nl.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actieve_kool \"Actieve kool – Dutch\")\n- [Norsk bokmål](https:\/\/no.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktivt_kull \"Aktivt kull – Norwegian Bokmål\")\n- [Polski](https:\/\/pl.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W%C4%99giel_aktywny \"Węgiel aktywny – Polish\")\n- [Português](https:\/\/pt.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carv%C3%A3o_ativado \"Carvão ativado – Portuguese\")\n- [Română](https:\/\/ro.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C%C4%83rbune_activ \"Cărbune activ – Romanian\")\n- [Русский](https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C \"Активированный уголь – Russian\")\n- [Srpskohrvatski \/ српскохрватски](https:\/\/sh.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktivni_ugalj \"Aktivni ugalj – Serbo-Croatian\")\n- [Slovenčina](https:\/\/sk.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Akt%C3%ADvne_uhlie \"Aktívne uhlie – Slovak\")\n- [Slovenščina](https:\/\/sl.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktivno_oglje \"Aktivno oglje – Slovenian\")\n- [Српски \/ srpski](https:\/\/sr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%99 \"Активни угаљ – Serbian\")\n- [Svenska](https:\/\/sv.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktivt_kol \"Aktivt kol – Swedish\")\n- [ไทย](https:\/\/th.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%B8%96%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C \"ถ่านกัมมันต์ – Thai\")\n- [Türkçe](https:\/\/tr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aktif_karbon \"Aktif karbon – Turkish\")\n- [Українська](https:\/\/uk.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8F \"Активоване вугілля – Ukrainian\")\n- [Tiếng Việt](https:\/\/vi.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Than_ho%E1%BA%A1t_t%C3%ADnh \"Than hoạt tính – Vietnamese\")\n- [閩南語 \/ Bân-lâm-gí](https:\/\/zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oa%CC%8Dh-s%C3%A8ng-th%C3%B2a%E2%81%BF \"Oa̍h-sèng-thòaⁿ – Minnan\")\n- [中文](https:\/\/zh.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E6%B4%BB%E6%80%A7%E7%82%AD \"活性炭 – Chinese\")\n\n[Edit links](https:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/wiki\/Special:EntityPage\/Q190878#sitelinks-wikipedia \"Edit interlanguage links\")\n\n- [Article](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon \"View the content page [c]\")\n- [Talk](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Talk:Activated_carbon \"Discuss improvements to the content page [t]\")\n\nEnglish\n\n- [Read](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon)\n- [Edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit \"Edit this page [e]\")\n- [View history](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=history \"Past revisions of this page [h]\")\n\nTools\n\nTools\n\nmove to sidebar\n\nhide\n\nActions\n\n- [Read](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon)\n- [Edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit \"Edit this page [e]\")\n- [View history](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=history)\n\nGeneral\n\n- [What links here](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:WhatLinksHere\/Activated_carbon \"List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]\")\n- [Related changes](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:RecentChangesLinked\/Activated_carbon \"Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]\")\n- [Upload file](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard \"Upload files [u]\")\n- [Permanent link](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&oldid=1344905469 \"Permanent link to this revision of this page\")\n- [Page information](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=info \"More information about this page\")\n- [Cite this page](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Activated_carbon&id=1344905469&wpFormIdentifier=titleform \"Information on how to cite this page\")\n- [Get shortened URL](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FActivated_carbon)\n\nPrint\/export\n\n- [Download as PDF](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Activated_carbon&action=show-download-screen \"Download this page as a PDF file\")\n- [Printable version](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&printable=yes \"Printable version of this page [p]\")\n\nIn other projects\n\n- [Wikimedia Commons](https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Activated_carbon)\n- [Wikidata item](https:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/wiki\/Special:EntityPage\/Q190878 \"Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]\")\n\nAppearance\n\nmove to sidebar\n\nhide\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\n\nForm of carbon with an extremely high surface area\n\n\"Charcoal filter\" redirects here. For the Japanese rock band, see [Charcoal Filter](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charcoal_Filter \"Charcoal Filter\").\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2d\/Activated_Carbon.jpg\/500px-Activated_Carbon.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Activated_Carbon.jpg)\n\nActivated carbon\n\n**Activated carbon**, also called **activated charcoal**, is a form of [carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon \"Carbon\") commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (**activated**) to have small, low-volume pores that greatly increase the [surface area](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_area \"Surface area\")[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) available for *[adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\")*  or [chemical reactions](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_reaction \"Chemical reaction\").[\\[3\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:0-3) (Adsorption, not to be confused with [absorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Absorption_\\(chemistry\\) \"Absorption (chemistry)\"), is a process where atoms or molecules adhere to a surface). The pores can be thought of as a microscopic \"sponge\" structure. Activation is analogous to making [popcorn](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Popcorn \"Popcorn\") from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high [surface-area-to-volume ratio](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio \"Surface-area-to-volume ratio\"). *Activated* is sometimes replaced by *active*.\n\nBecause it is so porous on a microscopic scale, activated carbon has a surface area of over 3,000 square metres per gram (920,000 square feet per ounce),[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2)[\\[4\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Dillon-4) as determined by gas absorption and its porosity can run 10ML\/day in terms of treated water per gram. Researchers at [Cornell University](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\") synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a [BET](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BET_theory \"BET theory\") area of 4,800 m2\/g (1,500,000 sq ft\/oz).[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1) This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon. For charcoal, the equivalent figure before activation is about 2–5 square metres per gram (610–1,530 sq ft\/oz).[\\[5\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-5)[\\[6\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-6) A useful activation level may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties.\n\nActivated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks in addition to other agricultural wastes like olive stones, rice husks and nutshells which are being upcycled into activated carbon, diversifying feedstock supply. Waste from paper mills has been studied as a possible source of activated carbon.[\\[7\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-7) These bulk sources are converted into [charcoal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charcoal \"Charcoal\") before being activated. Using waste streams not only reduces landfill burden but also works to lower the overall carbon footprint as previously discarded waste is repurposed. When derived from [coal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coal \"Coal\"),[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) it is referred to as **activated coal**. **Activated coke** is derived from [coke](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coke_\\(fuel\\) \"Coke (fuel)\"). In activated-coke production, the raw coke (most commonly petroleum coke) is ground or pelletized, then \"activated\" via physical (steam or CO2 at high temperature) or chemical (e.g., KOH or H3PO4) methods to introduce a porous network, yielding a high-surface-area adsorbent which is referred to as activated coal.\n\n## Uses\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=1 \"Edit section: Uses\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon is used in [methane](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methane \"Methane\") and [hydrogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") storage,[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) [air purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_purifier \"Air purifier\"),[\\[8\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-8) capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, [decaffeination](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decaffeination \"Decaffeination\"), [gold purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_in_pulp \"Carbon in pulp\"), [metal extraction](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extractive_metallurgy \"Extractive metallurgy\"), [water purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_purification \"Water purification\"), [medicine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medicine \"Medicine\"), [sewage treatment](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage_treatment \"Sewage treatment\"), [air filters](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_filter \"Air filter\") in [respirators](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Respirator \"Respirator\"), filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of [hydrogen chloride](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_chloride \"Hydrogen chloride\"), edible electronics,[\\[9\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-9) and many other applications. These multiuse applications make it a versatile form of carbon that is used daily in many industries.\n\n### Industrial\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=2 \"Edit section: Industrial\")\\]\n\nThere are many industrial applications of activated carbon and its other forms such as areas like metal extraction, water purification, sewage treatment, metal finishing and more. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions used for metal finishing plants. Expanding on electroplating, a variety of organic chemicals can be added to the plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. This is due to the passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up in the solutions can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal if run untreated by the filters. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level. Its installation costs may vary according to the volume of water it must process, however the average cost can be around USD 1 - 2 million. Additionally, these filters need replacing over time (typically 6–12 months depending on usage). The cost of replacing the carbon in the GAC filter form is about USD 0.05 - 0.1 per cubic meter of water that is treated in the plant.\n\n### Medical\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=3 \"Edit section: Medical\")\\]\n\nMain article: [Activated charcoal (medication)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_charcoal_\\(medication\\) \"Activated charcoal (medication)\")\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/31\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg\/250px-%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg)\n\nActivated charcoal for medical use\n\nActivated carbon is used to treat [poisonings](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poison \"Poison\") and [overdoses](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overdose \"Overdose\") following oral [ingestion](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ingestion \"Ingestion\"). Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat [diarrhea](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diarrhea \"Diarrhea\"), [indigestion](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indigestion \"Indigestion\"), and [flatulence](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flatulence \"Flatulence\"). However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, is ordinarily medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of [strong acids](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strong_acids \"Strong acids\") or [bases](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Base_\\(chemistry\\) \"Base (chemistry)\"), [cyanide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyanide \"Cyanide\"), [iron](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iron \"Iron\"), [lithium](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lithium \"Lithium\"), [arsenic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arsenic \"Arsenic\"), [methanol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methanol \"Methanol\"), [ethanol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethanol \"Ethanol\"), or [ethylene glycol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethylene_glycol \"Ethylene glycol\").[\\[10\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-AHFS-10) Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body.[\\[11\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-mayo200787-11) It is on the [World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines \"WHO Model List of Essential Medicines\").[\\[12\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-WHO23rd-12)\n\nIncorrect application (e.g. into the [lungs](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lungs \"Lungs\")) results in [pulmonary aspiration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pulmonary_aspiration \"Pulmonary aspiration\"), which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.[\\[13\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chest1989-Elliott-13)\n\n### Analytical chemistry\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=4 \"Edit section: Analytical chemistry\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon, in 50% [w\/w](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W\/w \"W\/w\") combination with [celite](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diatomaceous_earth \"Diatomaceous earth\"), is used as stationary phase in low-pressure [chromatographic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromatographic \"Chromatographic\") separation of [carbohydrates](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbohydrates \"Carbohydrates\") (mono-, di-, tri-[saccharides](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saccharides \"Saccharides\")) using [ethanol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethanol \"Ethanol\") solutions (5–50%) as [mobile phase](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromatography \"Chromatography\") in analytical or preparative protocols.\n\nActivated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral [anticoagulants](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anticoagulant \"Anticoagulant\") (DOACs) such as [dabigatran](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dabigatran \"Dabigatran\"), [apixaban](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apixaban \"Apixaban\"), [rivaroxaban](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rivaroxaban \"Rivaroxaban\") and [edoxaban](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edoxaban \"Edoxaban\") from blood plasma samples.[\\[14\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-14) For this purpose it has been made into \"minitablets\", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants[\\[15\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-15) this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs.\n\n### Environmental\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=5 \"Edit section: Environmental\")\\]\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/db\/Water_Filtration_Systems.png\/250px-Water_Filtration_Systems.png)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Water_Filtration_Systems.png)\n\nActivated carbon is usually used in water filtration systems. In this illustration, the activated carbon is in the fourth level (counted from bottom).\n\nCarbon [adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") has numerous applications in removing [pollutants](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollutant \"Pollutant\") from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as:\n\n- Spill cleanup\n- [Groundwater](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groundwater \"Groundwater\") [remediation](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_remediation \"Environmental remediation\")\n- [Drinking water](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drinking_water \"Drinking water\") [filtration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filtration \"Filtration\")[\\[16\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-16)\n- [Wastewater treatment](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wastewater_treatment \"Wastewater treatment\")[\\[17\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:1-17)\n- [Air purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_purifier \"Air purifier\")\n- [Volatile organic compounds](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volatile_organic_compound \"Volatile organic compound\") capture from [painting](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Painting \"Painting\"), [dry cleaning](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dry_cleaning \"Dry cleaning\"), [gasoline](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gasoline \"Gasoline\") dispensing operations, and other processes\n- [Volatile organic compounds](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volatile_organic_compound \"Volatile organic compound\") recovery (SRU, Solvent Recovery Unit; SRP, Solvent Recovery Plant; SRS, Solvent Recovery System) from [flexible packaging](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flexible_packaging \"Flexible packaging\"), [converting](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Converter_\\(industry\\) \"Converter (industry)\"), [coating](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coating \"Coating\"), and other processes.[\\[18\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-DEC_IMPIANTI-18)\n\nDuring early implementation of the 1974 [Safe Drinking Water Act](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Safe_Drinking_Water_Act \"Safe Drinking Water Act\") in the US, [EPA](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency \"United States Environmental Protection Agency\") officials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. Because of its high cost, the so-called GAC rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in California. Hence, the agency set aside the rule.[\\[19\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-19) Activated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. There are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved.[\\[18\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-DEC_IMPIANTI-18)\n\nIn wastewater treatment, granulated activated carbon filters are implemented as an additional treatment step for removal of organic micropollutants such as pharmaceutical products,[\\[17\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:1-17)[\\[20\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-20) many of which are not entirely removed in traditional wastewater treatment processes.[\\[21\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-21) Pollutants adsorb to the activated carbon granules and are then degraded by microorganisms on the filters.[\\[22\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-22)\n\nActivated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air.\n\nBiomass waste-derived activated carbons were also successfully used for the removal of caffeine and paracetamol from water.[\\[23\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-23)\n\n### Agricultural\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=6 \"Edit section: Agricultural\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both [livestock production](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Animal_husbandry \"Animal husbandry\") and wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant.[\\[24\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-24) In organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates.[\\[25\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-25) It is sometimes used as [biochar](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biochar \"Biochar\").\n\n### Distilled alcoholic beverage purification\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=7 \"Edit section: Distilled alcoholic beverage purification\")\\]\n\nSee also: [Lincoln County Process](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lincoln_County_Process \"Lincoln County Process\")\n\nActivated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter [vodka](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vodka \"Vodka\") and [whiskey](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whiskey \"Whiskey\") of [organic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic_compound \"Organic compound\") impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.[\\[26\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-26)\n\n### Fuel storage\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=8 \"Edit section: Fuel storage\")\\]\n\nResearch is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store [natural gas](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_gas \"Natural gas\")[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) and [hydrogen gas](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_gas \"Hydrogen gas\").[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) The porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via [Van der Waals forces](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Van_der_Waals_forces \"Van der Waals forces\"). Some carbons have been able to achieve binding energies of 5–10 kJ per [mol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mole_\\(unit\\) \"Mole (unit)\").[\\[27\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-27) The gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a [hydrogen fuel cell](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_fuel_cell \"Hydrogen fuel cell\"). Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. The [United States Department of Energy](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Energy \"United States Department of Energy\") has specified certain goals[\\[28\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-28) to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program,[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) are continuing to conduct work in this field.\n\n### Gas purification\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=9 \"Edit section: Gas purification\")\\]\n\nFilters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove [oil](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oil \"Oil\") vapors, odor, and other [hydrocarbons](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrocarbon \"Hydrocarbon\") from the air. The most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media.\n\nActivated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to nonradioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through.\n\n### Chemical purification\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=10 \"Edit section: Chemical purification\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities.\n\nFiltration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. The carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter.[\\[29\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-29)[\\[30\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-30)\n\n### Mercury scrubbing\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=11 \"Edit section: Mercury scrubbing\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon, often infused with sulfur[\\[31\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-31) or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from [coal-fired power stations](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coal-fired_power_station \"Coal-fired power station\"), medical [incinerators](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incineration \"Incineration\"), and from [natural gas](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_gas \"Natural gas\") at the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use.[\\[32\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Mohan-32)\n\nSince it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma.[\\[33\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-33) If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling.\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\] However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule).\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\] This material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year.\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\]\n\nThe problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\] and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide (CO2).\n\n### Food additive\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=12 \"Edit section: Food additive\")\\]\n\nActivated, food-grade charcoal became a [food trend](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_trend \"Food trend\") in 2016, being used as an [additive](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_additive \"Food additive\") to impart a \"slightly smoky\" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases, and bagels.[\\[34\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-34) People taking medication, including [birth control pills](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Birth_control_pill \"Birth control pill\") and [antidepressants](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antidepressant \"Antidepressant\"),[\\[35\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-35) are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring since it can render the medication ineffective.[\\[36\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-36)\n\n### Smoking filtration\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=13 \"Edit section: Smoking filtration\")\\]\n\nActivated charcoal is used in smoking filters[\\[37\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-ncbi-37) as a way to reduce the tar content and other chemicals present in smoke, which is a result of combustion, wherein it has been found to reduce the toxicants from tobacco smoke, in particular the free radicals.[\\[37\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-ncbi-37)\n\n## Structure of activated carbon\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=14 \"Edit section: Structure of activated carbon\")\\]\n\nThe structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. In a book published in 2006,[\\[38\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-38) [Harry Marsh](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harry_Marsh \"Harry Marsh\") and Francisco Rodríguez-Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration-corrected [transmission electron microscopy](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transmission_electron_microscopy \"Transmission electron microscopy\") has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the [fullerenes](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fullerene \"Fullerene\"), with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings.[\\[39\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-39)[\\[40\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-40)\n\n## Production\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=15 \"Edit section: Production\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow [peat](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peat \"Peat\"), [wood](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wood \"Wood\"), [coir](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coir \"Coir\"), [lignite](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lignite \"Lignite\"), [coal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coal \"Coal\"), and [petroleum pitch](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pitch_\\(resin\\) \"Pitch (resin)\"). It can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes:\n\n1. **Physical activation**: The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gases, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes:\n   - *[Carbonization](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbonization \"Carbonization\")*: Material with carbon content is [pyrolyzed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyrolysis \"Pyrolysis\") at temperatures in the range 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as [argon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Argon \"Argon\") or [nitrogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\")\n   - *Activation\/oxidation*: Raw material or [carbonized](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbonization \"Carbonization\") material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C. The activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a [muffle furnace](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muffle_furnace \"Muffle furnace\") at 450 °C in the presence of air.[\\[32\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Mohan-32)\n2. **Chemical activation**: The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an [acid](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid \"Acid\"), strong [base](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alkali \"Alkali\"),[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) or a [salt](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salt_\\(chemistry\\) \"Salt (chemistry)\")[\\[41\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-41) ([phosphoric acid](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phosphoric_acid \"Phosphoric acid\") 25%, [potassium hydroxide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potassium_hydroxide \"Potassium hydroxide\") 5%, [sodium hydroxide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sodium_hydroxide \"Sodium hydroxide\") 5%, [potassium carbonate](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potassium_carbonate \"Potassium carbonate\") 5%,[\\[42\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-42) [calcium chloride](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calcium_chloride \"Calcium chloride\") 25%, and [zinc chloride](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zinc_chloride \"Zinc chloride\") 25%). The carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.[\\[43\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Nwankwo-43)\n\nThe Dutch company Norit [NV](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naamloze_vennootschap \"Naamloze vennootschap\") is one of the largest producer of activated carbon in the world. [Haycarb](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haycarb \"Haycarb\"), a Sri Lankan coconut shell-based company, controls 16% of the global market share.[\\[44\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-44)\n\n**Regeneration & Sustainability**\n\nAfter adsorption, spent granular activated carbon can often be regenerated rather than discarded. Thermal reactivation (heating in an inert or steam atmosphere at 800–900 °C) restores much of the pore structure but consumes significant energy, while chemical regeneration (e.g. with dilute acids or bases) can selectively remove fouling compounds under milder conditions. Emerging methods like microwave-assisted reactivation and bio-regeneration using fungi or bacteria show promise for lower-carbon footprints. Choosing the optimal regeneration route balances carbon lifespan, energy use and treatment costs, and helps minimize the volume of hazardous waste sent to landfill.\n\n## Classification\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=16 \"Edit section: Classification\")\\]\n\nActivated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications.\n\n### Powdered activated carbon (PAC)\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=17 \"Edit section: Powdered activated carbon (PAC)\")\\]\n\nSee also: [Powdered activated carbon treatment](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Powdered_activated_carbon_treatment \"Powdered activated carbon treatment\")\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0a\/ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg\/330px-ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg)\n\nA [micrograph](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micrograph \"Micrograph\") of activated charcoal (R 1) under [bright field](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bright_field_microscopy \"Bright field microscopy\") illumination on a [light microscope](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Light_microscope \"Light microscope\"). Notice the [fractal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fractal \"Fractal\")\\-like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. Each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, can have a surface area of several square centimetres. The entire image covers a region of approximately 1.1 by 0.7 mm, and the full resolution version is at a scale of 6.236 pixels\/[μm](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%CE%9Cm \"Μm\").\n\nNormally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm).\n\nPowdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated [mesh sieve](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mesh_\\(scale\\) \"Mesh (scale)\"). The [ASTM](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASTM_International \"ASTM International\") classifies particles passing through an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high [head loss](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Head_loss \"Head loss\") that would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.\n\n### Granular activated carbon (GAC)\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=18 \"Edit section: Granular activated carbon (GAC)\")\\]\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/Activated_Charcoal.jpg\/250px-Activated_Charcoal.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Activated_Charcoal.jpg)\n\nA [micrograph](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micrograph \"Micrograph\") of activated charcoal **(GAC)** under a [scanning electron microscope](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scanning_electron_microscope \"Scanning electron microscope\")\n\nGranular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for [adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") of gases, vapors and liquids, because these substances diffuse rapidly throughout the filters. Granulated carbons are used for [air filtration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_filter \"Air filter\") and [water treatment](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_treatment \"Water treatment\"), as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous-phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and [head loss](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Head_loss \"Head loss\") characteristics.\n\n### Extruded activated carbon (EAC)\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=19 \"Edit section: Extruded activated carbon (EAC)\")\\]\n\nExtruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor).\n\n### Bead activated carbon (BAC)\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=20 \"Edit section: Bead activated carbon (BAC)\")\\]\n\nBead activated carbon (BAC) is manufactured from carbonizing petroleum pitch and then activating it into uniform spheres in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. BAC typically exhibits a surface area in the range of 800–1 200 m2\/g, comparable to or exceeding many granular carbons, enhancing its capacity for dissolved organics. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration.\n\n### Impregnated carbon\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=21 \"Edit section: Impregnated carbon\")\\]\n\nPorous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as [iodine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iodine \"Iodine\") and [silver](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silver \"Silver\"). [Cations](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cation \"Cation\") such as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in [air pollution](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\") control especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and [aluminium hydroxide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aluminium_hydroxide \"Aluminium hydroxide\") (Al(OH)3), a [flocculating agent](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flocculation \"Flocculation\"). Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of [hydrogen sulfide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\") (H2S) and [thiols](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thiol \"Thiol\"). Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported. \\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\]\n\n### Polymer coated carbon\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=22 \"Edit section: Polymer coated carbon\")\\]\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/67\/Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg\/250px-Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg)\n\nWoven activated carbon cloth\n\nThis is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible [polymer](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymer \"Polymer\") to give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The typical film thickness ranges from 50 to 200 nm, which strikes a balance between preserving pore access and ensuring mechanical stability in the material. The resulting carbon is useful for [hemoperfusion](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hemoperfusion \"Hemoperfusion\"). Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood. In clinical trials, polymer-coated carbons have achieved over 80% removal of toxins such as bilirubin and certain drug metabolites in a single pass.\n\n### Woven carbon\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=23 \"Edit section: Woven carbon\")\\]\n\nThere is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for [carbon filtering](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_filtering \"Carbon filtering\"). Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal ([BET theory](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BET_theory \"BET theory\")) surface area: 500–1500 m2\/g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm3\/g)\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\]. Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications ([supercapacitors](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supercapacitors \"Supercapacitors\"), odor absorbers, [CBRN-defense](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CBRN_defense \"CBRN defense\") industry etc.).\n\n## Properties\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=24 \"Edit section: Properties\")\\]\n\nA gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m2 (5,400 sq ft), with 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft) being readily achievable.[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2)[\\[4\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Dillon-4)[\\[45\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-surfacearea-45) Carbon [aerogels](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aerogel \"Aerogel\"), while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications.\n\nUnder an [electron microscope](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electron_microscope \"Electron microscope\"), the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of [porosity](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Porosity \"Porosity\"); there may be many areas where flat surfaces of [graphite](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphite \"Graphite\")\\-like material run parallel to each other,[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) separated by only a few nanometres or so. These [micropores](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micropore \"Micropore\") provide superb conditions for [adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with [nitrogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") gas at 77 [K](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kelvin \"Kelvin\") under high [vacuum](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vacuum \"Vacuum\"), but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from [steam](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam \"Steam\") at 100 °C (212 °F) and a pressure of 1\/10,000 of an [atmosphere](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atmosphere_\\(unit\\) \"Atmosphere (unit)\").\n\n[James Dewar](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Dewar \"James Dewar\"), the scientist after whom the Dewar ([vacuum flask](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vacuum_flask \"Vacuum flask\")) is named, spent much time in the early 20th century studying activated carbon, and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to gases.[\\[46\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-46) In this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut-based carbon was superior for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low temperatures.\n\nPhysically, activated carbon binds materials by [van der Waals force](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Van_der_Waals_force \"Van der Waals force\")[\\[43\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Nwankwo-43) or [London dispersion force](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/London_dispersion_force \"London dispersion force\").\n\nActivated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including [alcohols](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alcohol_\\(chemistry\\) \"Alcohol (chemistry)\"), [diols](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diol \"Diol\"), strong [acids](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid \"Acid\") and [bases](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Base_\\(chemistry\\) \"Base (chemistry)\"), [metals](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metal \"Metal\") and most [inorganics](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inorganic \"Inorganic\"), such as [lithium](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lithium \"Lithium\"), [sodium](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sodium \"Sodium\"), [iron](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iron \"Iron\"), [lead](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lead \"Lead\"), [arsenic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arsenic \"Arsenic\"), [fluorine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluorine \"Fluorine\"), and boric acid.\n\nActivated carbon can also adsorb [iodine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iodine \"Iodine\") very well. The iodine capacity, mg\/g, ([ASTM](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASTM_International \"ASTM International\") D28 Standard Method test) may be used as an indication of total adsorption over the surface area of the testing material.\n\nCarbon monoxide however, is not very well adsorbed by activated carbon. This should be of particular concern to those using the material in filters for respirators, fume hoods, or other gas control systems because the gas is undetectable to the human senses, toxic to the metabolism, and neurotoxic which creates concern.\n\nSubstantial lists of the common industrial and agricultural gases adsorbed by activated carbon can be found online.[\\[47\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-47)\n\nActivated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as [hydrogen sulfide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\") (H2S), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCOH), [mercury](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury_\\(element\\) \"Mercury (element)\") (Hg) and radioactive [iodine-131](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iodine-131 \"Iodine-131\")(131I). This property is known as [chemisorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemisorption \"Chemisorption\").\n\n### Iodine number\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=25 \"Edit section: Iodine number\")\\]\n\nMany carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. [Iodine number](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iodine_value \"Iodine value\") is the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation[\\[48\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Marecka-2007-48)) often reported in mg\/g (typical range 500–1200 mg\/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 [Å](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m \"Ångström\"), or up to 2 [nm](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanometre \"Nanometre\")) by adsorption of iodine from solution.[\\[49\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-49) It is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m2\/g. It is the standard measure for liquid-phase applications.\n\nIodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine [adsorbed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i.e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water-treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the [adsorbate](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorbate \"Adsorbate\") may affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application.\n\n### Molasses\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=26 \"Edit section: Molasses\")\\]\n\nSome carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. [Molasses number](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Molasses_number&action=edit&redlink=1 \"Molasses number (page does not exist)\") or molasses efficiency is a measure of the [mesopore](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mesoporous_material \"Mesoporous material\") content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 [Å](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m \"Ångström\"), or larger than 2 [nm](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanometre \"Nanometre\")) by adsorption of molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number.\n\nMolasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space.\n\n### Tannin\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=27 \"Edit section: Tannin\")\\]\n\n[Tannins](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tannin \"Tannin\") are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of [macropores](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Macropore \"Macropore\") and [mesopores](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mesoporous_material \"Mesoporous material\") adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm).\n\n### Methylene blue\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=28 \"Edit section: Methylene blue\")\\]\n\nSome carbons have a mesopore (20 [Å](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m \"Ångström\") to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye [methylene blue](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methylene_blue \"Methylene blue\"). Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g\/100g (range 11–28 g\/100g).[\\[50\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Adsorption_Experiments-50)\n\n### Dechlorination\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=29 \"Edit section: Dechlorination\")\\]\n\nSome carbons are evaluated based on the [dechlorination](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reductive_dechlorination \"Reductive dechlorination\") half-life length, which measures the chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.[\\[51\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-51)\n\n### Apparent density\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=30 \"Edit section: Apparent density\")\\]\n\nThe solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg\/m3 (125–130 lbs.\/cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg\/m3 (25–31 lbs.\/cubic foot).[\\[52\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-52)\n\nHigher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better-quality activated carbon. ASTM D 2854 -09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon.\n\n### Hardness\/abrasion number\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=31 \"Edit section: Hardness\/abrasion number\")\\]\n\nIt is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition. It is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces which would cause the material to be defective. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity) it is created for.\n\n### Ash content\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=32 \"Edit section: Ash content\")\\]\n\n[Ash](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ash_\\(analytical_chemistry\\) \"Ash (analytical chemistry)\") reduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e.g., coconut, wood, coal, etc.). The metal oxides (Fe2O3) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid\/water-soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant\/algal growth. [ASTM](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASTM_International \"ASTM International\") (D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon.\n\n### Carbon tetrachloride activity\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=33 \"Edit section: Carbon tetrachloride activity\")\\]\n\nMeasurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated [carbon tetrachloride](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_tetrachloride \"Carbon tetrachloride\") vapour.\n\n### Particle size distribution\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=34 \"Edit section: Particle size distribution\")\\]\n\nThe finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits. However, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of 3.35–1.4 millimetres (0.132–0.055 in). Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon). Researchers at Cornell University synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a BET area of 4800 m2 g–1 and a total pore volume of 2.7 cm3 g–1.[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1) This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon to date.\n\n## Modification of properties and reactivity\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=35 \"Edit section: Modification of properties and reactivity\")\\]\n\nAcid-base, oxidation-reduction and specific adsorption characteristics are strongly dependent on the composition of the surface functional groups.[\\[53\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Philippe_Serp_2009-53)\n\nThe surface of conventional activated carbon is reactive, capable of oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and oxygen [plasma](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plasma_\\(physics\\) \"Plasma (physics)\")[\\[54\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-54)[\\[55\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-55)[\\[56\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-56)[\\[57\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-57)[\\[58\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Streat_M.-2001-58)[\\[59\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-59)[\\[60\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-60)[\\[61\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-61) steam,[\\[62\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-62)[\\[63\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-63)[\\[64\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-64) and also [carbon dioxide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\")[\\[58\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Streat_M.-2001-58) and [ozone](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ozone \"Ozone\").[\\[65\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-65)[\\[66\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-66)[\\[67\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Vald%C3%A9s-2002-67)\n\nOxidation in the liquid phase is caused by a wide range of reagents (HNO3, H2O2, KMnO4).[\\[68\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-68)[\\[69\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-69)[\\[70\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-70)\n\nThrough the formation of a large number of basic and acidic groups on the surface of oxidized carbon to sorption and other properties can differ significantly from the unmodified forms.[\\[53\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Philippe_Serp_2009-53)\n\nActivated carbon can be nitrogenated by natural products or [polymers](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymer \"Polymer\")[\\[71\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-71)[\\[72\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-72) or processing of carbon with nitrogenating [reagents](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reagent \"Reagent\").[\\[73\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-73)[\\[74\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-74)[\\[75\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-75)\n\nActivated carbon can interact with [chlorine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorine \"Chlorine\"),[\\[76\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-76)[\\[77\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-77) [bromine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bromine \"Bromine\")[\\[78\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-78) and [fluorine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluorine \"Fluorine\").[\\[79\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-79)\n\nSurface of activated carbon, like other carbon materials can be fluoralkylated by treatment with (per)fluoropolyether peroxide[\\[80\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-80) in a liquid phase, or with wide range of fluoroorganic substances by CVD-method.[\\[81\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-81) Such materials combine high hydrophobicity and chemical stability with electrical and thermal conductivity and can be used as electrode material for super capacitors.[\\[82\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-82)\n\nSulfonic acid functional groups can be attached to activated carbon to give \"starbons\" which can be used to selectively catalyse the esterification of fatty acids.[\\[83\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-83) Formation of such activated carbons from halogenated precursors gives a more effective catalyst which is thought to be a result of remaining halogens improving stability.[\\[84\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-84) It is reported about synthesis of activated carbon with chemically grafted superacid sites –CF2SO3H.[\\[85\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-85)\n\nSome of the chemical properties of activated carbon have been attributed to presence of the surface active carbon [double bond](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alkenes \"Alkenes\").[\\[67\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Vald%C3%A9s-2002-67)[\\[86\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-86)\n\nThe [Polyani adsorption theory](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potential_theory_of_Polanyi \"Potential theory of Polanyi\") is a popular method for analyzing adsorption of various organic substances to their surface.\n\n## Examples of adsorption\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=36 \"Edit section: Examples of adsorption\")\\]\n\n### Heterogeneous catalysis\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=37 \"Edit section: Heterogeneous catalysis\")\\]\n\nThe most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid [catalyst](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Catalyst \"Catalyst\") interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant\/s. The adsorption of reactant\/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.\n\n## Reactivation and regeneration\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=38 \"Edit section: Reactivation and regeneration\")\\]\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/ca\/Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg\/250px-Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg)\n\nWorld's largest reactivation plant located in [Feluy](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feluy \"Feluy\"), Belgium.\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f4\/Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg\/250px-Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg)\n\nActivated carbon reactivation center in [Roeselare](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roeselare \"Roeselare\"), Belgium.\n\nThe reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the [adsorptive capacity](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") of saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface.\n\n### Thermal reactivation\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=39 \"Edit section: Thermal reactivation\")\\]\n\nThe most common regeneration technique employed in industrial processes is thermal reactivation.[\\[87\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-87) The thermal regeneration process generally follows three steps:[\\[88\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-sabio-88)\n\n- Adsorbent drying at approximately 105 °C (221 °F)\n- High temperature desorption and decomposition (500–900 °C (932–1,652 °F)) under an inert atmosphere\n- Residual organic gasification by a non-oxidising gas (steam or carbon dioxide) at elevated temperatures (800 °C (1,470 °F))\n\nThe heat treatment stage utilises the [exothermic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exothermic \"Exothermic\") nature of adsorption and results in desorption, partial [cracking](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cracking_\\(chemistry\\) \"Cracking (chemistry)\") and [polymerization](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymerization \"Polymerization\") of the adsorbed organics. The final step aims to remove charred organic residue formed in the porous structure in the previous stage and re-expose the porous carbon structure regenerating its original surface characteristics. After treatment the adsorption column can be reused. Per adsorption-thermal regeneration cycle between 5–15 wt% of the carbon bed is burnt off resulting in a loss of adsorptive capacity.[\\[89\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-89) Thermal regeneration is a high energy process due to the high required temperatures making it both an energetically and commercially expensive process.[\\[88\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-sabio-88) Plants that rely on thermal regeneration of activated carbon have to be of a certain size before it is economically viable to have regeneration facilities onsite. As a result, it is common for smaller waste treatment sites to ship their activated carbon cores to specialised facilities for regeneration.[\\[90\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-90)\n\n### Other regeneration techniques\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=40 \"Edit section: Other regeneration techniques\")\\]\n\nCurrent concerns with the high energy\/cost nature of thermal regeneration of activated carbon has encouraged research into alternative regeneration methods to reduce the environmental impact of such processes. Though several of the regeneration techniques cited have remained areas of purely academic research, some alternatives to thermal regeneration systems have been employed in industry. Current alternative regeneration methods are:\n\n- TSA (thermal swing adsorption) and\/or PSA ([pressure swing adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pressure_swing_adsorption \"Pressure swing adsorption\")) processes: through [convection (heat transfer)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convection_\\(heat_transfer\\) \"Convection (heat transfer)\") using [steam](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam \"Steam\"),[\\[91\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-91) \"hot\" [inert gas](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inert_gas \"Inert gas\") (typically heated [nitrogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") (150–250 °C (302–482 °F))),[\\[92\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-92) or [vacuum](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vacuum \"Vacuum\") (T+VSA or TVSA, combining TSA and VSA processes)[\\[93\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-93) [in situ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In_situ \"In situ\") regeneration\n- MWR ([microwave](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microwave \"Microwave\") regeneration)[\\[94\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-94)\n- Chemical and solvent regeneration[\\[95\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-95)\n- Chemical and thermal regeneration[\\[96\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-96)\n- Microbial regeneration[\\[97\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-97)\n- [Electrochemical regeneration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemical_regeneration \"Electrochemical regeneration\")[\\[98\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-98)\n- Ultrasonic regeneration[\\[99\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-99)\n- Wet air oxidation[\\[100\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-100)\n\n## See also\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=41 \"Edit section: See also\")\\]\n\n- ![icon](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d6\/WHO_Rod.svg\/20px-WHO_Rod.svg.png)[Medicine portal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Medicine \"Portal:Medicine\")\n- ![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/ed\/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg\/40px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png)[Chemistry portal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Chemistry \"Portal:Chemistry\")\n\n- [Activated charcoal cleanse](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_charcoal_cleanse \"Activated charcoal cleanse\")\n- [Biochar](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biochar \"Biochar\")\n- [Bamboo charcoal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bamboo_charcoal \"Bamboo charcoal\")\n- [Binchōtan](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Binch%C5%8Dtan \"Binchōtan\")\n- [Bone char](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bone_char \"Bone char\")\n- [Carbon filtering](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_filtering \"Carbon filtering\")\n- [Carbocatalysis](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbocatalysis \"Carbocatalysis\")\n- [Conjugated microporous polymer](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conjugated_microporous_polymer \"Conjugated microporous polymer\")\n- [Hydrogen storage](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_storage \"Hydrogen storage\")\n- [Kværner process](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kv%C3%A6rner_process \"Kværner process\")\n- [Onboard refueling vapor recovery](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Onboard_refueling_vapor_recovery \"Onboard refueling vapor recovery\")\n\n## References\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=42 \"Edit section: References\")\\]\n\n1. ^ [***a***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-0) [***b***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-1) [***c***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-2) [***d***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-3) [***e***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-4) [***f***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-5) [***g***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-6) [***h***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-7) [***i***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-8) [***j***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-9)\n   Chalmpes N, Ochonma P, Tantis I, Alsmaeil AW, Assafa TE, Tathacharya M, Srivastava M, Gadikota G, Bourlinos AB, Steriotis T, Giannelis EP (2024-12-10). [\"Ultrahigh Surface Area Nanoporous Carbons Synthesized via Hypergolic and Activation Reactions for Enhanced CO2 Capacity and Volumetric Energy Density\"](https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/full\/10.1021\/acsnano.4c10531). *ACS Nano*. **18** (49): 33491–33504\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2024ACSNa..1833491C](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2024ACSNa..1833491C). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1021\/acsnano.4c10531](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021%2Facsnano.4c10531). [ISSN](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_\\(identifier\\) \"ISSN (identifier)\") [1936-0851](https:\/\/search.worldcat.org\/issn\/1936-0851). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [39576877](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39576877).\n2. ^ [***a***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-0) [***b***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-1) [***c***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-2) [***d***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-3) [***e***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-4) [***f***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-5) [***g***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-6) [***h***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-7) [***i***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-8) [***j***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Soo-2013_2-9)\n   Soo Y, Chada N, Beckner M, Romanos J, Burress J, Pfeifer P (2013-03-20). [\"Adsorbed Methane Film Properties in Nanoporous Carbon Monoliths\"](http:\/\/meetings.aps.org\/Meeting\/MAR13\/Event\/186324). *Bulletin of the American Physical Society*. **58** (1). M38.001. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2013APS..MARM38001S](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2013APS..MARM38001S). [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180612112845\/http:\/\/meetings.aps.org\/Meeting\/MAR13\/Event\/186324) from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2018-05-30.\n3. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-:0_3-0)**\n   [\"What is Activated Carbon?\"](https:\/\/puragen.com\/uk\/resources\/what-is-activated-carbon\/). *Puragen*. Retrieved 9 October 2025.\n4. ^ [***a***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Dillon_4-0) [***b***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Dillon_4-1)\n   Dillon EC, Wilton JH, Barlow JC, Watson WA (1989-05-01). \"Large surface area activated charcoal and the inhibition of aspirin adsorption\". *Annals of Emergency Medicine*. **18** (5): 547–552\\. [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/S0196-0644(89)80841-8](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0196-0644%2889%2980841-8). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [2719366](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/2719366).\n5. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-5)**\n   Lehmann JS (2009). [\"Biochar for environmental management: An introduction. In Biochar for Environmental Management, Science and Technology\"](https:\/\/www.css.cornell.edu\/faculty\/lehmann\/publ\/First%20proof%2013-01-09.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210706180904\/http:\/\/www.css.cornell.edu\/faculty\/lehmann\/publ\/First%20proof%2013-01-09.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2021-07-06.\n6. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-6)**\n   [\"Activated Charcoal\"](https:\/\/www.discovermagazine.com\/the-sciences\/activated-charcoal). *Discover Magazine*. [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20220118141356\/https:\/\/www.discovermagazine.com\/the-sciences\/activated-charcoal) from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2022-01-18.\n7. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-7)**\n   Oliveira G, Calisto V, Santos SM, Otero M, Esteves VI (2018-08-01). \"Paper pulp-based adsorbents for the removal of pharmaceuticals from wastewater: A novel approach towards diversification\". *The Science of the Total Environment*. 631–632: 1018–1028\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2018ScTEn.631.1018O](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018ScTEn.631.1018O). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.072](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2018.03.072). [hdl](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hdl_\\(identifier\\) \"Hdl (identifier)\"):[10773\/25013](https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10773%2F25013). [ISSN](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_\\(identifier\\) \"ISSN (identifier)\") [1879-1026](https:\/\/search.worldcat.org\/issn\/1879-1026). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [29727928](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29727928). [S2CID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_\\(identifier\\) \"S2CID (identifier)\") [19141293](https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:19141293).\n8. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-8)**\n   Carroll GT, Kirschman DL (2022). [\"A Peripherally Located Air Recirculation Device Containing an Activated Carbon Filter Reduces VOC Levels in a Simulated Operating Room\"](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9774396). *ACS Omega*. **7** (50): 46640–46645\\. [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1021\/acsomega.2c05570](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021%2Facsomega.2c05570). [ISSN](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_\\(identifier\\) \"ISSN (identifier)\") [2470-1343](https:\/\/search.worldcat.org\/issn\/2470-1343). [PMC](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMC_\\(identifier\\) \"PMC (identifier)\") [9774396](https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC9774396). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [36570243](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/36570243).\n9. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-9)**\n   Cataldi P, Lamanna L, Bertei C, Arena F, Rossi P, Liu M, Di Fonzo F, Papageorgiou DG, Luzio A, Caironi M (26 February 2022). [\"An Electrically Conductive Oleogel Paste for Edible Electronics\"](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2Fadfm.202113417). *Advanced Functional Materials*. **32** (23) 2113417. [arXiv](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv_\\(identifier\\) \"ArXiv (identifier)\"):[2205\\.00764](https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2205.00764). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1002\/adfm.202113417](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2Fadfm.202113417). [S2CID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_\\(identifier\\) \"S2CID (identifier)\") [247149736](https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:247149736).\n10. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-AHFS_10-0)**\n    [\"Charcoal, Activated\"](https:\/\/www.drugs.com\/monograph\/charcoal-activated.html). *The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists*. [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161221011707\/https:\/\/www.drugs.com\/monograph\/charcoal-activated.html) from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2014.\n11. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-mayo200787_11-0)**\n    IBM Micromedex (1 February 2019). [\"Charcoal, Activated (Oral Route)\"](https:\/\/www.mayoclinic.org\/drugs-supplements\/charcoal-activated-oral-route\/description\/drg-20070087). Mayo Clinic. 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[doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/0008-6223(94)90121-X](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0008-6223%2894%2990121-X).\n79. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-79)**\n    Nansé G, Papirer E, Fioux P, Moguet F, Tressaud A (1997). \"Fluorination of carbon blacks: An X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study: III. Fluorination of different carbon blacks with gaseous fluorine at temperatures below 100 °C influence of the morphology, structure and physico-chemical characteristics of the carbon black on the fluorine fixation\". *Carbon*. **35** (4): 515–528\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[1997Carbo..35..515N](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1997Carbo..35..515N). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/S0008-6223(97)00003-1](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0008-6223%2897%2900003-1).\n80. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-80)** [US 8648217](https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US8648217), \"Modification of carbonaceous materials\", issued 2008-08-04\n81. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-81)**\n    [US 10000382](https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US10000382), \"Method for carbon materials surface modification by the fluorocarbons and derivatives\", issued 2015-11-03\n82. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-82)**\n    Zaderko AN, Shvets RY, Grygorchak II, Afonin S, Diyuk VE, Mariychuk RT, Boldyrieva OY, Kaňuchová M, Lisnyak VV (2018-11-20). \"Fluoroalkylated Nanoporous Carbons: Testing as a Supercapacitor Electrode\". *Applied Surface Science*. **470**: 882–892\\. [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.apsusc.2018.11.141](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.apsusc.2018.11.141). [ISSN](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSN_\\(identifier\\) \"ISSN (identifier)\") [0169-4332](https:\/\/search.worldcat.org\/issn\/0169-4332). [S2CID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_\\(identifier\\) \"S2CID (identifier)\") [105746451](https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:105746451).\n83. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-83)**\n    Aldana-Pérez A, Lartundo-Rojas L, Gómez R, Niño-Gómez ME (2012). \"Sulfonic groups anchored on mesoporous carbon Starbons-300 and its use for the esterification of oleic acid\". *Fuel*. **100**: 128–138\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2012Fuel..100..128A](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2012Fuel..100..128A). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.fuel.2012.02.025](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.fuel.2012.02.025).\n84. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-84)**\n    Diyuk VE, Zaderko AN, Grishchenko LM, Yatsymyrskiy AV, Lisnyak VV (2012). [\"Efficient carbon-based acid catalysts for the propan-2-ol dehydration\"](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.catcom.2012.06.018). *Catalysis Communications*. **27**: 33–37\\. [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.catcom.2012.06.018](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.catcom.2012.06.018).\n85. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-85)**\n    [\"WO18194533 Method for Chemical Modification of Fluorinated Carbons With Sulfur-Containing Substance\"](https:\/\/patentscope.wipo.int\/search\/en\/detail.jsf?docId=WO18194533). *patentscope.wipo.int*. [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20181124220138\/https:\/\/patentscope.wipo.int\/search\/en\/detail.jsf?docId=WO18194533) from the original on 2018-11-24. Retrieved 2018-11-24.\n86. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-86)**\n    Budarin VL, Clark JH, Tavener SJ, Wilson K (2004). \"Chemical reactions of double bonds in activated carbon: Microwave and bromination methods\". *Chemical Communications* (23): 2736–7\\. [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1039\/B411222A](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039%2FB411222A). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [15568092](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/15568092).\n87. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-87)**\n    Bagreev A, Rhaman, H., Bandosz, T. J (2001). \"Thermal regeneration of a spent activated carbon adsorbent previously used as hydrogen sulfide adsorbent\". *Carbon*. **39** (9): 1319–1326\\. [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/S0008-6223(00)00266-9](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0008-6223%2800%2900266-9).\n88. ^ [***a***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-sabio_88-0) [***b***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-sabio_88-1)\n    Sabio E, Gonzalez, E., Gonzalez, J. F., Gonzalez-Garcia, C. M., Ramiro, A., Ganan, J (2004). \"Thermal regeneration of activated carbon saturated with p-nitrophenol\". *Carbon*. **42** (11): 2285–2293\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2004Carbo..42.2285S](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2004Carbo..42.2285S). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.carbon.2004.05.007](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.carbon.2004.05.007).\n89. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-89)**\n    Miguel GS, Lambert SD, Graham NJ (2001). \"The regeneration of field spent granular activated carbons\". *Water Research*. **35** (11): 2740–2748\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2001WatRe..35.2740S](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2001WatRe..35.2740S). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/S0043-1354(00)00549-2](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0043-1354%2800%2900549-2). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [11456174](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/11456174).\n90. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-90)**\n    Alvarez PM, Beltrán FJ, Gómez-Serrano V, Jaramillo J, Rodríguez EM (2004). \"Comparison between thermal and ozone regenerations of spent activated carbon exhausted with phenol\". *Water Research*. **38** (8): 2155–2165\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2004WatRe..38.2155A](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2004WatRe..38.2155A). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.watres.2004.01.030](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.watres.2004.01.030). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [15087197](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/15087197).\n91. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-91)**\n    [\"activated carbon \\| steam \\| regeneration\"](https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-steam-regeneration-RSV_en.html). *DEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A*. [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250215181714\/https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-steam-regeneration-RSV_en.html) from the original on 2025-02-15. Retrieved 2025-02-23.\n92. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-92)**\n    [\"activated carbon \\| inert gas \\| nitrogen \\| regeneration\"](https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-nitrogen-regeneration-RSG_en.html). *DEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A*. [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250215182231\/https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-nitrogen-regeneration-RSG_en.html) from the original on 2025-02-15. Retrieved 2025-02-23.\n93. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-93)**\n    [\"activated carbon \\| vacuum \\| regeneration\"](https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-vacuum-regeneration-RTV_en.html). *DEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A*. [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250223060840\/https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-vacuum-regeneration-RTV_en.html) from the original on 2025-02-23. Retrieved 2025-02-23.\n94. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-94)**\n    Cherbański R (2018). \"Regeneration of granular activated carbon loaded with toluene – Comparison of microwave and conductive heating at the same active powers\". *Chemical Engineering and Processing - Process Intensification*. **123** (January 2018): 148–157\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2018CEPPI.123..148C](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018CEPPI.123..148C). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.cep.2017.11.008](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cep.2017.11.008).\n95. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-95)**\n    Martin RJ, Wj, N (1997). \"The repeated exhaustion and chemical regeneration of activated carbon\". *Water Research*. **21** (8): 961–965\\. [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/S0043-1354(87)80014-3](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0043-1354%2887%2980014-3).\n96. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-96)**\n    Didenko T, Lau A, Purohit AL, Feng J, Pinkard B, Ateia M, Novosselov IV. [\"Regeneration of PFAS-laden Granular Activated Carbon in Modified Supercritical CO2 Extraction\"](https:\/\/chemrxiv.org\/doi\/full\/10.26434\/chemrxiv-2024-b1rvv-v2). *ChemRxiv*. **2024** (0719). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.26434\/chemrxiv-2024-b1rvv-v2](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.26434%2Fchemrxiv-2024-b1rvv-v2).\n97. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-97)**\n    Aizpuru A, Malhautier L, Roux JC, Fanlo JL (2003). \"Biofiltration of a mixture of volatile organic compounds on granular activated carbon\". *Biotechnology and Bioengineering*. **83** (4): 479–488\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2003BiotB..83..479A](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2003BiotB..83..479A). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1002\/bit.10691](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2Fbit.10691). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [12800142](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/12800142). [S2CID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_\\(identifier\\) \"S2CID (identifier)\") [9980413](https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:9980413).\n98. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-98)**\n    Narbaitz RM, Karimi-Jashni A (2009). [\"Electrochemical regeneration of granular activated carbons loaded with phenol and natural organic matter\"](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09593330802422803). *Environmental Technology*. **30** (1): 27–36\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2009EnvTe..30...27N](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2009EnvTe..30...27N). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1080\/09593330802422803](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09593330802422803). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [19213463](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/19213463).\n99. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-99)**\n    Lim JL, Okada M (2005). \"Regeneration of granular activated carbon using ultrasound\". *Ultrasonic-Sono-Chemistry*. **12** (4): 277–285\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2005UltS...12..277L](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2005UltS...12..277L). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.ultsonch.2004.02.003](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ultsonch.2004.02.003). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [15501710](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/15501710).\n100. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-100)**\n     Shende RV, Mahajani VV (2002). \"Wet oxidative regeneration of activated carbon loaded with reactive dye\". *Waste Management*. **22** (1): 73–83\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2002WaMan..22...73S](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2002WaMan..22...73S). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/S0956-053X(01)00022-8](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0956-053X%2801%2900022-8). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [11942707](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/11942707).\n\n## External links\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=43 \"Edit section: External links\")\\]\n\n[![Wikimedia Commons logo](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg)\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to [Activated carbon](https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Activated_carbon \"commons:Category:Activated carbon\").\n\n- [\"Imaging the atomic structure of activated carbon\"](http:\/\/www.personal.rdg.ac.uk\/~scsharip\/Activated_carbon_JPCM.pdf) – *[Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Physics:_Condensed_Matter \"Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter\")*\n- [\"How Does Activated Carbon Work?\"](http:\/\/www.slate.com\/id\/2131130\/) at *[Slate](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slate_\\(magazine\\) \"Slate (magazine)\")*\n- [\"Worshiping the False Idols of Wellness\"](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/08\/01\/style\/wellness-industrial-complex.html) on activated charcoal as a useless wellness practice at the *New York Times*\n\n| [v](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Allotropes_of_carbon \"Template:Allotropes of carbon\") [t](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template_talk:Allotropes_of_carbon \"Template talk:Allotropes of carbon\") [e](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:EditPage\/Template:Allotropes_of_carbon \"Special:EditPage\/Template:Allotropes of carbon\")[Allotropes of carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allotropes_of_carbon \"Allotropes of carbon\") |   |\n|---|---|\n| *sp3 [forms](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orbital_hybridisation \"Orbital hybridisation\")* | **[Diamond (cubic)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diamond \"Diamond\")** [Lonsdaleite (hexagonal diamond)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lonsdaleite \"Lonsdaleite\") |\n| *sp2 forms* | **[Graphite](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphite \"Graphite\")** [Graphene](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphene \"Graphene\") [Fullerenes](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fullerene \"Fullerene\"), including *[C60 (buckminsterfullerene)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buckminsterfullerene \"Buckminsterfullerene\")*, *[C70](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C70_fullerene \"C70 fullerene\")*, *[Fullerene whiskers](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fullerene_whiskers \"Fullerene whiskers\")*, *[Nanotubes](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_nanotube \"Carbon nanotube\")*, *[Nanobuds](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_nanobud \"Carbon nanobud\")*, *[Nanoscrolls](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_nanoscrolls \"Carbon nanoscrolls\")*) [Glassy carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glassy_carbon \"Glassy carbon\") |\n| *sp forms* | [Linear acetylenic carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_acetylenic_carbon \"Linear acetylenic carbon\") [C 6 (cyclo\\[6\\]carbon)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyclo\\(6\\)carbon \"Cyclo(6)carbon\") [C 18 (cyclo\\[18\\]carbon)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyclo\\(18\\)carbon \"Cyclo(18)carbon\") |\n| *mixed sp3\/sp2 forms* | [Amorphous carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amorphous_carbon \"Amorphous carbon\") [Carbon nanofoam](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_nanofoam \"Carbon nanofoam\") [Carbide-derived carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbide-derived_carbon \"Carbide-derived carbon\") [Q-carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Q-carbon \"Q-carbon\") |\n| *other forms* | [C 1 (atomic carbon)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atomic_carbon \"Atomic carbon\") [C 2 (diatomic carbon)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diatomic_carbon \"Diatomic carbon\") [C 3 (tricarbon)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tricarbon \"Tricarbon\") |\n| *hypothetical forms* | [C 3 (cyclopropatriene)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyclopropatriene \"Cyclopropatriene\") [C 6 (prismane C8)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prismane_C8 \"Prismane C8\") [Chaoite](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chaoite \"Chaoite\") [Haeckelites](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haeckelites \"Haeckelites\") [Cubic carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allotropes_of_carbon#Other_possible_allotropes \"Allotropes of carbon\") [Metallic carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allotropes_of_carbon#Other_possible_allotropes \"Allotropes of carbon\") [Penta-graphene](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Penta-graphene \"Penta-graphene\") |\n| *related* | [Activated carbon]() [Carbon black](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_black \"Carbon black\") [Charcoal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charcoal \"Charcoal\") [Carbon fiber](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_fibers \"Carbon fibers\") [Aggregated diamond nanorod](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aggregated_diamond_nanorod \"Aggregated diamond nanorod\") [Gas carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gas_carbon \"Gas carbon\") |\n\n| [v](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template:Toxicology \"Template:Toxicology\") [t](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Template_talk:Toxicology \"Template talk:Toxicology\") [e](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:EditPage\/Template:Toxicology \"Special:EditPage\/Template:Toxicology\")[Toxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxicology \"Toxicology\") |   |\n|---|---|\n| Fields | [Aquatic toxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aquatic_toxicology \"Aquatic toxicology\") [Ecotoxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecotoxicology \"Ecotoxicology\") [Occupational toxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Occupational_toxicology \"Occupational toxicology\") [Entomotoxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entomotoxicology \"Entomotoxicology\") [Environmental toxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_toxicology \"Environmental toxicology\") [Forensic toxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_toxicology \"Forensic toxicology\") [Medical toxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_toxicology \"Medical toxicology\") [In vitro toxicology](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In_vitro_toxicology \"In vitro toxicology\") [Toxicogenomics](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxicogenomics \"Toxicogenomics\") |\n| Concepts | [Acceptable daily intake](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptable_daily_intake \"Acceptable daily intake\") [Acute toxicity](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acute_toxicity \"Acute toxicity\") [Bioaccumulation](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioaccumulation \"Bioaccumulation\") [Biomagnification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomagnification \"Biomagnification\") [Fixed-dose procedure](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fixed-dose_procedure \"Fixed-dose procedure\") [Lethal dose](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lethal_dose \"Lethal dose\") [Poison](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poison \"Poison\") [Toxic capacity](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxic_capacity \"Toxic capacity\") [Toxicity class](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxicity_class \"Toxicity class\") [Toxin](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxin \"Toxin\") [Venom](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Venom \"Venom\") |\n| Treatments | [Activated carbon]() [Antidote](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antidote \"Antidote\") [Cathartic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cathartic \"Cathartic\") [Chelation therapy](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chelation_therapy \"Chelation therapy\") [Gastric lavage](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gastric_lavage \"Gastric lavage\") [Hemodialysis](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hemodialysis \"Hemodialysis\") [Hemoperfusion](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hemoperfusion \"Hemoperfusion\") [Whole bowel irrigation](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whole_bowel_irrigation \"Whole bowel irrigation\") |\n| Incidents | [1858 Bradford sweets poisoning](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning \"1858 Bradford sweets poisoning\") [2007 pet food recalls](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2007_pet_food_recalls \"2007 pet food recalls\") [Bhopal disaster](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bhopal_disaster \"Bhopal disaster\") [Minamata disease](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minamata_disease \"Minamata disease\") [Niigata Minamata disease](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Niigata_Minamata_disease \"Niigata Minamata disease\") [Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poisoning_of_Alexander_Litvinenko \"Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko\") [Seveso disaster](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seveso_disaster \"Seveso disaster\") [Consumption of Tide Pods](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consumption_of_Tide_Pods \"Consumption of Tide Pods\") [Visakhapatnam gas leak](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visakhapatnam_gas_leak \"Visakhapatnam gas leak\") [2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2022_Aqaba_toxic_gas_leak \"2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak\") [List of poisonings](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_poisonings \"List of poisonings\") |\n| Related topics | [Biological warfare](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_warfare \"Biological warfare\") [Carcinogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carcinogen \"Carcinogen\") [Food safety](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_safety \"Food safety\") [Hazard symbol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hazard_symbol \"Hazard symbol\") [List of extremely hazardous substances](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_extremely_hazardous_substances \"List of extremely hazardous substances\") [Mutagen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutagen \"Mutagen\") [Occupational safety and health](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Occupational_safety_and_health \"Occupational safety and health\") |\n| ![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/9\/96\/Symbol_category_class.svg\/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png) **[Category](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Toxicology \"Category:Toxicology\")** [![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg \"Commons page\") **[Commons](https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Toxicology \"commons:Category:Toxicology\")** ![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/37\/People_icon.svg\/20px-People_icon.svg.png) **[WikiProject](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Toxicology \"Wikipedia:WikiProject Toxicology\")** |   |\n\n| [Authority control databases](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:Authority_control \"Help:Authority control\") [![Edit 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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.](https:\/\/wikimediafoundation.org\/), a non-profit organization.\n\n- [Privacy policy](https:\/\/foundation.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Special:MyLanguage\/Policy:Privacy_policy)\n- [About Wikipedia](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:About)\n- [Disclaimers](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer)\n- [Contact Wikipedia](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Contact_us)\n- [Legal & safety contacts](https:\/\/foundation.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Special:MyLanguage\/Legal:Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contact_Information)\n- [Code of Conduct](https:\/\/foundation.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Special:MyLanguage\/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct)\n- [Developers](https:\/\/developer.wikimedia.org\/)\n- [Statistics](https:\/\/stats.wikimedia.org\/#\/en.wikipedia.org)\n- [Cookie statement](https:\/\/foundation.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Special:MyLanguage\/Policy:Cookie_statement)\n- [Mobile view](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile)\n\n- [![Wikimedia Foundation](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/static\/images\/footer\/wikimedia.svg)](https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/)\n- [![Powered by MediaWiki](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/resources\/assets\/mediawiki_compact.svg)](https:\/\/www.mediawiki.org\/)\n\nSearch\n\nToggle the table of contents\n\nActivated carbon\n\n49 languages\n\n[Add topic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon)","attrs_readable_markdown":"\"Charcoal filter\" redirects here. For the Japanese rock band, see [Charcoal Filter](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charcoal_Filter \"Charcoal Filter\").\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2d\/Activated_Carbon.jpg\/500px-Activated_Carbon.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Activated_Carbon.jpg)\n\nActivated carbon\n\n**Activated carbon**, also called **activated charcoal**, is a form of [carbon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon \"Carbon\") commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (**activated**) to have small, low-volume pores that greatly increase the [surface area](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_area \"Surface area\")[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) available for *[adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\")*  or [chemical reactions](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_reaction \"Chemical reaction\").[\\[3\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:0-3) (Adsorption, not to be confused with [absorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Absorption_\\(chemistry\\) \"Absorption (chemistry)\"), is a process where atoms or molecules adhere to a surface). The pores can be thought of as a microscopic \"sponge\" structure. Activation is analogous to making [popcorn](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Popcorn \"Popcorn\") from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high [surface-area-to-volume ratio](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio \"Surface-area-to-volume ratio\"). *Activated* is sometimes replaced by *active*.\n\nBecause it is so porous on a microscopic scale, activated carbon has a surface area of over 3,000 square metres per gram (920,000 square feet per ounce),[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2)[\\[4\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Dillon-4) as determined by gas absorption and its porosity can run 10ML\/day in terms of treated water per gram. Researchers at [Cornell University](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\") synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a [BET](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BET_theory \"BET theory\") area of 4,800 m2\/g (1,500,000 sq ft\/oz).[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1) This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon. For charcoal, the equivalent figure before activation is about 2–5 square metres per gram (610–1,530 sq ft\/oz).[\\[5\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-5)[\\[6\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-6) A useful activation level may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties.\n\nActivated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks in addition to other agricultural wastes like olive stones, rice husks and nutshells which are being upcycled into activated carbon, diversifying feedstock supply. Waste from paper mills has been studied as a possible source of activated carbon.[\\[7\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-7) These bulk sources are converted into [charcoal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charcoal \"Charcoal\") before being activated. Using waste streams not only reduces landfill burden but also works to lower the overall carbon footprint as previously discarded waste is repurposed. When derived from [coal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coal \"Coal\"),[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) it is referred to as **activated coal**. **Activated coke** is derived from [coke](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coke_\\(fuel\\) \"Coke (fuel)\"). In activated-coke production, the raw coke (most commonly petroleum coke) is ground or pelletized, then \"activated\" via physical (steam or CO2 at high temperature) or chemical (e.g., KOH or H3PO4) methods to introduce a porous network, yielding a high-surface-area adsorbent which is referred to as activated coal.\n\nActivated carbon is used in [methane](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methane \"Methane\") and [hydrogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") storage,[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) [air purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_purifier \"Air purifier\"),[\\[8\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-8) capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, [decaffeination](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decaffeination \"Decaffeination\"), [gold purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_in_pulp \"Carbon in pulp\"), [metal extraction](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extractive_metallurgy \"Extractive metallurgy\"), [water purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_purification \"Water purification\"), [medicine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medicine \"Medicine\"), [sewage treatment](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage_treatment \"Sewage treatment\"), [air filters](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_filter \"Air filter\") in [respirators](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Respirator \"Respirator\"), filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of [hydrogen chloride](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_chloride \"Hydrogen chloride\"), edible electronics,[\\[9\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-9) and many other applications. These multiuse applications make it a versatile form of carbon that is used daily in many industries.\n\nThere are many industrial applications of activated carbon and its other forms such as areas like metal extraction, water purification, sewage treatment, metal finishing and more. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions used for metal finishing plants. Expanding on electroplating, a variety of organic chemicals can be added to the plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. This is due to the passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up in the solutions can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal if run untreated by the filters. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level. Its installation costs may vary according to the volume of water it must process, however the average cost can be around USD 1 - 2 million. Additionally, these filters need replacing over time (typically 6–12 months depending on usage). The cost of replacing the carbon in the GAC filter form is about USD 0.05 - 0.1 per cubic meter of water that is treated in the plant.\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/31\/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg\/250px-%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg)\n\nActivated charcoal for medical use\n\nActivated carbon is used to treat [poisonings](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poison \"Poison\") and [overdoses](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overdose \"Overdose\") following oral [ingestion](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ingestion \"Ingestion\"). Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat [diarrhea](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diarrhea \"Diarrhea\"), [indigestion](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indigestion \"Indigestion\"), and [flatulence](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flatulence \"Flatulence\"). However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, is ordinarily medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of [strong acids](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strong_acids \"Strong acids\") or [bases](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Base_\\(chemistry\\) \"Base (chemistry)\"), [cyanide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyanide \"Cyanide\"), [iron](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iron \"Iron\"), [lithium](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lithium \"Lithium\"), [arsenic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arsenic \"Arsenic\"), [methanol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methanol \"Methanol\"), [ethanol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethanol \"Ethanol\"), or [ethylene glycol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethylene_glycol \"Ethylene glycol\").[\\[10\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-AHFS-10) Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body.[\\[11\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-mayo200787-11) It is on the [World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines \"WHO Model List of Essential Medicines\").[\\[12\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-WHO23rd-12)\n\nIncorrect application (e.g. into the [lungs](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lungs \"Lungs\")) results in [pulmonary aspiration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pulmonary_aspiration \"Pulmonary aspiration\"), which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.[\\[13\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chest1989-Elliott-13)\n\n### Analytical chemistry\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=4 \"Edit section: Analytical chemistry\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon, in 50% [w\/w](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W\/w \"W\/w\") combination with [celite](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diatomaceous_earth \"Diatomaceous earth\"), is used as stationary phase in low-pressure [chromatographic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromatographic \"Chromatographic\") separation of [carbohydrates](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbohydrates \"Carbohydrates\") (mono-, di-, tri-[saccharides](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saccharides \"Saccharides\")) using [ethanol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethanol \"Ethanol\") solutions (5–50%) as [mobile phase](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromatography \"Chromatography\") in analytical or preparative protocols.\n\nActivated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral [anticoagulants](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anticoagulant \"Anticoagulant\") (DOACs) such as [dabigatran](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dabigatran \"Dabigatran\"), [apixaban](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apixaban \"Apixaban\"), [rivaroxaban](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rivaroxaban \"Rivaroxaban\") and [edoxaban](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edoxaban \"Edoxaban\") from blood plasma samples.[\\[14\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-14) For this purpose it has been made into \"minitablets\", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants[\\[15\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-15) this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs.\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/db\/Water_Filtration_Systems.png\/250px-Water_Filtration_Systems.png)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Water_Filtration_Systems.png)\n\nActivated carbon is usually used in water filtration systems. In this illustration, the activated carbon is in the fourth level (counted from bottom).\n\nCarbon [adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") has numerous applications in removing [pollutants](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollutant \"Pollutant\") from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as:\n\n- Spill cleanup\n- [Groundwater](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groundwater \"Groundwater\") [remediation](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_remediation \"Environmental remediation\")\n- [Drinking water](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drinking_water \"Drinking water\") [filtration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filtration \"Filtration\")[\\[16\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-16)\n- [Wastewater treatment](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wastewater_treatment \"Wastewater treatment\")[\\[17\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:1-17)\n- [Air purification](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_purifier \"Air purifier\")\n- [Volatile organic compounds](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volatile_organic_compound \"Volatile organic compound\") capture from [painting](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Painting \"Painting\"), [dry cleaning](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dry_cleaning \"Dry cleaning\"), [gasoline](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gasoline \"Gasoline\") dispensing operations, and other processes\n- [Volatile organic compounds](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volatile_organic_compound \"Volatile organic compound\") recovery (SRU, Solvent Recovery Unit; SRP, Solvent Recovery Plant; SRS, Solvent Recovery System) from [flexible packaging](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flexible_packaging \"Flexible packaging\"), [converting](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Converter_\\(industry\\) \"Converter (industry)\"), [coating](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coating \"Coating\"), and other processes.[\\[18\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-DEC_IMPIANTI-18)\n\nDuring early implementation of the 1974 [Safe Drinking Water Act](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Safe_Drinking_Water_Act \"Safe Drinking Water Act\") in the US, [EPA](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency \"United States Environmental Protection Agency\") officials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. Because of its high cost, the so-called GAC rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in California. Hence, the agency set aside the rule.[\\[19\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-19) Activated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. There are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved.[\\[18\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-DEC_IMPIANTI-18)\n\nIn wastewater treatment, granulated activated carbon filters are implemented as an additional treatment step for removal of organic micropollutants such as pharmaceutical products,[\\[17\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:1-17)[\\[20\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-20) many of which are not entirely removed in traditional wastewater treatment processes.[\\[21\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-21) Pollutants adsorb to the activated carbon granules and are then degraded by microorganisms on the filters.[\\[22\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-22)\n\nActivated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air.\n\nBiomass waste-derived activated carbons were also successfully used for the removal of caffeine and paracetamol from water.[\\[23\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-23)\n\nActivated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both [livestock production](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Animal_husbandry \"Animal husbandry\") and wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant.[\\[24\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-24) In organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates.[\\[25\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-25) It is sometimes used as [biochar](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biochar \"Biochar\").\n\n### Distilled alcoholic beverage purification\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=7 \"Edit section: Distilled alcoholic beverage purification\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter [vodka](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vodka \"Vodka\") and [whiskey](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whiskey \"Whiskey\") of [organic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic_compound \"Organic compound\") impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.[\\[26\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-26)\n\nResearch is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store [natural gas](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_gas \"Natural gas\")[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) and [hydrogen gas](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_gas \"Hydrogen gas\").[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) The porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via [Van der Waals forces](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Van_der_Waals_forces \"Van der Waals forces\"). Some carbons have been able to achieve binding energies of 5–10 kJ per [mol](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mole_\\(unit\\) \"Mole (unit)\").[\\[27\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-27) The gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a [hydrogen fuel cell](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_fuel_cell \"Hydrogen fuel cell\"). Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. The [United States Department of Energy](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Energy \"United States Department of Energy\") has specified certain goals[\\[28\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-28) to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program,[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) are continuing to conduct work in this field.\n\nFilters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove [oil](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oil \"Oil\") vapors, odor, and other [hydrocarbons](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrocarbon \"Hydrocarbon\") from the air. The most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media.\n\nActivated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to nonradioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through.\n\n### Chemical purification\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=10 \"Edit section: Chemical purification\")\\]\n\nActivated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities.\n\nFiltration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. The carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter.[\\[29\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-29)[\\[30\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-30)\n\nActivated carbon, often infused with sulfur[\\[31\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-31) or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from [coal-fired power stations](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coal-fired_power_station \"Coal-fired power station\"), medical [incinerators](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incineration \"Incineration\"), and from [natural gas](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_gas \"Natural gas\") at the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use.[\\[32\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Mohan-32)\n\nSince it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma.[\\[33\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-33) If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling.\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\] However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule).\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\] This material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year.\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\]\n\nThe problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\] and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide (CO2).\n\nActivated, food-grade charcoal became a [food trend](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_trend \"Food trend\") in 2016, being used as an [additive](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_additive \"Food additive\") to impart a \"slightly smoky\" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases, and bagels.[\\[34\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-34) People taking medication, including [birth control pills](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Birth_control_pill \"Birth control pill\") and [antidepressants](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antidepressant \"Antidepressant\"),[\\[35\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-35) are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring since it can render the medication ineffective.[\\[36\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-36)\n\nActivated charcoal is used in smoking filters[\\[37\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-ncbi-37) as a way to reduce the tar content and other chemicals present in smoke, which is a result of combustion, wherein it has been found to reduce the toxicants from tobacco smoke, in particular the free radicals.[\\[37\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-ncbi-37)\n\n## Structure of activated carbon\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=14 \"Edit section: Structure of activated carbon\")\\]\n\nThe structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. In a book published in 2006,[\\[38\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-38) [Harry Marsh](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harry_Marsh \"Harry Marsh\") and Francisco Rodríguez-Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration-corrected [transmission electron microscopy](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transmission_electron_microscopy \"Transmission electron microscopy\") has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the [fullerenes](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fullerene \"Fullerene\"), with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings.[\\[39\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-39)[\\[40\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-40)\n\nActivated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow [peat](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peat \"Peat\"), [wood](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wood \"Wood\"), [coir](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coir \"Coir\"), [lignite](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lignite \"Lignite\"), [coal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coal \"Coal\"), and [petroleum pitch](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pitch_\\(resin\\) \"Pitch (resin)\"). It can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes:\n\n1. **Physical activation**: The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gases, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes:\n   - *[Carbonization](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbonization \"Carbonization\")*: Material with carbon content is [pyrolyzed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyrolysis \"Pyrolysis\") at temperatures in the range 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as [argon](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Argon \"Argon\") or [nitrogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\")\n   - *Activation\/oxidation*: Raw material or [carbonized](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbonization \"Carbonization\") material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C. The activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a [muffle furnace](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muffle_furnace \"Muffle furnace\") at 450 °C in the presence of air.[\\[32\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Mohan-32)\n2. **Chemical activation**: The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an [acid](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid \"Acid\"), strong [base](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alkali \"Alkali\"),[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) or a [salt](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salt_\\(chemistry\\) \"Salt (chemistry)\")[\\[41\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-41) ([phosphoric acid](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phosphoric_acid \"Phosphoric acid\") 25%, [potassium hydroxide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potassium_hydroxide \"Potassium hydroxide\") 5%, [sodium hydroxide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sodium_hydroxide \"Sodium hydroxide\") 5%, [potassium carbonate](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potassium_carbonate \"Potassium carbonate\") 5%,[\\[42\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-42) [calcium chloride](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calcium_chloride \"Calcium chloride\") 25%, and [zinc chloride](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zinc_chloride \"Zinc chloride\") 25%). The carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.[\\[43\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Nwankwo-43)\n\nThe Dutch company Norit [NV](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naamloze_vennootschap \"Naamloze vennootschap\") is one of the largest producer of activated carbon in the world. [Haycarb](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haycarb \"Haycarb\"), a Sri Lankan coconut shell-based company, controls 16% of the global market share.[\\[44\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-44)\n\n**Regeneration & Sustainability**\n\nAfter adsorption, spent granular activated carbon can often be regenerated rather than discarded. Thermal reactivation (heating in an inert or steam atmosphere at 800–900 °C) restores much of the pore structure but consumes significant energy, while chemical regeneration (e.g. with dilute acids or bases) can selectively remove fouling compounds under milder conditions. Emerging methods like microwave-assisted reactivation and bio-regeneration using fungi or bacteria show promise for lower-carbon footprints. Choosing the optimal regeneration route balances carbon lifespan, energy use and treatment costs, and helps minimize the volume of hazardous waste sent to landfill.\n\nActivated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications.\n\n### Powdered activated carbon (PAC)\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=17 \"Edit section: Powdered activated carbon (PAC)\")\\]\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0a\/ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg\/330px-ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg)\n\nA [micrograph](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micrograph \"Micrograph\") of activated charcoal (R 1) under [bright field](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bright_field_microscopy \"Bright field microscopy\") illumination on a [light microscope](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Light_microscope \"Light microscope\"). Notice the [fractal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fractal \"Fractal\")\\-like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. Each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, can have a surface area of several square centimetres. The entire image covers a region of approximately 1.1 by 0.7 mm, and the full resolution version is at a scale of 6.236 pixels\/[μm](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%CE%9Cm \"Μm\").\n\nNormally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm).\n\nPowdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated [mesh sieve](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mesh_\\(scale\\) \"Mesh (scale)\"). The [ASTM](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASTM_International \"ASTM International\") classifies particles passing through an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high [head loss](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Head_loss \"Head loss\") that would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.\n\n### Granular activated carbon (GAC)\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=18 \"Edit section: Granular activated carbon (GAC)\")\\]\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/Activated_Charcoal.jpg\/250px-Activated_Charcoal.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Activated_Charcoal.jpg)\n\nA [micrograph](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micrograph \"Micrograph\") of activated charcoal **(GAC)** under a [scanning electron microscope](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scanning_electron_microscope \"Scanning electron microscope\")\n\nGranular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for [adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") of gases, vapors and liquids, because these substances diffuse rapidly throughout the filters. Granulated carbons are used for [air filtration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_filter \"Air filter\") and [water treatment](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_treatment \"Water treatment\"), as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous-phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and [head loss](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Head_loss \"Head loss\") characteristics.\n\n### Extruded activated carbon (EAC)\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=19 \"Edit section: Extruded activated carbon (EAC)\")\\]\n\nExtruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor).\n\n### Bead activated carbon (BAC)\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=20 \"Edit section: Bead activated carbon (BAC)\")\\]\n\nBead activated carbon (BAC) is manufactured from carbonizing petroleum pitch and then activating it into uniform spheres in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. BAC typically exhibits a surface area in the range of 800–1 200 m2\/g, comparable to or exceeding many granular carbons, enhancing its capacity for dissolved organics. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration.\n\nPorous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as [iodine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iodine \"Iodine\") and [silver](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silver \"Silver\"). [Cations](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cation \"Cation\") such as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in [air pollution](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\") control especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and [aluminium hydroxide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aluminium_hydroxide \"Aluminium hydroxide\") (Al(OH)3), a [flocculating agent](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flocculation \"Flocculation\"). Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of [hydrogen sulfide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\") (H2S) and [thiols](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thiol \"Thiol\"). Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported. \\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\]\n\n### Polymer coated carbon\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=22 \"Edit section: Polymer coated carbon\")\\]\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/67\/Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg\/250px-Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg)\n\nWoven activated carbon cloth\n\nThis is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible [polymer](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymer \"Polymer\") to give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The typical film thickness ranges from 50 to 200 nm, which strikes a balance between preserving pore access and ensuring mechanical stability in the material. The resulting carbon is useful for [hemoperfusion](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hemoperfusion \"Hemoperfusion\"). Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood. In clinical trials, polymer-coated carbons have achieved over 80% removal of toxins such as bilirubin and certain drug metabolites in a single pass.\n\nThere is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for [carbon filtering](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_filtering \"Carbon filtering\"). Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal ([BET theory](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BET_theory \"BET theory\")) surface area: 500–1500 m2\/g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm3\/g)\\[*[citation needed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed \"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")*\\]. Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications ([supercapacitors](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supercapacitors \"Supercapacitors\"), odor absorbers, [CBRN-defense](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CBRN_defense \"CBRN defense\") industry etc.).\n\nA gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m2 (5,400 sq ft), with 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft) being readily achievable.[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2)[\\[4\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Dillon-4)[\\[45\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-surfacearea-45) Carbon [aerogels](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aerogel \"Aerogel\"), while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications.\n\nUnder an [electron microscope](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electron_microscope \"Electron microscope\"), the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of [porosity](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Porosity \"Porosity\"); there may be many areas where flat surfaces of [graphite](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphite \"Graphite\")\\-like material run parallel to each other,[\\[2\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) separated by only a few nanometres or so. These [micropores](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micropore \"Micropore\") provide superb conditions for [adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with [nitrogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") gas at 77 [K](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kelvin \"Kelvin\") under high [vacuum](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vacuum \"Vacuum\"), but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from [steam](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam \"Steam\") at 100 °C (212 °F) and a pressure of 1\/10,000 of an [atmosphere](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atmosphere_\\(unit\\) \"Atmosphere (unit)\").\n\n[James Dewar](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Dewar \"James Dewar\"), the scientist after whom the Dewar ([vacuum flask](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vacuum_flask \"Vacuum flask\")) is named, spent much time in the early 20th century studying activated carbon, and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to gases.[\\[46\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-46) In this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut-based carbon was superior for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low temperatures.\n\nPhysically, activated carbon binds materials by [van der Waals force](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Van_der_Waals_force \"Van der Waals force\")[\\[43\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Nwankwo-43) or [London dispersion force](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/London_dispersion_force \"London dispersion force\").\n\nActivated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including [alcohols](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alcohol_\\(chemistry\\) \"Alcohol (chemistry)\"), [diols](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diol \"Diol\"), strong [acids](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid \"Acid\") and [bases](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Base_\\(chemistry\\) \"Base (chemistry)\"), [metals](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metal \"Metal\") and most [inorganics](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inorganic \"Inorganic\"), such as [lithium](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lithium \"Lithium\"), [sodium](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sodium \"Sodium\"), [iron](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iron \"Iron\"), [lead](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lead \"Lead\"), [arsenic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arsenic \"Arsenic\"), [fluorine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluorine \"Fluorine\"), and boric acid.\n\nActivated carbon can also adsorb [iodine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iodine \"Iodine\") very well. The iodine capacity, mg\/g, ([ASTM](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASTM_International \"ASTM International\") D28 Standard Method test) may be used as an indication of total adsorption over the surface area of the testing material.\n\nCarbon monoxide however, is not very well adsorbed by activated carbon. This should be of particular concern to those using the material in filters for respirators, fume hoods, or other gas control systems because the gas is undetectable to the human senses, toxic to the metabolism, and neurotoxic which creates concern.\n\nSubstantial lists of the common industrial and agricultural gases adsorbed by activated carbon can be found online.[\\[47\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-47)\n\nActivated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as [hydrogen sulfide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\") (H2S), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCOH), [mercury](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury_\\(element\\) \"Mercury (element)\") (Hg) and radioactive [iodine-131](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iodine-131 \"Iodine-131\")(131I). This property is known as [chemisorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemisorption \"Chemisorption\").\n\nMany carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. [Iodine number](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iodine_value \"Iodine value\") is the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation[\\[48\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Marecka-2007-48)) often reported in mg\/g (typical range 500–1200 mg\/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 [Å](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m \"Ångström\"), or up to 2 [nm](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanometre \"Nanometre\")) by adsorption of iodine from solution.[\\[49\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-49) It is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m2\/g. It is the standard measure for liquid-phase applications.\n\nIodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine [adsorbed](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i.e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water-treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the [adsorbate](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorbate \"Adsorbate\") may affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application.\n\nSome carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. [Molasses number](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Molasses_number&action=edit&redlink=1 \"Molasses number (page does not exist)\") or molasses efficiency is a measure of the [mesopore](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mesoporous_material \"Mesoporous material\") content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 [Å](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m \"Ångström\"), or larger than 2 [nm](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanometre \"Nanometre\")) by adsorption of molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number.\n\nMolasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space.\n\n[Tannins](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tannin \"Tannin\") are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of [macropores](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Macropore \"Macropore\") and [mesopores](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mesoporous_material \"Mesoporous material\") adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm).\n\nSome carbons have a mesopore (20 [Å](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m \"Ångström\") to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye [methylene blue](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methylene_blue \"Methylene blue\"). Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g\/100g (range 11–28 g\/100g).[\\[50\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Adsorption_Experiments-50)\n\nSome carbons are evaluated based on the [dechlorination](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reductive_dechlorination \"Reductive dechlorination\") half-life length, which measures the chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.[\\[51\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-51)\n\nThe solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg\/m3 (125–130 lbs.\/cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg\/m3 (25–31 lbs.\/cubic foot).[\\[52\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-52)\n\nHigher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better-quality activated carbon. ASTM D 2854 -09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon.\n\n### Hardness\/abrasion number\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=31 \"Edit section: Hardness\/abrasion number\")\\]\n\nIt is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition. It is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces which would cause the material to be defective. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity) it is created for.\n\n[Ash](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ash_\\(analytical_chemistry\\) \"Ash (analytical chemistry)\") reduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e.g., coconut, wood, coal, etc.). The metal oxides (Fe2O3) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid\/water-soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant\/algal growth. [ASTM](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASTM_International \"ASTM International\") (D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon.\n\n### Carbon tetrachloride activity\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=33 \"Edit section: Carbon tetrachloride activity\")\\]\n\nMeasurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated [carbon tetrachloride](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_tetrachloride \"Carbon tetrachloride\") vapour.\n\n### Particle size distribution\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=34 \"Edit section: Particle size distribution\")\\]\n\nThe finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits. However, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of 3.35–1.4 millimetres (0.132–0.055 in). Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon). Researchers at Cornell University synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a BET area of 4800 m2 g–1 and a total pore volume of 2.7 cm3 g–1.[\\[1\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1) This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon to date.\n\n## Modification of properties and reactivity\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=35 \"Edit section: Modification of properties and reactivity\")\\]\n\nAcid-base, oxidation-reduction and specific adsorption characteristics are strongly dependent on the composition of the surface functional groups.[\\[53\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Philippe_Serp_2009-53)\n\nThe surface of conventional activated carbon is reactive, capable of oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and oxygen [plasma](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plasma_\\(physics\\) \"Plasma (physics)\")[\\[54\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-54)[\\[55\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-55)[\\[56\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-56)[\\[57\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-57)[\\[58\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Streat_M.-2001-58)[\\[59\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-59)[\\[60\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-60)[\\[61\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-61) steam,[\\[62\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-62)[\\[63\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-63)[\\[64\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-64) and also [carbon dioxide](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\")[\\[58\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Streat_M.-2001-58) and [ozone](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ozone \"Ozone\").[\\[65\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-65)[\\[66\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-66)[\\[67\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Vald%C3%A9s-2002-67)\n\nOxidation in the liquid phase is caused by a wide range of reagents (HNO3, H2O2, KMnO4).[\\[68\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-68)[\\[69\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-69)[\\[70\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-70)\n\nThrough the formation of a large number of basic and acidic groups on the surface of oxidized carbon to sorption and other properties can differ significantly from the unmodified forms.[\\[53\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Philippe_Serp_2009-53)\n\nActivated carbon can be nitrogenated by natural products or [polymers](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymer \"Polymer\")[\\[71\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-71)[\\[72\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-72) or processing of carbon with nitrogenating [reagents](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reagent \"Reagent\").[\\[73\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-73)[\\[74\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-74)[\\[75\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-75)\n\nActivated carbon can interact with [chlorine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorine \"Chlorine\"),[\\[76\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-76)[\\[77\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-77) [bromine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bromine \"Bromine\")[\\[78\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-78) and [fluorine](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluorine \"Fluorine\").[\\[79\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-79)\n\nSurface of activated carbon, like other carbon materials can be fluoralkylated by treatment with (per)fluoropolyether peroxide[\\[80\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-80) in a liquid phase, or with wide range of fluoroorganic substances by CVD-method.[\\[81\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-81) Such materials combine high hydrophobicity and chemical stability with electrical and thermal conductivity and can be used as electrode material for super capacitors.[\\[82\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-82)\n\nSulfonic acid functional groups can be attached to activated carbon to give \"starbons\" which can be used to selectively catalyse the esterification of fatty acids.[\\[83\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-83) Formation of such activated carbons from halogenated precursors gives a more effective catalyst which is thought to be a result of remaining halogens improving stability.[\\[84\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-84) It is reported about synthesis of activated carbon with chemically grafted superacid sites –CF2SO3H.[\\[85\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-85)\n\nSome of the chemical properties of activated carbon have been attributed to presence of the surface active carbon [double bond](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alkenes \"Alkenes\").[\\[67\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Vald%C3%A9s-2002-67)[\\[86\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-86)\n\nThe [Polyani adsorption theory](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potential_theory_of_Polanyi \"Potential theory of Polanyi\") is a popular method for analyzing adsorption of various organic substances to their surface.\n\n## Examples of adsorption\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=36 \"Edit section: Examples of adsorption\")\\]\n\n### Heterogeneous catalysis\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=37 \"Edit section: Heterogeneous catalysis\")\\]\n\nThe most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid [catalyst](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Catalyst \"Catalyst\") interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant\/s. The adsorption of reactant\/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.\n\n## Reactivation and regeneration\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=38 \"Edit section: Reactivation and regeneration\")\\]\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/ca\/Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg\/250px-Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg)\n\nWorld's largest reactivation plant located in [Feluy](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feluy \"Feluy\"), Belgium.\n\n[![](https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f4\/Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg\/250px-Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg)\n\nActivated carbon reactivation center in [Roeselare](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roeselare \"Roeselare\"), Belgium.\n\nThe reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the [adsorptive capacity](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adsorption \"Adsorption\") of saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface.\n\n### Thermal reactivation\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=39 \"Edit section: Thermal reactivation\")\\]\n\nThe most common regeneration technique employed in industrial processes is thermal reactivation.[\\[87\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-87) The thermal regeneration process generally follows three steps:[\\[88\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-sabio-88)\n\n- Adsorbent drying at approximately 105 °C (221 °F)\n- High temperature desorption and decomposition (500–900 °C (932–1,652 °F)) under an inert atmosphere\n- Residual organic gasification by a non-oxidising gas (steam or carbon dioxide) at elevated temperatures (800 °C (1,470 °F))\n\nThe heat treatment stage utilises the [exothermic](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exothermic \"Exothermic\") nature of adsorption and results in desorption, partial [cracking](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cracking_\\(chemistry\\) \"Cracking (chemistry)\") and [polymerization](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymerization \"Polymerization\") of the adsorbed organics. The final step aims to remove charred organic residue formed in the porous structure in the previous stage and re-expose the porous carbon structure regenerating its original surface characteristics. After treatment the adsorption column can be reused. Per adsorption-thermal regeneration cycle between 5–15 wt% of the carbon bed is burnt off resulting in a loss of adsorptive capacity.[\\[89\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-89) Thermal regeneration is a high energy process due to the high required temperatures making it both an energetically and commercially expensive process.[\\[88\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-sabio-88) Plants that rely on thermal regeneration of activated carbon have to be of a certain size before it is economically viable to have regeneration facilities onsite. As a result, it is common for smaller waste treatment sites to ship their activated carbon cores to specialised facilities for regeneration.[\\[90\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-90)\n\n### Other regeneration techniques\n\\[[edit](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=40 \"Edit section: Other regeneration techniques\")\\]\n\nCurrent concerns with the high energy\/cost nature of thermal regeneration of activated carbon has encouraged research into alternative regeneration methods to reduce the environmental impact of such processes. Though several of the regeneration techniques cited have remained areas of purely academic research, some alternatives to thermal regeneration systems have been employed in industry. Current alternative regeneration methods are:\n\n- TSA (thermal swing adsorption) and\/or PSA ([pressure swing adsorption](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pressure_swing_adsorption \"Pressure swing adsorption\")) processes: through [convection (heat transfer)](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convection_\\(heat_transfer\\) \"Convection (heat transfer)\") using [steam](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam \"Steam\"),[\\[91\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-91) \"hot\" [inert gas](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inert_gas \"Inert gas\") (typically heated [nitrogen](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") (150–250 °C (302–482 °F))),[\\[92\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-92) or [vacuum](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vacuum \"Vacuum\") (T+VSA or TVSA, combining TSA and VSA processes)[\\[93\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-93) [in situ](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In_situ \"In situ\") regeneration\n- MWR ([microwave](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microwave \"Microwave\") regeneration)[\\[94\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-94)\n- Chemical and solvent regeneration[\\[95\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-95)\n- Chemical and thermal regeneration[\\[96\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-96)\n- Microbial regeneration[\\[97\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-97)\n- [Electrochemical regeneration](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrochemical_regeneration \"Electrochemical regeneration\")[\\[98\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-98)\n- Ultrasonic regeneration[\\[99\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-99)\n- Wet air oxidation[\\[100\\]](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_note-100)\n\n- [Activated charcoal cleanse](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_charcoal_cleanse \"Activated charcoal cleanse\")\n- [Biochar](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biochar \"Biochar\")\n- [Bamboo charcoal](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bamboo_charcoal \"Bamboo charcoal\")\n- [Binchōtan](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Binch%C5%8Dtan \"Binchōtan\")\n- [Bone char](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bone_char \"Bone char\")\n- [Carbon filtering](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_filtering \"Carbon filtering\")\n- [Carbocatalysis](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbocatalysis \"Carbocatalysis\")\n- [Conjugated microporous polymer](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conjugated_microporous_polymer \"Conjugated microporous polymer\")\n- [Hydrogen storage](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrogen_storage \"Hydrogen storage\")\n- [Kværner process](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kv%C3%A6rner_process \"Kværner process\")\n- [Onboard refueling vapor recovery](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Onboard_refueling_vapor_recovery \"Onboard refueling vapor recovery\")\n\n1. ^ [***a***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-0) [***b***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-1) [***c***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-2) [***d***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-3) [***e***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-4) [***f***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-5) [***g***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-6) [***h***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-7) [***i***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-8) [***j***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-9)\n   Chalmpes N, Ochonma P, Tantis I, Alsmaeil AW, Assafa TE, Tathacharya M, Srivastava M, Gadikota G, Bourlinos AB, Steriotis T, Giannelis EP (2024-12-10). 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[\"Adsorbed Methane Film Properties in Nanoporous Carbon Monoliths\"](http:\/\/meetings.aps.org\/Meeting\/MAR13\/Event\/186324). *Bulletin of the American Physical Society*. **58** (1). M38.001. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2013APS..MARM38001S](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2013APS..MARM38001S). [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180612112845\/http:\/\/meetings.aps.org\/Meeting\/MAR13\/Event\/186324) from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2018-05-30.\n3. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-:0_3-0)**\n   [\"What is Activated Carbon?\"](https:\/\/puragen.com\/uk\/resources\/what-is-activated-carbon\/). *Puragen*. Retrieved 9 October 2025.\n4. ^ [***a***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Dillon_4-0) [***b***](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Dillon_4-1)\n   Dillon EC, Wilton JH, Barlow JC, Watson WA (1989-05-01). \"Large surface area activated charcoal and the inhibition of aspirin adsorption\". *Annals of Emergency Medicine*. **18** (5): 547–552\\. [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/S0196-0644(89)80841-8](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0196-0644%2889%2980841-8). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [2719366](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/2719366).\n5. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-5)**\n   Lehmann JS (2009). [\"Biochar for environmental management: An introduction. 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[PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [15087197](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/15087197).\n91. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-91)**\n    [\"activated carbon \\| steam \\| regeneration\"](https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-steam-regeneration-RSV_en.html). *DEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A*. [Archived](https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250215181714\/https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-steam-regeneration-RSV_en.html) from the original on 2025-02-15. Retrieved 2025-02-23.\n92. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-92)**\n    [\"activated carbon \\| inert gas \\| nitrogen \\| regeneration\"](https:\/\/www.dec.group\/solutions\/SRU\/solvent-recovery-activated-carbon-nitrogen-regeneration-RSG_en.html). *DEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A*. 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Retrieved 2025-02-23.\n94. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-94)**\n    Cherbański R (2018). \"Regeneration of granular activated carbon loaded with toluene – Comparison of microwave and conductive heating at the same active powers\". *Chemical Engineering and Processing - Process Intensification*. **123** (January 2018): 148–157\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2018CEPPI.123..148C](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018CEPPI.123..148C). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.cep.2017.11.008](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cep.2017.11.008).\n95. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-95)**\n    Martin RJ, Wj, N (1997). \"The repeated exhaustion and chemical regeneration of activated carbon\". *Water Research*. **21** (8): 961–965\\. 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[Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2003BiotB..83..479A](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2003BiotB..83..479A). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1002\/bit.10691](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2Fbit.10691). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [12800142](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/12800142). [S2CID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S2CID_\\(identifier\\) \"S2CID (identifier)\") [9980413](https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:9980413).\n98. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-98)**\n    Narbaitz RM, Karimi-Jashni A (2009). [\"Electrochemical regeneration of granular activated carbons loaded with phenol and natural organic matter\"](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09593330802422803). *Environmental Technology*. **30** (1): 27–36\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2009EnvTe..30...27N](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2009EnvTe..30...27N). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1080\/09593330802422803](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F09593330802422803). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [19213463](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/19213463).\n99. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-99)**\n    Lim JL, Okada M (2005). \"Regeneration of granular activated carbon using ultrasound\". *Ultrasonic-Sono-Chemistry*. **12** (4): 277–285\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2005UltS...12..277L](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2005UltS...12..277L). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/j.ultsonch.2004.02.003](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ultsonch.2004.02.003). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [15501710](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/15501710).\n100. **[^](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-100)**\n     Shende RV, Mahajani VV (2002). \"Wet oxidative regeneration of activated carbon loaded with reactive dye\". *Waste Management*. **22** (1): 73–83\\. [Bibcode](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode_\\(identifier\\) \"Bibcode (identifier)\"):[2002WaMan..22...73S](https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2002WaMan..22...73S). [doi](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doi_\\(identifier\\) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10\\.1016\/S0956-053X(01)00022-8](https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0956-053X%2801%2900022-8). [PMID](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PMID_\\(identifier\\) \"PMID (identifier)\") [11942707](https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/11942707).\n\n- [\"Imaging the atomic structure of activated carbon\"](http:\/\/www.personal.rdg.ac.uk\/~scsharip\/Activated_carbon_JPCM.pdf) – *[Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Physics:_Condensed_Matter \"Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter\")*\n- [\"How Does Activated Carbon Work?\"](http:\/\/www.slate.com\/id\/2131130\/) at *[Slate](https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slate_\\(magazine\\) \"Slate (magazine)\")*\n- [\"Worshiping the False Idols of Wellness\"](https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/08\/01\/style\/wellness-industrial-complex.html) on activated charcoal as a useless wellness practice at the *New York Times*","meta_canonical":null}

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Boilerpipe Text	"Charcoal filter" redirects here. For the Japanese rock band, see Charcoal Filter . Activated carbon Activated carbon , also called activated charcoal , is a form of carbon commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed ( activated ) to have small, low-volume pores that greatly increase the surface area [ 1 ] [ 2 ] available for adsorption or chemical reactions . [ 3 ] (Adsorption, not to be confused with absorption , is a process where atoms or molecules adhere to a surface). The pores can be thought of as a microscopic "sponge" structure. Activation is analogous to making popcorn from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio . Activated is sometimes replaced by active . Because it is so porous on a microscopic scale, activated carbon has a surface area of over 3,000 square metres per gram (920,000 square feet per ounce), [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 4 ] as determined by gas absorption and its porosity can run 10ML/day in terms of treated water per gram. Researchers at Cornell University synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a BET area of 4,800 m 2 /g (1,500,000 sq ft/oz). [ 1 ] This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon. For charcoal, the equivalent figure before activation is about 2–5 square metres per gram (610–1,530 sq ft/oz). [ 5 ] [ 6 ] A useful activation level may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties. Activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks in addition to other agricultural wastes like olive stones, rice husks and nutshells which are being upcycled into activated carbon, diversifying feedstock supply. Waste from paper mills has been studied as a possible source of activated carbon. [ 7 ] These bulk sources are converted into charcoal before being activated. Using waste streams not only reduces landfill burden but also works to lower the overall carbon footprint as previously discarded waste is repurposed. When derived from coal , [ 1 ] [ 2 ] it is referred to as activated coal . Activated coke is derived from coke . In activated-coke production, the raw coke (most commonly petroleum coke) is ground or pelletized, then "activated" via physical (steam or CO 2 at high temperature) or chemical (e.g., KOH or H 3 PO 4 ) methods to introduce a porous network, yielding a high-surface-area adsorbent which is referred to as activated coal. Activated carbon is used in methane and hydrogen storage, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] air purification , [ 8 ] capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, decaffeination , gold purification , metal extraction , water purification , medicine , sewage treatment , air filters in respirators , filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of hydrogen chloride , edible electronics, [ 9 ] and many other applications. These multiuse applications make it a versatile form of carbon that is used daily in many industries. There are many industrial applications of activated carbon and its other forms such as areas like metal extraction, water purification, sewage treatment, metal finishing and more. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions used for metal finishing plants. Expanding on electroplating, a variety of organic chemicals can be added to the plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. This is due to the passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up in the solutions can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal if run untreated by the filters. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level. Its installation costs may vary according to the volume of water it must process, however the average cost can be around USD 1 - 2 million. Additionally, these filters need replacing over time (typically 6–12 months depending on usage). The cost of replacing the carbon in the GAC filter form is about USD 0.05 - 0.1 per cubic meter of water that is treated in the plant. Activated charcoal for medical use Activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion . Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat diarrhea , indigestion , and flatulence . However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, is ordinarily medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of strong acids or bases , cyanide , iron , lithium , arsenic , methanol , ethanol , or ethylene glycol . [ 10 ] Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body. [ 11 ] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines . [ 12 ] Incorrect application (e.g. into the lungs ) results in pulmonary aspiration , which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated. [ 13 ] Analytical chemistry [ edit ] Activated carbon, in 50% w/w combination with celite , is used as stationary phase in low-pressure chromatographic separation of carbohydrates (mono-, di-, tri- saccharides ) using ethanol solutions (5–50%) as mobile phase in analytical or preparative protocols. Activated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) such as dabigatran , apixaban , rivaroxaban and edoxaban from blood plasma samples. [ 14 ] For this purpose it has been made into "minitablets", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants [ 15 ] this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs. Activated carbon is usually used in water filtration systems. In this illustration, the activated carbon is in the fourth level (counted from bottom). Carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as: Spill cleanup Groundwater remediation Drinking water filtration [ 16 ] Wastewater treatment [ 17 ] Air purification Volatile organic compounds capture from painting , dry cleaning , gasoline dispensing operations, and other processes Volatile organic compounds recovery (SRU, Solvent Recovery Unit; SRP, Solvent Recovery Plant; SRS, Solvent Recovery System) from flexible packaging , converting , coating , and other processes. [ 18 ] During early implementation of the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act in the US, EPA officials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. Because of its high cost, the so-called GAC rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in California. Hence, the agency set aside the rule. [ 19 ] Activated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. There are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved. [ 18 ] In wastewater treatment, granulated activated carbon filters are implemented as an additional treatment step for removal of organic micropollutants such as pharmaceutical products, [ 17 ] [ 20 ] many of which are not entirely removed in traditional wastewater treatment processes. [ 21 ] Pollutants adsorb to the activated carbon granules and are then degraded by microorganisms on the filters. [ 22 ] Activated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air. Biomass waste-derived activated carbons were also successfully used for the removal of caffeine and paracetamol from water. [ 23 ] Activated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both livestock production and wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant. [ 24 ] In organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates. [ 25 ] It is sometimes used as biochar . Distilled alcoholic beverage purification [ edit ] Activated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste. [ 26 ] Research is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store natural gas [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and hydrogen gas . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via Van der Waals forces . Some carbons have been able to achieve binding energies of 5–10 kJ per mol . [ 27 ] The gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a hydrogen fuel cell . Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. The United States Department of Energy has specified certain goals [ 28 ] to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] are continuing to conduct work in this field. Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove oil vapors, odor, and other hydrocarbons from the air. The most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media. Activated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to nonradioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through. Chemical purification [ edit ] Activated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities. Filtration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. The carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] Activated carbon, often infused with sulfur [ 31 ] or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from coal-fired power stations , medical incinerators , and from natural gas at the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use. [ 32 ] Since it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma. [ 33 ] If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling. [ citation needed ] However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule). [ citation needed ] This material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year. [ citation needed ] The problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered [ citation needed ] and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Activated, food-grade charcoal became a food trend in 2016, being used as an additive to impart a "slightly smoky" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases, and bagels. [ 34 ] People taking medication, including birth control pills and antidepressants , [ 35 ] are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring since it can render the medication ineffective. [ 36 ] Activated charcoal is used in smoking filters [ 37 ] as a way to reduce the tar content and other chemicals present in smoke, which is a result of combustion, wherein it has been found to reduce the toxicants from tobacco smoke, in particular the free radicals. [ 37 ] Structure of activated carbon [ edit ] The structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. In a book published in 2006, [ 38 ] Harry Marsh and Francisco Rodríguez-Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the fullerenes , with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] Activated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow peat , wood , coir , lignite , coal , and petroleum pitch . It can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes: Physical activation : The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gases, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes: Carbonization : Material with carbon content is pyrolyzed at temperatures in the range 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as argon or nitrogen Activation/oxidation : Raw material or carbonized material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C. The activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a muffle furnace at 450 °C in the presence of air. [ 32 ] Chemical activation : The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an acid , strong base , [ 1 ] [ 2 ] or a salt [ 41 ] ( phosphoric acid 25%, potassium hydroxide 5%, sodium hydroxide 5%, potassium carbonate 5%, [ 42 ] calcium chloride 25%, and zinc chloride 25%). The carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material. [ 43 ] The Dutch company Norit NV is one of the largest producer of activated carbon in the world. Haycarb , a Sri Lankan coconut shell-based company, controls 16% of the global market share. [ 44 ] Regeneration & Sustainability After adsorption, spent granular activated carbon can often be regenerated rather than discarded. Thermal reactivation (heating in an inert or steam atmosphere at 800–900 °C) restores much of the pore structure but consumes significant energy, while chemical regeneration (e.g. with dilute acids or bases) can selectively remove fouling compounds under milder conditions. Emerging methods like microwave-assisted reactivation and bio-regeneration using fungi or bacteria show promise for lower-carbon footprints. Choosing the optimal regeneration route balances carbon lifespan, energy use and treatment costs, and helps minimize the volume of hazardous waste sent to landfill. Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications. Powdered activated carbon (PAC) [ edit ] A micrograph of activated charcoal (R 1) under bright field illumination on a light microscope . Notice the fractal -like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. Each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, can have a surface area of several square centimetres. The entire image covers a region of approximately 1.1 by 0.7 mm, and the full resolution version is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/ μm . Normally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm). Powdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated mesh sieve . The ASTM classifies particles passing through an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high head loss that would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters. Granular activated carbon (GAC) [ edit ] A micrograph of activated charcoal (GAC) under a scanning electron microscope Granular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for adsorption of gases, vapors and liquids, because these substances diffuse rapidly throughout the filters. Granulated carbons are used for air filtration and water treatment , as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous-phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and head loss characteristics. Extruded activated carbon (EAC) [ edit ] Extruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor). Bead activated carbon (BAC) [ edit ] Bead activated carbon (BAC) is manufactured from carbonizing petroleum pitch and then activating it into uniform spheres in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. BAC typically exhibits a surface area in the range of 800–1 200 m 2 /g, comparable to or exceeding many granular carbons, enhancing its capacity for dissolved organics. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration. Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as iodine and silver . Cations such as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in air pollution control especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH) 3 ), a flocculating agent . Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) and thiols . Adsorption rates for H 2 S as high as 50% by weight have been reported. [ citation needed ] Polymer coated carbon [ edit ] Woven activated carbon cloth This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible polymer to give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The typical film thickness ranges from 50 to 200 nm, which strikes a balance between preserving pore access and ensuring mechanical stability in the material. The resulting carbon is useful for hemoperfusion . Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood. In clinical trials, polymer-coated carbons have achieved over 80% removal of toxins such as bilirubin and certain drug metabolites in a single pass. There is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for carbon filtering . Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal ( BET theory ) surface area: 500–1500 m 2 /g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm 3 /g) [ citation needed ] . Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications ( supercapacitors , odor absorbers, CBRN-defense industry etc.). A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m 2 (5,400 sq ft), with 3,000 m 2 (32,000 sq ft) being readily achievable. [ 2 ] [ 4 ] [ 45 ] Carbon aerogels , while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications. Under an electron microscope , the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of porosity ; there may be many areas where flat surfaces of graphite -like material run parallel to each other, [ 2 ] separated by only a few nanometres or so. These micropores provide superb conditions for adsorption to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with nitrogen gas at 77 K under high vacuum , but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from steam at 100 °C (212 °F) and a pressure of 1/10,000 of an atmosphere . James Dewar , the scientist after whom the Dewar ( vacuum flask ) is named, spent much time in the early 20th century studying activated carbon, and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to gases. [ 46 ] In this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut-based carbon was superior for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low temperatures. Physically, activated carbon binds materials by van der Waals force [ 43 ] or London dispersion force . Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including alcohols , diols , strong acids and bases , metals and most inorganics , such as lithium , sodium , iron , lead , arsenic , fluorine , and boric acid. Activated carbon can also adsorb iodine very well. The iodine capacity, mg/g, ( ASTM D28 Standard Method test) may be used as an indication of total adsorption over the surface area of the testing material. Carbon monoxide however, is not very well adsorbed by activated carbon. This should be of particular concern to those using the material in filters for respirators, fume hoods, or other gas control systems because the gas is undetectable to the human senses, toxic to the metabolism, and neurotoxic which creates concern. Substantial lists of the common industrial and agricultural gases adsorbed by activated carbon can be found online. [ 47 ] Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), ammonia (NH 3 ), formaldehyde (HCOH), mercury (Hg) and radioactive iodine-131 ( 131 I). This property is known as chemisorption . Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. Iodine number is the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation [ 48 ] ) often reported in mg/g (typical range 500–1200 mg/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 Å , or up to 2 nm ) by adsorption of iodine from solution. [ 49 ] It is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m 2 /g. It is the standard measure for liquid-phase applications. Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine adsorbed by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i.e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water-treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the adsorbate may affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application. Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. Molasses number or molasses efficiency is a measure of the mesopore content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 Å , or larger than 2 nm ) by adsorption of molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number. Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space. Tannins are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of macropores and mesopores adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm). Some carbons have a mesopore (20 Å to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye methylene blue . Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g/100g (range 11–28 g/100g). [ 50 ] Some carbons are evaluated based on the dechlorination half-life length, which measures the chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance. [ 51 ] The solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg/m 3 (125–130 lbs./cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg/m 3 (25–31 lbs./cubic foot). [ 52 ] Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better-quality activated carbon. ASTM D 2854 -09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon. Hardness/abrasion number [ edit ] It is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition. It is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces which would cause the material to be defective. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity) it is created for. Ash reduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e.g., coconut, wood, coal, etc.). The metal oxides (Fe 2 O 3 ) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water-soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant/algal growth. ASTM (D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon. Carbon tetrachloride activity [ edit ] Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated carbon tetrachloride vapour. Particle size distribution [ edit ] The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits. However, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of 3.35–1.4 millimetres (0.132–0.055 in). Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon). Researchers at Cornell University synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a BET area of 4800 m2 g–1 and a total pore volume of 2.7 cm3 g–1. [ 1 ] This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon to date. Modification of properties and reactivity [ edit ] Acid-base, oxidation-reduction and specific adsorption characteristics are strongly dependent on the composition of the surface functional groups. [ 53 ] The surface of conventional activated carbon is reactive, capable of oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and oxygen plasma [ 54 ] [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 60 ] [ 61 ] steam, [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] and also carbon dioxide [ 58 ] and ozone . [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] Oxidation in the liquid phase is caused by a wide range of reagents (HNO 3 , H 2 O 2 , KMnO 4 ). [ 68 ] [ 69 ] [ 70 ] Through the formation of a large number of basic and acidic groups on the surface of oxidized carbon to sorption and other properties can differ significantly from the unmodified forms. [ 53 ] Activated carbon can be nitrogenated by natural products or polymers [ 71 ] [ 72 ] or processing of carbon with nitrogenating reagents . [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] Activated carbon can interact with chlorine , [ 76 ] [ 77 ] bromine [ 78 ] and fluorine . [ 79 ] Surface of activated carbon, like other carbon materials can be fluoralkylated by treatment with (per)fluoropolyether peroxide [ 80 ] in a liquid phase, or with wide range of fluoroorganic substances by CVD-method. [ 81 ] Such materials combine high hydrophobicity and chemical stability with electrical and thermal conductivity and can be used as electrode material for super capacitors. [ 82 ] Sulfonic acid functional groups can be attached to activated carbon to give "starbons" which can be used to selectively catalyse the esterification of fatty acids. [ 83 ] Formation of such activated carbons from halogenated precursors gives a more effective catalyst which is thought to be a result of remaining halogens improving stability. [ 84 ] It is reported about synthesis of activated carbon with chemically grafted superacid sites –CF 2 SO 3 H. [ 85 ] Some of the chemical properties of activated carbon have been attributed to presence of the surface active carbon double bond . [ 67 ] [ 86 ] The Polyani adsorption theory is a popular method for analyzing adsorption of various organic substances to their surface. Examples of adsorption [ edit ] Heterogeneous catalysis [ edit ] The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid catalyst interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it. Reactivation and regeneration [ edit ] World's largest reactivation plant located in Feluy , Belgium. Activated carbon reactivation center in Roeselare , Belgium. The reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the adsorptive capacity of saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface. Thermal reactivation [ edit ] The most common regeneration technique employed in industrial processes is thermal reactivation. [ 87 ] The thermal regeneration process generally follows three steps: [ 88 ] Adsorbent drying at approximately 105 °C (221 °F) High temperature desorption and decomposition (500–900 °C (932–1,652 °F)) under an inert atmosphere Residual organic gasification by a non-oxidising gas (steam or carbon dioxide) at elevated temperatures (800 °C (1,470 °F)) The heat treatment stage utilises the exothermic nature of adsorption and results in desorption, partial cracking and polymerization of the adsorbed organics. The final step aims to remove charred organic residue formed in the porous structure in the previous stage and re-expose the porous carbon structure regenerating its original surface characteristics. After treatment the adsorption column can be reused. Per adsorption-thermal regeneration cycle between 5–15 wt% of the carbon bed is burnt off resulting in a loss of adsorptive capacity. [ 89 ] Thermal regeneration is a high energy process due to the high required temperatures making it both an energetically and commercially expensive process. [ 88 ] Plants that rely on thermal regeneration of activated carbon have to be of a certain size before it is economically viable to have regeneration facilities onsite. As a result, it is common for smaller waste treatment sites to ship their activated carbon cores to specialised facilities for regeneration. [ 90 ] Other regeneration techniques [ edit ] Current concerns with the high energy/cost nature of thermal regeneration of activated carbon has encouraged research into alternative regeneration methods to reduce the environmental impact of such processes. Though several of the regeneration techniques cited have remained areas of purely academic research, some alternatives to thermal regeneration systems have been employed in industry. 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Bibcode : 1997Carbo..35.1047P . doi : 10.1016/s0008-6223(97)00057-2 . ^ Fanning P.E., Vannice M.A. (1993). "A DRIFTS study of the formation of surface groups on carbon by oxidation". Carbon . 31 (5): 721– 730. Bibcode : 1993Carbo..31..721F . doi : 10.1016/0008-6223(93)90009-y . ^ Youssef A.M., Abdelbary E.M., Samra S.E., Dowidar A.M. (1991). "Surface-properties of carbons obtained from polyvinyl-chloride". Ind. J. Chem. A . 30 (10): 839– 843. ^ Arriagada R., Garcia R., Molina-Sabio M., Rodriguez-Reinoso F. (1997). "Effect of steam activation on the porosity and chemical nature of activated carbons from Eucalyptus globulus and peach stones". Microporous Mat . 8 ( 3– 4): 123– 130. doi : 10.1016/s0927-6513(96)00078-8 . ^ Molina-Sabio M., Gonzalez M.T., Rodriguez-Reinoso F., Sepulveda-Escribano A. (1996). "Effect of steam and carbon dioxide activation in the micropore size distribution of activated carbon". Carbon . 34 (4): 505– 509. Bibcode : 1996Carbo..34..505M . doi : 10.1016/0008-6223(96)00006-1 . ^ Bradley RH, Sutherland I, Sheng E (1996). "Carbon surface: Area, porosity, chemistry, and energy". Journal of Colloid and Interface Science . 179 (2): 561– 569. Bibcode : 1996JCIS..179..561B . doi : 10.1006/jcis.1996.0250 . ^ Sutherland I., Sheng E., Braley R.H., Freakley P.K. (1996). "Effects of ozone oxidation on carbon black surfaces". J. Mater. Sci . 31 (21): 5651– 5655. Bibcode : 1996JMatS..31.5651S . doi : 10.1007/bf01160810 . S2CID 97055178 . ^ Rivera-Utrilla J, Sanchez-Polo M (2002). "The role of dispersive and electrostatic interactions in the aqueous phase adsorption of naphthalenesulphonic acids on ozone-treated activated carbons". Carbon . 40 (14): 2685– 2691. Bibcode : 2002Carbo..40.2685R . doi : 10.1016/s0008-6223(02)00182-3 . ^ a b Valdés H, Sánchez-Polo M, Rivera-Utrilla J, Zaror CA (2002). "Effect of Ozone Treatment on Surface Properties of Activated Carbon" . Langmuir . 18 (6): 2111– 2116. doi : 10.1021/la010920a . hdl : 10533/173367 . ^ Pradhan B.K., Sandle N.K. (1999). "Effect of different oxidizing agent treatments on the surface properties of activated carbons". Carbon . 37 (8): 1323– 1332. Bibcode : 1999Carbo..37.1323P . doi : 10.1016/s0008-6223(98)00328-5 . ^ Acedo-Ramos M., Gomez-Serrano V., Valenzuella-Calahorro C., Lopez-Peinado A.J. (1993). "Oxydation of activated carbon in liquid phase. Study by FT-IR". Spectroscopy Letters . 26 (6): 1117– 1137. Bibcode : 1993SpecL..26.1117A . doi : 10.1080/00387019308011598 . ^ Gomez-Serrano V., Acedo-Ramos M., Lopez-Peinado A.J., Valenzuela-Calahorro C. (1991). "Stability towards heating and outgassing of activated carbon oxidized in the liquid-phase". Thermochimica Acta . 176 : 129– 140. Bibcode : 1991TcAc..176..129G . doi : 10.1016/0040-6031(91)80268-n . ^ Stőhr B., Boehm H.P., Schlőgl R. (1991). "Enhancement of the catalytic activity of activated carbons in oxidation reactions by termal treatment with ammonia or hydrogen cyanide and observation of a superoxide species as a possible intermediate". Carbon . 29 (6): 707– 720. Bibcode : 1991Carbo..29..707S . doi : 10.1016/0008-6223(91)90006-5 . ^ Biniak S., Szymański G., Siedlewski J., Światkowski A. (1997). "The characterizaíion of activated carbons with oxygen and nitrogen surface groups". Carbon . 35 (12): 1799– 1810. Bibcode : 1997Carbo..35.1799B . doi : 10.1016/s0008-6223(97)00096-1 . ^ Boudou J.P., Chehimi M., Broniek E., Siemieniewska T., Bimer J. (2003). "Adsorption of H2S or SO2 on an activated carbon cloth modified by ammonia treatment" (PDF) . Carbon . 41 (10): 1999– 2007. doi : 10.1016/s0008-6223(03)00210-0 . S2CID 53137987 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-28 . Retrieved 2019-07-06 . ^ Sano H., Ogawa H. (1975). "Preparation and application nitrogen containing active carbons". Osaka Kogyo Gijutsu Shirenjo . 26 (5): 2084– 2086. ^ Radkevich VZ, Senko TL, Wilson K, Grishenko LM, Zaderko AN, Diyuk VY (2008). "The influence of surface functionalization of activated carbon on palladium dispersion and catalytic activity in hydrogen oxidation". Applied Catalysis A: General . 335 (2): 241– 251. Bibcode : 2008AppCA.335..241R . doi : 10.1016/j.apcata.2007.11.029 . ^ Evans MJ, Halliop E, Liang S, MacDonald JA (1998). "The effect of chlorination on surface properties of activated carbon". Carbon . 36 (11): 1677– 1682. Bibcode : 1998Carbo..36.1677E . doi : 10.1016/S0008-6223(98)00165-1 . ^ Papirer EN, Lacroix R, Donnet JB, Nansé GR, Fioux P (1995). "XPS study of the halogenation of carbon black—Part 2. Chlorination". Carbon . 33 (1): 63– 72. Bibcode : 1995Carbo..33...63P . doi : 10.1016/0008-6223(94)00111-C . ^ Papirer E, Lacroix R, Donnet JB, Nanse G, Fioux P (1994). "XPS Study of the halogenation of carbon black-part 1. Bromination". Carbon . 32 (7): 1341– 1358. Bibcode : 1994Carbo..32.1341P . doi : 10.1016/0008-6223(94)90121-X . ^ Nansé G, Papirer E, Fioux P, Moguet F, Tressaud A (1997). "Fluorination of carbon blacks: An X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study: III. Fluorination of different carbon blacks with gaseous fluorine at temperatures below 100 °C influence of the morphology, structure and physico-chemical characteristics of the carbon black on the fluorine fixation". Carbon . 35 (4): 515– 528. Bibcode : 1997Carbo..35..515N . doi : 10.1016/S0008-6223(97)00003-1 . ^ US 8648217 , "Modification of carbonaceous materials", issued 2008-08-04 ^ US 10000382 , "Method for carbon materials surface modification by the fluorocarbons and derivatives", issued 2015-11-03 ^ Zaderko AN, Shvets RY, Grygorchak II, Afonin S, Diyuk VE, Mariychuk RT, Boldyrieva OY, Kaňuchová M, Lisnyak VV (2018-11-20). "Fluoroalkylated Nanoporous Carbons: Testing as a Supercapacitor Electrode". Applied Surface Science . 470 : 882– 892. doi : 10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.11.141 . ISSN 0169-4332 . S2CID 105746451 . ^ Aldana-Pérez A, Lartundo-Rojas L, Gómez R, Niño-Gómez ME (2012). "Sulfonic groups anchored on mesoporous carbon Starbons-300 and its use for the esterification of oleic acid". Fuel . 100 : 128– 138. Bibcode : 2012Fuel..100..128A . doi : 10.1016/j.fuel.2012.02.025 . ^ Diyuk VE, Zaderko AN, Grishchenko LM, Yatsymyrskiy AV, Lisnyak VV (2012). "Efficient carbon-based acid catalysts for the propan-2-ol dehydration" . Catalysis Communications . 27 : 33– 37. doi : 10.1016/j.catcom.2012.06.018 . ^ "WO18194533 Method for Chemical Modification of Fluorinated Carbons With Sulfur-Containing Substance" . patentscope.wipo.int . Archived from the original on 2018-11-24 . Retrieved 2018-11-24 . ^ Budarin VL, Clark JH, Tavener SJ, Wilson K (2004). "Chemical reactions of double bonds in activated carbon: Microwave and bromination methods". Chemical Communications (23): 2736– 7. doi : 10.1039/B411222A . PMID 15568092 . ^ Bagreev A, Rhaman, H., Bandosz, T. J (2001). "Thermal regeneration of a spent activated carbon adsorbent previously used as hydrogen sulfide adsorbent". Carbon . 39 (9): 1319– 1326. doi : 10.1016/S0008-6223(00)00266-9 . ^ a b Sabio E, Gonzalez, E., Gonzalez, J. F., Gonzalez-Garcia, C. M., Ramiro, A., Ganan, J (2004). "Thermal regeneration of activated carbon saturated with p-nitrophenol". Carbon . 42 (11): 2285– 2293. Bibcode : 2004Carbo..42.2285S . doi : 10.1016/j.carbon.2004.05.007 . ^ Miguel GS, Lambert SD, Graham NJ (2001). "The regeneration of field spent granular activated carbons". Water Research . 35 (11): 2740– 2748. Bibcode : 2001WatRe..35.2740S . doi : 10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00549-2 . PMID 11456174 . ^ Alvarez PM, Beltrán FJ, Gómez-Serrano V, Jaramillo J, Rodríguez EM (2004). "Comparison between thermal and ozone regenerations of spent activated carbon exhausted with phenol". Water Research . 38 (8): 2155– 2165. Bibcode : 2004WatRe..38.2155A . doi : 10.1016/j.watres.2004.01.030 . PMID 15087197 . ^ "activated carbon \| steam \| regeneration" . DEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A . Archived from the original on 2025-02-15 . Retrieved 2025-02-23 . ^ "activated carbon \| inert gas \| nitrogen \| regeneration" . DEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A . Archived from the original on 2025-02-15 . Retrieved 2025-02-23 . ^ "activated carbon \| vacuum \| regeneration" . DEC • Dynamic Environmental Corporation S.p.A . Archived from the original on 2025-02-23 . Retrieved 2025-02-23 . ^ Cherbański R (2018). "Regeneration of granular activated carbon loaded with toluene – Comparison of microwave and conductive heating at the same active powers". Chemical Engineering and Processing - Process Intensification . 123 (January 2018): 148– 157. Bibcode : 2018CEPPI.123..148C . doi : 10.1016/j.cep.2017.11.008 . ^ Martin RJ, Wj, N (1997). "The repeated exhaustion and chemical regeneration of activated carbon". Water Research . 21 (8): 961– 965. doi : 10.1016/S0043-1354(87)80014-3 . ^ Didenko T, Lau A, Purohit AL, Feng J, Pinkard B, Ateia M, Novosselov IV. "Regeneration of PFAS-laden Granular Activated Carbon in Modified Supercritical CO2 Extraction" . ChemRxiv . 2024 (0719). doi : 10.26434/chemrxiv-2024-b1rvv-v2 . ^ Aizpuru A, Malhautier L, Roux JC, Fanlo JL (2003). "Biofiltration of a mixture of volatile organic compounds on granular activated carbon". Biotechnology and Bioengineering . 83 (4): 479– 488. Bibcode : 2003BiotB..83..479A . doi : 10.1002/bit.10691 . PMID 12800142 . S2CID 9980413 . ^ Narbaitz RM, Karimi-Jashni A (2009). "Electrochemical regeneration of granular activated carbons loaded with phenol and natural organic matter" . Environmental Technology . 30 (1): 27– 36. Bibcode : 2009EnvTe..30...27N . doi : 10.1080/09593330802422803 . PMID 19213463 . ^ Lim JL, Okada M (2005). 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Markdown	[Jump to content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#bodyContent) Main menu Main menu move to sidebar hide Navigation - [Main page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page "Visit the main page [z]") - [Contents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents "Guides to browsing Wikipedia") - [Current events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_events "Articles related to current events") - [Random article](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Random "Visit a randomly selected article [x]") - [About Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:About "Learn about Wikipedia and how it works") - [Contact us](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us "How to contact Wikipedia") Contribute - [Help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents "Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia") - [Learn to edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction "Learn how to edit Wikipedia") - [Community portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal "The hub for editors") - [Recent changes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges "A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]") - [Upload file](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard "Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia") - [Special pages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPages "A list of all special pages [q]") [![](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/enwiki-25.svg) ![Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en-25.svg) ![The Free Encyclopedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en-25.svg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page) [Search](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search "Search Wikipedia [f]") Appearance - [Donate](https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en) - [Create account](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Activated+carbon "You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory") - [Log in](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Activated+carbon "You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. 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[o]") ## Contents move to sidebar hide - [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon) - [1 Uses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Uses) Toggle Uses subsection - [1\.1 Industrial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Industrial) - [1\.2 Medical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Medical) - [1\.3 Analytical chemistry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Analytical_chemistry) - [1\.4 Environmental](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Environmental) - [1\.5 Agricultural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Agricultural) - [1\.6 Distilled alcoholic beverage purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Distilled_alcoholic_beverage_purification) - [1\.7 Fuel storage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Fuel_storage) - [1\.8 Gas purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Gas_purification) - [1\.9 Chemical purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Chemical_purification) - [1\.10 Mercury scrubbing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Mercury_scrubbing) - [1\.11 Food additive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Food_additive) - [1\.12 Smoking filtration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Smoking_filtration) - [2 Structure of activated carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Structure_of_activated_carbon) - [3 Production](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Production) - [4 Classification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Classification) Toggle Classification subsection - [4\.1 Powdered activated carbon (PAC)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Powdered_activated_carbon_\(PAC\)) - [4\.2 Granular activated carbon (GAC)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Granular_activated_carbon_\(GAC\)) - [4\.3 Extruded activated carbon (EAC)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Extruded_activated_carbon_\(EAC\)) - [4\.4 Bead activated carbon (BAC)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Bead_activated_carbon_\(BAC\)) - [4\.5 Impregnated carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Impregnated_carbon) - [4\.6 Polymer coated carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Polymer_coated_carbon) - [4\.7 Woven carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Woven_carbon) - [5 Properties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Properties) Toggle Properties subsection - [5\.1 Iodine number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Iodine_number) - [5\.2 Molasses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Molasses) - [5\.3 Tannin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Tannin) - [5\.4 Methylene blue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Methylene_blue) - [5\.5 Dechlorination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Dechlorination) - [5\.6 Apparent density](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Apparent_density) - [5\.7 Hardness/abrasion number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Hardness/abrasion_number) - [5\.8 Ash content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Ash_content) - [5\.9 Carbon tetrachloride activity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Carbon_tetrachloride_activity) - [5\.10 Particle size distribution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Particle_size_distribution) - [6 Modification of properties and reactivity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Modification_of_properties_and_reactivity) - [7 Examples of adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Examples_of_adsorption) Toggle Examples of adsorption subsection - [7\.1 Heterogeneous catalysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Heterogeneous_catalysis) - [8 Reactivation and regeneration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Reactivation_and_regeneration) Toggle Reactivation and regeneration subsection - [8\.1 Thermal reactivation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Thermal_reactivation) - [8\.2 Other regeneration techniques](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#Other_regeneration_techniques) - [9 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#See_also) - [10 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#References) - [11 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#External_links) Toggle the table of contents # Activated carbon 49 languages - [العربية](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%B7 "كربون نشط – Arabic") - [Беларуская (тарашкевіца)](https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C "Актываваны вугаль – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)") - [Беларуская](https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C "Актывіраваны вугаль – Belarusian") - [Български](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD "Активен въглен – Bulgarian") - [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivni_ugalj "Aktivni ugalj – Bosnian") - [Català](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carb%C3%B3_actiu "Carbó actiu – Catalan") - [Čeština](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivn%C3%AD_uhl%C3%AD "Aktivní uhlí – Czech") - [Чӑвашла](https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%C4%95_%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BC%D1%80%C4%83%D0%BA "Активациленĕ кăмрăк – Chuvash") - [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivkohle "Aktivkohle – German") - [Ελληνικά](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%82 "Ενεργός άνθρακας – Greek") - [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carb%C3%B3n_activado "Carbón activado – Spanish") - [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktiivs%C3%BCsi "Aktiivsüsi – Estonian") - [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikatz_aktibatu "Ikatz aktibatu – Basque") - [فارسی](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84 "کربن فعال – Persian") - [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktiivihiili "Aktiivihiili – Finnish") - [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charbon_actif "Charbon actif – French") - [Gaeilge](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gualach_gn%C3%ADomhachtaithe "Gualach gníomhachtaithe – Irish") - [ગુજરાતી](https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF_%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AC%E0%AA%A8 "સક્રિય કાર્બન – Gujarati") - [עברית](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%97%D7%9D_%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9C "פחם פעיל – Hebrew") - [हिन्दी](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8 "सक्रियित कार्बन – Hindi") - [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivni_ugljen "Aktivni ugljen – Croatian") - [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akt%C3%ADv_sz%C3%A9n "Aktív szén – Hungarian") - [Հայերեն](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%81%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE_%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AD "Ակտիվացրած ածուխ – Armenian") - [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_aktif "Karbon aktif – Indonesian") - [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbone_attivo "Carbone attivo – Italian") - [日本語](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E6%80%A7%E7%82%AD "活性炭 – Japanese") - [Қазақша](https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80 "Белсендірілген көмір – Kazakh") - [ಕನ್ನಡ](https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2 "ಸಕ್ರಿಯ ಇಂಗಾಲ – Kannada") - [한국어](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%9C%EC%84%B1%ED%83%84 "활성탄 – Korean") - [Latviešu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akt%C4%ABv%C4%81_ogle "Aktīvā ogle – Latvian") - [Македонски](https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD "Активен јаглен – Macedonian") - [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_aktif "Karbon aktif – Malay") - [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actieve_kool "Actieve kool – Dutch") - [Norsk bokmål](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivt_kull "Aktivt kull – Norwegian Bokmål") - [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C4%99giel_aktywny "Węgiel aktywny – Polish") - [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carv%C3%A3o_ativado "Carvão ativado – Portuguese") - [Română](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%83rbune_activ "Cărbune activ – Romanian") - [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C "Активированный уголь – Russian") - [Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски](https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivni_ugalj "Aktivni ugalj – Serbo-Croatian") - [Slovenčina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akt%C3%ADvne_uhlie "Aktívne uhlie – Slovak") - [Slovenščina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivno_oglje "Aktivno oglje – Slovenian") - [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%99 "Активни угаљ – Serbian") - [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivt_kol "Aktivt kol – Swedish") - [ไทย](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%96%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C "ถ่านกัมมันต์ – Thai") - [Türkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktif_karbon "Aktif karbon – Turkish") - [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8F "Активоване вугілля – Ukrainian") - [Tiếng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Than_ho%E1%BA%A1t_t%C3%ADnh "Than hoạt tính – Vietnamese") - [閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí](https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oa%CC%8Dh-s%C3%A8ng-th%C3%B2a%E2%81%BF "Oa̍h-sèng-thòaⁿ – Minnan") - [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E6%80%A7%E7%82%AD "活性炭 – Chinese") [Edit links](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q190878#sitelinks-wikipedia "Edit interlanguage links") - [Article](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon "View the content page [c]") - [Talk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Activated_carbon "Discuss improvements to the content page [t]") English - [Read](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon) - [Edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit "Edit this page [e]") - [View history](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=history "Past revisions of this page [h]") Tools Tools move to sidebar hide Actions - [Read](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon) - [Edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit "Edit this page [e]") - [View history](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=history) General - [What links here](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Activated_carbon "List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]") - [Related changes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Activated_carbon "Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]") - [Upload file](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard "Upload files [u]") - [Permanent link](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&oldid=1344905469 "Permanent link to this revision of this page") - [Page information](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=info "More information about this page") - [Cite this page](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Activated_carbon&id=1344905469&wpFormIdentifier=titleform "Information on how to cite this page") - [Get shortened URL](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FActivated_carbon) Print/export - [Download as PDF](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Activated_carbon&action=show-download-screen "Download this page as a PDF file") - [Printable version](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&printable=yes "Printable version of this page [p]") In other projects - [Wikimedia Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Activated_carbon) - [Wikidata item](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q190878 "Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]") Appearance move to sidebar hide From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Form of carbon with an extremely high surface area "Charcoal filter" redirects here. For the Japanese rock band, see [Charcoal Filter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal_Filter "Charcoal Filter"). [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Activated_Carbon.jpg/500px-Activated_Carbon.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Activated_Carbon.jpg) Activated carbon Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of [carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon "Carbon") commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (activated) to have small, low-volume pores that greatly increase the [surface area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_area "Surface area")[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) available for [adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") or [chemical reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction "Chemical reaction").[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:0-3) (Adsorption, not to be confused with [absorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_\(chemistry\) "Absorption (chemistry)"), is a process where atoms or molecules adhere to a surface). The pores can be thought of as a microscopic "sponge" structure. Activation is analogous to making [popcorn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popcorn "Popcorn") from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high [surface-area-to-volume ratio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio "Surface-area-to-volume ratio"). Activated is sometimes replaced by active. Because it is so porous on a microscopic scale, activated carbon has a surface area of over 3,000 square metres per gram (920,000 square feet per ounce),[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Dillon-4) as determined by gas absorption and its porosity can run 10ML/day in terms of treated water per gram. Researchers at [Cornell University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University "Cornell University") synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a [BET](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BET_theory "BET theory") area of 4,800 m2/g (1,500,000 sq ft/oz).[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1) This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon. For charcoal, the equivalent figure before activation is about 2–5 square metres per gram (610–1,530 sq ft/oz).[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-5)[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-6) A useful activation level may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties. Activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks in addition to other agricultural wastes like olive stones, rice husks and nutshells which are being upcycled into activated carbon, diversifying feedstock supply. Waste from paper mills has been studied as a possible source of activated carbon.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-7) These bulk sources are converted into [charcoal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal "Charcoal") before being activated. Using waste streams not only reduces landfill burden but also works to lower the overall carbon footprint as previously discarded waste is repurposed. When derived from [coal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal "Coal"),[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) it is referred to as activated coal. Activated coke is derived from [coke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_\(fuel\) "Coke (fuel)"). In activated-coke production, the raw coke (most commonly petroleum coke) is ground or pelletized, then "activated" via physical (steam or CO2 at high temperature) or chemical (e.g., KOH or H3PO4) methods to introduce a porous network, yielding a high-surface-area adsorbent which is referred to as activated coal. ## Uses \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=1 "Edit section: Uses")\] Activated carbon is used in [methane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane "Methane") and [hydrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") storage,[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) [air purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier "Air purifier"),[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-8) capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, [decaffeination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decaffeination "Decaffeination"), [gold purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_in_pulp "Carbon in pulp"), [metal extraction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy "Extractive metallurgy"), [water purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification "Water purification"), [medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine "Medicine"), [sewage treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment "Sewage treatment"), [air filters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_filter "Air filter") in [respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator "Respirator"), filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of [hydrogen chloride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride "Hydrogen chloride"), edible electronics,[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-9) and many other applications. These multiuse applications make it a versatile form of carbon that is used daily in many industries. ### Industrial \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=2 "Edit section: Industrial")\] There are many industrial applications of activated carbon and its other forms such as areas like metal extraction, water purification, sewage treatment, metal finishing and more. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions used for metal finishing plants. Expanding on electroplating, a variety of organic chemicals can be added to the plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. This is due to the passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up in the solutions can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal if run untreated by the filters. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level. Its installation costs may vary according to the volume of water it must process, however the average cost can be around USD 1 - 2 million. Additionally, these filters need replacing over time (typically 6–12 months depending on usage). The cost of replacing the carbon in the GAC filter form is about USD 0.05 - 0.1 per cubic meter of water that is treated in the plant. ### Medical \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=3 "Edit section: Medical")\] Main article: [Activated charcoal (medication)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_charcoal_\(medication\) "Activated charcoal (medication)") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg/250px-%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg) Activated charcoal for medical use Activated carbon is used to treat [poisonings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison "Poison") and [overdoses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdose "Overdose") following oral [ingestion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingestion "Ingestion"). Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat [diarrhea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea "Diarrhea"), [indigestion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigestion "Indigestion"), and [flatulence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatulence "Flatulence"). However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, is ordinarily medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of [strong acids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_acids "Strong acids") or [bases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_\(chemistry\) "Base (chemistry)"), [cyanide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide "Cyanide"), [iron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron "Iron"), [lithium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium "Lithium"), [arsenic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic"), [methanol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol "Methanol"), [ethanol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol "Ethanol"), or [ethylene glycol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene_glycol "Ethylene glycol").[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-AHFS-10) Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-mayo200787-11) It is on the [World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines").[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-WHO23rd-12) Incorrect application (e.g. into the [lungs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungs "Lungs")) results in [pulmonary aspiration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_aspiration "Pulmonary aspiration"), which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chest1989-Elliott-13) ### Analytical chemistry \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=4 "Edit section: Analytical chemistry")\] Activated carbon, in 50% [w/w](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W/w "W/w") combination with [celite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomaceous_earth "Diatomaceous earth"), is used as stationary phase in low-pressure [chromatographic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatographic "Chromatographic") separation of [carbohydrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrates "Carbohydrates") (mono-, di-, tri-[saccharides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharides "Saccharides")) using [ethanol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol "Ethanol") solutions (5–50%) as [mobile phase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatography "Chromatography") in analytical or preparative protocols. Activated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral [anticoagulants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticoagulant "Anticoagulant") (DOACs) such as [dabigatran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabigatran "Dabigatran"), [apixaban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apixaban "Apixaban"), [rivaroxaban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivaroxaban "Rivaroxaban") and [edoxaban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edoxaban "Edoxaban") from blood plasma samples.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-14) For this purpose it has been made into "minitablets", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-15) this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs. ### Environmental \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=5 "Edit section: Environmental")\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Water_Filtration_Systems.png/250px-Water_Filtration_Systems.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Water_Filtration_Systems.png) Activated carbon is usually used in water filtration systems. In this illustration, the activated carbon is in the fourth level (counted from bottom). Carbon [adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") has numerous applications in removing [pollutants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutant "Pollutant") from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as: - Spill cleanup - [Groundwater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater "Groundwater") [remediation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_remediation "Environmental remediation") - [Drinking water](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water "Drinking water") [filtration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtration "Filtration")[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-16) - [Wastewater treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater_treatment "Wastewater treatment")[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:1-17) - [Air purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier "Air purifier") - [Volatile organic compounds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound "Volatile organic compound") capture from [painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting "Painting"), [dry cleaning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_cleaning "Dry cleaning"), [gasoline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline "Gasoline") dispensing operations, and other processes - [Volatile organic compounds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound "Volatile organic compound") recovery (SRU, Solvent Recovery Unit; SRP, Solvent Recovery Plant; SRS, Solvent Recovery System) from [flexible packaging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_packaging "Flexible packaging"), [converting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converter_\(industry\) "Converter (industry)"), [coating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coating "Coating"), and other processes.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-DEC_IMPIANTI-18) During early implementation of the 1974 [Safe Drinking Water Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Drinking_Water_Act "Safe Drinking Water Act") in the US, [EPA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency") officials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. Because of its high cost, the so-called GAC rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in California. Hence, the agency set aside the rule.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-19) Activated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. There are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-DEC_IMPIANTI-18) In wastewater treatment, granulated activated carbon filters are implemented as an additional treatment step for removal of organic micropollutants such as pharmaceutical products,[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:1-17)[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-20) many of which are not entirely removed in traditional wastewater treatment processes.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-21) Pollutants adsorb to the activated carbon granules and are then degraded by microorganisms on the filters.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-22) Activated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air. Biomass waste-derived activated carbons were also successfully used for the removal of caffeine and paracetamol from water.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-23) ### Agricultural \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=6 "Edit section: Agricultural")\] Activated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both [livestock production](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry "Animal husbandry") and wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-24) In organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-25) It is sometimes used as [biochar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochar "Biochar"). ### Distilled alcoholic beverage purification \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=7 "Edit section: Distilled alcoholic beverage purification")\] See also: [Lincoln County Process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_County_Process "Lincoln County Process") Activated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter [vodka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodka "Vodka") and [whiskey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey "Whiskey") of [organic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound "Organic compound") impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-26) ### Fuel storage \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=8 "Edit section: Fuel storage")\] Research is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store [natural gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas "Natural gas")[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) and [hydrogen gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_gas "Hydrogen gas").[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) The porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via [Van der Waals forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_forces "Van der Waals forces"). Some carbons have been able to achieve binding energies of 5–10 kJ per [mol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_\(unit\) "Mole (unit)").[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-27) The gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a [hydrogen fuel cell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cell "Hydrogen fuel cell"). Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. The [United States Department of Energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy "United States Department of Energy") has specified certain goals[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-28) to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program,[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) are continuing to conduct work in this field. ### Gas purification \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=9 "Edit section: Gas purification")\] Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove [oil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil "Oil") vapors, odor, and other [hydrocarbons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon "Hydrocarbon") from the air. The most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media. Activated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to nonradioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through. ### Chemical purification \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=10 "Edit section: Chemical purification")\] Activated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities. Filtration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. The carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-29)[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-30) ### Mercury scrubbing \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=11 "Edit section: Mercury scrubbing")\] Activated carbon, often infused with sulfur[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-31) or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from [coal-fired power stations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station "Coal-fired power station"), medical [incinerators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incineration "Incineration"), and from [natural gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas "Natural gas") at the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Mohan-32) Since it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-33) If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling.\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule).\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] This material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year.\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] The problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide (CO2). ### Food additive \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=12 "Edit section: Food additive")\] Activated, food-grade charcoal became a [food trend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_trend "Food trend") in 2016, being used as an [additive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_additive "Food additive") to impart a "slightly smoky" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases, and bagels.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-34) People taking medication, including [birth control pills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_control_pill "Birth control pill") and [antidepressants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant "Antidepressant"),[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-35) are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring since it can render the medication ineffective.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-36) ### Smoking filtration \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=13 "Edit section: Smoking filtration")\] Activated charcoal is used in smoking filters[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-ncbi-37) as a way to reduce the tar content and other chemicals present in smoke, which is a result of combustion, wherein it has been found to reduce the toxicants from tobacco smoke, in particular the free radicals.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-ncbi-37) ## Structure of activated carbon \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=14 "Edit section: Structure of activated carbon")\] The structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. In a book published in 2006,[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-38) [Harry Marsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Marsh "Harry Marsh") and Francisco Rodríguez-Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration-corrected [transmission electron microscopy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy "Transmission electron microscopy") has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the [fullerenes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullerene "Fullerene"), with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-39)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-40) ## Production \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=15 "Edit section: Production")\] Activated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow [peat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat "Peat"), [wood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood "Wood"), [coir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir "Coir"), [lignite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignite "Lignite"), [coal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal "Coal"), and [petroleum pitch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_\(resin\) "Pitch (resin)"). It can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes: 1. Physical activation: The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gases, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes: - [Carbonization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization "Carbonization"): Material with carbon content is [pyrolyzed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis "Pyrolysis") at temperatures in the range 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as [argon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon "Argon") or [nitrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") - Activation/oxidation: Raw material or [carbonized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization "Carbonization") material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C. The activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a [muffle furnace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muffle_furnace "Muffle furnace") at 450 °C in the presence of air.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Mohan-32) 2. Chemical activation: The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an [acid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid "Acid"), strong [base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali "Alkali"),[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) or a [salt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_\(chemistry\) "Salt (chemistry)")[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-41) ([phosphoric acid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid "Phosphoric acid") 25%, [potassium hydroxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide "Potassium hydroxide") 5%, [sodium hydroxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide "Sodium hydroxide") 5%, [potassium carbonate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_carbonate "Potassium carbonate") 5%,[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-42) [calcium chloride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_chloride "Calcium chloride") 25%, and [zinc chloride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_chloride "Zinc chloride") 25%). The carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Nwankwo-43) The Dutch company Norit [NV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naamloze_vennootschap "Naamloze vennootschap") is one of the largest producer of activated carbon in the world. [Haycarb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haycarb "Haycarb"), a Sri Lankan coconut shell-based company, controls 16% of the global market share.[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-44) Regeneration & Sustainability After adsorption, spent granular activated carbon can often be regenerated rather than discarded. Thermal reactivation (heating in an inert or steam atmosphere at 800–900 °C) restores much of the pore structure but consumes significant energy, while chemical regeneration (e.g. with dilute acids or bases) can selectively remove fouling compounds under milder conditions. Emerging methods like microwave-assisted reactivation and bio-regeneration using fungi or bacteria show promise for lower-carbon footprints. Choosing the optimal regeneration route balances carbon lifespan, energy use and treatment costs, and helps minimize the volume of hazardous waste sent to landfill. ## Classification \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=16 "Edit section: Classification")\] Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications. ### Powdered activated carbon (PAC) \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=17 "Edit section: Powdered activated carbon (PAC)")\] See also: [Powdered activated carbon treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powdered_activated_carbon_treatment "Powdered activated carbon treatment") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg/330px-ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg) A [micrograph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrograph "Micrograph") of activated charcoal (R 1) under [bright field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright_field_microscopy "Bright field microscopy") illumination on a [light microscope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_microscope "Light microscope"). Notice the [fractal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal "Fractal")\-like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. Each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, can have a surface area of several square centimetres. The entire image covers a region of approximately 1.1 by 0.7 mm, and the full resolution version is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/[μm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9Cm "Μm"). Normally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm). Powdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated [mesh sieve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesh_\(scale\) "Mesh (scale)"). The [ASTM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_International "ASTM International") classifies particles passing through an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high [head loss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_loss "Head loss") that would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters. ### Granular activated carbon (GAC) \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=18 "Edit section: Granular activated carbon (GAC)")\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Activated_Charcoal.jpg/250px-Activated_Charcoal.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Activated_Charcoal.jpg) A [micrograph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrograph "Micrograph") of activated charcoal (GAC) under a [scanning electron microscope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope "Scanning electron microscope") Granular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for [adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") of gases, vapors and liquids, because these substances diffuse rapidly throughout the filters. Granulated carbons are used for [air filtration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_filter "Air filter") and [water treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment "Water treatment"), as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous-phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and [head loss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_loss "Head loss") characteristics. ### Extruded activated carbon (EAC) \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=19 "Edit section: Extruded activated carbon (EAC)")\] Extruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor). ### Bead activated carbon (BAC) \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=20 "Edit section: Bead activated carbon (BAC)")\] Bead activated carbon (BAC) is manufactured from carbonizing petroleum pitch and then activating it into uniform spheres in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. BAC typically exhibits a surface area in the range of 800–1 200 m2/g, comparable to or exceeding many granular carbons, enhancing its capacity for dissolved organics. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration. ### Impregnated carbon \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=21 "Edit section: Impregnated carbon")\] Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as [iodine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine "Iodine") and [silver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver "Silver"). [Cations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation "Cation") such as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in [air pollution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution") control especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and [aluminium hydroxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxide "Aluminium hydroxide") (Al(OH)3), a [flocculating agent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flocculation "Flocculation"). Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of [hydrogen sulfide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide "Hydrogen sulfide") (H2S) and [thiols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiol "Thiol"). Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported. \[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] ### Polymer coated carbon \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=22 "Edit section: Polymer coated carbon")\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg/250px-Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg) Woven activated carbon cloth This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible [polymer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer "Polymer") to give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The typical film thickness ranges from 50 to 200 nm, which strikes a balance between preserving pore access and ensuring mechanical stability in the material. The resulting carbon is useful for [hemoperfusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoperfusion "Hemoperfusion"). Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood. In clinical trials, polymer-coated carbons have achieved over 80% removal of toxins such as bilirubin and certain drug metabolites in a single pass. ### Woven carbon \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=23 "Edit section: Woven carbon")\] There is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for [carbon filtering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_filtering "Carbon filtering"). Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal ([BET theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BET_theory "BET theory")) surface area: 500–1500 m2/g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm3/g)\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\]. Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications ([supercapacitors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitors "Supercapacitors"), odor absorbers, [CBRN-defense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN_defense "CBRN defense") industry etc.). ## Properties \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=24 "Edit section: Properties")\] A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m2 (5,400 sq ft), with 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft) being readily achievable.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Dillon-4)[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-surfacearea-45) Carbon [aerogels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel "Aerogel"), while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications. Under an [electron microscope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope "Electron microscope"), the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of [porosity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosity "Porosity"); there may be many areas where flat surfaces of [graphite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite "Graphite")\-like material run parallel to each other,[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) separated by only a few nanometres or so. These [micropores](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micropore "Micropore") provide superb conditions for [adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with [nitrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") gas at 77 [K](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin "Kelvin") under high [vacuum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum "Vacuum"), but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from [steam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam "Steam") at 100 °C (212 °F) and a pressure of 1/10,000 of an [atmosphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_\(unit\) "Atmosphere (unit)"). [James Dewar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar "James Dewar"), the scientist after whom the Dewar ([vacuum flask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_flask "Vacuum flask")) is named, spent much time in the early 20th century studying activated carbon, and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to gases.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-46) In this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut-based carbon was superior for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low temperatures. Physically, activated carbon binds materials by [van der Waals force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force "Van der Waals force")[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Nwankwo-43) or [London dispersion force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_dispersion_force "London dispersion force"). Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including [alcohols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_\(chemistry\) "Alcohol (chemistry)"), [diols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diol "Diol"), strong [acids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid "Acid") and [bases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_\(chemistry\) "Base (chemistry)"), [metals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal "Metal") and most [inorganics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic "Inorganic"), such as [lithium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium "Lithium"), [sodium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium "Sodium"), [iron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron "Iron"), [lead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead "Lead"), [arsenic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic"), [fluorine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine "Fluorine"), and boric acid. Activated carbon can also adsorb [iodine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine "Iodine") very well. The iodine capacity, mg/g, ([ASTM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_International "ASTM International") D28 Standard Method test) may be used as an indication of total adsorption over the surface area of the testing material. Carbon monoxide however, is not very well adsorbed by activated carbon. This should be of particular concern to those using the material in filters for respirators, fume hoods, or other gas control systems because the gas is undetectable to the human senses, toxic to the metabolism, and neurotoxic which creates concern. Substantial lists of the common industrial and agricultural gases adsorbed by activated carbon can be found online.[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-47) Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as [hydrogen sulfide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide "Hydrogen sulfide") (H2S), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCOH), [mercury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_\(element\) "Mercury (element)") (Hg) and radioactive [iodine-131](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine-131 "Iodine-131")(131I). This property is known as [chemisorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemisorption "Chemisorption"). ### Iodine number \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=25 "Edit section: Iodine number")\] Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. [Iodine number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine_value "Iodine value") is the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Marecka-2007-48)) often reported in mg/g (typical range 500–1200 mg/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 [Å](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m "Ångström"), or up to 2 [nm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre "Nanometre")) by adsorption of iodine from solution.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-49) It is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m2/g. It is the standard measure for liquid-phase applications. Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine [adsorbed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i.e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water-treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the [adsorbate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorbate "Adsorbate") may affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application. ### Molasses \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=26 "Edit section: Molasses")\] Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. [Molasses number](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molasses_number&action=edit&redlink=1 "Molasses number (page does not exist)") or molasses efficiency is a measure of the [mesopore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoporous_material "Mesoporous material") content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 [Å](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m "Ångström"), or larger than 2 [nm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre "Nanometre")) by adsorption of molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number. Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space. ### Tannin \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=27 "Edit section: Tannin")\] [Tannins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannin "Tannin") are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of [macropores](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macropore "Macropore") and [mesopores](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoporous_material "Mesoporous material") adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm). ### Methylene blue \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=28 "Edit section: Methylene blue")\] Some carbons have a mesopore (20 [Å](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m "Ångström") to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye [methylene blue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylene_blue "Methylene blue"). Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g/100g (range 11–28 g/100g).[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Adsorption_Experiments-50) ### Dechlorination \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=29 "Edit section: Dechlorination")\] Some carbons are evaluated based on the [dechlorination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductive_dechlorination "Reductive dechlorination") half-life length, which measures the chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-51) ### Apparent density \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=30 "Edit section: Apparent density")\] The solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg/m3 (125–130 lbs./cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg/m3 (25–31 lbs./cubic foot).[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-52) Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better-quality activated carbon. ASTM D 2854 -09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon. ### Hardness/abrasion number \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=31 "Edit section: Hardness/abrasion number")\] It is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition. It is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces which would cause the material to be defective. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity) it is created for. ### Ash content \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=32 "Edit section: Ash content")\] [Ash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash_\(analytical_chemistry\) "Ash (analytical chemistry)") reduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e.g., coconut, wood, coal, etc.). The metal oxides (Fe2O3) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water-soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant/algal growth. [ASTM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_International "ASTM International") (D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon. ### Carbon tetrachloride activity \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=33 "Edit section: Carbon tetrachloride activity")\] Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated [carbon tetrachloride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride "Carbon tetrachloride") vapour. ### Particle size distribution \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=34 "Edit section: Particle size distribution")\] The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits. However, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of 3.35–1.4 millimetres (0.132–0.055 in). Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon). Researchers at Cornell University synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a BET area of 4800 m2 g–1 and a total pore volume of 2.7 cm3 g–1.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1) This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon to date. ## Modification of properties and reactivity \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=35 "Edit section: Modification of properties and reactivity")\] Acid-base, oxidation-reduction and specific adsorption characteristics are strongly dependent on the composition of the surface functional groups.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Philippe_Serp_2009-53) The surface of conventional activated carbon is reactive, capable of oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and oxygen [plasma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_\(physics\) "Plasma (physics)")[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-54)[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-55)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-56)[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-57)[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Streat_M.-2001-58)[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-59)[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-60)[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-61) steam,[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-62)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-63)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-64) and also [carbon dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide")[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Streat_M.-2001-58) and [ozone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone "Ozone").[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-65)[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Vald%C3%A9s-2002-67) Oxidation in the liquid phase is caused by a wide range of reagents (HNO3, H2O2, KMnO4).[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-68)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-69)[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-70) Through the formation of a large number of basic and acidic groups on the surface of oxidized carbon to sorption and other properties can differ significantly from the unmodified forms.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Philippe_Serp_2009-53) Activated carbon can be nitrogenated by natural products or [polymers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer "Polymer")[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-71)[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-72) or processing of carbon with nitrogenating [reagents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent "Reagent").[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-73)[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-74)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-75) Activated carbon can interact with [chlorine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine "Chlorine"),[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-76)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-77) [bromine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromine "Bromine")[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-78) and [fluorine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine "Fluorine").[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-79) Surface of activated carbon, like other carbon materials can be fluoralkylated by treatment with (per)fluoropolyether peroxide[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-80) in a liquid phase, or with wide range of fluoroorganic substances by CVD-method.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-81) Such materials combine high hydrophobicity and chemical stability with electrical and thermal conductivity and can be used as electrode material for super capacitors.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-82) Sulfonic acid functional groups can be attached to activated carbon to give "starbons" which can be used to selectively catalyse the esterification of fatty acids.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-83) Formation of such activated carbons from halogenated precursors gives a more effective catalyst which is thought to be a result of remaining halogens improving stability.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-84) It is reported about synthesis of activated carbon with chemically grafted superacid sites –CF2SO3H.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-85) Some of the chemical properties of activated carbon have been attributed to presence of the surface active carbon [double bond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkenes "Alkenes").[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Vald%C3%A9s-2002-67)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-86) The [Polyani adsorption theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_theory_of_Polanyi "Potential theory of Polanyi") is a popular method for analyzing adsorption of various organic substances to their surface. ## Examples of adsorption \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=36 "Edit section: Examples of adsorption")\] ### Heterogeneous catalysis \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=37 "Edit section: Heterogeneous catalysis")\] The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid [catalyst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst "Catalyst") interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it. ## Reactivation and regeneration \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=38 "Edit section: Reactivation and regeneration")\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg/250px-Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg) World's largest reactivation plant located in [Feluy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feluy "Feluy"), Belgium. [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg/250px-Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg) Activated carbon reactivation center in [Roeselare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roeselare "Roeselare"), Belgium. The reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the [adsorptive capacity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") of saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface. ### Thermal reactivation \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=39 "Edit section: Thermal reactivation")\] The most common regeneration technique employed in industrial processes is thermal reactivation.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-87) The thermal regeneration process generally follows three steps:[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-sabio-88) - Adsorbent drying at approximately 105 °C (221 °F) - High temperature desorption and decomposition (500–900 °C (932–1,652 °F)) under an inert atmosphere - Residual organic gasification by a non-oxidising gas (steam or carbon dioxide) at elevated temperatures (800 °C (1,470 °F)) The heat treatment stage utilises the [exothermic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exothermic "Exothermic") nature of adsorption and results in desorption, partial [cracking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cracking_\(chemistry\) "Cracking (chemistry)") and [polymerization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerization "Polymerization") of the adsorbed organics. The final step aims to remove charred organic residue formed in the porous structure in the previous stage and re-expose the porous carbon structure regenerating its original surface characteristics. After treatment the adsorption column can be reused. Per adsorption-thermal regeneration cycle between 5–15 wt% of the carbon bed is burnt off resulting in a loss of adsorptive capacity.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-89) Thermal regeneration is a high energy process due to the high required temperatures making it both an energetically and commercially expensive process.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-sabio-88) Plants that rely on thermal regeneration of activated carbon have to be of a certain size before it is economically viable to have regeneration facilities onsite. As a result, it is common for smaller waste treatment sites to ship their activated carbon cores to specialised facilities for regeneration.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-90) ### Other regeneration techniques \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=40 "Edit section: Other regeneration techniques")\] Current concerns with the high energy/cost nature of thermal regeneration of activated carbon has encouraged research into alternative regeneration methods to reduce the environmental impact of such processes. Though several of the regeneration techniques cited have remained areas of purely academic research, some alternatives to thermal regeneration systems have been employed in industry. Current alternative regeneration methods are: - TSA (thermal swing adsorption) and/or PSA ([pressure swing adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_swing_adsorption "Pressure swing adsorption")) processes: through [convection (heat transfer)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection_\(heat_transfer\) "Convection (heat transfer)") using [steam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam "Steam"),[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-91) "hot" [inert gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inert_gas "Inert gas") (typically heated [nitrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") (150–250 °C (302–482 °F))),[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-92) or [vacuum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum "Vacuum") (T+VSA or TVSA, combining TSA and VSA processes)[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-93) [in situ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_situ "In situ") regeneration - MWR ([microwave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave "Microwave") regeneration)[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-94) - Chemical and solvent regeneration[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-95) - Chemical and thermal regeneration[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-96) - Microbial regeneration[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-97) - [Electrochemical regeneration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_regeneration "Electrochemical regeneration")[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-98) - Ultrasonic regeneration[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-99) - Wet air oxidation[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-100) ## See also \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=41 "Edit section: See also")\] - ![icon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/20px-WHO_Rod.svg.png)[Medicine portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Medicine "Portal:Medicine") - ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/40px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png)[Chemistry portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Chemistry "Portal:Chemistry") - [Activated charcoal cleanse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_charcoal_cleanse "Activated charcoal cleanse") - [Biochar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochar "Biochar") - [Bamboo charcoal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_charcoal "Bamboo charcoal") - [Binchōtan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binch%C5%8Dtan "Binchōtan") - [Bone char](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_char "Bone char") - [Carbon filtering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_filtering "Carbon filtering") - [Carbocatalysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbocatalysis "Carbocatalysis") - [Conjugated microporous polymer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated_microporous_polymer "Conjugated microporous polymer") - [Hydrogen storage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_storage "Hydrogen storage") - [Kværner process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kv%C3%A6rner_process "Kværner process") - [Onboard refueling vapor recovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onboard_refueling_vapor_recovery "Onboard refueling vapor recovery") ## References \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=42 "Edit section: References")\] 1. ^ [*a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-0) [b](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-1) [c](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-2) [d](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-3) [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-4) [f](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-5) [g](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-6) [h](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-7) [i](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-8) [j](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-9) Chalmpes N, Ochonma P, Tantis I, Alsmaeil AW, Assafa TE, Tathacharya M, Srivastava M, Gadikota G, Bourlinos AB, Steriotis T, Giannelis EP (2024-12-10). 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[PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_\(identifier\) "PMID (identifier)") [11942707](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11942707). ## External links \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=43 "Edit section: External links")\] [![Wikimedia Commons logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg) Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Activated carbon](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Activated_carbon "commons:Category:Activated carbon"). - ["Imaging the atomic structure of activated carbon"](http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~scsharip/Activated_carbon_JPCM.pdf) – [Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Physics:_Condensed_Matter "Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter") - ["How Does Activated Carbon Work?"](http://www.slate.com/id/2131130/) at [Slate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_\(magazine\) "Slate (magazine)") - ["Worshiping the False Idols of Wellness"](https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/01/style/wellness-industrial-complex.html) on activated charcoal as a useless wellness practice at the New York Times \| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Allotropes_of_carbon "Template:Allotropes of carbon") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Allotropes_of_carbon "Template talk:Allotropes of carbon") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Allotropes_of_carbon "Special:EditPage/Template:Allotropes of carbon")[Allotropes of carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon "Allotropes of carbon") \| \| \|---\|---\| \| sp3 [forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation "Orbital hybridisation") \| [Diamond (cubic)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond "Diamond") [Lonsdaleite (hexagonal diamond)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonsdaleite "Lonsdaleite") \| \| sp2 forms \| [Graphite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite "Graphite") [Graphene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene "Graphene") [Fullerenes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullerene "Fullerene"), including [C60 (buckminsterfullerene)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene "Buckminsterfullerene"), [C70](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C70_fullerene "C70 fullerene"), [Fullerene whiskers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullerene_whiskers "Fullerene whiskers"), [Nanotubes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube "Carbon nanotube"), [Nanobuds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanobud "Carbon nanobud"), [Nanoscrolls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanoscrolls "Carbon nanoscrolls")) [Glassy carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassy_carbon "Glassy carbon") \| \| sp forms \| [Linear acetylenic carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_acetylenic_carbon "Linear acetylenic carbon") [C 6 (cyclo\[6\]carbon)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclo\(6\)carbon "Cyclo(6)carbon") [C 18 (cyclo\[18\]carbon)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclo\(18\)carbon "Cyclo(18)carbon") \| \| mixed sp3/sp2 forms \| [Amorphous carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_carbon "Amorphous carbon") [Carbon nanofoam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanofoam "Carbon nanofoam") [Carbide-derived carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbide-derived_carbon "Carbide-derived carbon") [Q-carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-carbon "Q-carbon") \| \| other forms \| [C 1 (atomic carbon)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_carbon "Atomic carbon") [C 2 (diatomic carbon)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomic_carbon "Diatomic carbon") [C 3 (tricarbon)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricarbon "Tricarbon") \| \| hypothetical forms \| [C 3 (cyclopropatriene)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopropatriene "Cyclopropatriene") [C 6 (prismane C8)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prismane_C8 "Prismane C8") [Chaoite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaoite "Chaoite") [Haeckelites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haeckelites "Haeckelites") [Cubic carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon#Other_possible_allotropes "Allotropes of carbon") [Metallic carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon#Other_possible_allotropes "Allotropes of carbon") [Penta-graphene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penta-graphene "Penta-graphene") \| \| related \| [Activated carbon]() [Carbon black](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_black "Carbon black") [Charcoal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal "Charcoal") [Carbon fiber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers "Carbon fibers") [Aggregated diamond nanorod](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggregated_diamond_nanorod "Aggregated diamond nanorod") [Gas carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_carbon "Gas carbon") \| \| [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Toxicology "Template:Toxicology") [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Toxicology "Template talk:Toxicology") [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Toxicology "Special:EditPage/Template:Toxicology")[Toxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology "Toxicology") \| \| \|---\|---\| \| Fields \| [Aquatic toxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology "Aquatic toxicology") [Ecotoxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotoxicology "Ecotoxicology") [Occupational toxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_toxicology "Occupational toxicology") [Entomotoxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomotoxicology "Entomotoxicology") [Environmental toxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_toxicology "Environmental toxicology") [Forensic toxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_toxicology "Forensic toxicology") [Medical toxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_toxicology "Medical toxicology") [In vitro toxicology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro_toxicology "In vitro toxicology") [Toxicogenomics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicogenomics "Toxicogenomics") \| \| Concepts \| [Acceptable daily intake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptable_daily_intake "Acceptable daily intake") [Acute toxicity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_toxicity "Acute toxicity") [Bioaccumulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulation "Bioaccumulation") [Biomagnification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnification "Biomagnification") [Fixed-dose procedure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-dose_procedure "Fixed-dose procedure") [Lethal dose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethal_dose "Lethal dose") [Poison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison "Poison") [Toxic capacity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_capacity "Toxic capacity") [Toxicity class](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicity_class "Toxicity class") [Toxin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin "Toxin") [Venom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venom "Venom") \| \| Treatments \| [Activated carbon]() [Antidote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidote "Antidote") [Cathartic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathartic "Cathartic") [Chelation therapy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelation_therapy "Chelation therapy") [Gastric lavage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastric_lavage "Gastric lavage") [Hemodialysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemodialysis "Hemodialysis") [Hemoperfusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoperfusion "Hemoperfusion") [Whole bowel irrigation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_bowel_irrigation "Whole bowel irrigation") \| \| Incidents \| [1858 Bradford sweets poisoning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning "1858 Bradford sweets poisoning") [2007 pet food recalls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_pet_food_recalls "2007 pet food recalls") [Bhopal disaster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disaster "Bhopal disaster") [Minamata disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamata_disease "Minamata disease") [Niigata Minamata disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niigata_Minamata_disease "Niigata Minamata disease") [Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexander_Litvinenko "Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko") [Seveso disaster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seveso_disaster "Seveso disaster") [Consumption of Tide Pods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption_of_Tide_Pods "Consumption of Tide Pods") [Visakhapatnam gas leak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visakhapatnam_gas_leak "Visakhapatnam gas leak") [2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Aqaba_toxic_gas_leak "2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak") [List of poisonings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_poisonings "List of poisonings") \| \| Related topics \| [Biological warfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare "Biological warfare") [Carcinogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen "Carcinogen") [Food safety](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_safety "Food safety") [Hazard symbol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_symbol "Hazard symbol") [List of extremely hazardous substances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_extremely_hazardous_substances "List of extremely hazardous substances") [Mutagen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutagen "Mutagen") [Occupational safety and health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health "Occupational safety and health") \| \| ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png) [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology "Category:Toxicology") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg "Commons page") [Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology "commons:Category:Toxicology") ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/20px-People_icon.svg.png) 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Readable Markdown	"Charcoal filter" redirects here. For the Japanese rock band, see [Charcoal Filter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal_Filter "Charcoal Filter"). [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Activated_Carbon.jpg/500px-Activated_Carbon.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Activated_Carbon.jpg) Activated carbon Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of [carbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon "Carbon") commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (activated) to have small, low-volume pores that greatly increase the [surface area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_area "Surface area")[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) available for [adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") or [chemical reactions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction "Chemical reaction").[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:0-3) (Adsorption, not to be confused with [absorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_\(chemistry\) "Absorption (chemistry)"), is a process where atoms or molecules adhere to a surface). The pores can be thought of as a microscopic "sponge" structure. Activation is analogous to making [popcorn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popcorn "Popcorn") from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high [surface-area-to-volume ratio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio "Surface-area-to-volume ratio"). Activated is sometimes replaced by active. Because it is so porous on a microscopic scale, activated carbon has a surface area of over 3,000 square metres per gram (920,000 square feet per ounce),[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Dillon-4) as determined by gas absorption and its porosity can run 10ML/day in terms of treated water per gram. Researchers at [Cornell University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University "Cornell University") synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a [BET](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BET_theory "BET theory") area of 4,800 m2/g (1,500,000 sq ft/oz).[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1) This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon. For charcoal, the equivalent figure before activation is about 2–5 square metres per gram (610–1,530 sq ft/oz).[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-5)[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-6) A useful activation level may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties. Activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks in addition to other agricultural wastes like olive stones, rice husks and nutshells which are being upcycled into activated carbon, diversifying feedstock supply. Waste from paper mills has been studied as a possible source of activated carbon.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-7) These bulk sources are converted into [charcoal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal "Charcoal") before being activated. Using waste streams not only reduces landfill burden but also works to lower the overall carbon footprint as previously discarded waste is repurposed. When derived from [coal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal "Coal"),[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) it is referred to as activated coal. Activated coke is derived from [coke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coke_\(fuel\) "Coke (fuel)"). In activated-coke production, the raw coke (most commonly petroleum coke) is ground or pelletized, then "activated" via physical (steam or CO2 at high temperature) or chemical (e.g., KOH or H3PO4) methods to introduce a porous network, yielding a high-surface-area adsorbent which is referred to as activated coal. Activated carbon is used in [methane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane "Methane") and [hydrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen "Hydrogen") storage,[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) [air purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier "Air purifier"),[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-8) capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, [decaffeination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decaffeination "Decaffeination"), [gold purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_in_pulp "Carbon in pulp"), [metal extraction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy "Extractive metallurgy"), [water purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification "Water purification"), [medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine "Medicine"), [sewage treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment "Sewage treatment"), [air filters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_filter "Air filter") in [respirators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirator "Respirator"), filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of [hydrogen chloride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride "Hydrogen chloride"), edible electronics,[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-9) and many other applications. These multiuse applications make it a versatile form of carbon that is used daily in many industries. There are many industrial applications of activated carbon and its other forms such as areas like metal extraction, water purification, sewage treatment, metal finishing and more. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions used for metal finishing plants. Expanding on electroplating, a variety of organic chemicals can be added to the plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. This is due to the passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up in the solutions can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal if run untreated by the filters. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level. Its installation costs may vary according to the volume of water it must process, however the average cost can be around USD 1 - 2 million. Additionally, these filters need replacing over time (typically 6–12 months depending on usage). The cost of replacing the carbon in the GAC filter form is about USD 0.05 - 0.1 per cubic meter of water that is treated in the plant. [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg/250px-%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_3.jpg) Activated charcoal for medical use Activated carbon is used to treat [poisonings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison "Poison") and [overdoses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdose "Overdose") following oral [ingestion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingestion "Ingestion"). Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat [diarrhea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea "Diarrhea"), [indigestion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigestion "Indigestion"), and [flatulence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatulence "Flatulence"). However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, is ordinarily medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of [strong acids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_acids "Strong acids") or [bases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_\(chemistry\) "Base (chemistry)"), [cyanide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide "Cyanide"), [iron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron "Iron"), [lithium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium "Lithium"), [arsenic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic"), [methanol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol "Methanol"), [ethanol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol "Ethanol"), or [ethylene glycol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene_glycol "Ethylene glycol").[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-AHFS-10) Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-mayo200787-11) It is on the [World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines").[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-WHO23rd-12) Incorrect application (e.g. into the [lungs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungs "Lungs")) results in [pulmonary aspiration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_aspiration "Pulmonary aspiration"), which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chest1989-Elliott-13) ### Analytical chemistry \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=4 "Edit section: Analytical chemistry")\] Activated carbon, in 50% [w/w](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W/w "W/w") combination with [celite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomaceous_earth "Diatomaceous earth"), is used as stationary phase in low-pressure [chromatographic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatographic "Chromatographic") separation of [carbohydrates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrates "Carbohydrates") (mono-, di-, tri-[saccharides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharides "Saccharides")) using [ethanol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol "Ethanol") solutions (5–50%) as [mobile phase](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatography "Chromatography") in analytical or preparative protocols. Activated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral [anticoagulants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticoagulant "Anticoagulant") (DOACs) such as [dabigatran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabigatran "Dabigatran"), [apixaban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apixaban "Apixaban"), [rivaroxaban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivaroxaban "Rivaroxaban") and [edoxaban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edoxaban "Edoxaban") from blood plasma samples.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-14) For this purpose it has been made into "minitablets", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-15) this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs. [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Water_Filtration_Systems.png/250px-Water_Filtration_Systems.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Water_Filtration_Systems.png) Activated carbon is usually used in water filtration systems. In this illustration, the activated carbon is in the fourth level (counted from bottom). Carbon [adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") has numerous applications in removing [pollutants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutant "Pollutant") from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as: - Spill cleanup - [Groundwater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater "Groundwater") [remediation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_remediation "Environmental remediation") - [Drinking water](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water "Drinking water") [filtration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtration "Filtration")[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-16) - [Wastewater treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater_treatment "Wastewater treatment")[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:1-17) - [Air purification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_purifier "Air purifier") - [Volatile organic compounds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound "Volatile organic compound") capture from [painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting "Painting"), [dry cleaning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_cleaning "Dry cleaning"), [gasoline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline "Gasoline") dispensing operations, and other processes - [Volatile organic compounds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound "Volatile organic compound") recovery (SRU, Solvent Recovery Unit; SRP, Solvent Recovery Plant; SRS, Solvent Recovery System) from [flexible packaging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_packaging "Flexible packaging"), [converting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converter_\(industry\) "Converter (industry)"), [coating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coating "Coating"), and other processes.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-DEC_IMPIANTI-18) During early implementation of the 1974 [Safe Drinking Water Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Drinking_Water_Act "Safe Drinking Water Act") in the US, [EPA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency") officials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. Because of its high cost, the so-called GAC rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in California. Hence, the agency set aside the rule.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-19) Activated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. There are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-DEC_IMPIANTI-18) In wastewater treatment, granulated activated carbon filters are implemented as an additional treatment step for removal of organic micropollutants such as pharmaceutical products,[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-:1-17)[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-20) many of which are not entirely removed in traditional wastewater treatment processes.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-21) Pollutants adsorb to the activated carbon granules and are then degraded by microorganisms on the filters.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-22) Activated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air. Biomass waste-derived activated carbons were also successfully used for the removal of caffeine and paracetamol from water.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-23) Activated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both [livestock production](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry "Animal husbandry") and wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-24) In organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-25) It is sometimes used as [biochar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochar "Biochar"). ### Distilled alcoholic beverage purification \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=7 "Edit section: Distilled alcoholic beverage purification")\] Activated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter [vodka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodka "Vodka") and [whiskey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey "Whiskey") of [organic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound "Organic compound") impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-26) Research is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store [natural gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas "Natural gas")[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) and [hydrogen gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_gas "Hydrogen gas").[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) The porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via [Van der Waals forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_forces "Van der Waals forces"). Some carbons have been able to achieve binding energies of 5–10 kJ per [mol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_\(unit\) "Mole (unit)").[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-27) The gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a [hydrogen fuel cell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cell "Hydrogen fuel cell"). Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. The [United States Department of Energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy "United States Department of Energy") has specified certain goals[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-28) to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program,[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) are continuing to conduct work in this field. Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove [oil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil "Oil") vapors, odor, and other [hydrocarbons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon "Hydrocarbon") from the air. The most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media. Activated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to nonradioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through. ### Chemical purification \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=10 "Edit section: Chemical purification")\] Activated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities. Filtration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. The carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-29)[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-30) Activated carbon, often infused with sulfur[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-31) or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from [coal-fired power stations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station "Coal-fired power station"), medical [incinerators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incineration "Incineration"), and from [natural gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas "Natural gas") at the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Mohan-32) Since it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma.[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-33) If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling.\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule).\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] This material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year.\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] The problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide (CO2). Activated, food-grade charcoal became a [food trend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_trend "Food trend") in 2016, being used as an [additive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_additive "Food additive") to impart a "slightly smoky" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases, and bagels.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-34) People taking medication, including [birth control pills](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_control_pill "Birth control pill") and [antidepressants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant "Antidepressant"),[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-35) are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring since it can render the medication ineffective.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-36) Activated charcoal is used in smoking filters[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-ncbi-37) as a way to reduce the tar content and other chemicals present in smoke, which is a result of combustion, wherein it has been found to reduce the toxicants from tobacco smoke, in particular the free radicals.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-ncbi-37) ## Structure of activated carbon \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=14 "Edit section: Structure of activated carbon")\] The structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. In a book published in 2006,[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-38) [Harry Marsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Marsh "Harry Marsh") and Francisco Rodríguez-Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration-corrected [transmission electron microscopy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy "Transmission electron microscopy") has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the [fullerenes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullerene "Fullerene"), with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-39)[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-40) Activated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow [peat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat "Peat"), [wood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood "Wood"), [coir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir "Coir"), [lignite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignite "Lignite"), [coal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal "Coal"), and [petroleum pitch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_\(resin\) "Pitch (resin)"). It can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes: 1. Physical activation: The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gases, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes: - [Carbonization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization "Carbonization"): Material with carbon content is [pyrolyzed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis "Pyrolysis") at temperatures in the range 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as [argon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon "Argon") or [nitrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") - Activation/oxidation: Raw material or [carbonized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization "Carbonization") material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C. The activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a [muffle furnace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muffle_furnace "Muffle furnace") at 450 °C in the presence of air.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Mohan-32) 2. Chemical activation: The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an [acid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid "Acid"), strong [base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali "Alkali"),[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) or a [salt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_\(chemistry\) "Salt (chemistry)")[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-41) ([phosphoric acid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid "Phosphoric acid") 25%, [potassium hydroxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide "Potassium hydroxide") 5%, [sodium hydroxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide "Sodium hydroxide") 5%, [potassium carbonate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_carbonate "Potassium carbonate") 5%,[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-42) [calcium chloride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_chloride "Calcium chloride") 25%, and [zinc chloride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_chloride "Zinc chloride") 25%). The carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Nwankwo-43) The Dutch company Norit [NV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naamloze_vennootschap "Naamloze vennootschap") is one of the largest producer of activated carbon in the world. [Haycarb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haycarb "Haycarb"), a Sri Lankan coconut shell-based company, controls 16% of the global market share.[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-44) Regeneration & Sustainability After adsorption, spent granular activated carbon can often be regenerated rather than discarded. Thermal reactivation (heating in an inert or steam atmosphere at 800–900 °C) restores much of the pore structure but consumes significant energy, while chemical regeneration (e.g. with dilute acids or bases) can selectively remove fouling compounds under milder conditions. Emerging methods like microwave-assisted reactivation and bio-regeneration using fungi or bacteria show promise for lower-carbon footprints. Choosing the optimal regeneration route balances carbon lifespan, energy use and treatment costs, and helps minimize the volume of hazardous waste sent to landfill. Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications. ### Powdered activated carbon (PAC) \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=17 "Edit section: Powdered activated carbon (PAC)")\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg/330px-ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ActivatedCharcoalPowder_BrightField.jpg) A [micrograph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrograph "Micrograph") of activated charcoal (R 1) under [bright field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright_field_microscopy "Bright field microscopy") illumination on a [light microscope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_microscope "Light microscope"). Notice the [fractal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal "Fractal")\-like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. Each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, can have a surface area of several square centimetres. The entire image covers a region of approximately 1.1 by 0.7 mm, and the full resolution version is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/[μm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9Cm "Μm"). Normally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm). Powdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated [mesh sieve](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesh_\(scale\) "Mesh (scale)"). The [ASTM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_International "ASTM International") classifies particles passing through an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high [head loss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_loss "Head loss") that would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters. ### Granular activated carbon (GAC) \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=18 "Edit section: Granular activated carbon (GAC)")\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Activated_Charcoal.jpg/250px-Activated_Charcoal.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Activated_Charcoal.jpg) A [micrograph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrograph "Micrograph") of activated charcoal (GAC) under a [scanning electron microscope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope "Scanning electron microscope") Granular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for [adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") of gases, vapors and liquids, because these substances diffuse rapidly throughout the filters. Granulated carbons are used for [air filtration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_filter "Air filter") and [water treatment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment "Water treatment"), as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous-phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and [head loss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_loss "Head loss") characteristics. ### Extruded activated carbon (EAC) \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=19 "Edit section: Extruded activated carbon (EAC)")\] Extruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor). ### Bead activated carbon (BAC) \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=20 "Edit section: Bead activated carbon (BAC)")\] Bead activated carbon (BAC) is manufactured from carbonizing petroleum pitch and then activating it into uniform spheres in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. BAC typically exhibits a surface area in the range of 800–1 200 m2/g, comparable to or exceeding many granular carbons, enhancing its capacity for dissolved organics. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration. Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as [iodine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine "Iodine") and [silver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver "Silver"). [Cations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation "Cation") such as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in [air pollution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution") control especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and [aluminium hydroxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxide "Aluminium hydroxide") (Al(OH)3), a [flocculating agent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flocculation "Flocculation"). Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of [hydrogen sulfide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide "Hydrogen sulfide") (H2S) and [thiols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiol "Thiol"). Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported. \[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] ### Polymer coated carbon \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=22 "Edit section: Polymer coated carbon")\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg/250px-Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Woven_activated_carbon_cloth.jpg) Woven activated carbon cloth This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible [polymer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer "Polymer") to give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The typical film thickness ranges from 50 to 200 nm, which strikes a balance between preserving pore access and ensuring mechanical stability in the material. The resulting carbon is useful for [hemoperfusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoperfusion "Hemoperfusion"). Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood. In clinical trials, polymer-coated carbons have achieved over 80% removal of toxins such as bilirubin and certain drug metabolites in a single pass. There is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for [carbon filtering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_filtering "Carbon filtering"). Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal ([BET theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BET_theory "BET theory")) surface area: 500–1500 m2/g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm3/g)\[[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\]. Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications ([supercapacitors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitors "Supercapacitors"), odor absorbers, [CBRN-defense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN_defense "CBRN defense") industry etc.). A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m2 (5,400 sq ft), with 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft) being readily achievable.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Dillon-4)[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-surfacearea-45) Carbon [aerogels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel "Aerogel"), while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications. Under an [electron microscope](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope "Electron microscope"), the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of [porosity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosity "Porosity"); there may be many areas where flat surfaces of [graphite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite "Graphite")\-like material run parallel to each other,[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Soo-2013-2) separated by only a few nanometres or so. These [micropores](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micropore "Micropore") provide superb conditions for [adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with [nitrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") gas at 77 [K](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin "Kelvin") under high [vacuum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum "Vacuum"), but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from [steam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam "Steam") at 100 °C (212 °F) and a pressure of 1/10,000 of an [atmosphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_\(unit\) "Atmosphere (unit)"). [James Dewar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar "James Dewar"), the scientist after whom the Dewar ([vacuum flask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_flask "Vacuum flask")) is named, spent much time in the early 20th century studying activated carbon, and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to gases.[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-46) In this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut-based carbon was superior for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low temperatures. Physically, activated carbon binds materials by [van der Waals force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force "Van der Waals force")[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Nwankwo-43) or [London dispersion force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_dispersion_force "London dispersion force"). Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including [alcohols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_\(chemistry\) "Alcohol (chemistry)"), [diols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diol "Diol"), strong [acids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid "Acid") and [bases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_\(chemistry\) "Base (chemistry)"), [metals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal "Metal") and most [inorganics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic "Inorganic"), such as [lithium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium "Lithium"), [sodium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium "Sodium"), [iron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron "Iron"), [lead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead "Lead"), [arsenic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic "Arsenic"), [fluorine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine "Fluorine"), and boric acid. Activated carbon can also adsorb [iodine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine "Iodine") very well. The iodine capacity, mg/g, ([ASTM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_International "ASTM International") D28 Standard Method test) may be used as an indication of total adsorption over the surface area of the testing material. Carbon monoxide however, is not very well adsorbed by activated carbon. This should be of particular concern to those using the material in filters for respirators, fume hoods, or other gas control systems because the gas is undetectable to the human senses, toxic to the metabolism, and neurotoxic which creates concern. Substantial lists of the common industrial and agricultural gases adsorbed by activated carbon can be found online.[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-47) Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as [hydrogen sulfide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide "Hydrogen sulfide") (H2S), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCOH), [mercury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_\(element\) "Mercury (element)") (Hg) and radioactive [iodine-131](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine-131 "Iodine-131")(131I). This property is known as [chemisorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemisorption "Chemisorption"). Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. [Iodine number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine_value "Iodine value") is the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Marecka-2007-48)) often reported in mg/g (typical range 500–1200 mg/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 [Å](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m "Ångström"), or up to 2 [nm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre "Nanometre")) by adsorption of iodine from solution.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-49) It is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m2/g. It is the standard measure for liquid-phase applications. Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine [adsorbed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i.e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water-treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the [adsorbate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorbate "Adsorbate") may affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application. Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. [Molasses number](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molasses_number&action=edit&redlink=1 "Molasses number (page does not exist)") or molasses efficiency is a measure of the [mesopore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoporous_material "Mesoporous material") content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 [Å](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m "Ångström"), or larger than 2 [nm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre "Nanometre")) by adsorption of molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number. Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space. [Tannins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannin "Tannin") are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of [macropores](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macropore "Macropore") and [mesopores](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoporous_material "Mesoporous material") adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm). Some carbons have a mesopore (20 [Å](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m "Ångström") to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye [methylene blue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylene_blue "Methylene blue"). Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g/100g (range 11–28 g/100g).[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Adsorption_Experiments-50) Some carbons are evaluated based on the [dechlorination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductive_dechlorination "Reductive dechlorination") half-life length, which measures the chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-51) The solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg/m3 (125–130 lbs./cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg/m3 (25–31 lbs./cubic foot).[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-52) Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better-quality activated carbon. ASTM D 2854 -09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon. ### Hardness/abrasion number \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=31 "Edit section: Hardness/abrasion number")\] It is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition. It is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces which would cause the material to be defective. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity) it is created for. [Ash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash_\(analytical_chemistry\) "Ash (analytical chemistry)") reduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e.g., coconut, wood, coal, etc.). The metal oxides (Fe2O3) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water-soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant/algal growth. [ASTM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_International "ASTM International") (D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon. ### Carbon tetrachloride activity \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=33 "Edit section: Carbon tetrachloride activity")\] Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated [carbon tetrachloride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride "Carbon tetrachloride") vapour. ### Particle size distribution \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=34 "Edit section: Particle size distribution")\] The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits. However, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of 3.35–1.4 millimetres (0.132–0.055 in). Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon). Researchers at Cornell University synthesized an ultrahigh surface area activated carbon with a BET area of 4800 m2 g–1 and a total pore volume of 2.7 cm3 g–1.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Chada-2012-1) This BET area value is the highest reported in the literature for activated carbon to date. ## Modification of properties and reactivity \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=35 "Edit section: Modification of properties and reactivity")\] Acid-base, oxidation-reduction and specific adsorption characteristics are strongly dependent on the composition of the surface functional groups.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Philippe_Serp_2009-53) The surface of conventional activated carbon is reactive, capable of oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and oxygen [plasma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_\(physics\) "Plasma (physics)")[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-54)[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-55)[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-56)[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-57)[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Streat_M.-2001-58)[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-59)[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-60)[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-61) steam,[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-62)[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-63)[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-64) and also [carbon dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide")[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Streat_M.-2001-58) and [ozone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone "Ozone").[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-65)[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-66)[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Vald%C3%A9s-2002-67) Oxidation in the liquid phase is caused by a wide range of reagents (HNO3, H2O2, KMnO4).[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-68)[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-69)[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-70) Through the formation of a large number of basic and acidic groups on the surface of oxidized carbon to sorption and other properties can differ significantly from the unmodified forms.[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Philippe_Serp_2009-53) Activated carbon can be nitrogenated by natural products or [polymers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer "Polymer")[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-71)[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-72) or processing of carbon with nitrogenating [reagents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent "Reagent").[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-73)[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-74)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-75) Activated carbon can interact with [chlorine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine "Chlorine"),[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-76)[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-77) [bromine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromine "Bromine")[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-78) and [fluorine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine "Fluorine").[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-79) Surface of activated carbon, like other carbon materials can be fluoralkylated by treatment with (per)fluoropolyether peroxide[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-80) in a liquid phase, or with wide range of fluoroorganic substances by CVD-method.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-81) Such materials combine high hydrophobicity and chemical stability with electrical and thermal conductivity and can be used as electrode material for super capacitors.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-82) Sulfonic acid functional groups can be attached to activated carbon to give "starbons" which can be used to selectively catalyse the esterification of fatty acids.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-83) Formation of such activated carbons from halogenated precursors gives a more effective catalyst which is thought to be a result of remaining halogens improving stability.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-84) It is reported about synthesis of activated carbon with chemically grafted superacid sites –CF2SO3H.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-85) Some of the chemical properties of activated carbon have been attributed to presence of the surface active carbon [double bond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkenes "Alkenes").[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-Vald%C3%A9s-2002-67)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-86) The [Polyani adsorption theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_theory_of_Polanyi "Potential theory of Polanyi") is a popular method for analyzing adsorption of various organic substances to their surface. ## Examples of adsorption \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=36 "Edit section: Examples of adsorption")\] ### Heterogeneous catalysis \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=37 "Edit section: Heterogeneous catalysis")\] The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid [catalyst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst "Catalyst") interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it. ## Reactivation and regeneration \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=38 "Edit section: Reactivation and regeneration")\] [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg/250px-Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reactivation_Furnace_Feluy_Belgium.jpg) World's largest reactivation plant located in [Feluy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feluy "Feluy"), Belgium. [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg/250px-Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Activated-carbon-reactivation-centre-Roeselare.jpg) Activated carbon reactivation center in [Roeselare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roeselare "Roeselare"), Belgium. The reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the [adsorptive capacity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption "Adsorption") of saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface. ### Thermal reactivation \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=39 "Edit section: Thermal reactivation")\] The most common regeneration technique employed in industrial processes is thermal reactivation.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-87) The thermal regeneration process generally follows three steps:[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-sabio-88) - Adsorbent drying at approximately 105 °C (221 °F) - High temperature desorption and decomposition (500–900 °C (932–1,652 °F)) under an inert atmosphere - Residual organic gasification by a non-oxidising gas (steam or carbon dioxide) at elevated temperatures (800 °C (1,470 °F)) The heat treatment stage utilises the [exothermic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exothermic "Exothermic") nature of adsorption and results in desorption, partial [cracking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cracking_\(chemistry\) "Cracking (chemistry)") and [polymerization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerization "Polymerization") of the adsorbed organics. The final step aims to remove charred organic residue formed in the porous structure in the previous stage and re-expose the porous carbon structure regenerating its original surface characteristics. After treatment the adsorption column can be reused. Per adsorption-thermal regeneration cycle between 5–15 wt% of the carbon bed is burnt off resulting in a loss of adsorptive capacity.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-89) Thermal regeneration is a high energy process due to the high required temperatures making it both an energetically and commercially expensive process.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-sabio-88) Plants that rely on thermal regeneration of activated carbon have to be of a certain size before it is economically viable to have regeneration facilities onsite. As a result, it is common for smaller waste treatment sites to ship their activated carbon cores to specialised facilities for regeneration.[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-90) ### Other regeneration techniques \[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&action=edit&section=40 "Edit section: Other regeneration techniques")\] Current concerns with the high energy/cost nature of thermal regeneration of activated carbon has encouraged research into alternative regeneration methods to reduce the environmental impact of such processes. Though several of the regeneration techniques cited have remained areas of purely academic research, some alternatives to thermal regeneration systems have been employed in industry. Current alternative regeneration methods are: - TSA (thermal swing adsorption) and/or PSA ([pressure swing adsorption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_swing_adsorption "Pressure swing adsorption")) processes: through [convection (heat transfer)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection_\(heat_transfer\) "Convection (heat transfer)") using [steam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam "Steam"),[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-91) "hot" [inert gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inert_gas "Inert gas") (typically heated [nitrogen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") (150–250 °C (302–482 °F))),[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-92) or [vacuum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum "Vacuum") (T+VSA or TVSA, combining TSA and VSA processes)[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-93) [in situ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_situ "In situ") regeneration - MWR ([microwave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave "Microwave") regeneration)[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-94) - Chemical and solvent regeneration[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-95) - Chemical and thermal regeneration[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-96) - Microbial regeneration[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-97) - [Electrochemical regeneration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_regeneration "Electrochemical regeneration")[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-98) - Ultrasonic regeneration[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-99) - Wet air oxidation[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_note-100) - [Activated charcoal cleanse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_charcoal_cleanse "Activated charcoal cleanse") - [Biochar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochar "Biochar") - [Bamboo charcoal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_charcoal "Bamboo charcoal") - [Binchōtan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binch%C5%8Dtan "Binchōtan") - [Bone char](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_char "Bone char") - [Carbon filtering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_filtering "Carbon filtering") - [Carbocatalysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbocatalysis "Carbocatalysis") - [Conjugated microporous polymer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated_microporous_polymer "Conjugated microporous polymer") - [Hydrogen storage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_storage "Hydrogen storage") - [Kværner process](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kv%C3%A6rner_process "Kværner process") - [Onboard refueling vapor recovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onboard_refueling_vapor_recovery "Onboard refueling vapor recovery") 1. ^ [*a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-0) [b](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-1) [c](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-2) [d](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-3) [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-4) [f](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-5) [g](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-6) [h](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-7) [i](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-8) [j](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon#cite_ref-Chada-2012_1-9) Chalmpes N, Ochonma P, Tantis I, Alsmaeil AW, Assafa TE, Tathacharya M, Srivastava M, Gadikota G, Bourlinos AB, Steriotis T, Giannelis EP (2024-12-10). 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